A Brief History of the Rue de la Roquette, 11ème

Author's Note While I have tried to be as accurate as possible, there is contradictory data concerning the na- mes and dates associated with rue de la Roquette. Your comments, suggestions and correc- tions are welcomed. Please feel free to share this essay.

Larry Shields, May 26, 2008 (revised April 2011)

Introduction

The rue de la Roquette first made its appearance on maps of the Paris region around 1672. On one of the earliest maps, the street was identified as the road that linked La Porte Saint-Antoine to the Roquette Convent (now the location of the rue Auguste Lau- rent). Today the rue de la Roquette, located in the heart of the 11th arrondissement on Paris' right bank, links the Place de la to the Père-Lachaise Cemetery.

The origin of the name 'Roquette' is the subject of some debate. Some believe that the name comes from a small flower (eruca sativa, family brassicaceae) with pale yellow or whitish flowers, purple or brown veins, and leaves resembling those of radishes. Others believe the name comes from the word 'roc' ('rocher', English: 'rock'), while still others believe that it comes from the name of the country house ('Petite Roche', 'Rochette' or 'Roquette') of the Valois -- a branch of the Capétiens.

Early History

In the 15thcentury the eastern edge of Paris was for the most part a few shacks in the midst of swamps fed by streams that descended from the Menilmontant or Champs-l'E- vêque Hills – today home to the Père-Lachaise Cemetery.

It was during the reign of Henri II that the first major residences were constructed in the area of the rue de la Roquette. Among the first inhabitants of the area were

●! Germain Teste (1545) – the tax collector of Paris ●! Nicolas Séguier – the King's secretary ●! Florimont Robertet, Baron of Bury – the secretary of state under François II ●! Rocquet de la Tribouille (whose name is said to have has no connection with the name of the street) ●! Philippe Hurault de Cheverny, Count of Cheverny who was Henri III's Garde des Sceaux in 1578 -- he had a residence in what was called the Domain de la Ro- quette. ●! Henri II (1519-1559) and Henri IV (1553 -1610) are said to have had vacation houses (maison de plaisance or folies – as they were called in the 18th and 19th century) in the area. In 1599 Philippe Hurault's property was sold to the Duchesse Mercoeur (Françoise de Lorraine) who had two houses constructed. Later she had them transformed into a small monastery near what is today rue Pache, just off Place Léon Blum. In 1611 Thomas Mo- rant, Baron of Mesnil-Garnier (the King's treasurer from 1617), acquired the property and then resold it in 1636 to the Hospitalières de la Charité Notre-Dame of the order of Saint Augustine. In 1639 the group used the property to create what became a retreat for women suffering from real or imagined ills. In 1690 the nuns, then numbering around eighty, separated from Hospitalières and became the les filles de Saint-Joseph. The land occupied by the nuns consisted of several buildings surrounded by cultivated gar- dens, vines, an orangery, and a small cemetery (located on what is today the corner of the rue de la Roquette and the rue Léon Frot).

In 1772, after the latest in a series of fires at the Hôtel-Dieu (hospital), plans were drawn up to transform the buildings belonging to the convent into a hospital that would serve the surrounding area. However, the Revolution intervened and in An III (1794-5) the property became home to a cotton mill and the nuns were forced to leave. Eventually the Hospices administration took over the area. In 1818 the street was extended to its present-day endpoint at the Père-Lachaise Cemetery.

Passage du Cheval-Blanc In the XVII century a lumber warehouse was created at the Passage du Cheval-Blanc which etends from 2, rue de la Roquette to 21, rue du de Saint-Antoine, just off the . The Passage was also home to workshops and stores. Du- ring the 19th century this very rebellious area employed this and other passages as key parts of the system of barricades. Today it is a historical landmark. The courtyards off the passage still bear the names of the months of the year with which they were origi- nally designated. Current occupants include the Atelier Bordas (www.atelierbordas.com) a well-known lithographer, publisher and printer of photographic and non-photographic art.

Later History and 'Faits Divers'

In 1860 the city hall of the 11th arrondissement was established at 65, rue de la Ro- quette and then in 1865 it moved to it’s current location on the Place Voltaire (where the rue de la Roquette intersects a number of streets). The city hall was decorated with sculptures by the artist Henri-Charles Maniglier. In 1957 the Place Voltaire was renamed Place Léon Blum1. During the (1871) the city hall of the 11th was brie- fly became the home of the Paris Council following a fire at the Paris City Hall. It was also the site of the final meeting of the Comité central de Salut Public de la Commune on May 25, 1871.

