EFFECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT ON WETLANDS IN KAMPALA CITY: A CASE OF KANSANGA WETLAND
BY KWESIGA MAXIMUS BSc. Env't. Mgt Hons (KIU)
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL 1-'ULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
OCTOBER, 2008 DECLARATION
I, Kwesiga Maximus, declare that the work compiled and presented in this dissertation is original and entirely out of my own research and has never been submitted to any other university or institution of higher learning before for any award.
Sign: ...... ~ ...... KWESIGA MAXIMUS BSc. Env't. Mgt Hons (KIU) Researcher
t(J - 2.,e,n . Date: ...... ~ttv :T ...... - .. ..~...... APPROVAL
This is to certify that this dissertation has been submitted for examination with my approval as the supervisor:
Si PROF. EDROMA. L., ERIC BSc., MSc., PhD., FLS. Supervisor
0
11 DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my parents Mr. Africano Behangana (LT} and Mrs Africano.T.Gaudansia for the support, care and faith in me, and for the guidance and encouragement throughout my studies.
I also dedicate this work to my brothers Tukesiga Mathias and Mwesigwa Deogratius, sisters Katushabe Fionah, Natukunda Immaculate and Kobusingye Lindah, and to my cousin Tumuhimbise Deus, for their time and assistance given to me.
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank God for the gift and protection of my life and enabling me succeed in different stages of education.
Secondaly, I extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor Prof. Edroma L. Eric for the assistance and guidance given to me from the start of writing this dissertation to the end. Special thanks go to my parents and brothers and sisters for the financial support rendered to me through the hard fought effort to see that I finish masters' programme with this research.
Thirdly, I would like to extend my thanks to my lecturers Prof. Edroma L. Eric, Mr.Sekabira Kassim, Mr.Banaga Bingi Gerald, Dr.ljjo Alex, Dr. Olwuor Sunday, Mr.Mbazira Alex, Mr.Edaku Charles, Mr. Batesibwa Wilber and Mr. Wekoye Stephen for giving me all the knowledge and skills that without them would be hard to attain.
Lastly, I thank all my friends and most of all my course mates of Master of Science in Environmental Management and Development at Kampala International University and all others for supporting me and giving me words of encouragement during my education course.
iv ABSTRACT
This study on the "Effects of population growth and urban development on the Kansanga wetland" aimed to determine the historical trends of population growth rate and urban development of Kampala, determine the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 10 to 15 years, establish the activities of the population and how they affect the wetland, and analysed the effects of population growth and urban development on the wetland.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used where 84 respondents were sampled in the study which included KCC officials, the wetland occupants, NEMA officials and the area district environmental officer. Out of the 84 only 46 respondents returned filled questionnaires and 20 were interviewed making a total of 66 respondents.
The findings indicate that Kansanga wetland is highly encroached by the increasing population of Kampala City, urban development and urban human activities as the major threats to Kansanga wetland, greatly affecting the wetland's size, biodiversity, integrity and productivity. The study findings confirmed the disappearance of some of the species that formally existed in this wetland which included the sitatunga and the Typha sp (cat tails).The size of the wetland was also found to have been modified by 88% compared to 58% by NBS (2000) and the estimated current size under intact wetland vegetation is only 0.54 km 2 out of 4.54 km 2 of the original size.
Among the major recommendations were that the government, NEMA, the lead or responsible ministry and other private conservation organisations should purchase plots from the wetland from the landlords who got leases before the Constitution (1995) and establish the entire wetland as wildlife refuge, sanctuary, or special conservation area. This will preserve the wetland in its natural state and protect it from destructive human development activities. Decentralisation of services to overcome the rural urban migration and promotion of contraceptive use to check the population growth among others. This can be done through the enactment and implementation of policies and laws, which address lfiP. issues revealed through this study.
V TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration ...... I Approval ...... 11
Dedication ...... 111 Acknowledgement...... IV Abstract ...... V Table of contents ...... VI List of tables ...... IX List of figures ...... X List of plates ...... XI
List of acronyms ...... XI I
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 3 1.3 Objectives of the study ...... 4
1 .4 Research questions ...... 4 1.5 Significance of the study ...... 4 1.6 Scope of the study ...... 5 1.7 Conceptual framework ...... 6
CHAPTER TWO ...... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 Introduction ...... 8 2.2 Population Growth and Urban Development...... 8 2.2.1 Population Growth ...... 8 2.2.2 Urban Development...... 12 2.3: Wetlands integrity ...... 14 2.4 Activities of the population that affect the wetlands ...... 16 2.5 Effects of population growth and urban development on Wetlands ...... 19
VI CHAPTER THREE ...... 21 METHODS ...... 21 3.1 Introduction ...... 21 3.2 Research Design ...... 21 3.3 Study area ...... 21 3.4 Population ...... 24 3.5 Sampling Techniques and sample size ...... 24 3.6 Research instruments ...... 25 3.6.1 Questionnaires ...... 25 3.6.2 Interviews ...... 25 3.6.3 Focus Group Discussions ...... 26 3.6.4 Observation ...... 26 3.6.5 Reviewed literature ...... 26 3.6:6 Photography ...... 26 3.6:7 Validity and Reliability ...... 26 3. 7 Data analysis ...... 27 3.7 Limitations of the study ...... 27
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 29 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 29 4.1 Introduction ...... 29 4.2 Respondents characteristics ...... 29 4.3. Population growth and Urban Development of Kampala ...... 31 4.3.1 Population Growth ...... 31 4.3.2 Urban Development of Kampala ...... 34 4.3.2.1 Physical expansion of Kampala ...... 35
4.3.2.2 H01.!sing Developments in Kampala ...... 35 4.3.2.3 Unplanned Developments in Kampala ...... 38 4.3.2.4 Industrialization in Kampala ...... 40 4.3.2.5 Effects of urban Development on Wetlands ...... 41 4.3.3 Land use/land-cover changes and wetland degradation by Population growth and urban development in Kampala ...... 41 4.4 Integrity of Kansanga wetland ...... 43
Vll 4.5 Activities of the population and how they affect Kansanga wetland ...... 49 4.5.1 Construction and establishment of settlement ...... 50 4.5.2 Farming ...... 52 4.5.3 Over harvesting of wetland Vegetation ...... 56 4.5.4 Brick making ...... 59 4.5.5 Sand mining ...... 59 4.6 Effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland ...... 60 4.6.1 Poor water quality and availability ...... 61 4.6.2 Biodiversity loss ...... : ...... 61 4.6.3 Reduction of wetland products ...... 63 4.6.4 Soil degradation ...... 64 4.6.5 Habitat destruction ...... 65
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 68 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 68 5.1 Summary ...... 68 5.1.1 Population growth and urban development of Kampala ...... 68 5.1.2 Integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 10 to 15 years ...... 69 5.1.3 Population activities that affect Kansanga wetland ...... 70 5.1.4 Effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland ...... 70 5.2 Conclusions ...... 70 · 5.3 Recommendations ...... , ...... 71 REFERENCES ...... 74
APPENDICES ...... 81 Appendix I: Interview guide ...... 81 Appendix II: Questionnaire for agencies/organisations ...... 82 Appendix Ill: Questionnaire for the community ...... 87 Appendix IV: Introductory Letter ...... 91
viii LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: World historical and predicted populations ...... 9 Table 2: .nJstrib1:tion of types of respondents ...... 29 Table 3: Age bracket of respondents used for the study ...... 30 Table 4: Population growth and urban development of Kampala affect Kansanga wetland ...... 31 Table 5: Kampala Population Trends and Projections 1969-2015 ...... 32 Table 6: Migration Trends in Kampala 1969 - 2002 ...... 32 Table 7: Effects of population growth on wetlands and economic development ...... 33 Table 8: Effects of urban development on Kansanga wetland ...... 34 Table 9: Housing developments in Kampala affect Kansanga wetland ...... 35 Table 10: Land use/land-cover changes and wetland degradation in Kampala 1980-2006 ...... 41 Table 11: indicators of wetland degradation in Kansanga wetland ...... 43 Table 12: Extent of degradation of Kansanga wetland ...... 44 Table 13: current land use in Kansaga wetland and the estimated size of
coverage of each land use type ...... 43
Table 14: Comparing the common species in Kansanga wetland between NBS (2000) findings and current study findings ...... 46 Table 15: Respondents ranking current values and Functions of Kansanga wetland ...... 48 Table 16: Activities of the population that affect Kansanga wetland ...... 50 Table 17: Reasons for farming in Kansanga wetland ...... 53 Table 18: Area of residence of farmers in Kansanga wetland ...... 53 Table 19: r·,oblenl°s faced by farmers In Kansanga wetland ...... 55 Table 20: Age bracket of farmers in Kansaga wetland ...... 56 Table 21: Plant species being overhavested in Kansanga wetland and their uses ...... 57 Table 22: Impacts of population growth and urban development on Kansanga Wetland ...... 60
IX LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 Conceptual framework ...... 6 Fig. 2: Location of Kan sang a wetland in Kampala 'District Uganda ...... 23 Fig. 3: Satellite Image of Kansanga wetland and its surroundings ...... 23 Fig. 4: Employment details ...... 30 Fig. 5: Compulsion between NBS (2000) findings and the current study findings of the size of Kansanga Wetland ...... 46 Fig. 6: Percentage of respondents commenting on the current size of l".ansang:3 wetland ...... 49 Fig. 7: Effects of settlement establishment in Kansanga wetland ...... 51 Fig. 8: Modes of acquisition of plots of land in Kansanga wetland ...... 52 Fig. 9: Percentage score of major crops grown in Kansanga wetland ...... 55 Fig. 10: Respondents comment on the Level of harvest in percentage for each species 58 Fig. 11: Planted species that have replaced indigenous p!ent species in Kansanga wetland ...... 62 Fig. 12: Uses for wetland products from Kansanga wetland ...... 63 Fig. 13: Respondents list of affected inhabitats in Kansanga wetland ...... 66
X LIST OF PLATES
Plate I: Drainage for housing developments in Kansanga wetland ...... 36 Plate II: Unplanned housing developments in Kansanga wetland ...... 38 Plate Ill: Water hyacinth in Kansanga wetland ...... 47 Plate IV: Construction and settlement within Kansanga wetland ...... 51 Plate V: Farm gardens within Kansanga wetland ...... 53 Plate VI: Dumping sites for waste disposal in Kansanga wetland ...... 54 Plate VII: Brick making activity within Kansanga wetland ...... 59 PlateVIII: Sand mining activity within Kansanga Wetland ...... : ...... 60 Pate IX: Land filling and compaction in Kansanga wetland ...... 65 Plate X: Drainage in Kansanga wetland ...... 66 Plate XI: Burning and destruction of papyruses in Kansanga wetland ...... 67
XI LIST OF ACRONYMS
DEO District Environmental Officer IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (The World Conservation Union) KCC Kampala City Council LDC's Least Developed Countries MEMO Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development MNR Ministry of Natural Resources MUIENR Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources MWLE Ministry of Water Lands and Environmer,, NBS National Biomass Study NEMA National Environment Management Authority NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NFA National Forestry Authority NWP National Wetland Programme PGR Population Growth Rate UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics UIA Uganda Investment Authority UMA Uganda Manufacturers Association WID Wetlands Inspection Division WSSP Wetland Sector Strategic Plan
xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study Today, environment'.31 problems span a wide range of issues from the global level to the community level, becoming a common challenge for human beings. Human population growth is the number one threat to the world's environment. Each person requires energy, space and resources to survive, which results in pressures and losses to the environmental resources. If the human population were maintained at sustainable levels, it would be possible to balance these environmental losses with renew21:>!e resources and regeneration. But the population is rapidly rising beyond the earth's ability to regenerate and sustain man with a reasonable quality of life. People are exceeding the carrying capacity of the planet. Human beings need to limit their growth voluntarily, and promote contraceptive use, before nature controls the population with famines, drought and plagues. The future depends on the behaviour of the current populations. The world population reached 6.1 billion in 2000. The United Nations projects that the world population for the year 2050 could range from 7.9 billion to 10.9 billion, depending on the actions taken today (Costanza et al, 1997).
Cities have been the source of social evolution and the main engine for economic development since its foundation in the ancient civilization. There have been snowball effects as cities enlarged their areas as they developed and er.!:::rged areas generated further development. However, this vicious cycle has created a situation where the world economy grew unboundedly, the global population continues to soar, and natural resources diminish. Such a growth will lead to a catastrophe unless people start to implement various measures to create a more sustainable society.
Urbanization i:; a major cause of impairment of wetlands (USEPA, 1994). Urbanization has resulted in direct loss of wetland acreage as well as degradation of wetlands. Degradation is due to changes in water quality, quantity, and flow rates, increases in pollutant inputs and changes in species composition as a result of introduction of non-native (alien) species and disturbance. The major pollutants associated with urbanization are sediment, nutrients, oxygen-demanding substances, road salts, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, bacteria, and viruses (USEPA 1994). These pollutants may enter wetlands from point sources or from
1 nonpoint sources. Construction activities are a major source of suspended sediments that enter wetlands through urban run off.
According to NEMA (2002) wetlands in Uganda cover almost 30,000 square kilometres, or some 13% of the total area of the country. They include areas of seasonally flooded grassland, swamp forest, permanently flooded papyrus, grass swamp and upland bog. As a result of the vast surface area and the narrow river-like shape of many of the wetlands, there
is a very extensive wetland edge, which is in many places accessible. \, only on foot. Wetlands have intrinsic attributes, perform functions and services, and produce goods. Some of these are of primarily local interest, but others have a regional, national, or international importance. Together they represent a considerable ecological, social and economic value.
Ecological attributes and functions are those that wetlands perform without immediate human
intervention g_Q. maintenance of the water table, flood control, provision of habitat for animals and plants. Many people are unaware of the existence, let alone the importance, of these attributes and functions. While it is difficult to place a specific monetary value on them, efforts are now being made to do so.
The socio-economic goods and services of wetlands are better known, as they involve immediate human interaction with the wetland. Human activities based on natural wetland resources generate a wide range of products that are consumed locally or traded with over hundreds of kilometres. Many people living in communities neighbouring wetlands are to a significant extent dependent for their well-being on wetlands products.
NEMA (2002) also noted that wetland use in Uganda was largely limited to activities that did not harm the ecosystem and its productivity. But pressure on wetlands has been building up fast. As the population increases and the peoples' expectations increase the pressure on wetlands also increases. As a result, wetlands are being encroached, sometimes on a massive and rapid scale, as in urban areas like Kansanga wetland, but more often, as in many rural areas, slowly and almost unnoticeably. The result )s a general decline in resource productivity, changes in water flow intensity (severe flooding, followed by no water flowing at all), damage to infrastructure, increase in waterborne diseases and changes in micro-climatic conditions, to mention but just a few.
