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Francisco Nieva’s “teatro furioso”: Analysis of selected plays

Larson, Harold Mark, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1993

Copyright ©1993 by Larson, Harold Mark. All rights reserved.

UMI 300 N. ZeebRd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

FRANCISCO NIEVA'S "TEATRO FURIOSO":

ANALYSIS OF SELECTED PLAYS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Harold Mark Larson, B.A., M.A.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University

1993

Dissertation Committee: Approved by

Stephen Summerhill

Samuel Amell

Jonathan Mayhew Department of Spanish and Portuguese Copyright by Harold Mark Larson 1993 to my wife Susan

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express sincere appreciation to Dr. Stephen

Summerhill for his invaluable aid and inexhaustible patience which he demonstrated at every stage of the preparation of this document. My thanks also goes to the other members of the dissertation committee,

Dr. Samuel Amell and Dr. Jonathan Mayhew, for their contribution.

Without the patience and support of my wife Susan, this document would have never come into existence.

iii VITA

July 2, 1947 ...... Born, Erie, Pennsylvania

1975 ...... B.A., Bob Jones University, Greenville, South Carolina

1977 ...... M.A., Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont

1977-1979 Pensacola Christian High School and College

1979-1986 Assistant Professor of Spanish, Cedarville College, Cedarville, Ohio

1987-1990 ...... Teaching Associate, Department of Spanish and Portuguese, The Ohio State University; Denison University

1991-1993 ...... Assistant Professor of Spanish, Hope College, Holland, Michigan

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major field: Spanish and Portuguese Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Spanish Literature

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iii

VITA ...... ; ...... iv

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER PAGE

I. BIOGRAPHICAL AND LITERARY INTRODUCTION 11

Life and Professional Activity...... 11 Major Literary I n fluences...... 23 Spanish T h e a t r e ...... 35 Nieva's Theatre: Classification and Characterization . 44 Choice of Plays for Analysis ...... 47 N o t e s ...... 50

II. THE EARLY "TEATRO FURIOSO": EL FANDANGO ASOMBROSO AND EL COMBATE DE OPAI/3S Y T A S I A ...... 56

Introduction...... 56 El_jfandangQ_ as o m b r o a o ...... 56 El_combate de Qpalos v Tasia ...... 82 Conclusion ...... 102 N o t e s ...... 105

III. EXPERIMENTATION IN THEME AND FORM: ES BUENO NO TENER CABEZA AND PEI/3 DE TORMENTA .... 107

Introduction ...... 107 Es bueno no tener cab e z a ...... 108 Pelo de tormenta...... 129 Conclusion ...... 180 N o t e s ...... 181

IV. THE FINAL PLAYS OF THE “TEATRO FURIOSO": LA CARROZA DE PLOMO CANDENTE AND Q ^ H A D O ^ L J E Q R Q - 184

Introduction...... 184 La-gamasa de p Iq m ? 184 Coronada y el t o r o ...... 204 N o t e s ...... 243

v V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION...... 245

Introduction ...... 245 Summary of the Visual and Aural Elements ...... 246 Chronological Development in the "teatro furioso" . . 263 Metatheatre, Ceremony, and Celebration ...... 265 Thematic Development ...... 271 Sexuality ...... 276 Nieva's Relationship with European Theatre ...... 283 Nieva and Contemporary Spanish Theatre ...... 287 Conclusion ...... 289 N o t e s ...... 294

VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 296

vi INTRODUCTION

Though one of the most important authors in contemporary Spanish theatre, Francisco Nieva is not universally known or recognized outside of the rather hermetically sealed world of Spanish writers and producers. As we will see, this ignorance is due to Nieva's extremely original and highly personal theatre which includes the use of intensely erotic and scatological themes and images, all in the context of an emphasis on artistic freedom of imagination, based on the surrealistic foundations of Artaud and Breton as well as many other authors and movements of Twentieth Century drama and traditional

Spanish drama. The fact that Nieva has been little known as a dramatist is also due to his long self-exile from Spain during the regime of Francisco Franco. When he did return definitively in the late sixties, he dedicated the majority of his time to stage and scene production and design. Later, when he had begun to produce some of his plays, he continued to be considered a brilliant scenographer, director, teacher, and critic more than simply a writer of plays.

One of the points about which all critics are agreed is the extraordinary depth and breadth of literary culture and theatrical experience demonstrated in the work of Nieva, not only as a playwright, but also as a scenographer, director, and professor of

1 theatre. Certainly not the least important indications of this are his fairly recent (1986) induction into the Real Academia de la

Lengua1 as well as the Principe de Asturias prize for literature

(1992). This recognition has for some "signalled the establishment's acceptance of the avant-garde in its full antinaturalistic, antibourgeois potential."2 Other indications of this author's status as an authority on drama are his long career as professor in the Real

Escuela Superior de Arte DramAtico in Madrid, dating from the late sixties, and his creation of theatre companies which have been active in presenting his own plays as well as a wide variety of others. In addition, during the period of transition to democracy in the late

70's following the death of Francisco Franco, Nieva was credited with exerting "the most conspicuous influence on the early theatre of transition."3 AndrAs Amor6s credits Nieva with having "una culture desusada entre nuestras gentes de teatro."4 In a review of Nieva's version of Las aventuras de Tirante el Blanco. Eduardo Haro Tecglen, a leading theatre critic writing for a popular daily paper in Madrid, El

Eala, has affirmed that "Nieva sigue siendo el mejor escritor de textos teatrales de este tiempo."5

Nieva's work can be situated clearly outside the most popular currents of commercial Spanish theater and its uniqueness forces critics of artistic theatre of ideas to place him in his own category.

Francisco Ruiz Ramdn, for example, has referred to the theatre of

Nieva as unclassifiable, except to call it "un nuevo teatro en libertad."6 It is the purpose of this dissertation, in general 3

terms, to acquaint the reader with the most significant biographical

facts about the author which are important in understanding his work,

to analyze a central core of his most significant plays, and to

summarize his aesthetic principles and dramatic technique.

The only other dissertation to date in the United States to deal

in its entirety with the theatre of Francisco Nieva is devoted

primarily to the publication and translation of La carroza de Plomo

candente. The actual analysis of Nieva's work occupies by far the

smaller part of this work.7 In contrast, the bulk of the present

work is devoted to an analysis of the "teatro furioso" and a summary

of the key dramatic techniques and aesthetic principles they

illustrate.

The first chapter of this study identifies Nieva the man and

enumerates the experiences of his life that bear directly on the

quality and character of his theatre. Following that, we will

investigate the influences both in and out of Spain that affected

Nieva's thinking about theatre. A final part of the first chapter

discusses the rationale for the plays chosen for analysis.

The second chapter includes the analysis of two early works of

the "teatro furioso" called El combate de Qpalos v_Tasia and El

fandangoas.orobr.OSQ. These two plays illustrate the central themes and methods which will be further developed in succeeding plays and the

influence of the tradition of the Spanish "gSnero chico" in Nieva's plays. 4

The third chapter analyzes two of the three plays that are

termed "apocalipticas": PeiQ de tormenta and Es bueno no tener

cabeza. Special attention is given here to the experimental

theatrical form Nieva calls the "reopera" and to the influence of

major movements in the development of drama in the Twentieth Century

in Europe.

The fourth chapter concentrates on the two mature full-length works of the "teatro furioso" called La carroza.de Plomo candente and

Coronada y el toro. Concepts and techniques that the author initiated

in earlier plays develop here to their full extent.

The fifth chapter outlines the most important conclusions about

Nieva's aesthetic principles as derived from the preceding analyses.

It also contains some general conclusions and evaluations of the plays studied and the contribution of Francisco Nieva to modern Spanish and

European theatre.

Method of.., analysis, _ftfthe. plays

The primary focus of this dissertation is an analysis of the central themes of Nieva's plays. A thematic approach is valuable in discussing Nieva's work since he demonstrates a remarkable uniformity of theme through his persistent concern for Spain and sexuality. It will be demonstrated that Nieva employs and imitates forms and concepts drawn from traditional Spanish drama and uses them in the context of his exploration of the theme of personal and collective sexuality. As an aid in the organization of our analyses, the semiotic method will be used. How this method is understood in the context of the present work and how it is employed are discussed below.

Let us first consider the definition of the semiotic method given by Patrice Pavis:

Metodo de andlisis del texto y/o de la representacidn que centra su atencion en la organizacion formal del texto o del espectaculo, en la organizacion interna de sistemas significantes que componen el texto y el espectaculo, en la dinamica del proceso de significacidn y de instauracion del sentido por la accion de los practicantes del teatro y del publico.8

One of the several considerations implied in this definition is the application of the semiotic method to the ‘‘written text" produced by one author as compared to the analysis of the "performance text" which includes all those elements of the work as viewed in the production in the theater of which the written text is a part. The relationship of written text to performance text as described by Kier

Elam is not one of simple priority of the one over the other, but rather is “a complex of reciprocal constraints constituting a powerful intertextualitv" which is "problematic rather than automatic and symmetrical."® The same author also pessimistically explains that

"much of the basic groundwork of establishing agreed objectives and common analytic criteria for purposes of empirical research remains to be done."10

While it is true that in their studies to date many semioticians have played down the importance of the written text in order to concentrate more on the representation of theatrical works on the stage, Pavis tells us that "le texte linguistique s'en est souvent

trouve occulte ou noye dans une multitude d'autres syaternes sans que

son importance et sa specificity n'aient <§te suffisament

soulignees."1:1- Jean Alter has spoken of the "tension" between the

text and the performance as a distinctive element of theatre in

general stemming from a "necessary interaction of verbal and staging

signs, whereby the latter partly transform the former."12 All this

is not to say that a semiotics of the dramatic text is unscientific or

impossible; on the contrary, such a semiotics "is one of the necessary

starting-points for the foundation of a semiotics of the theater proper," the purpose of which is to "identify the semiological units at work in the production of meaning on stage, while respecting the sign relationships specific to the genre."13

The purpose of this dissertation is to analyze the central themes obvious in Nieva's work. To do this, we will employ the semiotic method as a means of organization. The field of operations of this method must per force be the verbal and staging signs found in a written text and one that also views the work as a "total text," to borrow the term used by Jean Alter.14 In this view, the text is not simply a literary exercise like other genres, but rather a text that must be read as a type of graphic notation of a future performance.

This method is especially applicable to the theatre of Nieva, since his dramatic texts will demonstrate not only a high literary quality but also a density of visual and aural signs that must be imagined in reading the text. In other words, to arrive at an understanding of Nieva's message in his plays, it is essential to consider both the verbal and visual elements in tandem, an idea expressed by Ortega y

Gasset in these terms:

[el teatro] no es una realidad que, como la pura palabra, llega a nosotros por la pura audicion. En el teatro no s61o oimos, sino que, mds aun y antes que oir, vemos... Desde ese fondo de visiones, emergiendo de §1, no llega la palabra como dicha con un determinado gesto, con un preciso disfraz y desde un lugar pintado.16

For Nieva, the text and the visual staging do not function separately but rather combine to form a "total theatre" in which each element by itself does not function in isolation, but rather a synthesis of the two is sought. This is not to identify Nieva's theatrical aesthetic with that of Antonin Artaud, who sought the suppression of the word/text and the dominance of "action." Rather, in Nieva the text is valued at least as much as visual presentation.

Two principle areas of analysis can be derived from this: that of the form of the text as a whole and that of the systems of signs

(codes) that are found in the text, their relationship to one another and their development as the work progresses. These two areas will provide a basic overall structure to the analysis of each play.

The next step is the organization of the internal systems of signs that embody the meaning of the text/spectacle. We refer here to a synchronic analysis of the objective realities or phenomena which in some way demonstrate or portray the meaning of the work. Tadeusz

Kowzan, for example, has enumerated thirteen systems or types of these objective realities: the word (text), tone, mime, gesture, movement, makeup, hair style, clothing, physical props, set, lighting, music and sound.16 These may be subdivided in several ways: those that are

verbal versus the non-verbal; those that involve space or those of

time or a combination of the two; and those that are visual contrasted

with the aural. The spectator is therefore bombarded with a

multiplicity of signifiers which at times reiterate the message of

each other or contrast with them. It is important that the result of

each analysis be the integration of each semiotic part into a complete

thematic structure or at least that the absence of such integration be

recognized at the level of theme.

In summary, then, the first chapter introduces the author biographically, as well as introducing some important literary

influences; the second, third, and fourth chapters are devoted to the analysis of the most important plays of the "teatro furioso;" and the fifth chapter is a summary of the themes and aesthetic technique demonstrated in Nieva's work. 9

NOTES

1. Notification of this is found in El pais 18 Apr. 1986: 33.

2. Martha T. Halsey and Phyllis Zatlin, "Is there life after Lorca?," in The-Contemporary. Spanish Theater: A Collection of Critical Essays, eds. Martha T. Halsey and Phyllis Zatlin (New York: UP of America, 1988) 21.

3. Marion P. Holt, "Spain's Theatre of Transition," Drama Contemporary; Spain (New York: Performing Arts Journal, 1985) 9.

4. Andres Amords, in Francisco Nieva, candente. Coronada y el toro. ed. Andres Amoros (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1986) 10.

5. Eduardo Haro Tecglen, "La firma de Nieva," El Pais. 14 Aug. 1987: 27.

6. Francisco Ruiz Ramon, Historia del teatro espafiol: siglo XX. 6th ed. (Madrid: Catedra, 1984) 569-571.

7. Emil George Signes, "The Theatre of Francisco Nieva: A Summary, Analysis, and Bibliography, together with an Edition and Translation of La carroza de Plomo candente." Diss. Rutgers U 1982.

8. Patrice Pavis, Diccionario del teatro (Barcelona: Paidos, 1980) 440.

9. Kier Elam, The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama (London: Routledge, 1980) 209.

10. Elam 210.

11. Patrice Pavis, Voix et Images de la Scdne (Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1985) 35.

12. Jean Alter, "From Text to Performance," Poetics Today 2.3 (1981): 115.

13. Alessandro Serpieri, et al, "Toward a Segmentation of the Dramatic Text," Poetics .Today 2.3 (1981): 164.

14. Jean Alter, "From Text to Performance" 116. 10

15. Jos§ Ortega y Gasset, Idea del teatro (Madrid: Ediciones de la Revista de Occidente, 1966). Quoted here from Jorge Urrutia, "De la posible imposibilidad de la critica teatral y de la reivindicacion del texto literario," in Semiologia del teatro. eds. Jos§ Maria Diez Borque and Luciano Garcia Lorenzo. (Barcelona: Editorial Planeta, 1975) 271.