The Paris Commune came to an end on May 27, 1871. All that remained of the Com- mune was the area bounded by the rue du Faubourg du Temple, rue de la Folie-Méri- court, rue de la Roquette and several nearby boulevards. It was on that day several hundred Communards were summarily shot in the Père-Lachaise Cemetery, near the Roquette prisons (see below) and on the Place Voltaire (today officially called Place Léon Blum). It is fitting that in this 140th anniversary (2011) year that the Mairie du 11e is hosting exhibitions, debates and other events to mark the event.

The poet Paul Verlaine lived at 17, rue de la Roquette from 1882 to 1883. In 1883 he published the first series of works by « poètes maudits » -- Mallarmé, Corbière and Rimbaud-- in the journal « Lutèce ».

From 1892 until her death in 1914 Hubertine Auclerc, feminist and founder of the Socie- ty for Women's Rights (1876), lived at 151 rue de la Roquette. She also became an anti- clerical militant as a result of her earlier life in a convent -- she had planned on beco- ming a nun. In 1881 she launched the newspaper the « Citoyenne » to support feminist causes. In 1884 she opposed the newly enacted divorce law and proposed the radical alternative of a marriage contract between spouses with a division of possessions. She and Margareitte Durand ran as candidates in the 1910 legislative elections in defiance of the government. She is buried in the Père-Lachaise Cemetery.

From 1898 to 1901 Alain Fournier, author of the « Grands Meaulnes », lived in a buil- ding at 196 rue de la Roquette while attending the Lycée Voltaire. The original building no longer exists.

During the 18thand 19th century the street was home to the manufacture of faience, re- ligious candles, wallpaper, and porcelain.

Early in the 20thcentury, Léon Daudet, son of Alphonse Daudet, in his book « Paris Vé- cu », described the rue de la Roquette as the « sorrowful way » because so many fune- ral corteges took that route to the Père-Lachaise Cemetery. Léon Daudet himself had, in 1897, accompanied his father's body in a large funeral cortege that ascended the rue de la Roquette to Pere-Lachaise. That cortege was notable for counting among its partici- pants the contradictory figures of Emile Zola and Edmond Drumont (author of the 1896 very popular, at the time, two volume anti-semitic work: « La France Juive »).

Other famous funeral corteges that have ascended the rue de la Roquette to Père-La- chaise include that of Auguste Blanqui (1881, anarchist and participant in almost every popular uprising in France during his life-time), Eugène Pottier (1887, author of the « In- ternationale »), Pierre Goldman2 (1979), and Achille Zavatta3 (1993).

The Occupation On August 20 and 21, 1940 the Nazis, with the support of the Vichy government, roun- ded up the Jewish men, women and children of 11th arrondissement for transportation to concentration camps4. Doctor Outel Bono On August 26, 1973 at 9:30 in the morning, Doctor Outel Bono was murdered while get- ting into his car on the rue de la Roquette. The assassin shot him twice before fleeing by car. Doctor Bono, a medical doctor and Chadian opposition leader, had been plan- ning to announce a new opposition party. His wife tried, unsuccessfully, to have the suspected assassin brought to justice. The French courts refused to accept that Doctor Bono was assassinated, preferring to believe that his death was just a crime of passion. Officially the case remains unsolved. Curiously, immediately following Doctor Bono's death, his briefcase vanished and his apartment was by searched by person or persons unknown. From time to time, most recently in 2006, a memorial rally is held in front of 80, rue de la Roquette where Doctor Bono was murdered. A video of the 2006 rally can be found at www.dailymotion.com/video/xs5ah_tchad-rue-outel-bono_events.

The Fountain In the spring of 2008 work was begun to restore the fountain at 70, rue de la Roquette. The fountain was designed in 1846 by the architect Auguste Molinos. It is part of a group of public fountains commissioned by the Préfet of the Seine Claude-Philibert Bar- thelot de Rambuteau to improve the daily life of Parisians. The fountains were an ad- junct to his renovation of the Paris sewer system. Rambuteau became préfet a year af- ter the Paris cholera epidemic of 1832. This even lead him to devote himself to the im- plementation of the hygienic theories of the day. His motto was « water, air, shade ». Today he is better known for overseeing the completion of the , the inauguration of the Grande Champs Elysées project, and the major expansion of gas lighting in Paris.