2 Kampala, Uganda's capital city, is experiencing rapid population growth of 5.61 % per annum since 2002 and a total imigrants from 774,241 people in 1991 to some 1.2 million people in 2002 (UBOS, 2002). The growth, which has occurred concomitantly with changes in the population structure of the city, is largely influenced by rural-urban migration. Population increase in Kampala metropolitan area is responsible for increased demand for employment, land for housing, social services and infrastructure that have stimulated spatial urban development and industrialization. Though the current urban development can be applauded due to increase in employment opportunities, housing stock, social services and expanding infrastructure, such development is occurring in a haphazard manner largely dominated by the urban informality in most of the sectors. This has greatly contributed to the unsustainable utilization of natural resources within the metro area resulting in environmental degradation through solid waste accumulation, wetland encroachment and destruction, water pollution and land use/cover change that is reducing the ecological services from the natural environment of the metro area (NEMA 2000/01 ). The resultant living environment of the urban poor in the city is deplorable with poor sanitation, inadequate housing, poorly managed solid and human w;cistes, increased water pollution and reduction in ecological services. Consequently this has exacerbated vulnerability of Kampala's population and communities to natural disasters (NEMA 2000). Coping strategies have been devised by the urban poor for their adaptation to urban economy and environment. As a multi-disciplinary study, the research evaluated the demographic changes in Kampala and their influence on the wetlands through urban development focusing on housing, and economic activities in the metro area.
1.2 Statement of the problem Although Kansanga wetland has numerous ecological and consumptive values, this ecosystem is increasingly degraded, a situation that continues to jeopardize its importance and existence. Its traditionally rich biodiversity and biological resources on which people depend are threatened by the heavy human population and urban development activities and some unfavourable climate effects. Despite this happening, the wetland is least studied compared to other wetlands in the Lake Victoria basin, specifically in Kampala. Prior to this study, little is documented on the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland and the historical integrity of Kansanga wetland.
3 It is against the above background that there is need to provide an insight into the role of population growth and urban development in the degradation of Kansanga wetland, and how to minimize the problem in an effort to restore its integrity.
1.3 Objectives of the study The main objective of the study was to find out the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland. Specifically the study:
1) Determined the historical trends of population growth rate and urban development of Kampala. 2) Determined the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1Oto 15 years. 3) Established the activities of the population and how they affect the wetland. 4) Analysed the effects of population growth and urban development on the wetland.
1.4 Research questions 1) What are the historical trends of population growth and development of Kampala? 2) To what extent are wetlands affected by population growth and urban development of Kampala? 2) What are the changes in the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1O to 15 years? 3) What activities of the population affect the wetland? 4) What are the effects of population growth and urban development on the wetland?
1.5 Significance of the study 1) Government and policy makers and planners will use the results of this research to make appropriate development goals. 2) The results of the study will alert people such that they become aware of the problem of wetland degradation in the area and can thus adapt· right procedures of solving the problem. 3) The data generated and the recommendations made will be for use by future researchers, scholars and academicians. It is likely to enlighten non governmental organizations dealing with wetland management and Kampala city council in urban planning. 5) The study will also provide a foundation for future research about the same problem in the area and elsewhere. 6) The dissertation produced out of this study is a prequisite in partial fulfilment of the 4 requirements for the award of a master of science in environmental management and development.
1.6 Scope of the study This study established how population growth and urban development are affecting the wetlands, specifically in Kansanga wetland as a case study.
The study focu_ssed on the population growth and urban development of Kampala, Integrity of Kansanga wetland, activities of the population that affect the wetland, effects of population growth and urban development on the wetland. Recommendations were given to curb the degradation of the wetland.
The study focused on population growth and urban development as independent variables and wetland degradation as a dependent variable.
The respondents used in the study were K.C.C. staff, NEMA staff, district environmental officer and wetland occupants themselves.
Kansanga wetland was originally 4.54 km 2 according to NBS (2000) and NEMA (2002). Today it is only 0.54 km 2 of the area under intact wetland vegetation. The study took four weeks.
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5 1.7 Conceptual framework
Population growth By high birth rates and Immigration
Human activities Urban development activities Draining for Wetland degradation - Industrialization cultivation - Building activities - Brick making - Establishment of - Sand settlements extraction Infrastructure Papyrus development harvesting
Urban development
Fig.1: Conceptual framework
The conceptual framework (Fig.1) was developed to indicate that, the population growth and urban development have led to changes in population structure of the city and a rapid urban growth. Migration from rural areas has also greatly contributed to population growth in the city and both have created significant demographic changes in and around the city.
Human beings have changed the ecosystems and environment more rapidly and extensively in the 1990s up to 2008 than in any comparable period of lime in history. Through socio economic, political and cultural globalization processes, people are at the centre of environmental change at the global level. While local environmental processes are largely driven by demographic characteristics, composition and structure. The conceptual framework illustrates the background factors of demographic changes i.e. population growth,
6 composition and migration and how they accelerate the urbanization process through urban development, industrialization, housing hence wetland degradation.
This growth has been responsible for increased demand for employment, land for housing, a fast spatial development and an increasing level of industrialization. The effects of demographic change in Kampala have ushered the unprecedented interactions between population growth, urban development variables and wetland resources through urban development and industrialization as the development activities. But the development is occurring in a haphazard manner largely dominated by the urban informal sector, which has greatly contributed to the degradation of the wetlands through wetland destruction, solid waste accumulation, water pollution and land use change.
Both population growth and urban development variables have created pressure on land hence encroachment on wetlands and this has led to changes in both size and productivity of the wetlands due to increased human and urban development activities such as drainage, urban agriculture, brick making, establishment of settlements, industrialization, etc, and all of these have been found to be responsible for wetland degradation.
The conceptual framework shows the relationship between urban population dynamics and urban development and how the relationship leads to wetland degradation. Whereas the schematic represents:itions may imply a linear relationship between population dynamics and urban development, a two-way interaction exists continuously.
This conceptual framework offers a basis for an assessment of the linkages and derivation of policy recommendations for sustainable urban development in Uganda. Such an assessment is envisaged to make a significant contribution to knowledge about the effects of population dynamics an.j urban .:Jevelopment on the Wetlands.
7 ' .
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature available and provided by scholars and academicians for the topic being handled. It is divided into four major sections. The first section discusses population growth and urban development, the second section is about integrity of wetlands, the third section is about the activities of the population that affect the wetlands while the fourth discusses the effects of population growth and urban development on the wetlands.
2.2 Population Growth and Urban Development
According to UNFPA (2007) more people live in cities today than ever before. In the 20th Century alone, the world's urban population grew more than 10-fold: from 220 million to 2.8
billion. The "'✓orld's tcwns and cities are growing at a rate of more than 1.2 million per week. Therefore it means that there is a relationship between population growth and urban development.
2.2.1 Population Growth
Nielsen (2006) definAd population growth as the change in population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population using "per unit time" for measurement. The term population growth can technically refer to any species, but almost always refers to humans, and it is often used informally for the more specific demographic term population growth rate (see below), and is often used to refer specifically to the growth of the population of the world.
In demographics and ecology, Population growth rate (PGR) is the fractional rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases. Specifically, PGR ordinarily refers to the change in population over a specific time period expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. This can be written as the formula: P = Poekt or equivalently,
(Population at the end of the period - Population at the beginning of the period) Growth rate = Population at the beginning of the period
8 The most common v,ay to express population growth is as a ratio, not as a rate. The change in population over a time period is expressed as a percentage of the population at the beginning of the time period. That is:
Growth ratio= growth rate x100%
A positive growth ratio (or rate) indicates that the population is increasing, while a negative growth ratio (or rate) indicates population decline. A growth ratio of zero indicates that there were the same numbers of people at the two times -- net difference between births, deaths and migration is zero. However, a growth rate may be zero even when there are significant changes in the birth rates, death rates, immigration rates, and age distribution between the two times (Nielsen, 2006).
A related measure is the net reproduction rate. In the absence of migration, a net reproduction rate of more than one indicates that the population of women is increasing, while a net reproduction rate less than one (sub-replacement fertility) indicates that the population of women is decreasing.
When population growth can exceed the carrying capacity of an area or environment the results end with overpopulation. Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollution and traffic congestion, though these can be addressed by technological and economic changes. Conversely, such areas may be considered "under populated" if the population is not large enough to maintain an economic system.
According to UNFPA (2007) globally, the growth rate of the human population has slowed down a little since its peak in the 1980s, although the last one hundred years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity made by the Green Revolution. The actual annual growth in the number of humans fell from its peak of 87 million per annum in the late ,980s, to a low of 75 million per annum in 2002, at which it stabilised and has started to slowly rise again to 77 million per annum in 2007. Growth remains high in the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and primarily in Sub-Saharan Africa.
9 I Region IJ1750 JJ1soo JJ1s50 111900 JJ1950 JJ1999 JJ2050 JJ2150 I I World II 79111 978111,262111,650112,521115,978118,9o9JJ 9,7461 I Africa II 10611 10711 11111 13311 22111 767JJ 1, 766JJ 2,3081 I Asia II 50 211 635JJ 809JJ fl47JI 1,40211 3,63411 5,268JJ 5,561 J I Europe II 16311 20311 27611 408JJ 54711 72911 62811 5171 Jsouth America and the CaribbeanJJ 1611 2411 3811 7411 16711 51111 80911 9121 I Northern America II 2 11 ?JI 2611 82JJ 17211 30711 39211 398J I Oceania II 2 11 211 II 611 1311 3011 4611 511
Source: UNFPA, 2007.
Table 1: World historical and predicted populations (in millions)
The population reached 6 billion in 2000. The United Nation projects that world population for the year 2050 could range from 7.9 billion to 10.9 billion, depending on the actions taken today.
How fast will it grow?
UNFPA (2007) noted that to arrive at a reasonable estimate of how the world's population will grow in the next 50 years, you need to look at birth and death rates (the rates at which people are being bc;·n and dying in any given period). If birth and death rates stayed the same across the years in all parts of the world, population growth could be figured with a fairly simple formula much like the one used to figure compound interest. Birth and death rates aren't constant across countries and through time, however. Disease or disaster can cause death rates to increase for a certain period. A booming economy might mean higher birth rates for a given. year.
The rate of the Earth's population growth is slowing down. Throughout the 1960s, the world's population was growing at a rate of about 2% per year. By 1990, that rate was down to 1.5%, and by the year 2015, it's expected to drop further to 1 %. Family planning initiatives, an aging population, and the effects of diseases such as AIDS are some of the factors behind this rate decrease. Ever; at thase very low rates of population growth, the numbers are staggering. By 2015, despite a low expected 1% growth rate, experts estimate there will be 7 billion people
10 on the planet. By 2050, there may be as many as 10 billion people living on Earth. Can the planet support this population? When will humanity reach the :imit of the resources?
Alana (2006) predicted that within the next few decades, the east African nation of Uganda is likely to have the highest population growth in the world, according to a new report from the Population Reference Bureau (PRB), a Washington, D.C.-based research and advocacy group. The country's current population of 27.7 million is projected to explode to 130 million by 2050, a nearly fivefold increase, notes the study. According to Carl Haub, a demographer at PRB, such expansion will entrap the country in poverty and instability. "No one would consider such a rate of growth to be sustainable," he says.
Although according to UBOS (2000) Uganda still has a relatively small urban population, with only 13% of all people living in towns, the country's urban Centres are growing at a rate of 4.8% per year, which is the third highest in East Africa. Burundi is the higl1est, with a 6,8% urban growth, followed by Rwanda (6.5%). By 2002 there were more than 1.2 million residents in the city, and a daily transient population of about 2.3 million. Statistics from the National Population Census carried out in 1969, 1980 and 1991, show that the population of Kampala District stood at 330,700, 458,503 and 774,241 people, respectively (Statistical Abstract, 19:cJ/). These, however, are indicative figures for the night population with day populations being higher. The annual growth rates between 1969-1980, 1980-1991 and 1969-1991 were 3.14%, 4.76%, and 3.98% respectively, all above the national average ranging between 2.5% and 2.7%. Corresponding to the increasing trend of the annual growth rates, is the increasing trend in population density. Population density has quadrupled from 1, 957 in 1969 and 2,713 in 1980 to 4,581 persons per sq: km in 1991. Demographically, ii is projected that by 1999, the population would stand at 890,800 persons (UBOS, 2002).
Kampala's population is exploding. The capital had about 450,000 inhabitats in 1980. A quarter of a century later, ii has three times as many. The city's population was estimated at 1,358,800 in 2006, according to the Uganda Bureau of Statistics, an increase of almost 50,000 compared to the previous year (UBOS 2002). The city has transformed from a dusty colonial administrative post to a thriving political and economical metropolis in the last century. However, it is also choking under the weight of rapid urbanisation, with increasing traffic jams, air pollution, and garbage, lack of proper housing, sanitation and unemployment. Kampala illustrates the challenges faced by rapidly growing cities in developing countries, the 11 theme of the 2007 State of World Population Report of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA).
This situation is not unique for Kampala. Cities are growing at a staggering pace all over the world. More people live in cities today than ever before, according to UNFPA. In the 20th Century aloQe. the ½fOrld's urban population grew more than 10-fold: from 220 million to 2.8 billion. The world's towns and cities are growing at a rate of more than 1.2 million per week.
2.2.2 Urban Development Human alterations to the natural landscape have the potential to exert significant direct and indirect influence on wetland ontogeny and processes. Changes to natural hydrological, chemical, and physical regimes have been documented as affecting the production and succession of a wetland's ecology, and therefore its functions and values (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Booth and Reinert, 1993).
According to USEPA (1994) during urbanization or development, pervious areas-those that permit the infiltration of precipitation through the ground-including vegetated and forested land are lost. These natural areas are converted to land uses that increase the amount of impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, and buildings. Impervious surfaces transform watershed hydrology by changing the rate and volume of runoff and altering natural drainage features, including groundwater levels. This, in turn, alters wetland hydrology and may adversely affect aquatic and riparian wetland habitat. Increases in population pressures from urbanization results in corresponding increases in pollutant loadings generated from a wide array of human activities.