16. Tadeusz Kowzan, "El signo en el teatro. Introduccion a la semiologia del arte del espectaculo." In Theodor W. Adorno, El teatro y. an .orisis actual. (Caracas: Monte Avila, 1969). CHAPTER I

BIOGRAPHICAL AND LITERARY INTRODUCTION

Life, and Professional Activity1

Francisco Morales Nieva was born in Valdepenas (Ciudad Real) in

1927, the son of educated bourgeois parents of Andalusian extraction.

His family had roots in the wine exporters of the city of Granada reaching back for generations. His first years were spent in the cities of Valdepenas and Toledo where his father served as a civil governor until the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. Nieva has described his family as representing "un cierto tipo de liberales muy anticuados, muy de otro siglo."2 He describes his ancestors as

"opulentos, de puro en boca, tiranos domesticos, pero volterianos, rosacruces, francmasones..."3 This liberal and Republican tradition combined with a vague Jewish connection are two things that gave Nieva a certain feeling of dishonor in the eyes of "la sociedad espahola con la que he tenido que pactar sumisamente."4

His childhood games and toys appear to demonstrate an incipient interest in artistic and musical endeavors. Nieva states repeatedly that his preferred playthings at this age were little toy theaters and marionettes as well as toy soldiers. Also important for the developing sensitivities of the young Nieva were the nascent art of 12

the silent movies and cartoons of the period, with characters like

Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd and Mickey Mouse. The effect of these

early films in Nieva's thinking is illustrated in an introduction he

writes for his "reopera" called Aguelarre o noche ro.ia _de Nosferatu:

El escenario se inspira en la alta historia del cine mudo, en sus incoloros fantasmas y primitivos mitos: Nosferatu. de Murnau; Lft_r.eina. Kelly, de Stroheim,- La calle sin alearia. de Pabst; Mickey Mouse... Evocamos estas imagenes oscilantes con un sentido de terror, porque son los primeros fantasmas bien conservados de nuestro tiempo y a los que mejor podemos pedirles su culpable complicidad en el hechizo.®

Nieva was privileged also in that his parents introduced him at

a young age to theater productions in Madrid, including the debut of

El otro of Unamuno, a staging of "La barraca" of Lorca, as well as the highly popular zarzuelas of the time. Nieva also declares his

familiarity with stage and literary artists of the time like Carmen

Diaz, Josefina Diaz, Santiago Artigas, Borras, Margarita Xirgu; and

states that he had heard talk about the controversial Valle-Inclan.

Music appears to have played a large part in Nieva's early family life. This is true not only because of productions of zarzuelas and operas to which he was taken, but also in his family

life:

El padre de mi madre era un gran aficionado a la 6pera y un lector obstinado. Su mujer tocaba el piano con gracia y sensibilidad. En casa de mi madre, ella y sus hermanas sonaban la guitarra y aprendian de un vejete a bailar seguidillas y jotas.6

The historical event that most affected Nieva's life, as it did for so many other Spanish intellectuals of his generation, was the

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). For Nieva, it came unexpectedly during hie most impressionable pre-adolescent years and obviously left its

psychological mark. At the outset of this conflagration, Nieva's

family left Toledo to return to the author's home town of Valdepenas,

a period which he has characterized as “un apocalipsis pueblerino."7

One of the strong impressions that derive from that period is an

incident involving a painter from Valdepenas who enlisted in the

Republican army with his young son, both of whom were senselessly

killed in the fighting. Nieva as a child identified with this man,

perhaps because of his artistic occupation of painting, which was so

unusual in that town and which Nieva also had studied.

At the close of the war, when Nieva was about twelve and his

family lived for a time isolated in the Sierra Morena because of

persecution by those who favored the Republican side in the war, he

began his first attempts at writing theater as well as drawing and

painting. He has termed these writings absurd comedies which were

never finished.8 He also mentions having written a little later an

attempt at a theater of "ruptura magica," but with little aesthetic

success, and before any contact with Surrealism.® Nieva's professor

Juan Alcaide Sanchez was influential in directing his reading in

classical authors like Rojas, Cervantes, and Quevedo as well as the more unorthodox contemporary authors like Alfred Jarry. In the midst

of these experiences, a definite personal aesthetic direction was

initiated that was distinct from the typical standards of bourgeois theater and that would ultimately lead to his best work. 14

Throughout the forties we find Nieva for the most part in

Madrid. The atmosphere of this period following the Civil War was

stifling and depressing for a young artist. It was at this time that his career as a painter began when he entered the Escuela de Bellas

Artes at age fifteen. He achieved some success in this endeavor as witnessed by an exposition in the Madrid bookstore "Clan" where his work hung beside that of Jean Cocteau. He also worked as an illustrator for the literary journal Estafeta Literaria.

In the year 1953, Nieva received a scholarship to study painting at the French Institute, and thus began an important phase in his life and artistic development: "No hay duda que la etapa francesa influyo en mi, desde Jollit Curie hasta Georges Bataille, tuve la oportunidad de conocer a la plana mayor del pensamiento francos."10 Here he became immersed in the extravagant and bohemian existence of many artists and writers of the period. Poverty and artistic creativity are the hallmarks of this period. He rubbed shoulders with such writers as Samuel Beckett, Ionesco, and Arthur Adamov, participated in the artistic group "Cobra," and was acquainted with artists and poets like Jean Arp, Alechinsky, DotrSamont, Ravel Appel, and Constantin

Brancusi.11 In light of the importance Nieva placed later on the visual aspects of his plays, it's important to note that the major artistic successes of Nieva at this time were in the field of painting. Samples of his work were acquired by the Museums of Modern

Art of Liege and Paris. His critical articles on art were published along side those of Picasso and Mir6. Throughout this period, Nieva maintained contact and interest in the exciting and rapidly changing world of the Parisian theater. He attended the openings of TheJBald Soprano by Ionesco, The Parody by

Adamov, and Waiting for Godot by Beckett, all presented in the early

1950's. The visit of Bertold Brecht to Paris in 1954 at the Festival of Paris at the TheAtre des Nations where he directed the Berliner

Ensemble production of his own Mother Courage was a decisive influence on Nieva's thinking about the theater and its needed renovations. The most important of these is that theater should be directed at a collective audience rather than be limited by the conventions of the bourgeois theater of the past. Nieva's words illustrate this point clearly:

Estaba de moda el teatro didActico de Brecht, que a mi tambien me interes6 mucho, sobre todo desde el punto de vista de la escenografia, porque traia una serie de remedios de urgencia al teatro a la italiana y mas que nada porque su teatro rompia la relaci6n sociedad-lugar- literatura con un teatro hecho para un publico en general, no para las primeras filas de butaca, como hace el teatro burguAs y hacxa entonces todo el teatro de Boulevard que yo tanto aborrecxa.12

Two other very different but successful productions in the same theater made an impression on the thinking of Nieva: that of Visconti with a minor work of Goldoni titled The Empresario of Smyrna, and that of Walter Felsenstein with the "Komische Oper" from East Berlin with their famous Stories of Hoffman. Of these Nieva states: "Estas tres impresiones fueron decisivas para mx — autor con pocas esperanzas— , pues me impulsaron a aceptar el teatro como fuera, desde cualquiera de sus aspectos, todo antes que renunciar a el.“13 16

Another important influence on Nieva's future theatre was

Antonin Artaud, who had died shortly before Nieva came to Paris but whom he says he came to know indirectly by meeting Colette Allendy, one of the friends and supporters of Artaud. Nieva was surprised and intrigued with the innovative theories of Artaud's "Theatre of

Cruelty" and recognized some parallels in his own thinking on theatre.

The philosophical writings of George Bataille and the novels of

Jean Genet, especially Qur_J^ady. of the Flowers, should also be considered fundamental to the aesthetic thinking Nieva develops that culminates in his most innovative theatre, the teatro furioso. Nieva was in contact with nearly all the important figures of art, theatre and opera at the time. Moreover, though he came to Paris with art as a primary field of endeavor, the theater became his major critical interest and he became professionally involved by means of his participation in scene design and production.

In 1954 Nieva married Genevidve Escande, who introduced him to

Georges Bataille and Robert Morast, who later translated some articles

Nieva wrote for publication by the Centre National de la Recherche

Scientifique. These articles deal with a wide breadth of themes from art to theatre and include titles like: "Vignette pour une nouvelle critique de la peinture" (1955), "Garcia Lorca, metteur en scene: les intermedes de Cervantes" (1956), "Vertus plastiques du thedtre de

Valle-Inclan" (1957) and "Autour d'une crise de style" (1958).

During these years in Paris, Nieva wrote almost no original theatre though his interest in theatre is demonstrated by the articles 17 already mentioned and his personal contact with the leading theatrical figures of the day. Perhaps due to his growing understanding of his own homosexuality, his distaste for married life, as well as an interest in continuing a career in Spanish theatre, his desire to leave Paris grew. A return to Madrid during this period seemed undesirable due to the conditions prevalent in Spain. Nieva explains that after his reading of Genet and Bataille,

Habia en mi como una posesidn de ideas transgresoras, de provocacion y de denuncia. ... Me era imposible volver y entenderme con nadie aqui [Espafia]; me era imposible continuar en Paris escribiendo en espafiol.14

During most of the 60's, therefore, we find him traveling around all of Europe, continually involved in various aspects of theatre and opera.

Nieva has related the importance of his stay in Venice during the early 60's as a crucial moment in his thinking and his theatre.

Having rented a house there, thanks to his friendship with Octavio

Paz, he begins a life he describes as "una fiesta alucinante entre largos vacios angustiosos en la ciudad flotante y mirifica."10 In this environment which he terms "inmoral" and in the company of so many "interesting, stupid and daring" people like Ezra Pound and

Gregori Corso, Nieva's ultimate concept of himself and his sexuality and of his theatre is made concrete:

Pero en este abandono y en la mas deliciosa indignidad se concreto mi idea de un teatro "gritado" y armonioso de palabras punzadoras como los tacos de la vieja recadera; antirrealista furibundo y reclamador de una justicia por el placer o por el dolor de lo atrevido.16 18

Two factors seem to have led Nieva at this juncture toward a

career in theatrical scene design. One was the lack of success he had

in publishing his own creative writing due to the negative reaction of those to whom he showed his work. One example follows:

Nieva era un crio de veinte afios cuando le dio por ensehar algunas cosas suyas (entre ellas. la Eascua. negra) a Matilde Pom§s, amiga de Garcia Lorca, que entonces estaba en Gallimard. Y no pudiera haber sido mas agria la reaccion de la Pomes, ofendida en su dignidad, que tachaba de "indecentes, amorales y absurdos" sus escritos."17

Another factor was the Nieva's expressed need to be involved in some way in dramatic production, and since the role of dramatist was not possible at the time, scene design was at least partially satisfying.

Some examples of his work in scene design and production are those done with Adolfo Marsillach in 1964 for the Teatro Goya in

Madrid: Eigmalion of George Bernard Shaw and After the Fall by Arthur

Miller. In that same year he worked with Jo b S Luis Alonso on Eugene

Ionesco's Exit the King at the Teatro Maria Guerrero, as well on

Marat-Sade by Peter Weiss. He was also involved in scene design for many productions of works by Spanish authors and composers: La dama duende, produced in New York and Madrid; ELJpu£lMoiL_de_Sevilla, by

Tirso de Molina; BQmang.e._d&J.Qb.oa and by Ramon del Valle-Incl£n; La vida breve and KL_£fit.abIo Jje.jaa&ag-Jgfidnfl by

Manuel de Falla; Penita Jimenez by Albeniz; and El senor AdriAn by

Carlos Arniches. An extensive period in 1966-67 finds Nieva in East

Berlin working with Felsenstein at the Komische Oper on the ballet

Cinderella. 19

This scenographic work is complemented by renewed effort in

revising his own plays already begun and in beginning new ones. A

list of some of these works illustrates as well the extensive travels

of Nieva in this period: Nafifecfltu and El fandango_asombroso in Madrid

(1961); EelQ-.de tomsa.t.a in Paris (1962); Es bueno no tener cabeza in

Dublin (1966); EI_mar.avillD.flQ catarro de Lord Bashavilie in Vienna

(1967); as well as a new play written while in Berlin: Elcorazon

acelerado (1968).

All the experiences mentioned to this point— scenography,

cinematographic decoration, painting, drawing, as well as the

continued interest in writing— demonstrate a multifaceted artistic

interest and application that will be a hallmark of all Nieva's later

work in the theater, even though creative dramatic writing may seem to

be less important during this period. Nieva's dramatic production

presents a balance between the textual element and the visual and

aural stage production which he will later term “total theatre." It has been noted by Antonio Gonzalez, for example, that

cuando hace escenografia estd realizando una dramaturgia, cuando escribe bus dramas esta pensando simultaneamente en sus espacios escAnicos y en los aspectos plasticos de cada escena, y cuando practica la direccidn teatral estd englobando todo lo anterior.18

Beginning before the year 1969 and continuing to the present,

Nieva's principal residence has been Madrid. Shortly after his return to Spain, he became known quickly as perhaps the premier stage designer of the period, with great demand for his work. Since 1970,

Nieva also has had a career in teaching as professor of "escenografia" 20

at the Real Escuela Superior de Arte Dramatico and of "dibujo

decorativo" at the Escuela Superior de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.

To this point, all Nieva's experience lends weight to his being termed

"un hombre total de teatro," except for the fact that his work had not

yet appeared on the commercial stage in his own country.

The first play by Nieva to be performed in Spain was Es bueno no

tener cabeza. It was performed in a student production in the Escuela

de Arte Dramatico in June of 1971, as well as in the summer of 1972 in

the Sorbonne in Paris during a conference called "Journ6es

Universitaires sur le ThA&tre Espagnol Contemporain" along with works

by Miguel Romero Esteo, Fernando Arrabal, Lauro Olmo, and Agustin

G6mez Arcos.10 Though it was obvious that the commercial theater

producers were not interested in attempting one of Nieva's plays, he

was not deterred from continuing to write. During the first half of

the decade of the 70's he completed La aenora tartara. Funeral v

B&SfiS&lle, La_ carroza de Plomo. candente, Coronada y el toro, EL-Pflfio de-induzl&s, El baile de los ardientes, and Los espafloles ba.io tierra.

One cause for optimism that his plays might be accepted in the future was the revolution taking place in the theatre of Spain at the time,

demonstrated by renewed interest in the ideas of Antonin Artaud and

Brecht, as well as experimentation in the new styles of presentation

such as the "Living Theater” of Grotowski, and groups such as the

"Bread and Puppet," and "Mama."