Culture Today Café des Phares – The 'Café philosophique' every Sunday from 11 am to 1 pm, located at 7, Place de la Bastille (www.cafe-philo-des-phares.info).

Théâtre de la Bastille (www.theatre-bastille.com), located at 76, rue de la Roquette, is an important venue for contemporary theater and dance. It should be noted that the 11th arrondissement has nearly thirty other theaters.

L'Opéra Bastille – Opéra National de Paris (www.operadeparis.fr) is located at 2bis Place de la Bastille. In stark contrast to the Opéra Granier – Place de L'Opera in the 9th arrondissement -- that most would identify as the Paris Opera, the Opéra Bastille is unabashedly modern in its design. So much so, that it seems totally at odds with the rest of the architecture on or near the Place de la Bastille.

The space that the Opéra Bastille currently occupies is the location of the former Gare de la Bastille. At one time a train ran between the Place de la Bastille and Vincennes. Today the Viaduc des Arts occupies a section of the elevated terrain that was used by the railroad tracks. The result is a pleasant tree and flower lined elevated walkway that parallels the Avenue Daumesnil between Jardin de Reuilly and St Antoine des Qunize Vingts in the 12th arrondissement. The space below the Viaduc des Arts is home to the shops/studios of many Parisian artisans.

La Manoeuvre – a bookstore at 58, rue de la Roquette. It has good collection of books related to the theater.

Librairie Page 189 -- a general bookstore at 189 rue du faubourg Saint Antoine. It was named in 2010 one of the 58 "Librarie indépendente de référence" by the Minister of Culture and Communication.

The Prisons

In 1826, during the reign of , a prison for young criminals (6 - 20 years old) was constructed. Soon it was also used to hold children im- prisoned simply upon the re- quest of their family. The pri- son was built at 143, rue de la Roquette on the grounds of the convent of the Hospitaliè- res de la Rocquette which had been closed during the Revo- lution. The prison was desi- gned by the architect Louis- Hippolyte Lebas. It is the first example in France of a Pan- optic5 prison (see Le Panop- tique ou l'oeil du pouvoir by Jermy Bentham with an essay by Michel Foucault) and as such it became a model for other prisons. The prison fea- tured a wall surrounding a square building with a central tower. It was completed Sep- tember 11, 1830. Illustration de “Dans la rue. Chansons et monologues” In 1830 Louis-Phillippe I (1773- by Théophile-Alexandre Steinlein 1850) decided to have another prison built. The new prison – located at 164-168 rue de la Roquette -- was built facing the earlier prison, but its design was completely different – resembling a factory. This prison was completed on December 24, 1836. The latter was officially known as the « Dépôt de condamnés », but more popularly as « La Grande Roquette ». Murderers and those awaiting transport to the Ile de Ré, Cayenne (including nearby Devil's Island) or New Caledonia (for the Communards, in- cluding most likely one of the most famous: Louise Michel) were placed in the « La Grande Rocquette ». On May 24, 1871 the Commune executed the archbishop of Paris and four other hostages at « La Grande Roquette » in accordance with the « Décret des Otages »6 of 2 Prairal year 79 (April 5, 1871). The hostages were supposed to be ex- changed for Auguste Blanqui (the anarchist), but the government in Versailles refused. It was also here that the Thiers government and General Gliffet had many of Commu- nards summarily executed at the end of the Paris Commune a few weeks later.

The first prison of the two prisons was popularly known as « La Petite Roquette ». As was the practice at the time, at least up until 1850, the goal was to have the young pri- soners live in total solitude. They were isolated at night and spent most of their day wor- king in silence. Each day they received several hours of religious, educational, and vo- cational instruction. The best behaved were granted a dessert on Sunday and, in addi- tion, and this is unique to the « La Petite Roquette », they were allowed to select a book to read.

The arrives In 1851 a governmental decree ordered that the site of Parisian executions be moved, and thus the Guillotine, from La barrière St Jacques (today this is the location of the St. Jacques métro station – right bank, line 6 running from Nation to Charles-DeGaulle-E- toile) to « La Grand Rocquette ». The first execution took place on December 16, 1851 -- just three weeks after the move. When an execution was scheduled, the guillotine was moved from its storage place at 60, rue de la Folie Régnault to the prison’s en- trance. Eventually five granite slabs were put in place to provide the guillotine with a stable resting place during executions. The five slabs came to be known as the « L'Ab- baye de cinq-pierres ». In all, sixty-nine executions took place here – sixty-eight men and one woman. The last execution was on February 2, 1899.