Urban development of the natural landscape changes both the form and function of the natural downstream drainage system. Data from a host of sources demonstrate that the shift from undeveloped to developed areas results in substantial increases in runoff volume, thereby reducing the amount of rainfall available for groundwater recharge. Increases in peak runoff rates and volumes to stream channels intensifies stream bank erosion and alters the natural deposition regimes (USEPA, 1994). Physical, chemical, and biological data from King County, Washington demonstrate that consiotent thresholds exist for aquatic ecosystem impacts from urbanization (Booth and Reinelt, 1993). Approximately 10 to 15 percent impervious area in a watershed typically yields demonstrable loss of aquatic system 12 functioning, as measured by changes in channel morphology, fish and amphibian populations, vegetation succession, and water chemistry. The following is a list of the major causes of wetland loss and degradation:
Kampala's Urban Development Patterns
Nawangwe and Nuwagaba (2002) noted that the beginning of urban development in Kampala was closely tied to the former colenial concept of separating residential areas according to races. Initial efforts were to accommodate the working population in the colonial government who were mainly expatriate civil servants. This resulted in the construction of houses in Kololo, Nakasero and Mbuya in Kampala. Later housing estates referred to as Africa quarters during colonial days, to cater for Africans who were coming to Kampala from the countryside to work were established by the colonial administration in Nakawa, Naguru, Ntinda. Areas, which were inhabited by Europeans, were well supplied with infrastructure facilities, like water and houses well made of strong bricks and rooted with clay tiles. The houses and compounds especially in Kololo and Nakasero are also spacious. While the commercial areas and the residential areas designated by the colonial government developed systematically, those, which were still under, the Kabaka (the Kibuga) did so basically without any plan. It is this fact that has led Kampala to be termed a dualistic city i.e. partly indigenous and partly colonial (Nawangwe and Nuwagaba, 2002).
Nawangwe and Nuwagaba (2002) found out that the heavy population (41 % of the total urban population in 2002) in Kampala city has been brought by a number of factors including inter alia; the postcolonial policy of concentrating the socio-economic opportunities in specific urban nuclei to the detriment of other areas. Kampala is typical of sprawling cities of the developing world with all the accompanying stress and strains of unplanned development, urban poverty, unemployment and environmental degradation. It still has the relics of a failed planning and development management system left behind by the colonial administration. 0 With the creation of Kampala City Council after independence to control all developments in the city, Kampala has since then taken on a hybrid nature especially in the former Kibuga areas. Similarly, the extensions of the city boundaries have now incorporated parts of Kawempe, Nakawa ::rnd Naguru into the city boundaries. Here, you find executive houses side by side with semi permanent structures. In fact mud and wattle walled houses with corrugated iron sheets constitute 35% of all housing units in Kampala.It is therefore argued 13 that the planning and urban development control needs to take a different orientation basing i) on different needs of the urban inhabitats.
2:3: Wetlands integrity
According to OECD/IUCN (1996) Despite large regional variability, continental ranking shows, in decreasing order of wetland integrity, South America, Africa, Australia, and Asia, whereby efforts to mitigate human impacts on wetlands are largest and most advanced in Australia. The analysis of demographic, political, economic and ecological trends until the year 2025 indicates fairly stable conditions for wetlands in tropical Australia, slight deterioration of the large wetland areas in tropical South America except the Magdalena and Cauca River floodplains, where human population is larger, rapidly increasing pressure and destruction on many African and· Central American wetlands and serious threats for the remaining W8!!ands i:1 tropical Asia. "Some estimates show that the world may have lost 50% of the wetlands that existed since 1900; whilst much of this occurred in the northern countries during the first 50 years of the century (OECD/IUCN 1996) increasing pressure for conversion to alternative land use has been put on tropical and sub-tropical wetlands since the 1950s. No figures are available for the extent of wetland loss worldwide, but drainage for agricultural production is the principal cause. By 1985 it w2s. estimated that 56-65% of the available wetland had been drained for intensive agriculture in Europe and N America; the figures for tropical and subtropical regions were 27% for Asia, 6% for S America and 2% for Africa, making a total of 26% worldwide. Future predictions show the pressure to drain land for agriculture intensifying in these regions (OECD/IUCN, 1996).
Uganda's wetlands provide a wide range of inter-related functions, resources and products, ranging from groundwater recharge and discharge, to microclimate stabilization, and from forestry, wildlife, fisheries, agriculture and water supply to recreation and tourism. While it is unlikely that any one wetland can supply all of these products, Uganda's wetlands clearly provide multiple benefits and any management of these wetlands should encourage multiple uses (NWP, 2000).
Mugisha et al (2007) quoted that together with forests, Uganda's wetlands are responsible for the stabilization of the country's water supply and the conservation of its soils and nutrients. More specifically, the following values are of special concern: Hydrological values due to the 14 sponge-like. nature of wetlands and their capacity to stabilize water availability, moderate floods and supply water during the dry season. Borehole and well recharge in some areas depend entirely upon wetlands.
NEMA (2000) found out that biological diversity is high in seasonal wetlands and low in swamps. However, the range in altitude of wetlands encompasses lowland tropical to Afro Alpine, and less common plants (e.g. Syzigium spp) have important populations. Wetlands offer a refuge to fauna (e.g. Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei) and a stable environment for many aquatic species, especially fish, for which wetland vegetation forms a vital feeding ground.
C) According to National Biomass Study (2000) Biomass production is very high, especially of the swamp macrophytes such as Cyperus papyrus, Typha spp and Phragmites spp, These plants are largely responsible for the water retention properties of the wetland and also provide a large sink for atmospheric carbon. The ability of swamps to lock up this carbon in peat-like sediment may be very important in alleviating global warming. Wetland biomass also provides an essential foundation for numerous food webs, which support a variety of plants and animals.
Mugisha et al (2007) found out that Sediment, nutrient and toxin retention impedes the growth of wetland vegetation and the absorption and ion exchange capacity of the wetlands substrate. Sediment carried in flood flows is stripped from the water. Similarly, dissolved nutrients and toxins are retained by the matrix of slowly decaying plant material and the substrate, thus stabilizing these components. Water leaving a wetland is thus of high quality. Biomass potential, especially of the macrophytes, papyrus, Typha sp and Phragmites spp, is high; for example, papyrus can yield 25 tones of dry weight/ha/year. According to Mugisha et al (2007) the high productivity of Uganda's wetlands provides essential building and thatching materials, important materials for carpet and screen-making enterprises and the potential to provide a source of renewable energy through harvesting and briquetting or through biogas plants. Swamp fishing yields large catches of catfish (Clarias spp) and lungfish (Protoopterus spp), as well as a very large supply of smaller Haplochromids (mukene). The fish occur throughout permanent wetlands as well as in seasonal floodplains and are caught using basket traps, hooks or gill nets.
15
0 Wetlands are vital for water supply and sewage treatment and promise large financial savings in the design and construction of water and sewage treatment plants. For instance, the Nakivubo and Luzira swamps near Kampala remove pollutants from the almost raw sewage released from Kampala, thus protecting the nearby water supply. The water supply to Masaka is obtained entirely from a wetland, taking advantage of the filtering capacity of the swamp (NEMA, 2002).
2.4 Activities of the population that affect tt-i,e wetlands
Dugan and Jones (1993) quoted that water system regulations and drainage for agriculture and urban development have been the major causes of the loss of over 50% of the wetlands in countries such as the USA, New Zealand, Australia, Pakistan, Thailand, Niger, Chad, Tanzania, India, Viet Nam, and Italy. This has happened at a time when there was little knowledge and recognition of two important factors. The first is that in making decisions about water use, the environment itself is an important user of water. II sounds like a platitude. Water systems need water (the right quantity in the right place) to function properly and to secure a constant and quality supply for other users. Yet some water managers still have difficulty understanding that the allocations for human use can only be satisfied in the long term by first ensuring the "environmental allocation" that the systems require to continue to perform. The second factor that has affected wetlands has been widespread ignorance about the multiple ar,d beneficial functions that they perform iri the basins and coastal areas where they are located.
According to Frazier (1996) the direct causes of wetland loss often result from a combination of ignorance, social and economic forces, and political decisions. The global rise in urbanization exemplified by the growth in population of the 30,000 or so medium-sized cities in developing countries is accompanied by dramatically increasing pollution loads to the environment. Although a wetland might itself remain, but in a degraded state, many of its benefits are lost (Frazier, 1996) Population growth coupled with inequitable distribution of resources and access rights has increased the demand for land which in turn has put the greatest pressure on wetlands. For example the human carrying capacity of the Sahel region is already matched or exceeded by population density; dryland agriculture or large-scale migration to other parts of the region are unlikely to be able to relieve the situation. As a result, wetlands will be more sought after, and pressure for conversion of wetlands to rice
16 fields is on the incre;,se due to increasing urbanization in West Africa and its demand for rice. Droughts also tend to increase pressure on wetlands because they affect the migration patterns of people in the area. During the severe droughts of 1975 to 1988, the number of villages on the Nigerian section of Lake Chad increased from 40 to more than 100. Similarly the use of the Hadejia-Nguru wetlands in Nigeria for agriculture has increased due to droughts (Frazier, 1996). In addition, policies and incentives in different sectors contribute by encouraging drainage, or the cultivation of particular crops at the expense of wetlands. Trading patterns can also alter the balance of production leading to loss of natural wetlands - an example of this is the worldwide demand for high-priced shrimp from aquaculture ponds. Lack of legislation and its enforcement can also be a cause of wetland loss, particularly where there are inadequate regulations to control water pollution.
Dugan and Jones (1993) listed draining as the primary historic cause of degradation of the state's wetlands. Many of Florida's marshes have been drained in response to the growing demand for farming and cattle grazing, and to create dry land for new homes for Florida's increasing population. Draining dries up wetlands, swamps and marshes, or disrupts natural water level fluctuations in them, thereby altering their native plant and animal communities; draining also makes wetlands much more susceptible to invasions by non-native plant species. Welling and overpumping reduces the level of the water table. Water levels of most Florida Rivers, lakes, springs and wetlands are directly related to annual precipitation and the level of the water table. Overpumping of water lowers the water-Table and dramatically affects the marsh environment by altering natural marsh processes such as wildlife activity, peat development,' plant composition. When wet environments become dry, they often are invaded by certain non-native plants that are tolerant of wet and dry conditions. Welling and pumping can reduce the amount of water discharged from a spring. In 1950, Kissengen Spring in Polk County stopped flowing because of excessive pumping. Groundwater can become contaminated by pockets of ancient seawater found deep under Florida, or by modern seawater ir.trusion along coast. This frequently occurs in areas of excessive pumping, which causes subsurface saltwater to be sucked inland to replace extracted freshwater.
Kavari (2006) quoted Sand mining as one of the main threats to the rich biodiversity supported in Namibian wetlands particularly alongside Namibian perennial rivers and
17 ephemeral watercourses. This process can destroy riverine vegetation, cause erosion, pollute water sources and reduce the diversity of animals supported by these woodlands habitats. An earlier study by an IRBM intern has identified that the lower Okavango River in Namibia has good potential to be considered for designation as a Ramsar Site.
Ministry of Water Lands and Environment (2005) noted that Uganda's wetlands are under stress as the human and animal population increases. Where there is poverty, meeting short term, immediate, personal needs (such as food, water, shelter and school fees) may take priority over protecting attributes that provide longer-term, indirect, general benefits (such as water storage and recharge, micro climate regulation and biodiversity conservation). Where there is greed, temptations to exploit the development potential of wetlands may prove too strong even where they entail degradation. In urban areas, particularly Kampala, wetlands are the last free or cheap areas for infrastructure development. Many sections have been 0 converted to industrial use or have gradually been taken over by slum residential housing and associated uses e.g. cultivation, waste disposal, 'Jua kali' commerce etc. In the rural areas, small hut cortinuous nibbling at the edges has reduced wetland, areas, but this is mainly restricted to seasonal wetlands. According to MWLE (2005) in eastern Uganda almost all the seasonal wetland valley bottoms fit for rice cultivation and have consequently been converted to that use, and in some parts of the southwest, large areas of wetlands have been converted to pasture for grazing or to cultivation. Nevertheless, the damage to permanent wetlands in rural areas is probably still relatively limited. Some natural protection from encroachment and wholesale drainage is afforded by inaccessibility and lack of suitable drainage technology.
NEMA (2002) stated that Wetlands within the city for instance are seen as idle land. Consequently, developers seek to convert them for other use, hence threatening their existence. "Wetlands purify the city's sewerage before it flows back into water bodies like Lake Victoria," (Kiwazi 2002). According to Kiwazi (2002) all wetlands within Kampala are threatened by illegal land sales, agricultural establishments and informal settlements. Some of these include Nsooba, Bulyera, Kiyanja, Kansanga, Kyetinda, Mayanja and Nakivubo wetlands.
National Environmental Authority (2002) also points out high population density (approx.3, 974 per person per square km) ·as one of s,:he main causes of wetland degradation in 18 Kampala. With all these threats, experts fear that if nothing is done in 1O years time, public green spaces may be no more.
Other destructive human activities common in the wetlands include brick-making (e.g. Kayunga, Bulyera, Kyabatola and Naooba), sand extraction (e.g. part of Kinawataka), papyrus over harvesting (e.g. Lubigi and Nakivubo), burning of swamps and hunting. Other most affected wetlands are Nakivubo, Kinawataka, Nsooba Kyetinda, Kasanga and Lubingi (NEMA, 2002).
2.5 Effects of popuiation growth and urban development on Wetlands
Costanza et al (1997) noted that the dominant features underlying wetland loss are population growth and subsequent anthropogenic developmental activities, which impose great pressure on wetland resources. Lack of appreciation of wetland values, their products, functions and attributes has led to conversion of wetlands for other purposes.
As a result of disturbance and habitat degradation, wetlands can be invaded by aggressive, highly-tolerant, non-native vegetation, such as" purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), and salvinia (Salvinia molesta), or can be dominated by a monoculture of cattails (Typha spp) or common reed (Phragmites spp). Particularly in constructed wetlands, including restored wetlands, non-native and tolerant native species may outcompete other species leading to a reduction in species diversity (Costanza et al, 1997)
Dugan and Jones (1993) found out that roads can impound a wetland, even if culverts are used. Such inadvertent impoundment and hydrologic alteration can change the functions of the wetland. Road ;1nd bridge construction activities can increase sediment loading to wetlands. Roads can also disrupt habitat continuity, driving out more sensitive interior species, and providing habitat for hardier opportunistic edge and alien species. Roads can impede movement of certain species or result in increased mortality for animals crossing them. Borrow pits (used to provide fill for road construction) that are adjacent to wetlands can degrade water quality through sedimentation and increase turbidity in the wetland.
According to USEPA (1994) wastewater treatment plant effluent and urban stormwater are a source of pollutants that continue to degrade wetlands. The "aging" of wetlands can occur 19 when wetlands filter organic matter. "Aging" is the saturation of the ecosystem by nutrients and heavy metals over time that results in the reduced effectiveness and degradation of the wetland. Wastewater and stormwater can alter the ecology of a wetland ecosystem if high nutrient levels cause extended eutrophication and metals cause plant and aquatic organism toxicity. Iron and magnesium, in- particular, may reach toxic concentrations, immobilize available phosphorous, and coat roots with iron oxide, preventing nutrient uptake.
