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Man Enough: Fraternal Intimacy, White Homoeroticism, and Imagined Homogeneity in Mid-Nineteen

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Man Enough: Fraternal Intimacy, White Homoeroticism, and Imagined Homogeneity in Mid-Nineteen ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: MAN ENOUGH: FRATERNAL INTIMACY, WHITE HOMOEROTICISM, AND IMAGINED HOMOGENEITY IN MID-NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICAN LITERATURE Geoffrey Saunders Schramm, Doctor of Philosophy, 2006 Dissertation directed by: Professor Marilee Lindemann Department of English “Man Enough” construes mid-nineteenth-century literary representations of sameness as corollaries of the struggle during this volatile era to realize unity among white men. I argue that three canonical authors envision homoerotic or same-sex erotic desire as a mechanism through which men can honor and defend sameness. These authors advert the connotative power of sameness by envisioning or assaying erotic desire between men as democratic. This fraternally conjugal (or conjugally fraternal) union serves as a consequence of the cultural directive to preserve the nation’s homogeneity. In chapter one I reflect upon the circulation of sameness in mid-nineteenth- century America. I provide an overview of the logic of sameness in conceptions of race and then discuss how it textured sexual difference. As historians have recorded, new homosocial spheres led to fraternal intimacy at a time when white men competed in the free market economy. These new forms of friendship were erotically—though not necessarily sexually—charged. In the second chapter I argue that in The Blithedale Romance Hawthorne represents homoeroticism as effecting strong, yet tender erotic bonds between men that circumvent women and feminizing domesticity. He ultimately registers that same-sex erotic desire imperils male individualism and autonomy since it demands submission. Chapter three begins with an observation that critics fail to consider how dominant attitudes about race and gender shaped Whitman’s representations. Another aspect of his Leaves of Grass that has eluded attention is the prevalence of California in his work. As I argue, Whitman's references to California in his own “Blue Book” copy of the 1860 edition suggest his desire for a racially and sexually homogeneous gay nation. Herman Melville's Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War is the focus of my final chapter. In this poetry he underscores that the homosocial martial life of war provided American men with an opportunity to forge fraternal intimacy with one another. Seeking to memorialize the sacrifices of Union soldiers, Melville sentimentalizes their losses so much that his poetry comes across as a homoerotic epic. Melville in Battle-Pieces offers a model of fraternity in which men eroticize racial and gender sameness. MAN ENOUGH: FRATERNAL INTIMACY, WHITE HOMOEROTICISM, AND IMAGINED HOMOGENEITY IN MID-NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICAN LITERATURE by Geoffrey Scott Saunders Schramm Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2006 Advisory Committee: Professor Marilee Lindemann, Chair Professor Jonathan Auerbach Professor Robert S. Levine Professor Deborah Rosenfelt Professor Martha Nell Smith © Copyright by Geoffrey Scott Saunders Schramm 2006 DEDICATION I dedicate this labor of love to the memory of my great aunt Gale Saunders and my uncle Alan Schramm, whose agony and struggles made my queer life possible. I also dedicate this work to my nephew Braeden Woodbury and my niece Chloe Gale, with hope for peace and a better world. ii “There was a time when licentiousness laughed at reproval; now it writes essays and delivers lectures. Once it shunned the light; now it courts attention, writes books showing how grand and pure it is, and prophesies from its lecherous lips its own ultimate triumph.” —Rufus W. Griswold in his November 10, 1855 Criterion review of Leaves of Grass. “The love that dare not speak its name has become the love that won’t shut up.” —Conservative pundit Pat Buchanan, ca. 1990s. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I find that writing is sometimes very insulating, leaving me feeling numb and dislocated from everything and everyone. Having brilliant and awe-inspiring people around me has made the usually rutted transition from untethered thinking to grounded reality seamless and enjoyable. My deepest and undying gratitude goes to my parents Don and Lyn Schramm, whose intelligence, common sense, dedication to one another, and profound humanity have come to order my world. Through them I have learned many important things, especially the meaning of family, the need for community, and the transformative power of loving other people. Growing up a Navy brat, mobility had become so familiar that it was almost part of my daily imaginary. No matter where we moved, though, my brother Britton and I always felt at home largely due to my parents’ selflessness and hard work. Unlike many of my queer friends, I have always received a great deal of support from my family when it came to my sexuality. While they all struggled to come to terms with it in their own ways, they never did so