Among those sixty-nine executed were

●! Auguste Vaillant -- An anarchist who was executed February 5, 1894. His act of throwing a bomb in the Chamber of Deputies lead to the infamous « Lois Scélé- rates » the last of which was revoked in 1992. ●! Emile Henry – An anarchist who was executed on May 21, 1894. He was the au- thor of the notorious Café Terminus bombing. He is quoted as having said to the judge « Il n'y a pas d'innocents ». ● Berland and Doré – They were criminals who were executed July 27, 1891. Their execution was covered in great detail in the July 28, 1891 issue of the « New York Times ». The two were accused of a string of robberies and swindles that ended in murder.8 The crime had all the trappings of the most sensational of cri- mes: prostitution, alleged incest (moreover, Berland's mother was reputed to have been the instigator of the crimes), a very young mistress shared by the two men, and, of course, murder.

Throughout the 1890s there was a campaign denouncing the conditions at « La Grande Roquette ». Finally, in 1899 the prison was taken out of service and its inmates were transferred to the newly constructed « La Santé » prison. A year later the « La Grande Roquette » was torn down. Although the prison is gone, the five slabs that the guillotine stood on are still visible at the intersection of the rue de la Croix-Faubin and the rue de la Roquette.

« La Petite Roquette », however, remained in service. Near the end of the nineteen- twenties, the Saint-Lazare women's prison was closed. Many of the women were moved to « La Petite Roquette » and, in 1932, it officially became a women's prison. In 1939 a law was passed that banned public executions. That law also made « La Petite Roquet- te » one of the places designated for the execution of women. Two women were execu- ted at « La Petite Roquette » -- one in 1942 and the other in 1943. During World War II, some four thousand members of the resistance were imprisoned in « La Petite Roquet- te » while awaiting deportation (there is a commemorative plaque at 168, rue de la Ro- quette). In 1974 the prison was demolished and replaced by a square. Today the square, Square Marcel Rajman4, is home to a gate from « La Petite Roquette » . That gate is all that remains of the Roquette prisons on the original site. However, the door to the « La Grande-Roquette »'s death cell can be found in the « Le Musée de la Préfec- ture de Police », Hôtel de la Police, 4, rue Montaigne Sainte-Geneviève, 3rd floor, 5th arrondissement.

The Place de la Bastille: From Fortification to Prison to the ''

What is now the Place de la Bastille was once the home of one world's best known pri- sons and an icon of the of 1879. Today, although today the prison itsel is gone, it's still possible to see the vestiges of the « Tower of Liberty », where the Marquis de Sade was once imprisoned, in the Line 5 (Place d'Italie – Bobigny) Bastille métro station.

The Bastille began its existence, first as gate and then as a fort, during the time of the Hundred Years war in the reign of Charles V (Charles the wise). Its name at the time was the « Bastion de Sainte-Antoine ». Under Richelieu's administration (Louis XIII) it was turned into a state prison. Many of those imprisoned in the Bastille were held under a « lettre de cachet ». The « lettre de cachet » was a legal instrument signed by the King which resulted in the person named being imprisoned without the necessity of trial9.

A stay in the Bastille could be quite comfortable for its noble prisoners – good food, wi- ne, etc., but it was much less so for everyone else. A number of writers experienced its quarters including the Marquis de Sade (five and half years), Voltaire (on several occa- sions) and the pamphleteers Linguet (who wrote a very successful book about his expe- riences, but was finally guillotined under the Terror) and Brissot (a victim of censorship who spent two months in the Bastille and was later guillotined, so it appears, for having been on the wrong side of Robespierre one too many times). Other notable prisoners include the 'man in the iron mask' and Hugues Aubriot. Ironically, Hugues Aubriot had been in charge of building the Bastille built. He was imprisoned there after being char- ged with impiety because of his clemency toward Parisian Jews. He was freed during a popular uprising against the re-imposition of taxes that had been abolished by Charles V. A statue of Hugues Aubriot is a part of the facade of the Paris City Hall.

While the Bastille was seized on July 14, 1789 by revolutionaries looking for powder, it was actually torn down by a private contractor on the following day. Many of the bricks were reused in the construction of the Pont de la Concorde (bridge), but some were sold as souvenirs. Today, however, you would be ill-advised to buy a « genuine » brick from the Bastille prison.