The death of Francisco Franco in November, 1975, initiated many changes in the theater and culture of Spain, and significantly, in 21

March, 1976, Nieva achieved his first public staging in the commercial

theater. On this occasion, it was an adaptation of, or more

accurately, a production of Nieva's own play based on Larra's No mas mQgtrader, entitled Sombra y auimera de harra. This event was quickly

followed by the production in May of two of his original plays: La fiargfiza^.de-.pli3mQ. can dente and El combate de Opalos_y Tasia. These plays not only enjoyed some critical and public success but also were

awarded the Premio Mayte in January, 1977. Also of note is the fact that La carroza was probably the first to display total nudity on the

Spanish stage, though certainly not the last, and thus participated in the environment of free expression, known as "el destape," which occurred during the transition to democracy in the years following

Franco's death in 1975. Nieva's theatre at this point took on the nature of a personal and public protest against the strictures of the former Franco regime.

A greater success came in December, 1979, with a production of

Nieva's version of Cervantes' Los banos de Argel for which the adaptor was awarded the Premio Nacional de Teatro. In 1980 El rayo colgado and La jaeflora T&rtara were presented to excellent reviews and popular success. Much was said about the language Nieva used in these plays and its likeness to that of Valle-Incl&n. In 1982 it was Coronada v el toro at the Teatro Nacional Maria Guerrero, followed later by other adaptations. Later in 1986, an adaptation of Tirant lo Blanc, a book written by the Catalan knight Joanot Martorell, was presented in the context of the summer theatre festival in Merida, Spain. Nieva has always been intimately involved in most of the major productions of his work, whether directing, co-directing, or staging.

He has also directed opera productions, continued his career as professor, served on the Junta Consultative del Centro Dramatico

Nacional, adapted some of his plays for presentation on television, as well as written a wide variety of articles and essays, not only on theatrical topics, but also on a wide range of topics of general interest for such periodicals as Primer. Aclo, El_Bais, M G , and others. Perhaps the highlight of his career was his election to the

Spanish Academia de la Lengua in 1986, in recognition of his accomplishments in theatre and contributions to all aspects of the art of theater in Spain. In addition, Nieva received the prestigious

Principe de Asturias de las Letras award on May 29, 1992, in recognition of "su continuidad renovadora de la mejor tradicion teatral espafiola, por su creacion verbal y su invencion de espacios eBcenicos."20 In the words of Octavio Paz, president of the selection committee, Nieva "prolonga la tradicion teatral de Valle-

Incldn, y, en cierto modo, de Lorca, lo que llamamos tradicidn teatral hispanica, que se une con la universal."21

In spite of this verbal recognition, for Nieva, as with many other Spanish playwrights, access to the commercial theater as a playwright has always been difficult and problematic, leaving many of his important works yet to be produced on stage. Before the death of

Franco, censorship may be considered among the primary reasons for this. During the period of "transition," Nieva was first recognised 23 as an important playwright. After the Socialist government gained power in 1982, a new policy of institutionalization was initiated which injected significant new funds into the public theaters but led to a politicization of the content of the works presented. The main result of all this has been a conservatism in the theater which prevents innovation and risk-taking. Thus, the preferred plays are those of the canonized Spanish authors of the past (Twentieth Century authors would include: Valle-Inclan, Lorca, Buero Vallejo, and Antonio

Gala) and successful foreign plays.

The status of Francisco Nieva in this new atmosphere has been characterized, along with that of Alfonso Sastre, as one of several

"autores silenciados y luego recuperados."22 He has been able to gain public support for at least one production on the theme of homosexuality, EL-baile de los ardientes (1990). In spite of the production of several original short works (Te.guiero zorra. No es

YfiEd&cU and Corazdn de_arpia) in 1988-89 and several versions of works by other authors (Manfredo by Byron, and El._deflden.jQQn el deaden by

Moreto), Nieva has generally been categorized as an academic rather than an active playwright, and this by a public that once considered him a symbol of renovation and change.23

Major Llterftry...Influenc.efl

Since Nieva's theatre demonstrates such a breadth of intellectual and theatrical experience, it is necessary to introduce and discuss briefly the authors and movements that serve as 24

antecedents to his work. We will do this by dealing first with those

external to Spain in a roughly chronological order with respect to

Nieva's contact with them, following his travels upon leaving Spain in

1949 for Paris, noting those authors and literary movements that have

had an impact on his creative thinking.

Nieva participated just before leaving Spain in 1949 in what he

calls the only Spanish avant-garde movement of the 40's, "postismo."

A description of this "movement" will demonstrate its insignificance:

In 1944, the ephemeral movement called postismo was started. It never gained many followers. It was devised by three writers: Carlos Edmundo de Ory, Eduardo Chicharro, and an Italian called Silvano Sernesi. They were very conscious of Surrealism, but sought an improvement by imitating it with more conscious artistry [...] The public appearances of the Postists were a failure [...] Soon afterwards, even the Postists themselves had forgotten about the movement.24

The importance for Nieva of participation in this movement was

that it facilitated contact with other writers and movements such as

Joyce, Kandinski, Klee, "dadaism," as well as Marinetti's "Futurism."

According to Nieva, the "postistas" were not important with regard to

the Spanish context in which they existed, but rather were of interest

to those who came from outside Spain as a phenomenon unique for its

time because of the extravagant nature of the life and work of those

involved. It was, though, important to Nieva for the refuge it

offered:

Cuando vine a Madrid -un Madrid con tranvias amarillos y olor a chinches- me agarr§ a todo lo que me parecia refinado, barroco, complicado, bellisimo... Me refugie en la gran evasion, en el sueno surrealista.25

This movement, therefore, served as a bridge extending from the 25 stagnant post-war Spain described here to the vibrant life and art he was to experience in Paris.

The biographical and literary importance for Nieva of the year

1949, and his exit from the oppressive Spain of Franco cannot be overemphasized. Upon arriving in Paris on a scholarship to study art, he appears to have found what he was looking for, "[...] cuando me encontre con gentes con una mayor necesidad de totalidad [...] encontre un gran alivio."2S Nieva then is one of many Spanish authors who placed themselves in a kind of self-exile during the

Franco dictatorship out of artistic or political necessity, and in that new vibrant location, were open to and sought out innovative artistic influences.

This flight should not be considered pure escapism on the part of Nieva, but rather a search for "new forms." Speaking again of this same period in the early 50's, Nieva in an interview in 1985 states:

[...] lo que descubri fue una cultura francesa que venia del simbolismo e iba disparada al superrealismo. En ese sentido, hice un apartheid muy curioso: me dedique exclusivamente a las vanguardias; no les tenia miedo. Lo que pasa es que a mi las vanguardias me Servian para buscar formas nuevas, no para deshacerlas.27

In the same interview, on being asked if he considered himself an author of "formacion intelectual francesa," Nieva responds, "no del todo, porque yo llevaba ya una formacion clasica espaftola."

The first author Nieva mentions as an important influence on him in this period is Antonin Artaud. Nieva characterizes his acquaintance with the innovative theories of Artaud as a "discovery": 26

Unos afios mas tarde me fui a Paris. Alii descubri a Artatud [sic] a traves de las personas que lo habian conocido intimamente. [__ ] A mi me deslumbrd. Un hombre que hablaba de trajes fastuosisimos, de marionetas de diez metros...28

What is most important for Nieva in Artaud is that "El teatro podria volver a ser orgia: orgia de sangre, de placer, de tormento, de confesion." In explanation, Nieva declares that in this view, theatre is like

una gran travesura, como un juego malvado, como algo que nos descarga y nos libera de la misma forma que los nihos cuando traman hacer un mal. [__] Esta idea de travesura final estaba ya en Artaud que queria hacer gritar a la gente de horror.28

As time passes and his interest grows, Nieva states that "se fue exacerbando mi curiosidad por Artaud, cuando algunos de sus escritos me iban confirmando en el derecho a mis propios instintos."3°

Much later (1985), Nieva refers again to the influence of Artaud not only in his own work but also in the European scene in general.

He mentions in this regard Grotowsky and the Living Theatre as examples of the fruition of Artaudian ideas that at first, at the time of his arrival in Paris, were ignored. In doing this, he refers again to the aesthetic of Artaud in different but related terms:

Y esa fue la gran sorpresa: que el pensamiento de Artaud fructificase despues de tal modo con la aparicidn de Growtowsky, [sic] el Living Theatre y algun que otro escritor, en este caso yo en Espana, que Aramos descendientes de una propuesta estetica muy clara: volver a la catarsis en teatro. Yo entonces emplee mucho el humor, pero buscaba esa catarsis [...].31

In particular, Nieva mentions in the same context two works of his teatro furioso that incorporate these ideas: Pelo de torments and La 27 carroza de Plomo candente. both of which we will analyze later. So central to the aesthetic of Nieva are the theories of Artaud that it has been said that "quiza sea Nieva quien ha asimilado en Espana con mayor profundidad la leccion de Artaud.*'32

Broadening the scope of the discussion to the relationship of

Nieva to the Surrealist movement in general, Nieva has been classified as the Spanish representative of what Gloria Orenstein calls the

"Theatre of the Marvelous."33

The Contemporary theatre of surrealist origins [...] can best be seen as the spark created by the welding together of two disparate philosopical strains whose approach to theatrical creation may be defined as, on the one hand, the Bretonian tendency, which stresses 1'alchimie du verbe. or the alchemy of the word, and, on the other hand, the Artaudian tendency, which emphasizes l"alchimie du corps, or the alchemy of the body. Whereas the Bretonian tendency maintains that changing life and transforming man can be accomplished through a verbal process, the Artaudian principle strives to achieve this transformation by a direct and preferable nonverbal intervention in the events of life itself.34

At the moment of union of these two contrasting approaches, "the magical use of language precipitates the creation of new events, and the "Theatre of the Event" sensitizes man so that he rediscovers the magical use of language." This theatre has its roots in Surrealism,

"but has moved beyond a mere imitation of works created by earlier writers of the movement in order to make a theatrical statement in its own terms and in relation to its own times." In general terms, the theatre of Nieva may be classified in this category as illustrated by what we have already seen and will see in the analyses of works to come, though he himself has not spoken directly of any relationship of 28 his theatre to the Theatre of the Marvelous, as he haB with regard to the theories of Artaud.

A primary impetus and influence to the Surrealists and the avant-garde theatre of the Twentieth Century in general, was the theatre of Jarry, in particular the Ubu Roi plays. Since Nieva was influenced by the Surrealists, the parallels with Jarry's theatre will be clear throughout the analysis of his plays. It appears that the initial introduction of Nieva to Jarry's work took place while he was still a child since he attributes to his teacher, Juan Alcaide

Sanchez, the first contact with texts like La Celestina. the works of

Solana and of A. Jarry.35 Possibly this is one of the first sources from which Nieva experienced the idea of "rupture" (ruptura) or breaking with established norms in theatre of which he speaks so often.

One of the important elements Nieva saw in the Ubu plays and one that has been imitated also in the Surrealistic theatre we have already seen is the play as a sort of "ritual of psychic unveiling, forcing the audience to confront the images and the discourse of their unconscious."36 Other similarities include an emphasis on the theme of sexuality and the importance of its "shock” value, as well as continual reference to various scatological phenomena. In the characters of both authors we see a lack of psychological development

(this is especially true in the teatro furioso of Nieva) and intertextuality (though this is much more evident in Jarry) which tends to unify their plays thematically. To these may be added the 29 use of language in general and neologisms in particular for their creativity and humorous tone as well as the recurrence of androgynous characters such as Ubu himself and many in Nieva. In the work of both authors we will see a lack of temporal continuity and precision, as well as locations that are imprecise or that do not exist in the

"real" world.

Nieva also follows Jarry's theatre in its criticism of the bourgeois view of the world and the modern purportedly scientific and industrial solutions to man's problems. Added to this is a tone that has been characterised as a "cosmic malignity that hovers invisibly over the characters in present-day avant-garde dramas."37 We will see this cataclysmic tone also in many of Nieva's plays, but usually presented with a more optimistic denouement which permits the possibility of escape. The purely rational view of life will be nullified in Nieva's work as it is in the Ubu plays by the necessity of an increasing awareness of the importance of the irrational. The belief in the concepts of individual liberty and the liberating power of the human imagination typify Nieva as well as Jarry. It has been said of Jarry that "he stalked absolute freedom, even though it led him to self-destruction."38 Certainly Nieva does not follow this principle to personal self-destruction, but he does consistently apply the principle of freedom in the creative process.

Nieva has repeatedly admitted his debt to Bertold Brecht and has often referred to the arrival in Paris of Brecht and the Berliner

Ensemble as an important personal event and professional stimulus, 30

leading him from his work in art and theatre criticism into his

"vocacion teatral.”30 Nieva has explained Brecht's influence as

something that forced him to "aceptar el teatro como fuera, desde cualquiera de sus aspectos, todo antes de renunciar a el."4°

The "teatro didactico" of Brecht interested Nieva principally for the urgent remedies that it brought to the "teatro a la italiana" of the day. Most of all, in the words of Nieva, the theatre of Brecht

rompia la relacidn sociedad-lugar-1iteratura con un teatro hecho para un publico en general, no para las primeras filas de butaca, como hace el teatro burgues y hacia entonces todo el teatro de Boulevard que yo tanto aborrecia.41

Though this "opening" of the scenic space impressed him greatly, he turned back to the Artaudian idea of the theatre as a kind of "orgia," clearly indicating a distinct difference from Brecht's didactic theatre. The political message of many of Brecht's plays destroys them and makes them "intragables" in the view of Nieva, "no porque sea politico, sino porque esa circunstancia politica ha periclitado."42

What affected Nieva most in his later theatrical production was

Brecht's use of the stage and his scenography. So much so that Nieva can affirm:

Brecht fue para mi tambien una gran influencia, desde el punto de vista, sobre todo, de la puesta en escena y la escenografia, como escenografo, y me he basado casi siempre en los principios de Brecht [...] porque yo los he barroquizado.43

Placing renewed importance on the stage as part of the “theatrical reality" is the great lesson of Brecht for Nieva, and in this the message of Artaud and Brecht are very similar, according to Nieva. 31

The practical results for Nieva's future theatre are outlined by Perez

Coterillo:

Bertold Brecht llega a Paris, al The&tre des Nations, y Nieva comprende que el espacio escenico reducido al lugar convencional del teatro burgues y dedicado a las primeras filas de butaca debia de ser roto para encontrar un teatro para la colectividad. Los escenarios giratorios, los cambios de ambientes, la caraeterizacion global de la escena, en lugar del cuidado meticuloso de los detalles, va a proporeionarle una optica determinants en su trabajo posterior.44

A clear link can be drawn between Nieva and authors of this type

in French literature, such as Georges Bataille, Lautreamont, and the

Marquis de Sade. On being asked directly whether he felt nostalgia

for a certain "malditismo" in his theatre, Nieva responds like this:

No, no. Es que yo cualquier cosa maldita que exista en mi vida la tengo muy guardada, muy bien callada. No quiero hacer un espectaculo de lo que podria ser mi malditismo. Quiero vivir en un mundo que acepte perfectamente mi modo de ser, quiero no tener una doble vida, que es lo que ha hundido a la cultura bur guess. Porque yo soy un conservador, lo estoy diciendo siempre, pero no un pequefio burgues.45

Nieva continues by explaining that he considers himself a "marginado vergonzante," which is for him a way of referring to a "vida privada" which is totally blocked off from the world, which submerges the

personal life of the writer in anonymity. It seems clear at this point that he is referring to his well-known homosexuality.