USEPA (1994) found out that Urban and industrial stormwater, sludge, and wastewater treatment plant effluent, rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, can lead to algal blooms in estuaries. Algal blooms deplete dissolved oxygen, leading to mortality of benthic organisms. Some algae are toxic to aquatic life. Excess algae can shade underwater sea grasses (part of the coastal wetland ecosystem), preventing photosynthesis and resulting in sea grass death (USEPA 1994). Because sea grass meadows reduce turbidity by stabilizing sediments and provide critical food, refuge, and habitat for a variety of organisms, including many commercially harvested fish, the death of these plants profoundly impairs the estuarine ecosystem.
20 CHAPTER THREE METHODS •
3.1 Introduction This chapter gives a description of the methods used for collection, analysis of data. It therefore focused on the general design of the study, the sample design, sample size, methods of data collection, data analysis and the factors that might hinder the collection of data in the field. The collections of data in the field however, were from both primary and secondary sources. The secondary data collected were from government documents, academic research reports, consultancy and newspaper reports. This included population data, urban development activities and the integrity of Kansanga wetland. Secondary data were supplemented with primary data collected through interviews and focus group discussions with informed stakeholders. Two parishes that generally have the characteristics described in the conceptual model were selected for the focus group discussions. Through these meetings, data on the activities of the population and how they affect the wetland and the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland were collected from the respondents, and relevant recommendations were suggested so that possible measures can be found to curb the degradation. The data from focus group discussions were collected and utilized to validate information collected from other sources. Statistical and qualitative analytical tools were used in analyzing these data.
The primary sources were, however, mainly used to collect data concerning the activities of the population that affect Kansanga wetland and the effects of population growth and urban development on wetlands and the possible recommended solutions to curb the degradation.
3.2 Research Design The study was descriptive, on the Kansanga wetland situation and both qualitative and quantitative. Quantification data were mainly used during the presentation of data, which were reflected in terms of frequency tables, pie charts, graphs and percentage frequencies.
3.3 Study area The study was carried out in Kansanga wetland that is found in Makindye division, Kampala district (Fig.2 and Fig.3). It is surrounded by several villages namely Kayunga, Kiwafu, Kyeitabya, Lukuli, Bunga and Kawuku. According to NBS (2000) the wetland is partly
21 seasonal on the upper stream and partly permanent on the lower stream near the lake. It forms part of the extensive natural wetlands on the north eastern shores of Lake Victoria. Papyrus is dominant in areas close to the lake.
Kansanga wetland i::; situated : 32°37'E and o01iN with the area of 4.54 km 2 and (3,750 ft) above sea level Kansanga wetland is approximately five kilometres south east of Kampala's city centre and accessible from Gaba road.
'.' Il
22 Kampala wedends encroactled
WAIOSO
•s 'C
Fig.2: Location of Kansanga wetla in Kampala District Uganda
Legend Kansanga Wetland
Scale: 1:24..000 Metres □ Wetlands ' I D Makindye Division Scuce: KCC GIS Uni .
Fig 3: Satellite Image of Kansanga wetland and its surroundings 23 Kansanga wetland is part of the extensive natural wetlands fringing the northern shores of Lake Victoria. The Papyrus and parches of swamp forest containing Cyperus papyrus predominate near the lake. Inland, the swamp has been extensively opened up for agricultural purposes.
Land tenure/land ownership of the site is public land towards the lake leasehold inland, of the surrounding area lease hold and Milo land. Conservation measures proposed but not yet implemented.
The current land use of the site is for agricultural activities at the edge, while hunting of monitor lizards, settlement and practicing subsistence agriculture were at the surrounding catchments.
Disturbances/threats to Kansanga are caused by changes in land use, major development projects, agricultural encroachment and drainage.
Kansanga wetland serves as a habitat for monitor lizards (which are hunted to provide skins used for common drums used in Buganda known as "Ngarabi"), provides water for domestic use, and plays important hydrological and other ecological roles.
According to MNR (1996) on the topographical map of 1967, Kansanga wetland was classified as permanent. But today it is seasonally flooded, except for the area close to the lake, probably due to the fall in lake level.
3.4 Population
Data from UBOS indicate that Kampala's population increased by more than four times from 330,700 in 1969 to 1.6 million in 2008. The Bureau projects that the city's population will swell further to 2.1 million by 2017 (New vi5ion, 2008).
3.5 Sampling Techniques and sample size The study employed a variety of sampling techniques which included purposive sampling, and simple random sampling. Purposive sampling was used to collect information from people who are from an understanding of the research deemed to have the required information for the study. This applied mainly to the area of political leaders and the environmental technical officers. The stratified random sampling was very crucial in collecting 24 information from all the levels of local governance. Stratified random was used concurrently with simple random sampling in that, after picking the respondents using stratification, simple random sampling was applied. This enabled the researcher to get information from the different strata from the population of study without any bias .
. Kansanga wetland crosses six villages, which include Kayunga, Kiwafu, Kyeitabya, Lukuli, Bunga and Kawuku. The sample was evenly distributed in the six villages where fourteen (14) respondents were chosen from each village, composed of one L.C chair person, 8 (eight) young people (youth) mainly between the ages of 16 to 30 years, and six from the age of 30 and above. The young (youth) were chosen because they normally take part in activities that degrade the wetland, while the old people were selected for historical information in relation to the problem.
3.6 Research instruments A variety of data collection instruments were used to make the study a success. Among the data colleciion instruments employed were: interviews, questionnaires, and group discussions. Equally so observation, photography and useful literature review were used. This in essence implies that, both primary and secondary methods were used to collect data.
3.6.1 Questionnaires A logical set of questions were developed following variables like the population growth and urban development of Kampala, Integrity of Kansanga wetland, activities of the population that affect the wetland, effects of population growth and urban development on the wetland and the possible ways to curb the degradation of the wetland. Closed and open-ended questions were used. The Questionnaires were self administered to the illiterate people where the questions were read to _them and their responses recorded. The literate filled the questionnaires themselves.
3.6.2 Interviews The major methods employed in the collection of data included oral interviews. Both the structured and non-structured interviews were used. Some structured questions were used as guides when interviewing respondents. This method involved a face to face discussion between the researcher and respondents. This method was used because it allows replacement of the question whenever the respondents could not understand. The method also provided for adequate sampling of the population from whom the data were to be 25 collected. Since this is an urban area most of the respondents or the sampled population comprised of busy people. These included senior government officials in Makindye division, NEMA officials, KCC' staff, businessmen and women, councillors, local council chair persons and ordinary residents.
3.6.3 Focus Group Discussions This was conducted in the two parishes of Kawuku and Lukuli moderated by the researcher and research assistants. This targeted the local community (wetland residents) target groups to gather the required primary (original} data.
3.6.4 Observation Observation was used to get the original data in order to prove whether the information given by the respondents were right or not. This assisted in getting information that relates to the activities of the population and how they affect the wetland and the impacts of population growth and urban d&velopment on Kansanga wetland. Observation helped in comparing the literature review to what happened in the field.
3.6.5 Reviewed literature Review of literature that exist in the field were used. Literature about the historical trends of population growth rate and urban development of Kampala, the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1O to 15 years, activities of the population and how they affect the wetland, the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland and relevant recommendation suggested so that possible measures can be found to curb the degradation of Kansanga wetland, were collected from UBOS, WID, NEMA, the Ministry of Water and Environment and from the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project. Literature re'Ji13w provided a foundation and guidelines to the literature about the effects of population growth and urban development on the wetlands.
3:6:6 Photography Several photographs of different activities leading to the degradation of Kansanga wetland and their effects were taken in the field.
3:6:7 Validity and Reliability Data quality control refers to the validity and reliability of the instruments. Validity refers to the appropriateness of the instruments while reliability refers to its consistency in measuring
26 0 whatever it is intended to measure. For any research it is necessary to control its quality to minimize error. As regards to this research study the questionnaire was first tested before distributing it to the final respondents. A pre-test was done among colleagues of which after a thorough screening recommended some modifications in the nature of the questions. The supervisor was also consulted for expert knowledge on questionnaire construction. After the assessment of the questionnaire, necessary adjustments were made bearing in mind the objectives of the study so as to get the information that was intended in this research. The questionnaires were finally administered to the selected respondents.
3. 7 Data analysis
Descriptive Statistics were used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. This provided simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics simply described what the data were, what the data shows. Both quantitative and qualitative data analyses were used. Descriptive method, frequency tables, photographs and pie charts were used to present the findings from the questionnaires, Observation and interview schedules. Qualitative and quantitative data obtained were statistically analysed using Microsoft Office excel package to generate pi-charts, graphs and frequency tables. The statistics were presented using frequency tables and percentages. This was at times backed by use of photographs to show a general picture of the information presented. The conclusion was analysed basing on the frequency and percentages from the calculated results. These were preferred because they offer suitable techniques for summarizing large numbers and· for easy interpretation and understanding of the data collected from the field.
3. 7 Limitations of the study This sector presents some of the problems faced during the data collection process.
The following were \he limitations of the study: 0 i. Tracing of the respondents, especially the staff, like Kampala City Council officers, NEMA officers and officers from the Ministry of Water and Environment. Such people were always busy and not available when needed. ii. There were external interferences during interviewing as it is an urban area. These influenced the respondents not to give the appropriate information required.
27 iii. Some people were not willing to respond to questions. some respondents sometimes misinterpreted the intentions of the study. iv. The interviewers would have recorded the interviews between them and the respondents but lacked tape recorders. v. Due to limited funding, there was difficulty in collecting data. For example finances, limited the number of the research assistants in the field to two and yet they would have been six. vi. There was a problem with moving through the wetland during ground truthing, collecting data and during observation as one of the methods which were used to collect data. This even became worse when it rained as there are no roads in a wetland and mad, water flooded every where. vii. The researcher wished to measure the nutrient content in the water of Kansanga and the capability of the wetland to treat wastewater from the city but time was limited and also lacked equipments and funds.
0
28 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the results were analysed, presented in detail and discussed. Research findings reveal that Kampala's population is growing very fast (5.6% p.a.) while industrialization and economic development are slow. This has led to unemployment, which has stimulated the d0velopment of a disorganized informal sector. A combination of a rapidly growing population and unplanned developments have led to wetland degradation.
The findings were tabulated using frequencies, percentages and presented in tables and pi charts. This has helped in showing the relationship between variables. The findings have been presented systematically according to each research objective. The findings have also been discussed in reiation to other findings.
4.2 Respondents characteristics
A total of 84 respondents were used in the study which included KCC officials, the wetland occupants, the neibouring communities, NEMA officials and the area district environmental officer. Out 0f the 84 only 46 respondents returned the filled questionnaires and 20 were interviewed making a total of 66 respondents. The sample was evenly distributed among the six parishes that a wetland cuts through.
Most of the respondents were local communities (60%), NEMA staff (25%), staff of KCC (5%) and students (10%). According to gender, females were 26 and males 40.
Type of respondents Percentage of respondents (%) Local communities 60
NEMA staff 2¥ KCC staff 5 Students 10 Total 100
Table 2: Types of respondents used for the study.
29 Most respondents (55%) were in the age brackets of 31-40 years, followed by 30% in 20-30 years, 10% in 41 -50 years and 5% in 51~ (Table 3).
Age bracket in years Percentage (%) 20-30 30 31-40 55 41-50 10 51-80 5 Total 100
Table 3: Age bracket of respondents used for the study
Most of the respondents (70%) were unemployed, 20% were employed and 10% were students (Fig.4).
10"/4
m Unemployed • Employed a Students
Fig. 4: Employment details of the respondents used for the study
Out of 66 respondents those who had completed either secondary school or tertiary level of education were 40, while 18 had primary education and 8 had no formal education. Concerning marital status 25 were married, 30 single and 11 were widows and widowers. The majority of the respondents (54) lived in Kampala on permanent basis while 12 were non-residents and their responses were presented systematically according to the objectives of the study.
30 4.3 Population growth and Urban Development of Kampala. The population growth and urban development of Kampala city were studied as a whole for the purposes of getting enough and accurate information on the background and location of Kansanga wetlands study area.
During the study (80%) of the respondents agreed that the rate of population growth and urban development of Kampala has been growing for the past years. However the respondents agreed that population growth and development of Kampala affects Kansanga wetland (Table 4).
Population growth and urban development Percentage of respondents (%) affect Kansaga wetland True 80 Not true 15 Not sure 5 Total 100
Table 4: Population growth and urban development of kampala affects Kansanga wetland
According to 80% of the respondents (Table 4) who were the majority agreed that the population growth and urban development of Kampala affect Kansanga wetland where as
15% said that it is 1101 true and 5% were not sure.
4.3.1 Population Growth Population dynamics is an important component for national and urban sustainable development. An increase in total population leads to an increase in the demand for goods and services and in turn an increase in demand for wetland products. As noted in the conceptual framework, population dynamics are the underlying drivers of development and wetland degradation in Kampala. The population of Kampala like that of other urban centres in the country has been increasing (Table 5). This has mainly been due to high fertility, natural increase, decline in mortality, internal and international migrations (UBOS, 1991; UBOS, 2002) (Table 6). Kampala has continued to be a primate city and a hub of economic, social, commercia:, industrial and political activities that attract both internal and external
31 0 0
migrants (Table 6). Migrants are both temporary and permanent and that is why Kampala's resident population is almost half of the day population (KCC, 1997; UBOS, 2002; KCC, 2003).
1969 1980 1991 2002 2006 2010 2015 Total 330,700 458,503 774,241 1,208,544 1,479,741 1,811.794 2,400.000 Growth rate - 3.2% pa 4.76% p.a 5.61% p.a 5.6% p.a. 5.6% p.a. 5.6% p.a. National 747,400 938,503 1,889,622 2,921,981 5,000,000 7,500,000 9,800,000 Urban Population
Kampala 44.2% 48.85% 40.97% 41.36% 29.6% 24.2% 24.5% as% of National Urban Population
"Jational 13.73% p.a 2.56% p.a 10.13% p.a 5.46% p.a 17.8% p.a. 12.5% p.a. 6.1% p.a Jrban ::>opulation 3rowth ·ate
\lational 9,535,051 12,636,179 16,671,705 24,200,000 27,400,000 32,900,000 39,300,000 'opulation
Source: National Populat10n Census Reports; 1969- 2002 and Pro1ect10ns Table 5: Kampala Population Trends and Projections 1969-2015
0 year Born in From Outside Outside Born in Total u Kampala Buganda Buganda Uganda Kampala Africa found else where 1969 74,031 159,521 44,950 52,034 78,326 330,700
1980 208,147 180,333 67,536 2,232 187,000 458,503
1991 316,190 254,625 183,085 13,833 205,810 774,241
2002 569,575 327,222 285,088 17,339 340,170 1,208,544
Source: Computed from National Population Census Reports Table 6: Migration Trends in Kampala 1969- 2002
The rapid population growth in Kampala could stimulate development through provision of labour and market for the goods and services provided by the industrial and tertiary sectors. Unfortunately the bulk of the labour is untrainable, unskilled, semi-skilled and therefore 32 unemployed and the few who are employed earn low wages/salaries and cannot avail a ready market for the goods and services. Due to the low consumption rates, industries produce beiovv capacity making production costs to be high and there is preference of imported goods which are cheap. Kampala is a centre of imported goods and Uganda a consumer economy which has contributed to the low rates of economic development.