For most of the last two hundred years, the center of the Place de la Bastille has been home to the July Column. The column was erected in memory of the « Les Trois Glo- rieuses » (July 27-29, 1830) also known as the « Revolution of July ». Curious revolu- tion. Charles X, in an attempt to obtain a parliamentary majority that recent elections had not given him, signed « Les quatre ordonnances de Saint-Cloud ». These edicts abolished the freedom of the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, changed the electoral law so that the Prefects established voting lists and made voting open (no se- cret ballot), and it set the date of new elections. The reaction to the « Les quatre ordon- nances » was swift. A republican revolution was launched with barricades erected across Paris. The uprising was supported by a number of newspapers which continued to publish in defiance of the edicts. A frightened Charles X fled Paris. On the morning of July 28, ten thousand insurgents singing the Marsellaise broke into Paris’ armories and liberated the weapons. An ill-equipped army quickly fell into traps set by the insurgents. The Hôtel-de-Ville, after changing hands several times, finally fell to the insurgents. Ho- wever, in the end, the uprising led nowhere. Charles and his son abdicated and the mo- narchist majority in the Chamber of Deputies took charge and voted to switch royal hou- ses. Louis-Phillipe (an Orleanist) was proclaimed King on August 9th which inaugurated the « ».

Eugène Delacroix's famous painting « Liberty Leading the People » (found in the Lou- vre) commemorates July 28, 1830. Many other paintings depicting the events of those three days can be found in the Musée Carnavalet – the museum of Paris history.

Toward the end of 1830 the government decided to construct a column on the Place de la Bastille to honor the victims of « Les Trois Glorieuses ». The bodies of the victims, nearly two hundred, were to be placed in a crypt at the base of the column and the na- mes of all those who died during the fighting were to be inscribed on the column. Au- guste Dumont was commissioned to create the sculpture that would sit on top of the co- lumn – « La génie de la Liberté ». Construction was begun in 1833 and it was finished in early 1840. The column was inaugurated on April 24, 1840. Berlioz wrote the « Symphone funèbre et triomphale » for the occasion. The symphony was performed, under Berlioz's direction, in the procession that accompanied the bodies of the victims through streets of Paris to the crypt.

The process of putting the monument in place was not without problems. The first pro- blem occurred while transporting the top of the monument. The eleven ton top became stuck on rue Ménilmontant – a street on the eastern side of the Père-Lachaise Cemete- ry -- when the horses pulling the cart refused to go any further. A crowd of the curious who had been following the cart took over and pushed and dragged the cart the rest of the way. Although not noted anywhere, it seems likely that the human propelled cart must have traveled down the rue de la Roquette to the Place de la Bastille. The second problem to arise was with the bodies of the martyrs of the revolution. The bodies were placed in three large sarcophagi which were to be placed in a chamber at the base of the column. However, it seems that the bodies placed in the sarcophagi were not just those of the martyrs of 1830. By accident, some of mummies brought back from Egypt by were mixed in. Apparently the mummies had been disintegrating for years in a room in the Bibliothèque Nationale. So after a time, to preserve them it was decided to bury them in the library's garden. Later on the bodies of the insurgents were also temporally buried there. When the bodies of the insurgents were dug-up, mummies and martyrs were accidentally mixed together.

The Père-Lachaise Cemetery

The Père-Lachaise Cemetery was created May, 1804 on land that had belonged to the Jesuits. One of those Jesuits, Père Lachaise, who had been Louis XIV's confessor spent the last years of his life there. As a result his name became attached to the land. At first Père-Lachaise was a cemetery just for the aristocracy, however, over a period of time, the graves of many famous people -- aristocracy or otherwise -- were moved the- re.

It was in that cemetery on the afternoon of May 28, 1871 that the Paris Commune came to an end with the summary execution of 147 of the last holdouts. They were shot in front of a wall that came to be known as the « Mur des Fédérés »10. Jules Jouy, a song writer for the very popular café-concerts of the turn of the century (he frequented one of the most famous « Le Chat Noir »11) and a fighter against Boulangism12, wrote a song about the wall that contains these words: « Tombe sans croix et sans chapelle, sans lys d'or, sans vitraux, d'azur, quand le peuple en parle, il l'appelle Le Mur ». On May 24, 1936, shortly after the victory of the Popular Front, Léon Blum and Maurice Thorez hea- ded up a demonstration of six hundred thousand people at the wall.