Interestingly, he does not consider himself in the class of a Jean

Genet, who could not integrate into society. Rather he is an author who, though integrated, desires to maintain a private world for his creative thought and imagination. 32

Among the most decisive readings that Nieva mentions he made in

Paris were essays of Bataille.4© Though Bataille wrote mainly

novels and poetry, it is in the realm of philosophy that his greatest

impact has been felt. Nieva explains his importance this way:

Pensadores como Georges Bataille miran mucho el sistema de coherencias moralizantes para -escarbar en el corazon humano de forma mucho mds conflictiva, angustiosa, interrogante.47

Bataille has been described as "undoubtedly one of the most

elusive figures of French intellectual life to attain legendary status

in this century."48 Having equated literature and evil, he is known

as an "Acrivain maudit," in the line of Sade and LautrAamont, whose

writings include everything from erotic novels to philosophical

contemplations, the bulk of which is difficult to pigeonhole because

of its unwieldy diversity and sometimes seemingly self-contradictory

nature.

It has been noted by Jesus Barraj6n in reference to another

study done on Nieva's theatre by Katarzyna Gorna-Urbanska that the

ideas of Bataille and Nieva coincide principally in their treatment of

"pecado y culpa."4® In fact, Nieva views "culpa" as a tool of the

bourgeoisie to dominate society. Nieva, therefore, sees this as a

barrier that must be crossed in order to more deeply understand the

nature of humanity. This process is called "transgression” by both

authors, and it is fundamental in understanding the ethical

underpinnings of their thinking. The result for Nieva's theatre is

that there is little dichotomy between good and evil, sensuality and mysticism, or sacred and profane. As we will see in the analyses of 33

the plays, Nieva uses this technique to integrate many erotic,

scatological, irrational and grotesque elements with their opposites

in the pursuit of his freedom of theatrical expression.

Jean Genet is of special significance to Nieva as well. He refers not to Genet's theatre, but to his novels, especially Our Lady of the Flowers, as the style of writing that he would like to be able to duplicate in the theatre. Here Nieva is referring to the private nature of his theatre created for his own secret enjoyment as much as for public demonstration, just as the convict in Genet's novel collects his pictures and enshrines them in secret in his cell. For the convict, the only place of freedom of thought and imagination was in his cell alone with his pictures. For Nieva, the private world is projected on the public stage in the hope it might be enjoyed collectively.

Another unique and interesting comparison may be drawn between

Nieva and Fernando Arrabal, another Spaniard who, like Nieva, took refuge in Paris during the 1940's but, unlike Nieva, has remained permanently as a resident of France. He has written many plays and other works in French and is considered in many circles a French author, though his Spanish roots are undeniable. Like Nieva, Arrabal was deeply affected by the events surrounding the Spanish Civil War, which divided his immediate family and left indelible psychological marks on the future author. Arrabal was part of the "postismo" movement in the 1940's and has referred to this movement as a source for his ideas on the novel. His transfer to Paris brought him into 34 contact with the same avant-garde movements of surrealism and the

Theatre of the Absurd in which he has not simply taken part over the years, but which he himself has influenced with his own theatre.

Many of the characteristics of his drama closely parallel those of Nieva. His central objective is personal and artistic liberation.

There is an oneiric quality in his drama which expresses itself in surrealistic staging effects like the frequent use of music, slides, projections, and stage pictures. In opposition to a narrative plot with logical development, Arrabal presents repetitive ceremonial cycles filled with surprising transformations of the characters. Love is presented in the context of the same repression-transgression dychotomy we see in Nieva, drawn from the ideas of Bataille and

Foucault. Arrabal's themes center around sacrilege, sexuality, cruelty and violence, politics and freedom: all illustrated by characters who appear to be adult children, lacking any sense of personal responsibility or morality. Even Arrabal's "The&tre Panic." the name given to a new kind of theatre produced by Arrabal and others in the 1960's, bears some likeness to the "teatro furioso" of Nieva in its emphasis on the game of pure performance, oneiric ritual, grotesque transformations, and sublime sacrilege.50

Despite these likenesses, some distinct differences are clear.

Significantly, Arrabal has chosen to remain in France, contrasting with Nieva who returned to a renewed and successful career in Spain.

Arrabal's relationship to the avant-garde and the Theatre of the

Absurd is that of a participant whereas Nieva should be understood to 35

have been influenced deeply by them without being an integral part of

them. Arrabal has also written plays that have a more obvious

political message (Guernica, Two Executioners, and and they put

handcuffs on the flowers) than any play by Nieva. Arrabal uses more

senseless cruelty and violence than Nieva, and presents love as dirty

and violent while Nieva speaks more positively of it. Arrabal has

also experimented with the novel (BaaL^ BabiIonia) in contrast to

Nieva's total dedication to theatre.

Spanish Theatre

The classification by the critics of Spanish dramatists of the

1970's and 1980's has been characteristically tenuous and tacit. Such

is the breadth of aesthetic and ethical purpose in the authors who

continue and/or succeed the predominantly realistic generation of the

1960's that only a very loose and debatable term has been reluctantly accepted: "Nuevo teatro espaffol." Francisco Nieva has generally been classed or associated with this group because chronologically his work as a playwright begins to be known during the early 70's.

In a general article in Primer Acto in 1974, Francisco Ruiz

Ram6n delineates what he terms the two great "dramatic tendencies" within the “Nuevo teatro espafrol." They are actually broad classifications: (1) "Del realismo a la alegoria" and (2) "Del alegorismo a la abstraccidn."B1 While he admits these are vague

"sectores o zonas," for Ruiz Ramdn it is nevertheless necessary to organize these authors in some way. Moreover, as broad as these 36

labels may seem, Ruiz Ramon is still forced to admit that "hay

dramaturgos (Francisco Nieva and Miguel Romero Esteo) que escapan a

las clasificaciones."52 Later in the second volume of his Historia del teatro espahol (1975), Ruiz Ramon ends the chapter on the "Nuevo teatro espahol" with the subdivision entitled "Nuevo teatro en

libertad," in which are included two authors: Miguel Romero Esteo and

Francisco Nieva. They are treated thus since "ambos desbordan las caracteristicas de las dos dramaturgies mayores en que hemos dividido el campo del 'Nuevo teatro espahol'."53

The reason for this difficulty in classification is the desire for "freedom" referred to by Ruiz Ramdn, and it is this characteristic that makes Nieva important in the panorama of present Spanish theatre:

"por este teatro en libertad, Nieva significa para nosotros un autentico paso adelante en el original camino abierto a la historia del teatro occidental por el Valle-Inclan de los esperpentos."54

Many other critics concur with this conclusion as well. Around the same time, 1973, on the occasion of the publishing of Nieva's Pelo de tormenta in Primer Acto. Josd Monledn states that "Para Nieva, en fin, la libertad seria un componente decisivo en su ideologia, en su relacion con el mundo."55 Later in 1986, quoting heavily from the earlier work of Ruiz Ramon, Andres Amords explains:

Libertad estetica, en fin, frente a cualquier ortodoxia: el compromiso politico, el realismo critico, el teatro epico o de los grupos independientes, los ismos, la posmodernidad... Defiende Nieva algo tan viejo— tan nuevo— como es la independencia del artista, la imaginacidn creadora, la busqueda expresiva, el culto a la belleza.56 37

Moisds Perea Coterillo arrives at the same conclusion in his general

introduction to Nieva's "Teatro furioso" in 1975: "Hay en la

'ideologia' de Nieva, a mi juicio, un ineludible deseo de libertad, colectivamente celebrada."B7

Of course, the perennially loquacious Nieva himself leaves no doubt or ambiguity in this area: "Estas palabras mias no pueden ocultar un hambre y una sed todavia no satisfechas de libertad." He adds to this declaration an admonition directed at other writers and producers of theatre:

hagamos lo posible y por el tiempo que sea posible por crear un terreno de tolerancia expectante en el que la libertad, como un avido y osado acto de alto erotismo, no encuentre trabas dogmaticas que la coarten, la entristezcan, la despersonalicen y la sumen en manos calabozas.BB

This aesthetic causes the theatre of Nieva to stand out from the realistic theatre so prevalent in the time of Franco's regime in

Spain. A plain statement of Nieva is clear on this point: "He tenido una formacion muy rara y quizas sea por eso por lo que nunca se me ocurrio hacer un teatro realista."Be More recently, Amords, while rightly recognizing the ambiguity and breadth of the term "realism," repeats the obvious: "un punto de partida seguro, previo a cualquier localizacion: nos encontramos con un hemisferio opuesto al de realismo."60 The same author then lists some of the variants of realism that may be considered at the opposite pole from Nieva: social realism, "costumbrismo," naturalism, neorrealism, epic realism, objectivism, "casticismo," and Spanish realism. Thus Nieva, having begun his dramatic writing in the 50's and therefore contemporary to 38

the most popular current dramatists, must be placed at the opposite

end of the thematic and methodological spectrums from writers like

Buero Vallejo, Alfonso Sastre, Martin Recuerda, Lauro Olmo, Antonio

Gala and others with a tendency toward realism or social criticism.

Referring to these same authors, Nieva admits that their work

"merece todo mi respeto, pero no merece mi respeto la prolongacion de

lo que a la larga va a ser otro sistema de represion."61 Following

close to this statement is the declaration of the necessity of

"rupture" in order for evolution to take place. Here as well we find

what might be termed Nieva's 'definition' of the realistic theatre

that during the time of Franco had as its purpose social and political

criticism:

[...] a veces es necesario romper con todo. Romper con la saturacidn de un teatro intimidado por el deber de calibrar injusticia, de acusar a los malos de su maldad y enaltecer la inmaculada bondad de los buenos. Romper con una critica salomonica que pone en la balanza lo que pesa el dolor de los doloridos y la crueldad de los crueles para justificar el servicio que el arte debe rendirle a la sociedad.62

Jose Monleon defines the relationship between the "Generacion

realista" and Nieva as complementary the one to the other, at the same

time that there is antagonism between the two styles. While the

realists "al viejo estilo" falsified reality by domesticating and

limiting it to a sociological framework, Nieva's “realismo" is

aesthetically distinct because it embodies a more anthropocentric view. Nieva's theatre is therefore a "luz para poder mejor comprender

nuestra condicion humana" or in other words, "un teatro en perpetua busqueda de la expresion mas ancha y mas rica posible del hombre." 39

The result of this process is not evasive— it does not seek to evade the present social reality, or take refuge from that reality in sterile flights of poetic imagination or in orgiastic sensuality— but rather Nieva, as playwright, seeks to be an "instrumento artisticamente revelador de una concepcion de 'toda' la realidad."63

We will explore in the final chapter Nieva's concept of 'total theatre' and how it is applied in practice in his plays.

While it is clear that Nieva believes that "todo arte es reaccion y resultado de unas circunstancias historicas dadas,"84 it is also obvious in the theatre of Nieva that, though direct concrete social commentary and criticism might be lacking, a broad attack is made on the negative aspects of the Spanish character, often referred to by the term "La Espana negra.” For Pablo Corbalan, this term refers to “una cierta mitologia espafiola” which, ever since some unknown point in the past has come to mean "una cierta idea estereotipada inquisitorial y carcelaria, de Espafia."86 The restrictions and inhibitions imposed in this atmosphere are the prime target in all the theory and practice of Nieva's theatre. Perez

Coterillo says that "el teatro de Nieva hace una liquidacidn sin precedentes de la Espana negra."86

An obvious and objective example in contemporary Spain of the arbitrary and gratuitous nature of the "Espaha negra" is the censorship which only recently has disappeared in Spain. Speaking on the topic of censorship in 1974, Nieva points to the erotic element in his works as that most objected to by the censors. An example is his 40

Pelo de tormenta which was totally rejected that year on that basis.

He explains that this and other works were banned because of the presumed attack that his constant use of explicit erotic elements supposes for the religious institutions in Spain. The censors, he says, "en esto son muy puntillosos."67

At the same time, though, Nieva affirms that his personal approach to writing has not been affected by "autocensura," because he has tried to create "una obra literaria libre solo para su eventual publicacion, cuando he presentado obras mias lo he hecho con cierta cautela." His approach is demonstrated not only by the works themselves, which obviously never mediate their intense erotic taboo- bashing, but also by the history of his presenting works for publishing and representation on stage, which has usually occurred after many years of waiting. Many of his works were written or begun in the 50's but had to wait for the 70's to become known or to be published. Indeed this phenomenon illustrates the firm conviction on

Nieva's part that his work by and large could not be presented or published freely in Spain with censorship also present. Nieva's attitude here appears uncompromising: "Nunca represents nada modificado ni pienso hacerlo si la modificacidn es seria y desvirtda el concepto."ee

In broad terms, Nieva rejects the possibility that the culture that continues on the foundation of the Generations of 1898 and of

1927 and that is injected with a small part of Rojas or Gracian or

Galdds could submit to the overly tight strictures of censorship. 41

Nothing can be done, he proclaims, that "cuente verdaderamente en la

literatura espanola siguiendo esa cuadricula para hacer palotes."69

It is important to balance the negative aspects of Nieva's criticism of the "Espafta negra" with an understanding of his purpose, which is "de caracter redentor y generoso."70 Since his declared intent is to exalt the hidden and repressed positive "fuerzas" of the peninsular spirit:

Mi problems consiste en la utopia de querer triunfante a mi pueblo, a todo mi pueblo. [...] Tanto me atraen las grandes fuerzas reprimidas de este pais que me gustaria escribir en algarabia morisca, si pudiera y si me entendiera; con palabras de fuego y humo de todos los 'equivocados', segun la ley de la 'forma que se quiso dar a Espafia'. Tanta forma se quiso dar que negd la novedad del espiritu, hasta llegar a dudar inquisitorialmente a los misticos, por si sus arrebatos se salian de la cuadricula de los buenos sentimientos. Y, efectivamente, se salian. Nuestro destino de nacion ha sido demasiado testarudo.71

It is important to notice just where these hidden, repressed forces may be found. In the discussion of censorship just referred to, Nieva makes allusion to several religious people and nuns who had been his students in the Escuela de Bellas Artes. He says they laughed at and enjoyed his work in spite of the erotic content because they were familiar with "chistes de sacristia" that were more forceful than Nieva's work. In the same context, Nieva refers to the "fiestas populares" like the old "Semanas Santas" in the towns of Spain, in which the "acervo folkldrico mas castizo se va mucho mas lejos.”72

Nieva's admonition, perhaps somewhat naive, to church people is to let their true attitudes become known more to the people so they as persons not become more odious to the populace. In this way Nieva 42 seems to find even in the most repressive and structured of Spanish institutions the spark of the novelty of spirit that cannot be eradicated from inquisitorial Spain.