at my expense. Their unconditional love and financial support have allowed me to think about my identity very abstractly, a privilege, to be sure, in this phobic nation that consistently disparages lesbian and gay lives. My friends have proven to be indispensable before, during, and after the writing of this dissertation. Nicole Louie has played an integral role in shaping the direction of this study through our experiences as close friends for almost twenty years. I cannot imagine my life without her. I am also indebted to Mary Forrest, whose acute insight, humor, and compassion over the past twenty years have helped me to navigate this iv difficult world. I just hope my friendship has been as rewarding. My dear friends Beth Armitage, Mary Romagnolo, Lisa King Adkins, George W. Stone, Jill “Muffy” Pollack, and Johnna Rizzo kept me from slipping into the abyss of insanity many times, plying me with martinis and other sybaritic pleasures while reminding me of “le frisson du jouissance juteux.” They show incontrovertibly that meaningful friendships are usually charged with eros. I was lucky to attend graduate school with some exceptional, generous people. Daniela Garofalo has been a steadfast advocate of this project, reading and commenting on its various drafts and sharing research, all the while serving as a beautifully depraved cohort in unspeakable deeds. Through their stanch friendship, Liz DeLoughrey, Cathy Romagnolo, Crystal Parikh, Emily Orlando, and Marsha and Devin Orgeron have spelled out to me the necessity and value of intimacy in this profession. I could have never survived graduate school without these brilliant people. I also wish to thank Jay Grossman for his keen insight, generosity, and vital camaraderie. Although new to the game, Jason Rudy generously offered to read portions of this work. His excitement was contagious and got me to the finish line as I was running on empty. My dissertation committee has been instrumental in the development of my project. As my mentors, they praised my strengths and challenged me to do better. Marilee Lindemann and Martha Nell Smith have taught me the most about being a gracious reader, a teacher, a scholar, an activist, a queer feminist, and a decent person. Their guidance has been indispensable to me, their friendship even more so. Over the past ten years we have established an intimate relationship that exceeds the often stilted and v hierarchic world of the academy. With aplomb they have served as my advocates, as well as my extended family in more ways than I can count. Just like my adoring parents, I will continue to rely on them for advice and support. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ix Introduction 1 Endnotes 24 Chapter 1: The Same as It Ever Was: Mapping the Logic of Sameness 28 Section I: “The great mass of white men”: Black Difference , 30 White Equality Section II: “The dense mass of savages”: The Red Menace and the 47 Rhetoric of Assimilation Section III: “Because females are not men”: Separate Spheres, 62 Fraternal Orders Endnotes 98 Chapter 2: “The entangled life of many men together”: Fellow Feeling 113 and the Penetrative Threat of Sameness in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Blithedale Romance Section I: “[M]anhood is melted into curtsies”: Sexless in the City 114 Section II: “A singular anomaly of likeness co-existing with perfect 130 dissimilitude”: Same Sex, Different Self Section III: “Realities keep in the rear”: Bottoming Out in Blithedale 140 Endnotes 158 Chapter 3: “A Promise to California”: California, Male Same-Sex Eroticism, 170 and the Logic of Sameness in Walt Whitman’s Blue Book Section I: Inside Outsiders: Territorial Expansion and the Crisis of 173 Racial Homogeneity Section II: “[F]or those that have never been mastered!” California’s 183 Promise of Racial Homogeneity Section III: Et in Arcadia Ego: Frontier California and Whitman’s 195 vii Homosexual Pastoral Endnotes 221 Chapter 4: “Like manhood in a fellow-man”: The Erotics of Sameness in 231 Herman Melville’s Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War Section I: “[B]y Roman arms we sing”: Melville’s Epic Makeover 233 Section II: “Like those on Virgil’s shore—”: Melville, Martyrs, 242 And the Teleology of War Section III: “But battle can heroes and bards restore”: War and the 246 Reproduction of Men Section IV: “Mine be the manful soldier-view”: Melville’s Homologics 259 Section V: “A darker side there is”: Melville’s Reactionary Politics 273 of Reconstruction Endnotes 282 Epilogue 292 Endnotes 298 Bibliography 299 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 “The Naturalist.” Harper’s Weekly, 25 April 1857 33 Figure 2 A membership certificate for a Philadelphia nativist 72 organization. In the banner above the picture of Washington appears “Beware of Foreign Influence.” Encircling Washington’s portrait is a quotation from his eulogy adopted by Congress: “First in War, First in Peace, and First in the Hearts of his Countrymen.” Figure 3 “A Man Knows a Man.” Harper’s Weekly, 22 April 1865 275 ix The lover learns at last that there is no person quite transparent and trustworthy, but every one has a devil in him that is capable of any crime in the long run.
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