Effect of population Percentage Effect growth on of respondents - Wetlands 50 Overuse of wetland products Economic 50 Depressing wages Development 100
Table 7: Eff;;:cts of µopulation growth on wetlands and economic development
Effect of population growth on wetlands
Table 7 shows the responses on the effects of population growth on wetlands and economic development in Kampala. According to 50% of the respondents wetlands are being affected by population grO'vth of the city. These findings agree witl1 Namakambo (2000) that the population growth in Kampala city is at a geometric rate while the resources are static and limited in this case to the wetlands. As population increases wetland products are not only being used but over consumed and hence this has led to wetland degradation through human activities carried out within the wetland such as crop cultivation and settlement which were observed as the major activities being carried out in the wetland. The degradation has led to many environmental problems such as biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, soil degradation, poor water quality and water availability all of which have fully discussed in the fourth objective of this study.
Effect of population growth on economic development
According to (50%) · of the respondents (Table 7) agreed that rapid population growth experienced in Kampala has also adversely affected economic development and poverty alleviation by depressing wages, reducing saving rates and degrading natural resources as more resources are spent on non-productive activities. As the majority of the residents who
33 fail to get formal jobs and decent accommodation, resort to the ever-expanding informal sector for enir,loyment and accommodation. However, it was observed in the study that the majority end up encroaching on the near by wetlands such as Kansanga where they carry out several activities like cultivation and also establish settlements which are threatening the wetland.
4.3.2 Urban Development of Kampala In this study the development of Kampala has been seen in terms of physical expansion, housing development, unplanned developments and industrialization (Table 8).
Urban Effect on the wetland Number of
development 0 respondents Physical expansion Filled to create additional land for road 15 .. construction residential and commercial building construction. Construction of a system of drainage ditches in the city has caused the wetland to dry out. Housing Permanent structures created reduces 20 development the size of a wetland, destruction of wetland vegetation, Drainage of wetland, land filling, domestic sewage discharges and dumping of solid waste Unplanned Creation of slams and their environmental 15 development._ problems in the area. Industrialization Toxic wastes and effluents from an industry 13 affect water quality and aquatic life in the wetland Total 63
Table 8: Effects of urban development on Kansanga wetland
. 0 According to the respondents (Table 8) the development of Kampala city has greatly affected wetlands in the city Kansanga inclusive. This has been so through the discussed areas of
34 urban development presented in Table 8 and their effects which leads to wetland degradation.
4.3.2.1 Physical expansion of Kampala According to the study 15 respondents (Table 8) said that physical expansion of Kampala city leads to land filling to create additional land for road construction, residential and commercial building construction within the wetland also the construction of a system of drainage ditches in the city has caused the wetland to dry out.
According to Kibirige (2006) noted that Kampala is the only urban district in Uganda which has evolved from a small hamlet of 8 km 2 as a "city of seven hills" at independence in 1962 to one of the fastest growing cities in Africa now occupying more than twenty five hills. The hills have steep slopes separated by wide valleys. The cify derives its name from the land of "Impala" (antelope) that had roamed the area before it was taken over for human settlement. The first administrative post was set up at Old Kampala hill by Lord Lugard (British Administrator) in 1890 covering an area of 0.68 sq. km. It was gazetted a town council in 2 1906 with an area of 8 sq km and was extended to cover an area of approximately 195 km • In 1968 however, some of the urban population shifted to Kansagati, Nansana, Kyengera, Kira, Kajjansi, Wakiso, Maganjo and Kawanda which are in Wakiso district but satellite to Kampala. Kampala has been "guided" by different physical planning schemes. The first one was produced in 1912 and others were produced in 1919, 1930, 1972 and 1994 when a structural plan was made. Despite these planning o;chemes, developments in Kampala especially housing have continued to be haphazard, unplanned and located outside planned area such as in wetlands. This is blamed on KCC's failure to implement/enforce the planning schemes, continued political interference, conflicting land use policies, uncoordinated instructions between KCC and Ministry of Local Government and at times State House (Kibirige, 2006).
4.3.2.2 Housing Developments in Kampala. The study found out that the majority of the respondents did agree that Housing Developments in Kampala city do affect Kansanga wetland (Table 9).
35 Housing developments affect Kansanga wetland Number of respondents Yes 58 No 3 Not sure 2 Total 63
Table 9: Housing developments in Kampala affect Kansanga wetland
According to 58 respondents out of 63 interviewed (Table 9) housing development in Kampala affects Kansanga wetland. The reason that was given is that the houses being set up in estates and other areas of Kampala are very expensive to the urban poor compared to those in wetlands hence end up going to the wetlands (Kansanga wetland inclusive) where they either acquire land on free basis or dleaply and set up residential and sometimes commercial houses where they can earn a living. However it was observed that building in the wetlands involves drainage (Plate 1) whidl may lead to drying out of the wetland and clearing of wetland vegetation leads to loss of both flora and fauna hence the degradation and loss of the wetland.
Plate 1: Drainage for housing developments in Kansanga wetland
According to Nsambu, (2006) the rapid population growth of Kampala (5.6% p.a.) has inaeased the demand for housing for all income groups especially the low income group. The Istanbul Declaration of which Uganda subscribes and Millennium Development Goal 7 Target 11 emphasise the need to make human settlements healthier, safer and more liveable, sustainable, equitable and productive. It is therefore important for all residents in 36 0
Kampala to have a decent living environment, clean water, sanitation, transport electricity and other services. Because of this demand, housing facilities in Kampala have been increasing in quantity. In 2006, Kampala needed 302,136 housing units in addition to the existing 251,780 units; of which 25,178 needed replacement and 50,356 renovations. The most common hot:Jsing unit in the city is the tenement ("muzigo") occupied by 53.5% of the population (Sengendo, 1997; UBOS, 2002). The tenements are always not more than 2 rooms with the majority as single rooms. They are usually constructed without adequate sanitation and drainage and usually in inappropriate areas such as wetlands that are prone to flooding. This means homelessness still prevails in Kampala as the demand for housing exceeds the. supply However, the Uganda Government has facilitated macro-economic stability, economic liberalization, security, infrastructural development, constitutional land tenure reform which have greatly improved the performance of the sector. Several real estate developers e.g. Akright Projects Ltd; National Housing and Construction Cooperation Ltd (NHCCL) and Blue Ocean Developers have been setting up modern housing estates. It has set up estates in Bukoto, Ntinda and Lubowa while Akright Projects Ltd established in 1999 has established ten housing estates in Kampala with a housing capacity of 2,937 units for different income categories. These housing estates are located on the different hills that make up Kampala. Habitat for humanity, an NGO based on charity, is also involved in housing construction for needy families both in the rural and urban areas. The government has been involved in slum upgrading projects e.g. Namuwongo project which aim at improving the living conditions for the slum residents. The private sector is involved through construction of personal residential houses, and rented commercial and residential houses. Through private sector participation high rise buildings have been put up for both commercial and residential purposes.
The skyline around educational institutions especially universities is changing through construction of storied residential hostels for the increasing university student population. For instance, in Kansanga around Kampala International University and Katanga, Kikoni, Kagugube, Kivulu slums, around Makerere University have given way to high rise hostel buildings. The Central Business District of Kampala (CBD) has been transformed through the construction of new shopping arcades, hotels, apartments, office blocks, modifying and renovating the old buildings. Outside the CBD high rise commercial and residential buildings are on the increase. Slums which used to be found close to the CBD are disappearing very
37 fast but are re-emerging at the periphery as slums continue to house the majority of the urban population (Nsambu, 2006). Though the private sector is very active in the housing sector, most of their activities are informal with no direct government support. The developers try to by- pass bureaucratic official planning, building regulations and standards and the complex/costly procedures. The high levels of informal housing indicate that the informal land and housing markets do not provide affordable land and housing, forcing households to occupy land informally and sometimes illegally and developing it illegally leading to insecure tenure. These sett1ements have high densities, few access roads and other urban infrastructure and do not conform to existing planning and building regulations. The informal sector has no access to formal housing finance mechanisms. The informal construction industry is not capable of meeting the ever increasing demand for housing. Housing production capacity in Kampala and Uganda in general is limited and poorly organized and the demand will con:inue to excee.d the supply and this has· negative implications for urban development and environment (GOU, 1999).
4.3.2.3 Unplanned Developments in Kampala. During the study it was observed that despite the existence of planning schemes, Kampala city continues to experience unplanned developments where activities such as residential housing, commercial and industrial estates are located outside the planned areas such as wetlands. This study considered unplanned housing as the major/visible land use, which affects the Kansanga wetland. Since it is illegal to build in the wetland it was noted that most of the houses set up in Kansanga wetland lacked plans, this was evidenced by lack of roads to these houses and each house is constructed facing in its own direction some times opposite to each ether and thus no order of construction because of lack of approved plans for development. (Plate 2).
38 Plate 2: Unplanned housing developments in Kansanga wetland
The effects of unplanned housing developments in Kansanga wetland have been found to include the clearing of the wetland vegetation, draining of the wetland which affects the integrity and productivity of this wetland.
According to Nawangwe and Nuwagaba (2002), there has been a general increase in housing stock in Kampala for the last fifteen years, the existing housing stock continues to deteriorate, due to lack of proper maintenance. This has contributed to the general shortage of housing. Urban dwellers mostly of low-income levels are faced with the problem of locating and acquiring suitable, affordable and satisfactory accommodation provided with social amenities. Scarcity of habitable shelter has assumed staggering dimensions. The supply of housing for the low-income households has not kept pace with the urban growth and the needs of the people. Since the 1990s, Kampala has been experiencing rapid unplanned housing construction. According to UPPAP (2000), about 30% of Kampala's population lives in infonnal settlements commonly known as slums which cover about 100./4 of the total area of Kampala with an average density of 14,112 people per square kilometre. Unfortunately both the number of slum dwellers and the area covered are on the increase and this is posing an environmental and planning challenge for the urban authorities. This has resulted from failure to enfon:e strict urban planning regulations that has made the city a freelance specter for all sorts of illegal "developments" with in the wetlands (Nawangwe and Nuwagaba, 2002).
39 4.3.2.4 Industrialization in Kampala
According to 13 respondents in Table 8 Toxic wastes and effluents from industries affect water quality and aquatic life in the wetlands and in this case Kansanga wetland. Industrialization has increased in Kampala largely due to the liberal investment policy and other macro-econorr.ic policies (MoFEP, 2000; Byandala, 1996; Lwasa, 2004). Kampala and the environs have attracted industrial investments due to a general existence of infrastructure for industrialization and government policy of establishment of an industrial estate in the degazetted forest of Namanve. This has turned Kampala to an industrial capital of Uganda.
The formal indus1ri31 areas include Ntinda, Nakawa, Luzira-Port Bell, Kawempe and Namanve. These industrial areas accommodate 93% of Uganda's formal industries and employ (66%) of Uganda's industrial labour force (UMA, 1989). Since 1991, Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) has licensed a total of 1,561 industrial businesses of more than 15 categories including manufacturing, advertisement, leather tanning, food processing, beverage companies and industries dealing in petrol-chemical products. Out of the total, 424 were implemented and 448 non-implemented while 689 are operational.
Practically all Kampala's markets attract a range of informal artisanal industries, which are located either within, or around them. Industries in Kampala range from small to large scale. The small scale industries are involved in metal fabrication wood works, wine and soft drinks making. The large scale industries are involved in textile manufacture, steel rolling mills, tiles and brick making, soft drinks and beer bottling, hollow ware and tannery. These industries are contributing to direct and indirect employment. A total of 1,500 planned employment opportunities were expected to be generated by the licensed industries (UIA, 2005). This level of employment generation implies better opportunities for the labour in Kampala, which acts as an attraction for more migrants (Table 6), which exceeds the available opportunities. On the other hand, the planned employment opportunities are too few to absorb the labour and coupled with increasing population (Table 5) this creates an influx of labourers. Though growth in industrial activity indicates development opportunities, it has had serious environmental consequences including wetland degradation by deposition of solid and toxic wastes in the wetlands and drainage channels which affect water quality and aquatic life in
40 the wetland (Table 8). Overtime industrialization has contributP-d to the influx of migrants into the city. The· unemployed labour has been forced to join the rapidly expanding and disorganized informal sector. The labour influx has stimulated a rapidly growing housing sector which unfortunately is unplanned and now a threat to the environment as most of them end up encroaching on the wetlands of which Kansanga is one of them.
4.3.2.5 Effects of urhan Development on Wetlands Urban Development is a major cause of loss of wetlands. Urbanization also has exerted significant influences on the structure and function of wetlands, mainly through modifying the hydrological and sedimentation regimes, and the dynamics of nutrients and chemical pollutants. Natural wetlands are characterized by a hydrological regime comprising . concentrated flow to estuarine and other water bodies during flood events, and diffused discharge into groundwater and waterways during the non-flood periods. Urban Development, through increasing the amount of impervious areas in the catchments, results in a replacement of this regime by concentrating rain run-off. Quality of run-off is also modified in urban areas, as loadings of sediment, nutrients and pollutants are increased in urban areas. While the effects of such modifications on the biota and the physical environment have been relatively well studied, there is to date little information on their impact at the ecosystem level. Methodological issues, such as a lack of sufficient replication at the whole-habitat level, the lack of suitable indices of urbanization and tools for assessing hydrological connectivity, have to be overcome to allow the effects of urbanization to be assessed at the ecosystem level.
4.3.3 Land use/land-cover changes and wetland degradation by Population growth and urban development in Kampala. Increase in urban population, industrialization and the associated demand for housing have led to land use/land-cover changes. Predominated by agriculture (62.2%), built up area (16%) and industrial activity (1.7%) in Table 10. Both built up and industrial uses cover, area more than doubled in the period of 1980 - 2006 while agricu:[(Jre declined ry a quarter as it was converted to buildings and industrial use.