While many famous people of by gone days are buried in Père Lachaise such as Co- lette, Oscar Wilde, Balzac, and Proust; there are also some contemporary figures as well such as Jim Morrison and Marie Trintignant. Notes

1. Named for the literary critic and socialist who was a deputy from the 11th and later became presi- dent of the Popular Front in 1936 and head of the French government in 1936, 1938, and 1946. The socialist orientation of the quartier continues today. In the March, 2008 municipal elections that returned the socialist mayor of Paris - Bertrand Delanoë, the combined left (PS-PC-MRC- PRG) held on to the post of mayor and took 28 of the 33 council seats in the 11th arrondisse- ment. 2. He was assassinated in Paris by a previously unknown extreme-right wing group. The case has never solved. Pierre Goldman wrote a best selling autobiography translated into English as « Dim memories of a Polish Jew Born in France » while in prison. He was convicted and imprisoned after having had been identified by a police informer as having murdered four people during a robbery. He spent twelve years in prison before being granted a new trial in which he was acquit- ted. After being released from prison, he wrote for «Liberation » and « Les Temps modernes ». 3. One of France's most famous clowns as well as a film actor and an author. He committed suicide unable to bear a life on dialysis. 4. Read the excellent speech given by the then mayor of the 11th, Georges Sarre, on September 2, 2007 at the ceremony commemorating the 63rd anniversary of the liberation of the 11th -- http://www.mairie11.paris.fr/mairie11/download/discours2007/2007_09_02_liberation_du_XIe.pdf 5. Examples in the United States include Western Penitentiary, Pittsburgh PA; Statesville Correctio- nal Center, Crest Hill, IL; and Twin Towers Correctional Facility, Los Angeles, CA. Also see Michel Foucault's « Discipline and Punish », the English translation of « Surveillir et Punir », and Jeremy Bentham's « Panopticon or the Inspection-House containing the idea of a new principle of cons- truction applicable to any sort of establishment, in which persons of any description are to be kept under inspection; and in particular to penitentiary-houses, prisons, houses of industry, work-hou- ses, poor-houses, lazarettos » manufactories, hospitals, mad-houses, and schools: with a plan of management ». 6. Article 5: « The execution of any prisoner of war or supporter of the legitimate government of the Paris Commune will be, immediately, followed by the execution of triple the number of hostages held in virtue of Article 4 and those hostages shall be selected at random. » 7. Named in memory of Marcel Rajman and his companions, fighters, who became known as the « Affiche Rouge Group » (twenty-three Communists – French, Romanian, Italian, Hungarian, Po- lish, and Armenian). They were executed at Mont Valérien on February 21,1944 (except for the female member who was executed in Germany because French law prohibited executing women by firing squad). After arresting them, the Nazis used posters (thus Affiche Rouge) to promote the idea that most of group were foreigners and Jews, and that all were communists, to justify labe- ling them as terrorists and not as resistance fighters and to distinguish them from the « good French ». 8. The case figures in a book by Doctor Paul Aubry, « La Contagion du meurtre: étude d'anthropolo- gie criminelle » published in 1896. 9. Most often sought by families to imprison one of their members -- at the family's expense. Sade, for instance, was imprisoned under a « lettre de cachet » obtained by his mother-in-law. The « Lettre de cachet » was finally abolished on April 2, 1890. For a better understanding of the « let- tre de cachet » see « Le désordre des familles. Lettre de cachet des Archives de la Bastille (Pré- senté par Arlette Farge et Michel Foucault), Gallimard, 1982. 10. The location of the wall is marked by a plaque that can be found near the rue de la Réunion en- trance in 20th arrondissement. 11. « Le Chat Noir » was also frequented by Satie, Debussy, Verlaine, Strinberg, and Marie Krysinska (poet, novelist, and member of the Zutiques that counted Rimbaud and Verlaine among its mem- bers) among others. The café was made famous by Théophile Steinlen's 1886 poster, « La tour- née du Chat Noir avec Rodolphe Salis ». These days the poster is reproduced on numerous knick-knacks sold each year to the masses of Parisian tourists. Ironically the work that meant the most to Steinlen – his work that highlighted social ills – is virtually unknown today. 12. A movement that blended nationalism, socialism, and in many of its instances, anti-semitism. See, for example, Zeev Sternell, « La droite révolutionnaire (1885-1914). Les origines françaises du fascisme ». The term 'anti-semitism' makes its first appearance in France in 1880 in connec- tion with Boulangism.