Also at opposite poles from Nieva's idea of poetic theatre are the current bourgeois materialism universally prevalent in Spain and the emaciating addiction to television watching. The bourgeois, in the words of Nieva, sees the theatre as the "ceremonia de la sensibilidad, una ceremonia vacua."73 The bourgeois goes to the theatre to hear what he wants to hear and nothing more. The general public is also unprepared for Nieva's theatre since it does not understand it. For this, partial blame must be placed on the mass media, and above all, television, which has accustomed the public to

"una palabra excesivamente funcional, sin significados multiples, sin la ambigQedad de la poesia."74 An openness of mind is necessary to understand and appreciate these expressive techniques, an attitude not necessary to or desired by those addicted to a more direct, less expressive medium.

Nieva sees this openness in the burlesque Spanish undercurrent of literature that begins with works like La Celestina. continues through several centuries with the very popular entremeses, and arrives at the beginning of the Twentieth Century with the

"esperpento" of Valle-Inclan. In truth, Nieva may be seen correctly as a successor to this tradition. In the analysis of the plays, many likenesses to these precedents will be noted in tone, character, and language. 43

As Ruiz Ram6n has noted, there is one other contemporary Spanish author to whom Nieva demonstrates a certain affinity: Miguel Romero

Esteo. One must not carry this statement too far, but certainly there are marked likenesses in the attitude of each to the essence and purpose of theatre. For Romero Esteo, the theatre is "un medio de romper la presion y represion en las que nos mantienen a lo largo del dia la rutina domestica y laboral." This mechanical domestic routine implies a "bloqueo psiquico" which prohibits the free play of the

“inteligencia y la imaginacion." In this same context, he continues with a logic directly analogous to that of Nieva:

Expresion o ex-presi6n, descodificacion, disfuncidn, deformacion, no son mas que nombres de algo mucho mas hondo y mondo, y sin fondo: libertad-libertad. El romper ahora las reglas del juego, y no dejarlo para luego. Entre otras cosas porque ya el juego esta trucado.76

Like Nieva, Romero Esteo casts on the bourgeoisie the responsibility for the stagnant condition of contemporary theatre:

Me pregunto yo de que vendra eso del teatro como una honorable forma de aburrimiento. De la cosa burguesa, probablemente. De que no hay que olvidar que los burgueses son unos pedestres calculadores utilitaristas, de que ya desde sus comienzos son unos entusiastas del logos utilitario como lobos.76

What is sought by Romero Esteo is a theatre free from formal constraints and analogous to a "fiesta popular," which typifies this freedom desired for the theatre because "los jolgorios de la fiesta popular no guardan las formas."77 Also like Nieva, Romero Esteo attributes to the common people an increased ability to appreciate this type of theatre 44

Porque las gentes del pueblo llano son inteligentes de inteligencia natural, y §sta es la que asi tal cual — sin cultos intermedios ni cultos universitarios— esta en tacto y contacto directo con la cosa real. De la cual pues no se les escapan detalles.78

Though there are differences in the plays of Nieva and Romero

Esteo such as the length, the use of language, and the

representability on stage; the central theme of rebellion against the

establishment, societal and theatrical, is constant in both. Above

all, the poetic and imaginative use of language is the most striking

likeness. This is true for Romero Esteo to the point that he has said

he considers himself more a poet than playwright, which may be

illustrated by the quotes above as well as everything he has written,

whether plays or criticism. For Nieva, as we will see, the creative

use of language is a principle characteristic of his drama.

Nieva's Theatre;: ^lasBifioatlon .and. Characterization

For most of the published plays by Francisco Nieva, there is no

lack of his own commentary about the type or character of each work.

One of the ways he accomplishes this is by the use of subtitles, which, as Antonio Gonzalez points out, seems to be an effort to avoid

possible "desviacion clasificatoria por parte de los criticos."7e

An example is his play DeliriO-_del amor hostil which bears an

alternate title EiJ?.arrl

"Drama sin honor" as well as this further note explaining the

inspiration of the work: "Sugerido por un relato de Ramon Gdmez de la

Serna." For much the same reason as well as to play the part of the 45 self-critic, Nieva has classified the majority of his theatre into basically two broad groupings: "teatro furioso" and "teatro de farsa y calamidad." Those plays that don't fall into these two categories are principally the adaptations of works of other authors such as his adaptation of Larra's Normas, mostrador entitled Sombra. y quimera__de

L&CC&, which he calls "teatro de cronica y estampa." By far the most important part of Nieva's work both in quality and quantity is found in the two categories first mentioned: "teatro furioso" and "teatro de farsa y calamidad.”

A certain consensus has developed, seconded in part by Nieva himself, concerning the differences between these two categories. The manifest desire to have his writings staged in Spain and the obvious difficulty in bringing this about during the regime of Franco brought about this difference in style and tone. Nieva never even presented any of the works of the "teatro furioso" to the censors for publication and production because he presumed their automatic rejection because of their highly critical and openly scandalous scatological content. He did, however, present some of the works of the "teatro de farsa y calamidad" but obtained little success in convincing the commercial theater producers to actually stage them until after the death of Franco.80

The "teatro de farsa y calamidad" is characterised by a length demanded by normal dramatic performance, a limited but obvious plot development which progresses in a lineal and novelistic fashion, a classical dramatic language lacking most of the shocking and 46 scatological images of the "teatro furioso," and an interest in developing and expanding the possibilities of the staging limitations of typical theaters without exceeding the normal bounds of production capabilities. Taken as a whole, these plays are typified by a sense of control and containment. They are "extrafios brotes reprimidos que anuncian la ruptura definitive que ha de realizarse mas tarde."B1

Several of these plays can and have been presented before typical audiences with success because they approach to a degree the expectations of the theater audiences: Idrtulaeu-crepdsculo ... v ieloru Maldilas. .sean. Coronada y s u b hi.i as, and El baile de los ardientes. In general, the plays of the "farsa y calamidad" as well as those of the "teatro furioso" challenge the expectations of audiences because of the difficulty of their "lenguaje m&gico" and the intimate, private world of the themes and plots presented by the author.82

The "teatro furioso” more accurately epitomizes Nieva's personal conception of what a play should actually be and demonstrates the rupture with normality that the "farsa y calamidad" seeks to approximate. Personal freedom of imagination is the foundational element in Nieva's aesthetic and Nieva exercises this principle to its fullest extent in the "teatro furioso."

Some of the broad characteristics of the "teatro furioso" may be summarized in this way:83

1. The action does not progress in the traditional manner with exposition, complication and resolution at the end, but rather is a 47

conglomeration of individual scenes like those of a retable behind the

altar of a church. They are comprehensible when considered globally,

but many times unconnected and insignificant when viewed singly. The

"teatro de farsa y calamidad" generally follows a more traditional

sequence of events.

2. An almost fetishistic dramatic value is given to the language

used. The two primary methods used in this effort are condensation

and distortion, all for the ultimate purpose of creating a scenic

effect. In this, both the major divisions of Nieva's work may be said

to be much alike.

3. Inherent in the "teatro furioso" is a new conception of the use of theatrical space. The action can occur anyplace, according to

Nieva, except the traditional "teatro a la italiana." "Lo mio era empezar de nuevo un teatro de descarga y reventon de los instintos que tambien sirviera para la explosion del espacio.”84 Obviously, the

"teatro de farsa y calamidad" more readily adapts to the traditional theatrical spaces.

4. Prototypical characters people these works, lacking almost all psychological development, but many times defined by a unidimensional idea or driving passion. The "teatro de farsa y calamidad" will demonstrate more complete character portrayal and development.

Choice of plays for analysis

Of the nine plays included in "el teatro furioso," we will 48 analyze the six that are the most typical and essential for an understanding of Nieva's dramatic aesthetic. The two earliest of these, El-comb&te de Qpalosy Tasia and El fandango asombroso, will be included because of their introductory and foundational nature and brief length. They are also distinctive because of their humorous and populist character.

Next in the chronological order of composition are the plays

Nieva has termed "apocalipiticas" because of their cataclysmic and sociocritical nature: Eelo .de torment ft and EjBJ^snQ-nO-Jffner-oabfiZft ■

The centrality of the themes developed in these plays points the way to the longer and more mature works to come. Also important is a new theatrical modality that Nieva introduces with Pelo de tormenta, called the "reopera."

Finally, we will consider LsL-Qarroa&_d^-PlomcLiiandfinte. and

Coronada v el toro. These two plays are of relatively normal length and embody many facets of a mature dramatist's art and have in addition achieved success in the commercial theater.

The three plays of the "teatro furioso" that are not included here are one called El Buscon. dated 1975, but unpublished and not completed, an adaptation already mentioned, La paz. based on a work by

Aristophanes, and Nosferatu. one of the plays Nieva terms

"apocalyptic." In the aforementioned works which are included, there will be ample breadth of material to demonstrate the art of Francisco

Nieva and its diversity and creativity. Those left out do not add significantly to the understanding of the dramatic aesthetic of the author and would extend the length of the present work beyond manageable size. 50

NOTES

1. The inclusion of biographical information is here and will be throughout this work based on the criterion of its importance to the dramatic production of Nieva. More complete biographical information on Nieva can be found dispersed in the many articles he has written and that others have written on him. We have also used these two sources: Antonio Gonzalez's edition of Francisco Nieva, Maldltas aean -Coronada yLsua_hiias,_Delirio del amor-hostl! (Madrid: Catedra, 1983) and Emil George Signes, "The Theatre of Francisco Nieva: A Summary, Analysis, and Bibliography, together with an Edition and Translation of La carroza de plomo candente." Diss. Rutgers U 1982.

2. Francisco Nieva, "Confesiones en voz alta," Primer Acto 153 (Feb. 1973): 23.

3. Francisco Nieva, "Autobiografia: Es asi como los que suefian descubren la realidad," Triunfo 6th ser. 7 (May, 1981): 56.

4. Nieva, "Autobiografia" 56.

5. Francisco Nieva, Teatro furioso (Madrid: Akal-Ayuso, 1975) 9.

6. Jose Monleon, Cuatro autores. espafioles (Madrid: Austral, 1976) 99.

7. Francisco Nieva, "Autobiografia." In Monle6n, Cuatro autores 99.

8. Francisco Nieva, "Lo que he escrito," Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973): 18.

9. Francisco Nieva, "Auto-biobibliografia," Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973): 18.

10. Francisco Nieva, "Mi teatro es total," ABC reportage 12 Feb. 1981, Ed. Aeria: n. pag.

11. Nieva, "Auto-biobibliografia" 18.

12. Nieva, "Confesiones" 23. 51

13. Antonio Gonzalez quotes an article by Francisco Nieva, "En la muerte de Felsenstein," from the daily Informaciones in Francisco Nieva, Maldita8_sean _Coronada. y bus hi.ias, Delirio del amor hostil. ed. Antonio Gonzalez (Madrid: Catedra, 1983) 29.

14. Monleon, Cuatro autores 101.

15. Monleon, Cuatro autores 101.

16. Monleon, Cuatro autores 101.

17. Angelica Becker, "Sorpresa en el teatro," Cuadernos hispanoamericanos 253-254 (1971): 261.

18. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 39.

19. A complete analysis of the works presented in this conference and the debates of the conference itself may be seen in Primer Acto 152 (Jan., 1973): 52-67.

20. El Pais. 1 June 1992, overseas ed.: 19.

21. El Pais. 1 June 1992, overseas ed.: 19.

22. Anita L. Johnson, "El teatro espahol: 1985-89 (Presencias y ausencia en un lustro teatral)," Estreno 17.1 (Spring, 1991): 10.

23. Josd Monle6n, "Francisco Nieva," in Primer Acto: Cuadernos de - Investigac ion Teatral, "Teatro breve contemporaneo: Buero, Muhiz, Nieva, Olmo," Separata 239 (1992): 14-35.

24. Charles David Ley, Spanish-Poetry Since 1939 (Washington: Catholic UP, 1962) 105-107.

25. Andres Amords, in Francisco Nieva, La carroza de plomo candente. Coronada v el toro. ed. Andres Amords (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1986) 12.

26. Nieva, "Confesiones" 24.

27. Vicente Molina Foix, "El marginado vergonzante," Interview with Francisco Nieva, El pais 24 Aug. 1985, Artes supplement: 5.

28. Nieva, "Confesiones" 23.

29. Nieva, "Confesiones" 24.

30. Francisco Nieva, "El hipndtico y sibilino Artaud - Miscelanea," Primer Acto 159-160 (Aug.-Sept., 1973): 34. 52

31. Molina Foix, "El marginado vergonzante" 2.

32. Miguel Bilbatua, ed., Riaza. Nieva. Hormigdn (Madrid: Cuadernos para el dialogo, 1973) 17.

33. Emil G. Signes, "Francisco Nieva: Spanish Representative of the Theater of the Marvelous," in Martha Halsey and Phyllis Zatlin, The_Contemporarv Spanish Theater (New York: New York UP, 1988) 147- 161.

34. Gloria Orenstein, The_ Theater _o£_the_Marvelous: Surrealism and the Contemporary Stage (New York: New York UP, 1975) 7-8. The authors included in this book are: Henri Pichette, Aime CSsaire, Octavio Paz, Julio Cortazar, Eugene Ionesco, Jorge Diaz, and Fernando Arrabal.