41 Land Use/Land Area Ha Percentage Area Percentage of Total 2006 Cover 1980 of Total Ha 1980 2006
Bare Ground 0.0 0.0 362.2 0.9
Built Up Other 6192.0 16.0 12269.6 31.7
Forest 458.6 1.2 1032.3 2.7
Grassland 1092.2 2.8 2155.4 5.6
Industrial 669.4 1.7 1827.0 4.7
.. Open Water 2193.6 5.7 2147.6 5.6
Wetlands 1092.1 2.8 1112.G 2.9
Subsistence 24045.4 62.2 17622.6 45.6 Agriculture
Wetland Forest 2921.5 7.6 135.4 0.4
Total Area 38664.7 38664.7
Source: NFA Land use/cover maps derived from Landsat images 1980- 2006
Table 10: Land use/land-cover changes and wetland degradation in Kampala
1980-2006
Kampala's wetlands (Kansanga wetland inclusive) have been greatly degraded due to the location of the district in an area of high population density, commercial and industrial development. The size and biodiversity (wetland forests) of unconverted portions of the wetlands has drastically diminished from 7.6% in 1980 to 0.4% in 2006 of total land use area
42 0
of Kampala (Table 10) with some areas completely converted for human activities such as settlement, agriculture, over-harvesting of wetland vegetation, brick making and sand mining.
The study observed that there is an increase of overuse of wetland products and drainage due to land use changes such as agriculture and settlement which may lead to wetland degradation (Table 11 ). ,. '
Indicators of Cause Number of Rank wetland degradation respondents
Species extinction Overuse of 25 1 wetland products
Reduced water table Drainage 23 2
Total 47
Table 11: Indicators of wetland degradation in Kansanga wetland
The respondents (Table 11) ranked species extinction as the number one indicator of wetland degradation caused by overuse of wetland products and then reduced water table which is caused by drainage activities. The extinction of these species is said to have been caused by the land use changes in the area due to the increasing population growth and urban development pressure exerted to them.
According to MWLE (2002) the high population density (an average of 3, 974 persons per km2) is one of the main causes of wetland degradation in the district. The driving factors of wetland degradation in Kampala have destroyed the Kansanga wetland and other wetlands in the district such as Kinawataka wetland, between Nakawa, Ntinda and Kireka, and part of Nalukolongo, Nsootla, Bulyera, Kiyanja, Kyetinda, Mayanja ·and Nakivubo wetlands which form a lining around Kampala metro area.
4.4 Integrity of Kansanga wetland
Kansanga wetland is located in Makindye division, approximately 5 km south east of Kampala city center accessible on Gaba road. Near by villages include Kalungu, Kiwafu, 43 Kyeitabya, Lukuli, Sunga and Kauku. It is partly seasonal up stream and partly permanent down stream. It forms part of the extensive natural wetland on the north eastern shores of Lake Victoria. Papyrus is dominant in areas close to the lake (NEMA, 2000).
Historical an::!ysis ..>f wetland change
According to the district wetland inventory report for Kampala, which was first carried out in 1993 as a pilot district study for the wetland inventory process. Due to the location of the district in an area of high population density, commercial and industry development, the size and biodiversity of the uncovered portion of the wetlands have been drastically diminished, with some areas co1:1pletely converted for housing devel0i' nents and farming activities. It • was then decided in 1999, to have an update of the Kampala district wetland inventory to provide an updated status of the wetlands.
2 Area Area Km Percentage (%) -~ Modified 2.67 58.8
Remaining 1.87 41.2
Total area of Kansanga wetland 4.54 100.0
Source: National Bic•nass Study, 2000
Table 12: Extent of degradation of Kansanga wetland
According to the National Biomass Study (2000), Kansanga wetland has a total area of approximately 4.54 km 2 of which almost 2.67 or 58.0% was converted as of 1999 (Table 12). According to I\JFMA (?.002) the wetland is part of Lake Victoria basin lying at the same height as Lake Victoria (i.e. about 1,143 m and 3,750 ft.) above sea level. The lake level had frac,uated by about 2.5 m over the last hundred years affecting the extent and the location of the wetlands in the district of which Kansanga is inclusive and this is because most of the wetlands in the district occupy shallow valleys between the many hills in the district.
44 According to Namakambo (2000) district wetland invenlo5Y report for Kampala, for the case of Kansanga wetland, it was recorded that in 1980's there were still little encroachment on Kansanga wetland and some little cultivation. The changes relate mainly to the north of Gaba road which cuts through the wetland. These clearings may have been due to the results of papyrus harvesting, after which the papyrus recovers and therefore ii does not represent conversion of the wetland as such. In 1990's more large clearings were visible and some evidence of former clearings, were. the papyrus re-established. In 1995 considerable parts of the wetland were being cleared. In addition, papyrus areas south of the Gaba road were affected, w~;ere the wetland is deeper. The 1999 classification indicates that the northern section is almost completely degraded. The southern part seems to be less affected. The evidence seems to suggest that major changes have taken place in the last 1O to 15 years. Which such a rate of destruction, the monitoring frequency should be once per three to five years, varying with the status of the wetland.
The study observed that Kansanga wetland's size has been reduced by the new land uses being practiced in the area as presented in Table 13.
Land use Coverage estimates in Percentage of coverage 2 km (%)
Crop cultivation 2 44
Settlement 1 22
Others (sand mining, brick 1 22 making and road i construction)
Welland intact vegetation 0.54 12 (remaining)
Total 4.54 100
Table 13: Current land use in Kansaga wetland and the estimated size of coverage of
each land use type.
45 According to the findings (Table 13) crop cultivation is the major land use covering an area of 2km2 out of the total area of 4.54 km2. The ament area remaining under intact wetland vegetation was estimated as 0.54 km2 and this means that the biggest area totalling to 4 km2 of land use in this wetland are under human activities which is a big threat to the wetlands integrity and productivity.
120
100
CD 80 ~ National Biomass I c~ Study (20IX)) CD 60 ...0 ----OJrrent findings Cl) 0.. (2008) 40
20
0 Mxiified Remaining Total area of Kansanga weUand Area of Kansanga wetland
Fig. 5: Comparing between NBS (2000) findings and the current study findings of the size of Kansanga wetland.
According to the study findings (Fig.5), Kansanga wetland has been modified up to 88% compared to 58% in 2000 findings by National Biomass Study. The percentage of modification is so big that the concerned authorities need to check the situation within the shortest time possible in order to restore its integrity and productivity.
According to NBS (2000), ecologically Kansanga wetland was characterized by a mosaic of papyrus, Cyepms papyrus, Miscanthus violaceus, Phragmites mautitianus and Colocasia esculenta,, Typha sp and Phragmites sp which dominate the permanent swamp down stream. Relics of swamp forest are dominated by Phoenix sp. Sedges are common up stream. Partly converted up stream and along the edges. Few Sitatunga and monitor lizards were also found in this wefland.
46 NBS (2000) findings Current study findings response Frequency
Cyeprus papyrus Still exists but few 22
Miscanthus sp. Exists in few numbers 20 .. , Phoenix sp. (palms) Exists but very few 18 Typha sp. (cat tails) Do not exist (absent) 12
Phragmites sp. Exists but few 13 (common reeds)
Monitor lizards Exists but few 24
Sitatunga Do not exist (absent) 25
134
Table 14: Comparing the common species in Kansanga wetland between NBS (2000) findings and Current study findings
The findings in Table 14 indicate that some of the species that existed by (2000) according to the National biomass study (NBS, 2000) do not exist now. The species that were found to have disappeared from Kansanga wetland include the Sitatunga (animal) which was mentioned by the majority 25 respondents and the Typha sp. (plant) mentioned by 12 respondents and even those that still exist are in few numbers. This means that if the situation is not checked with in few years from now we may end up losing most of these species from Kansanga wetland.
The study also observed some invasive species of plants that have come in the wetland among which the water hyacinths (Plate Ill) was common in open water ponds left behind after brick making and sand mining and along the Kansanga stream that flows through the wetland. The water of Kansanga stream looked turbid with a lot of solid wastes and the existence of the water hyacinths is an indicator of presence of nutrients in the water of Kansanga stream that are brought to the wetland.
47 ·.. :.; 11-:· --~;-_~ ~~~~~~a.,:ra~- ·"::F, -,~~r. .... ~ -.. :c':1 . .. . • . ~~:. ::::-·
. -- _,._ •c -:~~~ ...... ~ .•-- ;,;,-o-...... , ~-- ~ ~ ..._ :; ;._'"_-:;·_·~.. :.. :-:·:-i~_-~-~-;~ ·-~ "l ·;. ~...... _ •• ~ -L --~ ... ..- ----~ , --- · ~ . • . _.. lll:ti;:: ~ ·' .Ji- . ~- ' ~ - . -...... ,,,:.-~ -- ~._ ..... - ""' --<-:-~- .:.;. --=- ·"";"Ii: _,,...... ;, ~"!I _- .... r - '"!" • _--:.;.~~ -~ ::..• .~ ...... -~ --~ •. _,1;- "" - •~ • .,... .,._ --,.:.;.• .,. i:,..;_.T. . r ,...~,_ - ~~- '..r --
Plate Ill: The growth of water hyacinth in Kansanga wetland
However though Kansanga wetland receives nubients from the city there are doubts whether it is able to perfonn one of the most important functions of the wetlands of water treatment by retention of nutrients from the inflowing water from the catdlments, by wetland plants. These doubts comes after it was observed that the vegetation in Kansanga wetland has been cleared and the only intact vegetation can be found in a small area approximated to 0.54 km2 dose to Lake Victoria. The reseacher wished to measure the nutrient content of the water in Kansanga wetland and its capability to retain nutrients but lacked equipments, time and funds.
During the study respondents ranked the current values of Kansanga wetland as they are presented in Table 15.
Importance No. of respondents Rank Source of Plant products 15 1 Source of water 13 2 Habitat for wildlife 10 3 Water treatment 12 4 Total 50
Table 15: Respondents ranking current values and Functions of Kansanga wetland
According to respondents (Table 15) Kansanga wetland provides a number of useful goods, services and attributes because it is along Lake Victoria. However among all Plant products were ranked number one by the majority (15) of the respondents and this means that the
48 majority of the users of Kansanga wetland harvest plant products. Water treatment was ranked the lowest (number 4) which means that currently the wetland may have lost its capability to perform the water treatment function as ear1ier quoted by NEMA, 2002 which considered Kansanga weHand as one of the weHands that assist I treating waste waters from the city. The cause of the loss of the wetland to treat waste water may be due to over harvesting of the plant product as they are responsible for this function. Therefore, basing on the above findings Kansanga wetland has lost its integrity and if the situation continues unchecked we may loose the whole weHand within few years to come.
4.5 Activities of the population and how they affect Kansanga wetland During the study it was found out that more than 90% of the wetland users believed that the wetland's size and productivity have deteriorated over time (Fig.6) from its original size which was 4.54 km2 as ear1ier quoted by National Biomass Study (2000), NEMA (2002) and KC.C (2004).
100% ~ ------~ !1)% ------, 00% 70% 60% 50% 40% 31% 20% 10% 0% Reduced not sure N Fig. 6: Percentage of respondents commenting on the current size of Kansanga wetland. The activities of the population that affect Kansanga wetland included establishment of settlements, farming, brick making and over harvesting of wetland vegetation while there is one respondent who did not know the threats to this wetland and this was an indication that 49 there are some people who are ignorant about wetland degradation. Table 16 shows the respondents who mentioned the threats to Kansanga wetlands. Activity Frequency Percentage (%) Construction and 18 42 establishment of Settlements Farming 9 20 Over harvesting of wetland 6 14 vegetation Brick making 5 12 Sand mining 5 12 Total 43 100 Table. 16: Activities of the population that affect Kansanga wetland 4.5.1 Construction and establishment of settlement The majority (42%) of the respondents agree that establishment of settlement is a major threat to this wetland (Table 16). These findings were found to agree with those of NEMA (2002) and MNR (1996) as far as the threats to Kansanga wetlands are concerned. The continuous drainage of the wetland and land filling for construction of houses (Plate IV) has reduced both the size and productivity of this wetland. It was also found out that the construction of the Gaba road across Kansanga wetland creates heavy floods during the rain season on the upper part of this wetland which are destructive and over flows of water on the road is such a common phenomenon which is caused by the land filling and compaction during the road construction. the findings also estimated the area under settlements to be approximately 1km 2 out of the total wetland area 4.54 km 2 as earlier quoted by both NEMA (2002) and NBS (2000). 50 □ Reduced water quality o Biodiversity loss ■ Reduced wetland size • Floods during Rainy seasons 0 20 40 60 Percentage Fig. 7: Effects of settlements establishment in Kansanga wetland The drainage and reclamation during construction and establishment of setHement has led to disruption in the water supply, increased floods during the rainy season, reduced wetland size, biodiversity loss, reduction in water quality, decrease in water table in some parts of Kansanga wetland which becomes worse during the dry season. According to Namakambo (2000) 40% of the wetland up stream was converted mainly for settlement However this study found out that currently settlements have gone further to the lower part of the wetland as both residential and commercial houses both pennanent and semi permanent structures were observed during the study. Plate IV: Construction and settlements within Kansanga wetland 51 It was also found out that most of the occupants claimed ownership of the weUand plots (Fig. 8) and yet wetlands are supposed to be public lands according to the constitution of Uganda, 1995. The modes of acquisition of the plots of land are shown in Figure 8. ■ Rented or borr<>Vt'ed 60% ■ Inherited □ Purchased Fig. 8: Modes of acquisition of plots of land in Kansanga wetland The findings revealed that 60% of weUand users claimed to have purchased the plots (fig.8) while others said they inherited (10%) or rented/ borrowed (30%) from the land lords. This finding disagrees with MWLE (2000) and the constitution (1995) which states that wetlands are not and cannot be owned by any person or individual. No one in Uganda can claim ownership of any weUand if that claim was made after the coming into force of the constitution and wetlands are "'held in trust" by the government and local government for the good of all citizens of Uganda in accordance with the constitution 1995. 4.5.2 Farming From (Table 16) above 20% of the respondents agree that farming is another threat to Kansanga wetland. A number of parches of gardens (Plate V) were observed in different 2 areas of this wetland estimated to two square kilometres (2 Km ) is under crop cultivation and more land is being cleared for cultivation which involves the clearing of wetland vegetation, has greatly affected the wetland dlanging its biodiversity both flora and fauna. 52 Plate V: Fann gardens within Kansanga wetland Reasons that were given for fanning in this wetland included land shortage as the main reason mentioned by 70% of the respondents and other reasons that were given for fanning in this wetland are illustrated in Table 17. Reasons Number of Pen:entage respondents (%) Land shortage/ no other land 21 70 Reliable water source/all year round fanning 6 20 Poor upland soilslseardl for fertile soils 3 10 Total 30 100 Table 17: Reasons for fanning in Kansanga wetland Local communities in Kansanga wetland (farmers) have characterized the wetland basing on the type of dominant vegetation, soils and water levels to be suitable for fanning activities. According to the respondents some wetlands are therefore perceived as being suitable for fanning activities while others may not be approached at all because of their ecological nature. 53 Area of residence Number of Percentage (%) respondents Wrthin a wetland areas 33 50 0 to 1 km away from a wetland 23 35 1 to 2 km away from a wetland 10 15 Total 66 100 Table, 18: Area of residence of farmers in Kansanga wetland According to 15% of the respondents (Table 18) found out that some farmers come from up to 2 km to farm in the wetland. This means that the encroachers of Kansanga wetland are not only people who reside within this wetland but also others from far away. this fact explains why the population of Kampala district as a whole has been considered in objective one of this study. About 50% of the wetland users are households that are housed within the wetland area (Table 18) and this means that the majority of the people who have destroyed this wetland are permanent residents. This is also the reason why Kansanga wetland has developed, a lot of dumping sites where household wastes. plastic bags and other sorts of wastes are being dumped (Plate VI). Plate VI: Dumping sites for waste disposal in Kansanga wetland However, the amount of wetland converted for farming was negatively correlated with the distance of the households from the wetland. Because of some farmers coming from as 54 far as 2 km away (Table 18). This shows the importance of sensitizing the whole communities rather than concentrating on villages where the wetland is located. The major crops grown in Kansanga wetland included vegetables, yams, sugar cane and others (Fig 9) and hardly any one applies artificial fertilizers, however pesticides and fungicides were only used by vegetable growers. Vegetable growers also use fann yard manure to replenish soil fertility. The tanners also said that their main crops contribute up , . .. to 80% of the house hold income. .. 15% ■ Others ■ Vegetables 20% □Yams □ Sugarcane 30% Fig. 9: Percentage score of major crops grown in Kansanga wetland It was observed that sugarcane scores the highest percentage of all the other crops grown followed by yams, Vegetables and others respectively as in Fig.9. Problems Number of respondents Percentage (%) Floods 13 52 Theft of crops 7 28 Pests and diseases 3 12 Harassment by NEMA 2 8 . Total 25 100 Table 19: Problems faced by farmers In Kansanga wetland The major problems faced by the tanners in Kansanga wetland were found to include seasonal floods being mentioned by the majority of the respondents (52%) as the major problem, mentioning construction of deep drainage trenches as a coping strategy, other 55 problems mentioned included pests, diseases, theft of their crops and occasional harassment by NEMA officials (Table 19). Aae bracket in vears Percentage (%) 00- 20 30 21 -40 55 41 -60 10 51 -80 5 Total 100 Table 20: Age bracket of farmers in Kansaga wetland It was found out that more than 50% of the farmers in the study area were below 40 years of age (Table 20) and this was also true for the house holds that are farming in this wetland mentioning increased population pressure on land as the reason for farming in the wetland as well as urbanization especially Kansanga wetland being located in Kampala city. This fact came out strongly in the focus group meetings, many of the youths were mainly found to be engaging themselves in commercial vegetable farming rather than food production for the home. However, the age of household heads was found to have a significant negative relationship with the area of the wetland converted for farming. The Ministry of Water Lands and Environment (1999) guidelines indicate that small-scale agriculture is one of the major activities taking place in most of the wetlands in Uganda. The main crops grown included sugar cane and yams. The majority of wetland dwellers were found to be living within less than three (3) kilometres and have used wetland resources for at least five years. The study concluded that crop growing in this wetland had greatly affected both its size and its natural productive functions because of drainage and clearing of wetlands vegetation. 4.5.3 Over harvesting of wetland Vegetation Over harvesting of wetland vegetation was found to be another activity that threatens Kansanga wetland as mentioned by 14% of the respondents (Table 16). This also found to agree with the findings of MWLE (2005) and K.C.C, (2004) which mentioned Kansanga 56 wetland being endowed with natural products of plant origin which are used by local communities for a variety of purposes like food stuffs, fuel, construction materials, thatching and roofing materials, crafts, medicinal plants, cattle feeds and ornamental plant species (Table 21 ). Species Harvest usage Papyrus, Fuel, carpet, construction materials, thatching and roofing materials and crafts Miscanthus sp. Fuel (stems), cattle feeds (leaves)and ornamental purposes (seeds) Phragmites sp. (common reeds) Fuel, construction materials, thatching and roofing materials Phoenix sp. (palms) Cooking oil (seeds), Craft and ornamental purposes (leaves) and medicinal plants Table 21: Plant species being overhavested in Kansanga wetland and their uses According to Mugisha et al (2007), biomass production is very high, especially of the swamp macrophytes such as papyrus, Typha spp and Phragmites spp. These plants are largely responsible for the water retention properties of the wetland ar.d also provide a large sink for atmospheric carbon. The ability of swamps to lock up this carbon in peat like sediment may be very important in alleviating global warming. Wetland biomass also provides an essential foundation for numerous food webs, which support a variety of plants and animals. Biomass potential, especially of the macrophytes, papyrus, Typha sp. and Phragmites spp, is high; according to Mugisha et al (2007) papyrus can yield 25 tones of dry weight/ha/year. The high productivity of Uganda's wetlands provides essential building and thatching materials, important materials for carpet and screen-making enterprises and the potential to provide a source of renewable energy through harvesting and briquetting or through biogas plants (Mugisha et al, 2007). 57 However during the study it was found out that most of these plants are being over harvested which is a big threat as it may lead to complete disappearance of some of the plant species, also other effects on the natural and ecological functions of this wetland. For example the ground water recharge may be affected since it requires existence of vegetation which slows down the flow of water hence infiltration zones are being degraded with over harvesting of wetland vegetation. -'\ \ \ \...... ____ . . - species in Kansanga wetland Fig. 10: Respondents comment on the Level of harvest in percentage for each Species in Kansanga wetland. According to the findings in Fig.10 it was found out that papyrus are the most species being harvested with the highest score of (60%). The reason given by the respondents were that the demands for its products are high compared to other species. It was observed that currently papyruses in Kansanga wetland are only remaining on a small area approximately to 0.5 km2 near Lake Victoria compared to the findings of National 2 biomass study (2000) where it covered an area of 1.87km • However it is feared that the papyruses may get extinct from this wetland with time if the level of harvest is not checked. 58 4.5.4 Brick making Brick making was another activity that threatens Kansanga wetland, according to 12% of the respondents in Table 16. Four (4) sites of brick laying activity were observed during the study estimating to two (2) acres of land within the wetland. This affects the wetland due to lack of systematic planning during land clearing, soil extraction and brick making activity (Plate, VII). This also concurs with the findings of (Kasoma, 2003). The activity of brick making is carried out in a haphazard way all over the wetland and this has resulted into open pits scattered au over the place hence destroying both the size, composition, productivity and the beauty of the wetland. Plate VII: Brick making activity within Kansanga wetland 4.4.5 Sand mining The findings reveal Sand m1rnng within Kansanga wetland as another activity that threatens Kansanga wetland as mentioned by 12% of the respondents in Table 16. One site of sand mining activity was observed during the study estimated to be one acre of land within the wetland. That landscape destruction along Kansanga wetland is highly attributed to sand mining because there is lack of systematic planning during extraction and this has led to open pits scattered all over the wetland hence destroying its productivity and the beauty 59 Plate, VIII: Sand mining activity within Kansanga Wetland The activity of sand mining is canied out in a haphazard way all over the wetland and this results into open pits scattered all over the place (Plate VIII) hence destroying the beauty, size and productivity of the wefland. This process has destroyed the wetland vegetation, caused erosion, polluted water sources and reduced the diversity of animals supported by this wetland habitat 4.6 Effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland The study revealed a number of detrimental effects resulting from population growth and urban development as illustrated in Table 22. Impact Number of I Percentage respondents (%) Poor water quality and 23 36 availability Biodiversity loss 17 27 Reduction of wetland products 10 16 Soil degradation 8 13 Habitat destruction 5 8 Total 63 100 Table, 22: Effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga Wetland 60 4.6.1 Poor water quality and availabil:ity The findings from the study revealed that the major impact of population growth and _urban development on Kansanga wetland was found to be poor water quality and water availability. This was supported by 36% of the respondents (Table 22). Water quality and availability has been readily affected especially in form of surface water shortage. The water holding capacity of the wetland has been tampered with therefore the availability in the wetland has been declining both in water quality and quantity thus affecting the capacity of the wetland to retain water. II was found that water availability especially during the dry season have been reduced due to continued over harvesting of vegetation which has the spongy like mechanisms that controls the balance between the water recharge and discharge. Also the process of draining in the urban farming activity has led lo the obstruction of water which has resulted into decrease of the water table. Further more the clearance of the vegetation has reduced the infiltration rate of the wetland which aids in water recharge as a consequence and flooding is such a frequent phenomenon said most of the respondents. These findings agree with those of NEMA (2002) which also found out that urban activities in a wetland like brick making and clay mining have led to stagnation of water which has resulted in the growth of water weed, this stagnation has also reduced the quality of water and some times the water becomes smelly and thus a potential breeding sites for disease vectors like mosquitoes and snails. 4.6.2 Biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss was also found out to be a result of population growth and urban developrriAnt activities on Kansanga wetland (Table 22) where 27% of the respondents agree that considering biodiversity the key component of species richness have been readily reduced. These findings concur with those of MNR (1996) and NEMA (2000). It was found out that due to population increase in Kampala city, human activities and urban development activities such as establishment of settlements and farming have led to reduction in biodiversity in form of flora and fauna. The continued clearing of vegetation for various activities has led to loss of vegetation and in turn affected both the resident and migratory organisms like birds, monitor lizards and toads. The unfavourable <., conditions resulting from the creation of water pools has led to the migration of some organisms to others places of favourable conditions. The evidence of this was found to be 61 the death of some organisms and the reduction in number of other organisms like the snails, toads and the monitor lizards. It was also observed that cutting of grasses for covering brick coupled with the cutting of big trees to beck the bricks have seriously damaged biodiversity. The repeated harvest of natural products at short intervals leads to the reduction in the quality of the vegetation especially the indigenous plant species. During the study it was observed that original vegetation in most parts of Kansanga wetland has been replaced by the intentionally planted plants like eucalyptus plantation, yams sugar cane and vegetables (Fig. 11 ). This has reduced the number of natural wetland plant species within this wetland since these foreign species mostly introduced are planted as one species of interest hence biodiversity loss. ~ 40 +------ s:) i 30 +------~ ~ 0. 20 10 0 Eucalyptus Vegetables Sugarcane Yams New species Fig. 11: Planted species that have replaced indigenous plant species in Kansanga wetland. Yams were found out as the most planted new species after clearing the indigenous vegetation with the score of 50% (Fig.11) followed by eucalyptus, sugarcane and vegetables respectively. There fore as the indigenous plant species continue to be eliminated also the Habitat for the animal species is being affected. For example People have destroyed sitatunga Habitat by draining swamps because sitatunga lives in thickly vegetated, muddy swamps, and marshes. Sitatungas eat bullrushes, sedges and the leaves of bushes in the swamps, as well as grass in adjacent wetland forests. They also 62 eat fallen fruit and chew the bark of some trees and bushes. Sitatungas are also caught by people by simply setting snares in their well-traveled paths in the swamp. Because of this, overhunting within the wetland areas has caused a rapid decline in their numbers hence biodiversity loss. According to Namakambo (2000) the major original species of Kansaga wetland composed of a mosaic of papyrus, Miscanthus sp, Typha sp and Phragmites sp dominate the permanent swamp down stream and were found to have reduced in the upstream that is above the Gaba road which cuts through the wetland. Relics of swamp forest were dominated by Phoinex sp as well as sedges up stream partly converted upstream and along the edges of the wetland where few sitatunga and monitor lizards do still exist in this wetland. 4.6.3 Reduction of wetland products Reduction of wetland products was also one of the effects caused by population growth and urban development activities on Kansanga wetland noted by 16% of the respondents (Table 22). This is because the high biomass produced in Kansanga wetland forms a basis of many natural products like thatch for roofing, sand for construction, ceramics and for energy when dry. It was found out that causes of reduction of the wetland products included poverty level of the wetland users, unemployment of wetland occupants, and the location of the wetland in a highly populated peri-urban area of Kampala city with high rate of development and high demand for these products that exerts pressure on the supply of these products on a rather unsustainable basis. The drainage for establishment of settlements and agricultural activities in Kansanga wetland has reduced the natural wetland products since the sites for their multiplication is disturbed. The over harvesting of natural products at short intervals has led to the reduction of natural wetland products because of high ~ate of removal compared to low rate of natural regeneration. Further more the intentional planting of trees and grasses coupled with the elimination of unwanted species all have led to the reduction of natural wetland products in Kansanga wetland. 63 I 25 ~ 20 ______,______ ( 15 -+---~-...... ,____ _, ~ 10+---+------"---~ I.II i 5 0 +----r-----r----.----.----.------. ~///// ~~ ~ W et1and products Fig. 12: Uses for wetland products from Kansanga wetland For most of the area's residents, wetland resources are the only source of biomass for fuel, crafts, building materials, and to a certain extent fodder, soil nutrients (fertilizer/compost), medicines and other necessities. Most of the respondents mentioned that the majority of the wetland products are used for making craft materials (Fig. 12) which are on high market demand in the area hence source of income. Papyruses were mentioned for craft making mostly. As a result, there is continued strong local demand for wetland products, and market values for them exist and remain relatively high. This heavy demand pressure coupled with weak resource management, sets the stage for localized over~xploitation (yields decreasing even as exploitation effort is increasing). 