35. Francisco Nieva, Teatro furioso. introd. Moists Perez Coterillo (Madrid: Akal/Ayuso, 1975) 8.

36. Maxwell Smith, Alfred Jarry (Boston: Twayne World Author Series, 1983) 57-58.

37. George Wellwarth, The Theater of Protest and Paradox (New York: New York UP, 1971) 5.

38. Smith, slaZTX 14.

39. Monleon, Cuatro autores 101.

40. Francisco Nieva, "En la muerte de Felsenstein: un creador de teatro total y popular," Informaciones. Supplement "Artes y Letras" 379 (16 Oct. 1975): 6-7.

41. Nieva, "Confesiones" 23.

42. Francisco Nieva, interview with Vicente Molina Foix, El Pais. 24 Aug. 1985: 6.

43. Nieva, interview with Vicente Molina Foix 6.

44. Francisco Nieva, Teatro furioso 11.

45. Nieva, interview with Vicente Molina Foix 7.

46. Nieva, "Auto-biobibliografia" 18. Also mentioned here are Jean Genet, Alfred Jarry and La Celestina.

47. Francisco Nieva, "Francisco Nieva," Teatro espaflol actual (1977) 269. 53

48. Michele H. Richman, Reading Georges Bataille: Bevond the Gift (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1982) 1.

49. Jesus Maria Barrajon, "La concepcion teatral de Francisco Nieva," Primer Acto 219 (1987): 72-73. Here Barrajon quotes from a thesis done by Katarzyna Gorna-Urbanska, "El concepto del teatro en la obra dramatica de Francisco Nieva" of the Catedra de Estudios Ibericos of the University of Warsaw, 1984, 32-46. This is not available in this country.

50. Thomas John Donahue, The Theater of FernandoArrabal: A GardeiLof Earthly Delights (New York: New York UP, 1980) 57.

51. Primer Acto 173 (1973): 4-9.

52. Primer Acto 173 (1973): 5.

53. Francisco Ruiz Ram6n, Hlo.toria. de ..la literature, espanola, vol. 2 (Madrid: Catedra, 1977) 564.

54. Ruiz Ramon, Historia 570-571.

55. JosA Monle6n, “Francisco Nieva o la orgia de lo real," Primer Acto 153 (1973): 15-16.

56. Andres Amor6s, introd., La carroza.de Plomo candente, Coronada y el toro. by Francisco Nieva (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1986) 45.

57. Moises Perez Coterillo, introd., Teatro . furioso , by Francisco Nieva (Madrid: Akal-Ayuso, 1975) 29.

58. Nieva, Teatro esmnoI_ao.tual (Madrid: Catedra, 1977) 275.

59. Nieva, "Confesiones" 23.

60. Amoros, "Introduction" 10.

61. Nieva, Teatro espaflol actual 269.

62. Nieva, Teatro espahol actual 270.

63. Jose Monleon, "Francisco Nieva o la orgia de lo real” 16- 17.

64. Francisco Nieva, Sombra y nuimera de Larra (Madrid: Fundamentos, 1976) 6.

65. Pablo Corbalan, "La carroza de Plomo candente de Nieva," Informaciones 29 Apr. 1976: 31. 54

66. Moisds P6rez Coterillo, back cover, Teatro furioso.

67. Francisco Nieva, “Encuesta sobre la censura," Primer Acto 165: 7.

68. Nieva, "Censura" 7-8.

69. Nieva, "Censura" 8.

70. Perez Coterillo, introd., Teatro furioso 35.

71. Francisco Nieva, “Contestacion a Maria Neira," Primer Acto 155 (Apr., 1973): 10.

72. Nieva, "Censura" 7.

73. Francisco Nieva, "A la busqueda del gran teatro," interview with Santiago Trancon, Primer Acto 194 (1982): 23-26.

74. Nieva, "Busqueda" 25.

75. Miguel Romero Esteo, "Introduccion al curriculum vitae y al agua de rosas,” in Pizzicato irrisorio v gran navana de lechuzos (Madrid: Catedra, 1978) 70.

76. Miguel Romero Esteo, "A modo de introduccidn que no introduce nada,“ in El-vodevil...de-la palida, palida. palida. palida rosa (Madrid: Fundamentos, 1979) 14.

77. Miguel Romero Esteo, El vodevil 22.

78. Miguel Romero Esteo, El vodevil 30.

79. Nieva, Mftlditas/DcIlriQ 205.

80. Included in this complete list of the plays called "teatro furioso" is the place and date of writing (See bibliography for information on publication of these works):

EL_combate. de _Qpalos y Tasia (Madrid, 1953) El.fandango aaombroso (Madrid, 1961) Nosferatu (Madrid, 1961) Pelo de tormenta (Paris, 1962) Es bueno no tener cabeza (Dublin, 1966) La carroza de Plomo candente (Rome, 1971) Caronftda Y-.el -tore (Madrid, 1973) El buscon (unfinished, 1975) La naz (Madrid, 1977)

In like manner, here is an up to date listing of the "teatro de y calamidad":

Malditas sean Coronada y bub hi.ias (Madrid, 1949-68) El ravo colgado (Madrid, 1952) Tortolas, crepusculo y... te!6n (Paris, 1953) El-jqam y-illQSQ catarro de lord Bashaville (Vienna, 1967) El corazdn acelerado (Berlin, 1968) La seflora tartara (Madrid, 1970) funeral v nasacalle (Madrid, 1971) El_paflQ-.de injurias (Granada, 1974) El baile de los ardientes (Madrid, 1974) Los espafioles ba.lo tierra (Madrid, 1975) Delirio del amor hostil (Madrid, 1977) Tirante el Blanco (Madrid, 1986) Ifi...quifir0-^-ZQVm , No es verdad (Madrid, 1988) Corazdn de arnia (Madrid, 1989)

81. Perez Coterillo, Farsa y calamidad, 14.

82. Perez Coterillo, 14.

83. Perez Coterillo, Teatro furioso(Madrid: Akal-Ayuso,

84. Nieva, "Autobiobibliografia" 20. CHAPTER II

THE EARLY "TEATRO FURIOSO”:

EL ,FANDANGO ASQMBRQSQ AND EL COMBATE DE OPAIOS Y TASIA

Introduction

The two short one-act plays that will be studied in this chapter, E l £andango„ft8ombro8Q and El combate de Qpalos v Tasia. demonstrate, perhaps more than his other works, Nieva's interest in the theatrical forms popular in Spain from the Golden Age to the 18th

Century in Spain. These works exemplify an eclecticism in sources of characters and theatrical forms that link the author firmly into

Spanish dramatic tradition. After an analysis is made of each play, the conclusion will compare and contrast these two works.

El_ fandango asombroso (Madrid, 1961)

In this play, as in others to discussed later, the central all- encompassing theme is the repression of sexual desire in the Spanish people as demonstrated throughout the long years of their history.

According to van der Naald, this and other works

exponen los complejos y las frustraciones eroticas de la sociedad espaflola y Nieva pone bien en claro que es el espiritu inquisitorial y encarcelador de su pueblo que [...] ha tan efectivamente rematado cualquier tentacidn de liberacion.1

56 57

This analysis of El fandango asombroso will demonstrate the thematic unity of the elements employed in the play by means of a detailed study of its formal structural aspects and an analysis of the important semiotic signs present in the dramatic text.

The literary form Nieva intends to imitate in this play is indicated clearly in the subtitle: "Sainetillo furioso en alabanza a

San Ramon de la Cruz."2 Though the sainete is not generally presented in theaters in the 20th Century, Nieva's appreciation for this long-lived theatrical form is evident in his praise of the most popular writer of sainetes of the 18th Century. It is obvious that

Nieva does not mean to imitate completely the formal aspects of Don

Ramon's sainete, but rather to use this form as inspiration for a creation of his own. Nieva obviously also intends to render homage to

Ramon de la Cruz, "el mas famoso, fecundo y popular de los autores dramdticos del XVIII,"3 by replacing his usual title "don" with the more respectful but also somewhat ironic "san."

The sainete of Ramon de la Cruz was a short one-act play, satirical and humorous in nature, with little plot structure other than a series of loosely connected vignettes of daily life, usually built around some central idea. It featured archetypical characters from the middle and lower classes and imitated their speech and actions in order to ridicule the vices and foibles of the society of the period. One example is the "abbe," who generally was a fashion­ conscious, socially ambitious member of the poorer classes who had taken probationary vows for a career with the Church but who served 58 the upper middle class as a tutor, music teacher to the young, or as a scribe. Another example is the "majo" or "maja." The majo was a self-possessed, lower class man of boastful character and outlandish dress who seemed to carry a chip on his shoulder which made him ready to fight at the slightest provocation. The female "maja" was also quarrelsome and prone to violence, especially when threatened by another "maja." Her traditional occupation in the sainetes is that of a seller of fruits, nuts or other commodities in the markets and on the streets. Other examples of the characters used in these pieces are the "cortejos," escorts of dubious reputation hired to serve middle class ladies; "petimetres," men and women characterized by their excessive interest in French customs and styles of dress; and the "payos," naive country persons who came to Madrid ignorant of the proper way to act and who therefore were used as objects of ridicule.

The typical situations in which these characters find themselves have been categorized by Alva Ebersole into six: (1) people in the city of Madrid with "majos" and "petimetres," (2) "payos" in Madrid,

(3) country people in their own towns, (4) people of Madrid and townspeople in the country, (5) domestic comedies, and (6) actors preparing a play.4 The goal of Ram6n de la Cruz was to present the contemporary every-day life of his time in a comical way in order to elicit laughter as well as a limited degree of censure from the audience.

The sainete of de la Cruz was the literary continuation of the

"pasos" of Lope de Rueda, the "entremeses" of Cervantes, and the "loa" 59

or "jacara" of Lope de Vega. It was typically used as a diversion

between the acts or at the end of a larger work and included music and

dance in variant quantities. The basic character and purpose of

sainetes is described by Ortega y Gasset in this way:

[...] son, literalmente, poco mas que nada y, ademas, no pretendian ser obra poetica de calidad. Todo su proposito y su valor radicaban en ser algo parecido a lo que hoy son los guiones de peliculas: un canamazo donde las actrices y actores podrian lucir sue donaires.5

The action of Nieva's Fandango, like the sainetes of Ramon de la

Cruz, occurs in 18th Century Madrid, which is once explicitly mentioned in the play, along with several precise areas of the city: the "Puerta de Alcala" (231), the "Calle del Barquillo" (234), and "el

Campo del Moro" (234).6 Other proper names of geographical places are mentioned in the play such as "Iberia" (235) and the town of

Vallecas where Coronada's brother courts his lover. These two names as well as the other historical and present-day names firmly anchor the action in the capital of Spain.

Several other names of places outside of Spain are also mentioned in the play and serve to underscore Nieva's central theme.

The term Coronada used to describe Marauna, for example, is "una sombra africana" (241), implying something dark and mysterious or sensual and exotic. Another example is the declaration of the Viuda who says she wakes up with cravings for "pagodas y cerezas japonesas"

(230), a term also used for its oriental and distant flavor. Also mentioned in the same light are the trees of Brazil (230) upon which the sun is reputed to never cease to shine and the expression Coronada 60

uses to express her rejection of Marauna, "Pues para mi que arda Troya

y Babilonia se desmorone" (234). The significance of these distant

locations from the past and present is perhaps to emphasize the

contrast between their reputed sensuality and the lack of such in

Spain.

One other place name is mentioned in the play: Cava Alta. This

apparently imaginary place bares intrinsic significance since

according to the Viuda it is the place where Marauna and his brothers

carry out their work which consists of mixing the four classical

elements that make up the universe: air, fire, earth, and water (232).

Here Nieva intends to underscore the earthly and sensual nature of

Marauna, also emphasized by the fact that Maraufia utters no verbal dialogue save for beastly guttural sounds.

Of the four characters used in Fandango, none truly approximates the stereotypical characters of de la Cruz, and only one is referred to as a type found in the sainetes: Marauna, the "majo." In Nieva's play he is a grotesque parody of the typical majo of the sainetes:

The majo is of the lower or lower-middle class, but with special characteristics which seem to represent both the influence of and reaction against the French. A boastful man with a chip on his shoulder, the majo is ready to fight at the slightest provocation.7

As Nieva describes him, he more readily represents another character type popular in theatre throughout the Golden Age: the

"galan embozado": " ■. ■ v llega Maraufia. embozado, en .forma de paquete. con la tajada de un enorme sombrero en la cabeza" (231).8

Indeed, the three female characters, peering out their windows on the 61 street, also appear less like de la Cruz's "majas" than like the

"damas" of Lope de Vega standing in the dark behind the "rejas" in secret trysts with their lovers. Though he never appears on stage,

Coronada's brother also typifies the jealous brother who is the protector of the family honor since Coronada continually declares her dependence on him and says she can do nothing without his permission.

The plot structure of the typical sainete generally consisted of a series of vignettes that rarely presented a continuous and clear plot development. John Dowling gives this description of the internal organization of the sainete:

Presenciamos el comienzo de media docena de acciones, pero ninguna se desarrolla, ninguna se acaba. Son pequenos trozos de vida: un suceso, un lance, una conversacion, cazados al azar, vivos, muy reales, pero relacionados con un hilo tenue y luego abandonados. Parece una composicidn musical con tema — La Plaza Mayor por Navidades— y variantes.®

This does not preclude all internal organization since Dowling then goes on to discuss a binary structure common to the sainete which he suggests was influenced by the sonata of Domingo Scarlatti who worked in the court of the Bourbon kings of Spain until his death in

1757. Coincidentally, this was the year of the first known sainete of

Ramon de la Cruz. Dowling explains:

La sonata de Scarlatti tiene dos partes, cada una con un punto culminante (crux). En un sainete de Ramon de la Cruz — tenga un argumento estructurado como La presumida burlada o un desarrollo de temas y variantes como La Plaza Mavor— solemos encontrar dos partes. No con iguales... Hay un punto culminante en cada parte. Es caracterxstica de muchos sainetes una mudanza de escena... inmediatamente despu^s del primer punto culminante. Al segundo punto culminante sigue el desenlace o — como no hay en muchos un desenredo propiamente dicho— se cierra con un baile, una 62

tonadilla, o el pedir perdon 'por bus muchas faltas' que era de rigor.10

The structure of El fandango asombroso (along with another play

to be discussed later: Es bueno no tener cabeza) presents a close

parallel to the description above. There is a clear division of the

work into two parts with an obvious structural separation between

them, a climax to end each, and Nieva's version of the satirical

request for pardon from the audience that traditionally ended the

sainete. Each division of the work progresses thematically in closely

parallel dialogue and action, the second slightly abbreviated in the

fashion of an echo of the first. A comparison of the development of

the plot in each part of Nieva's play will demonstrate this.

The initial statement by the Vecina viuda in both parts is

almost identical:

Part A: Siento como un relente de guitarras que no engaha mis sentidos. Cerca de aqui. se prepara un fandango de los mas revoltosos y divertidos. i,No oyes tu, sobrina? iAy, viudedad larguisima, tormentoso cautiverio, que mal te soporta mi alma y como me mueles el cuerpo! (229-230)

Part B: Hay como un relente de guitarras que no engana mis sentidos. En algun lugar se prepara un fandango de los mas revoltosos y divertidos. iOyes, sobrina? iAy, viudedad larguisima, tormentoso cautiverio, que mal te soporta mi alma y c6mo me dueles el cuerpo! (235)

The Sobrina then responds that she hears nothing:

Part A: Yo no oigo nada. Acuestese, tia, y no se haga tantas ilusiones. Lo que usted tiene a estas horas son fiebres que llaman tenebrosas y espejismos de viuda. (230)

Part B: iQue dice? Yo nada siento. Esas son fiebres que llaman tenebrosas y espejismo de viuda— (235)

At this point, Nieva begins to use the ellipsis for abbreviation in 63 the second part.

The Viuda at this point continues by deriding the Sobrina for her lack of ability to sense the fandango:

Part A: iVaya unos oidos de tocino! i,No escuchas cierto redoble de tacones despeMndose por el arroyo? Despega esos ojos, sobrina, que el oido se afina mirando. (230)

Part B: Despega esos oidos de lacre. <,No escuchas cierto redoble de tacones despenandose por el arroyo? Sobrina, que opaca eres, y que sangre de requesdn. (235)

At this point in each part the Sobrina expresses a desire that a fandango were occurring and that a "novio" would appear for her and a

"viudo" for her aunt. Then Marauha makes his appearance and knocks on

Coronada's window. Her first statement is also almost identical in each part:

Part A: iQu§ se ofrece? iQuien anda ahi abajo? Que conteste esa sombra africana o le regalo con una palagana de agua sucia. (230)

Part B: <,Que se ofrece? iQuien anda abajo? Que conteste esa sombra africana o le regalo ahora mismo con un tiesto de la ventana. (235)

In each part, there follows here the urging of the Viuda and the

Sobrina that Coronada accompany Marauna. She steadfastly refuses claiming a lack of desire and the absence of her brother who must give permission. "Sola estoy, y a nada me atrevo yo sin el permiso de mi hermano" (232, 236).

One difference does appear at this point in the action of the second part. Coronada appears to vacillate and to yield to the temptation of Marauna:

iPobre de mi! Hoy me encuentro condenada. Marauna ha sabido acertar la hora de mi perdida. Al fandango me voy. 64

Asi aprenderA mi hermano a no dej&rme sola en casa por andar detras de aquella mala perra y su molino de aceite. (237)

Her resolution is shortlived, however, since she appears a few moments

later and seems to have forgotten completely about her decision to go.

Soon after this follows Coronada's third and last rejection of the invitation of Maraufia. The Viuda asks her if she is coming out to the fandango after all and Coronada responds, "[...] es tan cierto que no puedo atravesar aquella puerta y me voy a la cama sobre lo dicho"

(241-242).

To close each part, Nieva uses the Viuda and Sobrina to speak in choral fashion, a favorite technique of the author, lending an additional tragic finality to the missed opportunity:

Part A: iAdios, noche de esperanzas! Y tu, Maraufia, vete a explorar a otra parte, ocupa bien tu despacho desempedrando la calle del Barquillo, por ejemplo, o corriendo un poco hacia la izquierda el Campo del Moro. Con noticias de ese porte nos darias gusto mafiana. (234)

Part B: Buenas noches, Maraufia. Sumisas te saludamos. (242)

One of the reasons for the changes that occur in the second part is the obvious purpose of maintaining interest in what is clearly repetitive. As we have seen, Coronada requests to know who is at her window three times, and with each one threatens to throw something different if she does not receive an answer: (A) una palangana de agua sucia, (B) un tiesto de la ventana, and (C) una caldera de navasas. The vacillation of Coronada in rejecting and accepting

Marauna's invitation in the second part adds an element of unpredictability. 65

The pivotal figure of the dialogue and action in the entire work

is the character Coronada. The Viuda and the Sobrina attempt to persuade her to attend the fandango with Marauna, while he himself attempts a sensual and animalistic courtship designed to woo Coronada to leave her room to go with him. She finally refuses him, a pronouncement that closes the dialogue in each part and leaves Marauha alone and abandoned on stage.

At the conclusion of the dialogue in each part, two significant actions take place. A large phallus appears from Marauha's pants and

Marauha turns back the hands of a winged clock that descends from above the stage. In the first part, the phallus is used to simply urinate against the wall, slowly sketching out a nonsensical phosphorescent message: "Cuantas cosas te dijera si supiera escribir"

(234). In the second part, the phallus appears after Coronada reluctantly accedes to the insistence of the other characters that she accompany Marauha to the fandango, a promise she soon forgets. This time, though, the phallus takes the form of another character, the

"marioneta serpentina,” who is described as having minute gesticulating arms and heads. In the text, the marionette is given the name of "Hombrecito vendreo." He recites poetry and ends the play with what passes in Nieva's play for the request for pardon from the audience.

Though no change of scene, as described above by Dowling, occurs here between each part, we do see a retrogression of the time on the clock. It occurs at the end of both parts, not simply in the middle; a fact which tends to strengthen the parallel nature of the two

segments. The play begins at 10 o'clock in the evening, a fact we are

told in Nieva's introductory note. When the winged clock descends at

the end of the first part, it reads 11 o'clock but Marauna manually

turns the hands back to 9 o'clock and a chime rings 9 times. At the

end of the second part Marauha turns the clock back even further, to

8:30. According to van der Naald, the backward movement in time

indicates "la resistencia de la sociedad espahola ante los cambios que

exige el paso del tiempo."11 It appears from an examination of the

actual times that Nieva means to imply that Spanish society is sinking

farther and farther into the past with respect to the central issue of

the play: "las actitudes y reacciones contrarias de la mujer hacia el

fenomeno masculino."12

The ending of Nieva's play, like the sainete described by

Dowling, has a final resolution of the action following the two parts

already discussed. This very short section, rather than solving any

plot complexity, carries an implied moral that we will see again in

other plays of Nieva: the moment of opportunity for sensual

fulfillment is brief, after which all possibility of enjoyment is

ended. In this final scene, Coronada is seen out in the street for

the first time, dressed for the fandango, for the second time

declaring her willingness to go with Marauha, but the opportunity is

now past and Marauha no longer pays any attention to her. Her sincere but belated desire is expressed in these final words: "me voy tras el por si acaso repara en mi y de su mano me lleva al paraiso." (242) 67

As we move to a more detailed study of the dramatic semiotic signs found in the text of Fandango, the first area for consideration will be Nieva's choice of character names and the relationship of the name and the function of the character in the play. It has been noted that "the names given to characters potentially provide a powerful communicative device for the dramatist seeking to orient his audience as quickly as possible in his fictive world."13 These onomastic codes not only provide information about the character himself, but also about his "actantial role in a total dramatic structure, about his place in a pattern of relationships, and about intertextual relations between the drama in which he appears and other dramas of the same or contrasting codes."14 An analysis of the names and the characters to whom they are assigned demonstrates a close semantic relationship.

Nieva's characters bear especially significant names in all these areas. As we have seen, in Fandango there are four characters listed at the beginning of the play: Coronada, the Viuda, the

Sobrina, and Marauha. Interestingly, one of the speaking parts appearing late in the play is left out of the list: that of "El hombrecito venAreo." Appearing near the end of the play, this

"marioneta serpentina" is a phallic projection projecting from the pants of Marauha who speaks and sings in a way the animalistic and brutish Marauha is incapable of reproducing. It is not clear from the text how the author envisions this aspect of the play to be carried out in production, whether by some artifice of staging or by the 68 intervention of additional characters. This phenomenon represents the essential sexuality of the character of Marauha as well as the amplification and personification of it. I believe, therefore, that an additional voice should be added to the list of characters necessary for the play, thus leaving the brutish grunts to the actor playing Marauha.

The name "Coronada" is especially significant to Nieva since he uses the same name in two additional plays: Coronada v el toro and

MalditaB-.se.fln Coronada v.sus hi.ias. He comments on his use of this name and its significance in a discussion of the fundamental character types he uses in all his plays which is included in his "Breve poetica teatral."1B They are examples of a character type he calls "La mujer, victima superior." They are filled, he states, with "un talante de arrogancia que la adversidad no llega a sofocar" and they represent the "principio femenino" characterized by "un sentido positivo, tenaz y renaciente, germinal, creacional, rebelde."16 In addition, Nieva explains that women as they appear in the work of Lope de Vega have had a part in the development of his own character type.

Though there is an intertextual likeness in Nieva's characters bearing this name, there is also a distinct identity which is obvious in the

Coronada of each individual play, a point that will be noted later in the discussion of Coronada v eL_toro.

The meaning of the name "Coronada" relates to the theme of the play in two ways. The primary meaning of the Spanish word "corona" or

"coronar" is "to crown," a concept directly linked to Coronada's 69 central position in the action. The Viuda enunciates this idea when she says, "A1 fandango nos vamos, agarradas al manto de esa reina que tiraniza a los hombres del barrio” (238). The secondary meanings of this term have indirect sexual significance. The phrase "perder la corona," for example, means to lose one's virginity and the verb

"coronar" in some places means "to cuckold." Coronada's ambivalence in rejecting and accepting the insistent invitation of Marauha is therefore a probable outcome of a characteristic inherent in the name of the character.

In this play, the name "Marauha" has no external semantic value but his function is to symbolize masculine sexuality in the purest form possible. Marauha would pertain to the character type Nieva names "Los constrictores," though he is not listed in the examples the author enumerates for this type. These characters are "abstracciones de las fuerzas del mal" and they are "numerosos, prototipicos, los mas carentes de psicologia y humanidad." Marauha also appears in Coronada y eltoro paired again with a Coronada and is described in the list of characters there as a "torero por condena."17

The remaining two characters, the Viuda and the Sobrina, bear names which indicate a relationship between themselves and society.

In the play, they function as dual contrasting aspects of one personality. This relationship is reinforced by the dialogue they maintain, and visually by the proximity of the placement of their respective windows in the wall. Nieva includes them in a list of examples of a character type he calls "El personaje doble."18 The 70 actantial role assigned to them approximates that of a go-between (the traditional algflhueta or trotaconventos of Spanish literature) seeking to persuade Coronada to accede to the invitation of Marauha.

This unity of purpose belies clear differences in the attitude of each toward the mate they hope to gain from the fandango. The

Viuda is the sensual woman, capable of sensing from afar that a fandango is occurring and saddened by her long barren period of widowhood. Her lament expresses her feelings: "iAy, viudedad larguisima, tormentoso cautiverio, qu§ mal te soporta mi alma y c6mo me mueles el cuerpo!" (230-231). Her senses are tuned to the slightest indication of a "fandango": "A mi me basta ventear ciertos rumores y hacer veleta con el dedo moj ado para saber de que lado se organiza un fandango en el barrio" (230).

The Sobrina, on the other hand, lacks this sensitivity. She is a woman "sin imaginacidn, conformista y estupida, victima de un larguisimo proceso de condicionamiento cultural."19 The Sobrina states that she desires a "novio, alto, alto, ancho, ancho, con unas cejas de visera y unos ojos de fogonazo" and hopes her aunt receives

"un indiano," made of wood so that he may be sculptured to the size that she desires. This novio is a mere social convenience and status symbol lending self esteem to the woman, but not true sensual pleasure.

The Sobrina and the Viuda are united in their attempt to persuade Coronada and in their apparent dependence on Coronada since they are not able to go to the fandango without her. If she is 71 persuaded to go, then they will accompany her. In this respect they may be considered as united to the character of Coronada since their fate is bound up in her decision. Thus, they are two contrasting aspects of Coronada's character, carrying out a dialogue with

Coronada, seeking to persuade her, instructing her about Marauha, and feeling the frustration of her indecision.

The remaining semiotic elements of the dramatic text will be divided into two groups for analysis in the manner suggested by

Tadeusz Kowzan.20 The first are those signs which do not originate in the actors and the second those that do. These two groups will be divided into two subgroups: those of a visual scenic nature and those of an aural nature. An analysis of this kind will demonstrate a semiotic multiplicity of elements, all of which are closely related to the central theme of the play.

The visual elements of staging proposed in this text but not pertaining to the actors demonstrate an extreme simplicity. We see a street, a wall with windows, and the whole scene lighted by the moon.

Literally no other set objects are proposed, except for a winged clock that appears twice in the play, in the middle and at the end. It should be noted that this type of setting is typical of the sainete of de la Cruz though the nocturnal time of the action is not. The placement of the three windows to be used by the female characters in the play takes on added significance due to this paucity of distracting visual elements. The relationship of these windows parallels the relationship of the characters who will appear in them. 72

Two are very close together and will be used by the Viuda and the

Sobrina. The other is placed at a different level and separated some distance, illustrating visually the aloof attitude of Coronada.

Another element of the set that takes on paramount significance is the wall. It illustrates graphically the "espiritu encarcelador" mentioned before by restricting the movement and action of the characters almost the entire play. The Viuda and the Sobrina never leave their respective windows and Coronada only leaves in the final minute of the play to pursue Marauha when he no longer is interested in her. Marauha is the only character in the play with total freedom of action, while the static position of the women points clearly to their stagnant psychological and trapped social condition.

In addition, we can see here the foreshadowing of a theme that

Nieva will return to in another play (Es bueno no tener cabeza). that of a series of enclosures, one within the other, each more isolated and secure from the outside world. Coronada not only isolates herself in her apartment, but also speaks of going to bed and wrapping herself up like a "pescadilla.” This physically illustrates the verbal rejection Coronada repeatedly enunciates.

The description of the lighting illustrates Nieva's artistic visual interest in further underscoring the central thematic development as well as a subjective vagueness in his description.

When the wall and windows appear at the beginning of the play, they are bathed in the light of the moon revealing a "color desvaido y fundido en el cliche nocturno" (229). Later in the play, when 73

Coronada appears to accede to the invitation of Marauha, Nieva uses the lighting to underscore the emotion of the moment: "Parpadea

finamente la luz" (239). As we have seen, the symbol of the temporal stagnation of the Spanish condition is illustrated by the winged clock which descends and on which Marauha turns back the hands. Nieva underscores the importance of this symbol by an illumination of the sphere of the clock (235).