4.6.4 Soil degradation Soil degradation was another effect caused by population growth and urban development activities which was mentioned by 13% of the respondents (Table 22). It was found out that lack of fallow periods during cultivation of crops in the wetland which have led to reduction of organic matter in the soils hence loss of soil fertility which respondents said is evidenced by the poor growth of crops on the cultivated soils. The burning of vegetation, rubbish stalks and stems of the previous harvests has accelerated the loss of organic matter instead of leaving the rubbish to rot and decay by itself. The aspect of soil erosion is accelerated by the clearing of vegetation which has exposed the soils to agents of soil 64 erosion. There is also compaction and land filling (Plate IX) in the wetland, the process found out to be the major cause of soil degradation in Kansanga wetland. Pate IX: Land filling and compaction within Kansanga wetland According to MNR (1996), in general the natural fertility of most wetland soils is classified as low to medium and hence, crop production is unlikely to be good or sustainable for continuous years of rultivation. The Ministry of Natural Resources studies have shown that over 72% of wetland areas if drained would provide poor soil fertility, where only 3% would provide medium to high soil fertility. The remainder of 25% would be in the low to nil soil productivity range. 4.6.5 Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is also sited by 8% of the respondents (Table 22) as an impact of population growth and urban development activities on Kansanga wetland. It was found out that Kansanga wetland used to support varied flora and fauna but this has been interfered with due to many activities in the wetland today. Among the activities mentioned leading to habitat destruction included the drainage (Plate X) for the purposes of construction and cultivations which have led to destruction of many animals, plants and some bird species. 65 Plate X: Drainage in Kansanga wetland 20 +------~ 15 +------...i' 10 +---- u.' 5 0 lnhabitats Fig. 13: Respondents list of affected inhabitats in Kansanga wetland According to respondents (Fig.13) site clearing during establishment of settlement, brick making, construction and fanning in Kansanga wetland have led to the loss of vegetation resulting into Habitat loss for the local animal and bird species and yet these grasses and trees take long to recover and to mature and this has led to the loss of the nesting sites for weaver birds which were said to have been one of the bird species in this wetland as welll as frogs, sitatunga, snakes, monitor lizards and some species of fish like the mad fish. Therefore habitat destruction has been observed as one of the major impacts in Kansanga wetland which also leads to species extinction. 66 Plate XI: Burning and destruction of papyruses in Kansanga wetland The study also found out that fire is the common tool used to dear the wetland vegetation. However, fire is well known of not clearing the vegetation alone but it also affects other living organisms such as insects, reptiles and amphibians which are wetland inhabitat. 67 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Summary The study on the "Effects of population growth and urban development on wetlands in Kampala used Kansanga wetland" as a case study. The study made efforts to determine the historical trends of population growth rate and urban development of Kampala determine lhe integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1O to 15 years and establish the activities of the population and how they affect the wetland. The study went a head to find out the impacts of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland and relevant recommendation were suggested so that possible measures can be found to curb the degradation of Kansanga wetland. This study will help both government and non government ager.Gies responsible for conservation of wei!ands to get information on the current status of Kansanga wetland and the prediction of the future status if action is not taken. The methods employed in developing this study, combined both quantitative research with qualitative findings, obtained from interviews, questionnaires, photography, library research and observation. A total of 84 respondents were used in the study, where by the sample was evenly distributed among the six villages that a wetland crosses from all the directions. Out of 84 only 46 respondents returned the questionnaires and 20 were interviewed making a total of 66. 5.1.1 Population growth and urban development of Kampala In order to find out the historical trends of population growth rate and urban development of Kampala the secondary data from Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) were reviewed and the results were presented in form of tables and it was found out that the current population growth rate of Kampala city is at 5.6% p.a. and poses a great threat to the wetlands of the city. The development of Kampala was looked at in terms of physical expansion, housing development, unplanned development and industrialization. Secondary data was used here to determine the level of development of Kampala city and according to (KCC, 1994) 68 urban development has exerted significant influences on the structure and function of wetlands, mainly through modifying the hydrological and sedimentation regimes, and the dynamics of nutrients and chemical pollutants. 5.1.2 Integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1 O to 15 years The study also looked at the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 10 to 15 years and 42 respondents were interviewed. Among all species in the wetland, plant products were ranked number one for the current values of this wetland by the majority ( 15) of the respondents suggesting that the majority of the users of Kansanga wetland harvest plant products. Water treatment was ranked the lowest which means that currently the wetland may have lost its capability to perform the water treatment function as earlier quoted by (NEMA, 2002) which considered Kansanga wetland as on_e of the wetlands that assist in treating waste waters from the city. It was also found out (Fig.5) that Kansanga wetland has been degraded up to 88% compared to 58% in (2000) findings by NBS. The findings (Table 14) indicate that some of the species that existed up to (2000), according to the National biomass study (NBS, 2000), do not exist now. Those species that have disappeared from the wetland include the Sitatunga (animal) and a Typha sp (plant). Those that still exist are in few numbers. This means that if the situation is not checked within short few years from now most of these species will be lost from Kansanga wetland. It was also found out (Table 13) that crop cultivation is the major land use covering an area of 2 km 2 out of the total area of 4.54 km2 ·The current area remaining under intact wetland vegetation was estimated as only 0.54 km 2 and this means that the biggest area totalling to 4 km 2 of land use in this wetland are under human activities which is a big threat to ihe wetlands integrity and productivity. 69 5.1.3 Population activities that affect Kansanga wetland Several activities of population activities that affect Kansanga wetland were discussed where 36 respondents were interviewed and the activities of the Population which affect the wetland that were mentioned were construction and establishment of settlements being the major threat to this wetland, other activities included farming, over harvesting of wetland vegetation, brick making and sand mining. 5.1.4 Effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland Population growth and urban development has greatly impacted on the degradation of the wetland. According to the 63 respondents who were interviewed the impacts of population growth and urban development of Kampala have led to poor water quality and availability, biodiversity loss, reduction of wetland products, soil degradation and habitat destruction within Kansanga wetland. 5.2 Conclusions The physical environment is a significant factor on the well being of people as it determines the quality and quantity of resources to be harnessed for national socio economic develo;Jment. However, sustainable development depends on planned use of the resources. This is true for both rural and urban areas. Kampala is faced with rapid population growth, currently with a growth rate of 5.6 p.a (Table 5). The population surpasses the available infrastructure (housing and social services), employment opportunities as the administration is under funded and the economy is growing slowly. This has resulted in many people adopting various coping (survival) strategies. Unfortunately these strategies are not planned for and this has resulted in congestion, informal housing, solid waste accumulation, irresponsible solid waste disposal, poor sanitation, wetland degradation and water pollution. In view of the findings of the study, on the effects of population growth and urban developrr,e;.t on Kansanga have been proved as the increase in population growth rate of Kampala currently being 5.6% p.a with a population approximating to 1.6 million. The dominant features underlying wetland loss are population growth and subsequent anthropogenic developmental activities, which impose great pressure on wetland 70 resources. Several population activities that affect the wetland were pointed out to include settlements as the major threat to this wetland, Brick making, Farming, overhavesting of wetland vegetation and sand mining. The study also found out that these human activities have led to several impacts on Kansanga wetland such as biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, poor water quality, reduced water availability, reduction of wetland products and soil degradation. The impacts of population growth and urban development of Kampala city have greatly affected thP. wet12nds size, productivity and integrity. The interaction between population, urban development and wetlands clearly indicated that the rapid population growth and the associated developments through provision of housing, industries and the associated economic activities in a situation of failed implementation of urban structural plans, impacts negatively on the environment as a whole. The negative impacts are felt through poor sanitary conditions, crowded/unplanned housing, floods, wetland alteration/degradation, inappropriate solid waste management practices, water and soil pollution. All these need to be addressed if Kampala in particular and Uganda in general are to sustain their economic development. This can be done through the enactment and implementation of policies and laws, which address the issues discovered through this study. 5.3 Recommendations The combination of both population growth and urban development and their effects on wetlands is a great challenge to environmentalists today. rhere is urgent need to protect and conserve wetlands, and to use them sustainably. In this respect, this research has proposed the following 11 recommendations, which if followed and used wisely by all stakeholders in the struggle, can reduce or solve the problem of wetland degradation. A. Population growth 1. Considering Kampala's high population growth rate of 5.6% p.a and the high population of 1.6 million due to rural-urban migration (UBOS 2002), the concerned 71 authorities /government should implement decentralisation of services to minimise the high rate of rural-urban migration. 2. Another way of controlling the population growth in Kampala is the Promotion of contraceptive use (family planning methods) should be emphasised by the authorities concerned to check the ever increasing human population which has been found to have bad impacts on the wetlands in this study. B. Urban development 3. As ·a way of encountering development activities in the wetland, NEMA and the lead ministry should educate people about the policy and laws governing wetlands and their use in Uganda. The communities should be informed that no one is allowed to carry out any development in a wetland for any reason without conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and NEMA's approval as the activities niay lead to bad impacts on the wetland. 4. Another possible way of steaming development activities in the wetland is that Kampala city council (KCC) should study all policies pertaining to urban development, identify contradictions, and propose ways and means to harmonise them. It should then work with the urban centres to design a national integrated urban development policy which emphasises sustainable wetland use. The policy should have clear mechanisms for implementation and punishment of those who violate it. C. Integrity of Kansanga wetland 5. Noting with concern the decline in the wetland's ir.tegrity, it is recommended that the wetland be gazetted and closely monitored so that it can regain its size, productivity and integrity. NEMA, WID and the lead ministry should identify the original boundaries of the wetland and plant live markers for easy understanding of the people, and they should stop development activities in the wetland. 72 D. Activities of the population that affect Kansanga wetland 6. Concerning destructive human activities observed during the study NEMA should assure the communities in the wetland area that no body owns the wetland, and should stop them from using the wetland for individual interests. 7. Dealing with settlements in the wetland, a nature conservation project should be instituted at a local council level and be made active so as to stop people from settling in the wetland because that had lead to frequent seasonal flooding of the area. 8. Over-harvesting of any wetland product should be stopped. For example an area where papyrus had been harvested must be allowed to rest for 12 to 15 months before a repeat harvest takes place. NEMA should be responsible to ensure sustainable wetland use. E. Genera! recor.1mendations 9. The government, NEMA, the lead or responsible ministry and other private conservation organisations should purchase plots from the wetland from the landlords who got leases before the Constitution (1995) and establish the entire wetland a wildlife refuge, sanctuary, or special conservation area. This will preserve the wetland in its natural state and pmtect it from destructive human development activities. 10. The government should promote implementation of poverty alleviation programmes to stop the encroachment of the urban poor who have been found out to be the major encroachers on this wetland for a leaving. F. Future research 11. It is recommended that future research should be done on Kansanga wetland on the topics or areas not covered in this research that could be responsible for the problem of wetland degradation. 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Island Press, Washington. 80 APPENDICES APPENDIX I: INTERVIEW GUIDE Sec.A 1) Title of the officer 2) Name of the organization 3) Activities done by the organization 4) Name of the officer Sec.B 1) When did you join this organization? 2) What are the major wetlands found in your area of work? 3) What do you think are the importance's of Kansanga wetland? 4) Do you agree that there is wetland degradation in the area? 5) What do you think could be the factors responsible for the degradation of Kansanga wetland? 6) What is the historical trends of population growth and urban development of Kampala? 7) Discuss the historical integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 10 to 15 years? 8) What activitie5 of the population affect Kansanga wetland? 9) To what extent do you think Kansaga wetland has been degraded? 10) What do you think are the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansang wetland? 11) What could be the possible solution to the problem of wetland degradation? 12) Which one do you practice and why? 13) Give any other information which you know about the Kansanga wetland situation? 0 81 APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR AGENCIES/ORGANISATIONS I am a student of Kampala International University a candidate of Master of science in Environment Management and Development carrying out a research on the "effects of population growth and urban development on wetlands in Kampala city; a case of Kansanga wetland" please help to fill this questionnaire. The information given will be purely for academic purposes as it will facilitate the researcher to accomplish his studies and it will be treated with confidentiality. Name of the respondent ------ Name of the village ------ Location of the office------ 1- What title do you hold in this agency/organization? ------ 2- When was this organization/agency formed? ------ ------3- For how long have you worked with this organization or agency? ------ 4- What role do you play in this organization /agency? ------ ------5- Which department do you work with in this organization or agency? ------·------ 82 6- What activities do you carry out as a department? ------ 7- What is the historical trends of population growth and urban development of Kampala? 8- To what extent do you think Kansanga wetland has been degraded? Wetland size has: Reduced D Not reduced D Not sure D Explain the wetland size changes selected above? ------~------ 9- Discuss the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 1 O -15 years? ------ 83 10- What are the activities of the population and how do they affect the wetland? ------11- In your opinion, what do you think are the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland? ------·------ 12- What strategies have been. put in place to stop the degradation of the wetlands in Uganda? ------·------ ------·------ 84 13- Of the above "Nhich one(s) do you practice and why?------ 14- For how long have you practiced them?------·------ 15- Name other ways in which other people have tried to minimize the problem of wetland degradation. ------ 16- How do you maintain or ensure that a wetland is not degraded?------ ------17- In your attempt to solve the above problem of wetland degradation, did/do you get any help from any body or government? Yes D No D If yes name them and how they help ------ ---·------ 85 18- For how long have you got this help?------ 19 - Despite the above solutions, the problem of wetland degradation still exists. Do you think it can be solved? D Yes D No If no, why?------·------ If yes, explain. ------ Thank You 86 APPENDIX Ill: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE COMMUNITY I am a student of Kampala International University a candidate of Master of science in Environment Management and Development carrying out a research on the "effects of population growth and urban development on wetlands in Kampala city; a case of Kansanga wetland" please help to fill this questionnaire. The information given will be purely for academic purposes as ii will facilitate the researcher to accomplish his studies and ii will be treated with confidentiality. Name of the respondent------·------ Name of the village ------·------ 1- Age of the respondent 20-30 □ 30-40 D 40-50 □ 50-80 D 2 - Tribe of the respondent ------ 3 - Level of education None □ P1 -P2 D P5-P/ D Secondary D Tertiary D Others specify,------ 87 4 - Occupation------5 - Do you own land or you are a tenant? Landowner D Tenant D If you own land, how many people stay on your land (premises)? If you are a tenant, how many people are you on your land owner's premises? 6- In which of the following places is your home located? (a) Wet land D (b) Low land □ (c) Hilly slope □ 7- Name any wetland or swamp you know in your parish------ 8- Who owns that wetland /swamp? People D Government D Others D If others, specify------ 9 - What is the historical trends of population growth and urban development of Kampala? 88 10 -To what extent do you think Kansanga wetland has been degraded? Reduced D Not reduced D Not sure D Explain the wetland size changes selected above? 11- Discuss the integrity of Kansanga wetland for the past 10 -15 years? 12- What are the activities of the population and how are they affecting the wetland? ------ ------ 89 13- According to your opinion, what do you think are the effects of population growth and urban development on Kansanga wetland? ------ 14- What do you think could be the solution to the problem of wetland degradation? ------ Thank you 90 APPENDIX IV: INTRODUCTORY LETTER P.O.BOX 20000 KAMPALA KAMPALA- UGANDA. INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY TEl:-041-266113 OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR SCHOOL OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES lat" December 2007 To: The Director District Environmental Management Officer Kampala Oty Council P.OBox KAMPALA Dear Sir/Madam, RE: INTRODUCT10N FOR MR. KWESIGA MAXIMUS The above named is our registered student in the School of Post Graduate Studies pursuing a Master of Science in Environmental Management and Development (MSc EMO). He wishes to carry out a research in your organization on "The effects of population Growth and Urban Development on wetlands in Kampala City: A case of Kansanga Wetland ". Any assistance accorded to him regarding research will be highly appreciated. Yours faithfully, ~ . Prof. Owolabi 0. Samuel DIRECTOR-SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES 91