A musical background is obviously fundamental in Nieva's conception of the representation of this play. He describes a musical accompaniment throughout, though it is not always clear exactly to what type of music he refers. In the beginning, for example, he indicates that the orchestra tells us "gue sonlas_diez de la noche v gue_transcurre con alguna lentitud el sielo XVI11“ (229). When

Marauha writes his urinated message on the wall, Nieva says that the

"Qr.ques.ta, JvenclendQ..m.PudQr, iiace algunos comentarlog_ a los gue esta obligada" (234). He adds the style to be used in this music by saying that "es tan lirica v taciturna como las me.iores noches de Iberia"

(235). Near the end of the play when Coronada appears to be going with Marauha, the light blinks and the orchestra "a_e _arraatra lirica v gimients." (239).

The music takes more of an active role when it contrasts the words of El hombrecito venereo and the growls of Marauha by presenting

"todos los antiguos cascabeles jzl los _guebradi2iQs azules _de .Ravel v

Debussv sallendo de la orguesta moderna, tan eclectica como expresiva"

(239). Since none of these explanations is taken further, Nieva 74

leaves a wide latitude in the possible application of music by the stage director, but from what he does say, it is obvious he himself conceptualizes specific use of music throughout the play.

One other aural element not originating in the actors themselves is of importance because of its relationship to the winged clock: that of the bells to represent the time on the clock. The first time

Marauha turns back the time on the clock, the bell rings normally for nine o'clock. Later near the end of the play, while Marauha waits for

Coronada to come out to go with him, one bell rings. This is immediately interpreted by the Viuda as impatience on the part of

Marauha and El hombrecito venereo: "Se esta impacientando iQue se hace tarde, vecina! iTanto tiempo no hace falta para ponerse la mantilla!" (241). After Marauha turns back the clock for the second time, one more bell rings in an extended fashion described by Nieva this way: "ma^ola^campanada prolonga bus ondas en_amplios anillos hflB.ta_Rerderae " (242).

The musical background and the bells progress in importance and expressiveness throughout the play and emphasize a crescendo in the emotional underpinning of the action at the end. As such, they are an integral and significant part of the fabric of the work.

The signs that originate in the actors themselves are naturally more numerous. As before, we will first consider those that are visual in nature and then those that are aural.

All the characters are firmly identified with the Golden Age in their style of dress. Marauha, as we have noted, is Nieva's version of the ga!6n embozado and dresses the part, if perhaps to an exaggerated degree. He has a long cape that covers his whole body and an "enormous" hat that will cover everything else. The Viuda, the

Sobrina, and Coronada demonstrate their moods directly in the manner in which they dress. They all appear dressed for bed at the beginning, but when the Viuda and the Sobrina become excited about the possibility of attending the fandango, they immediately rush to change so that they appear "muy vestidas y con mantillas" (231). Mantillas are a traditional dress that Spanish women have reserved for the most important religious and civic celebrations. Coronada appears in the first instance in a "chal" having just gotten out of bed, and remains in this dress during the discussion and debate of the play until the end, when finally given over to her desire to accompany Marauna, she appears in the street "muy bien vestida" (242).

The most strikingly surreal visual transformations are reserved for the character of Marauna and props related to him such as the winged clock. His arm, for example, is seen to grow so that it may reach and knock on Coronada's window (231). At various times he is able to crawl up the outside wall like a spider in order to reach the window (231,234). Several times throughout the play at moments of emotional tension brought on by the rejection of Coronada, bursts of flame project from his mouth (234,237). This reminds us of the flames in the Cava Alta, the place where the Viuda says Marauha has his workshop and combines the elements of earth, fire, air, and water

(232). 76

Surpassing these things in overall effect and thematic

centrality are the two appearances from between his legs of a gigantic phallus. From the brief description given each one, they are two different manifestations of the same symbol. The first is described as a "falo acQnchado,_CQmQ__eljpenacho septico de un alacran" (234) with which Marauha urinates at length against the wall and writes his message. The second appearance is the most surrealistic manifestation of all. Surging from Marauha's crotch is a large "serpentine marionette" with gesticulating heads and arms who then serves as a mouthpiece for the character of Marauha. The marionette identifies himself in a poem he recites or sings (this is not indicated in the play) to his own accompaniment of clapping in the style of traditional

Spanish popular songs and the Flamenco:

Yo soy el gozo que sale del pozo y pide alegria de noche y de dia. (239)

Here Nieva not only links his play once more with the Spanish popular tradition, but also explicitly identifies the meaning of the character of Marauha and the phallic symbol: "el gozo" that constantly begs for fulfillment. As we have seen earlier, the marionette is even given a name to further personalize him: el hombrecito venereo.

With a "voz tan aflautada," the hombrecito continues to recite his verse in order to entice the ladies, and appears to take control of the movements of Marauha since he directs the action that continues: 77

T&pame que vienen que bajan al punto y si me descubren__ se mueren del susto. (239)

His conversation continues with the Viuda and the Sobrina but in a

nonsensical fashion:

Con el tipi ripi de la pipirrana repitipotea la pitipotaina... (240)

With the supposedly final rejection of Marauna by Coronada, the hombrecito exits with these lines:

Yo soy el gozo que vuelve al pozo, y no volveria si hubiese alegria. (242)

The parallel between the explicit origin of this phallic symbol and one used in Pelo de tormenta is obvious except that in the latter play a literal well is used.

The characterization of Marauha as the representation of elemental masculine sexuality is underscored even further as we move into the aural elements originating in the characters, for here

Marauha is bereft of all human personality and is given only animal traits. He cannot enunciate anything but animal noises or grunts.

Nieva writes these noises into the dialogue normally as “raaaggg. raaaggg..." (231) or simply "irrrggg!" (236, 239). Nieva describes him this way: "Marauha ni habla ni canta. S61o emite unos incomparables rugidos, torvos v sofocados, cosa aue sienta muy bien a un maio.de su estampa" (231). The Viuda refers to these sounds as

“bramidos," the sounds of cattle, a language she says was learned on 78

"los dias de sol debajo de la Puerta de Alcala" (231). Twice it is noted that he has four rows of teeth in the fashion of a shark (233).

The Viuda adds that he is capable of flying over the rooftops when his passion rises (233).

It is the character of the Viuda who appears to recognize and understand Marauna best, and who describes him in greatest detail throughout the play and who praises him constantly for the benefit of the Sobrina and Coronada. She claims to understand the language of

Marauna (231) and identifies him as one of four brothers "que sobrenombran los 'Maraunas (232). She tries to convince Coronada of her luck in being invited by Marauha, "IAy, suerte tienes que tin hombre como §se te solicite, con esas espaldas que se cargarian un monte, con esos ojos de rabia verde y ese modo de escupir torcido __ "

(232). She desires to convince Coronada of the overpowering nature of

Marauha, "Tu no sabes cual es la casta y el arranque de estos

Maraunas. Son una tropa dispuesta a todo, capaces de vendimiar, si tuvieran ese capricho en el mes de marzo" (233). His manliness is praised, "... un hombre tan viril y tan inflamativo" (234); as is his patience, "Un hombre que sabe desandar el tiempo cuando se trata de esperar a una mujer ... un domesticador de relojes con una paciencia de caracol" (236); as well as his true Spanish heritage, “Un espahol de cuerpo entero y blindado" (236) and his faithfulness to that heritage, "No hay otro tan respetuoso ni que mejor escupa fuego contra los enemigos del altar y el trono" (237). So great is her declared praise and respect that she is not surprised when Coronada finally 79 succumbs and leaves her house in order to seek out Marauha in the last moments of the play: "No hay quien resista a los Maraunas, pues son mas tercos que un siglo" (243).

Of course, this praise is undercut by the actions Marauha continually performs on stage, such as spitting, climbing the walls like a spider, urinating on the walls and grunting like an animal.

The grotesque nature of Marauha is heightened by the contrast between references to him and his own actions: on the one hand he is verbally praised by the Viuda for his laudable qualities and on the other visually he portrays a series of scatological actions which totally belie the praise he is receiving.

An interesting comparison can be made between Coronada's absent brother and Marauha. They both are pictured as in pursuit of a woman:

Marauha of Coronada and her brother "al reclamo tentador de aquella rufiana que tiene un molino de aceite" (232). They are contrasted, though, in their sexual capacities. While Marauha is viewed as breathing out fire gleaned from his workshop deep in the earth itself,

Coronada's brother is weakened by drink, which is referred to in the play as "el jugo de la oliva" (241), that his lover produces in her mill. In this regard, Nieva plays creatively on the meanings of the word "aceite," using it to describe both the "lento aceite" (238) that burns in the "hornillo" that Marauha carries in his belly as well as the "jugo de la oliva" (237) that destroys the desire of the brother, a condition to which the Viuda and the Sobrina refer in their characteristic choral fashion as the "perdicidn de los hombres" (237), a truth that he demonstrates by simply falling into bed upon returning home. Though at one point Coronada appears to be ready to leave for the fandango to spite her brother because of his drunken condition, she later returns to her denial, using her brother as the excuse: "... ha llegado mi hermano y esta liando ronquidos en su cama como el que lia cigarros ... No es hora de pedirle permiso y nada me atrevo sin el permiso de mi hermano" (241). In these two characters, we again see

Nieva presenting two exaggerated caricatures linked so as to present a two-sided grotesque view of a personality type, in this case the

Spanish macho.

Viewed as a group, the three women in the play enunciate an overpowering dependence on the males to whom they are related.

Coronada uses the "luto de mi padre" and the "permiso de mi hermano" as reasons for not giving in to Marauna. The Viuda, as her name indicates, mourns a dead husband, and the Sobrina seems only to long for an imaginary "novio" that society has taught her to seek. In all this talk of defunct husbands and fathers, drunken brothers and possible boyfriends, Nieva paints a pessimistic picture making use of several facets of women trapped, sometimes seeking to break out, as is the case with the Viuda, but generally fearful of leaving the safety of the societal shell.

The mouthpiece for the author is the Viuda. She advocates breaking out of the shell, or, in effect, listening to the voice of

Marauha, who speaks using a language that the Viuda says she understands. She is the only character who is capable of sensing the 81

fandango and indicating its true nature. The lament she presents in

the first verbal presentation of the play can be taken as the attitude of the author toward the events and attitudes of the characters in the play: "iAy, viudedad larguisima, tormentoso cautiverio, que mal te soporta mi alma y como me mueles el cuerpo!" (229-230).

The "fandango" is the answer Nieva suggests for the condition of the women in the play. This term has a double meaning: the first refers to a popular Spanish dance accompanied by castanets and guitar, popular especially in the south of Spain, and the second refers to an uproar or disturbance that might attend a gathering of people at night for the initial purpose of dancing and who permit themselves to be carried away. The fandango is to Nieva a gathering which is capable of achieving a level of freedom not normally possible because of the restraints of society. It occurs at night and out of town in the riverbed where anything is permitted in the excitement of the moment.

The viuda describes it best in the authors' terms: "Siento como llegan los hombres pidiendo lumbre y las mujeres llevando yesca, y... iras! iSe rasgan los velos de la noche! Y iras, ras! iSe atascan las ruedas del horario!" (230).

This use of a popular celebration to symbolize Nieva's declared desire for freedom from restraint is repeated in Pelo de tormenta and

Coronada v el toro. It is an effort to condemn the restraints of bourgeois society, especially in the form they have taken in traditional Spain. 82

El. c Qmbftte.-..de-..Q palQjS....Z-Taslft (Madrid, 1953)

The structure of El combate_de Qpalos v Tasia illustrates

Nieva's interest in another form of one act plays of the Golden Age called the "entremes." This, like the sainete, was a short play designed to be inserted between the acts or at the end of a larger, full length play. They were also humorous and frivolous in nature, designed to please the audience above all else and thus spared no effort to elicit in any way possible the laughter and enjoyment of the public.

The play begins as the entremes usually did, with the traditional "prologo" or "introito," in which one of the characters asks for the attention of the spectators and introduces the play to the public like a master of ceremonies. In Qpalos y Tasia. the character Dama Vinagre enters to explain that two women of the street are to meet in order to contest the love of desirable young Alto Sol,

"un mancebo de rubios molletes," who she says is her nephew. Though the tradition of a dramatic debate harks back to the Middle Ages, a violent verbal and physical battle like the one described here closely parallels a subgenre of entremes called the "jacara entremesada." In this type of play, a verbal battle was enjoined between two prostitutes, the subject of which was the physical prowess of their

"jaques" or boyfriends. One example is La pulga y la chispa of Juan

Bautista Diamante.21 A brief section of the dialogue serves to illustrate the theme of the work:

CHISPA A la Pulga estoy mirando que por hablar mal la dieron 83

ion chirlo de cabo a cabo. Seora Pulga, bien venida, ies hora que nos veamos? Sepa que la quiero mucho.

PULGA iDesde cuando?

CHISPA Escucha al canto por parecida, la quiero, a una amiga, y no me engano pues que por ella parece que la cara la cortaron.

PULGA Antes yo se lo agradezco, porque de mi no hacian caso, y ahora entre todas soy la que mas han sefialado.

CHISPA Pero que no te vengase el valenton de Mellado...

PULGA Pues ipor estas nirlerias he de empehar a mi guapo? Pero ioyes, amiga mia? Tu poca memoria alabo, dime, dime, ino te acuerdas de cuAndo te palmearon?

Nieva's play far exceeds the intensity of verbal abuse that occurred in the Golden Age plays and includes physical violence between Opalos and Tasia as well. As in KLfaadflnfiQ-asombroso, this play exhibits sexual and scatological elements forcefully and explicitly, albeit usually accompanied by a playful tone enunciated principally by the character Dama Vinagre. All these elements are combined into the mold of the entremes with a careful uniformity. The play moves from the "prologo" of Dama Vinagre directly into the verbal battle between the ladies which is followed exclusively throughout the remainder of the action while building while building a crescendo of ever increasing intensity from beginning to end as each insult is 84 passed between the contenders. The drama played out in a boxing match is indicated as a parallel to what occurs in the play: "Entran por cada^lado. simultaneamente, como en un “ring'. Qpalos v Tasia" (204).

Dama Vinagre acts out the part of the referee at various points in the play. When the two women are about to come to blows, she stops the action to advocate fairness in who should make the first blow: "El primer zarpazo debe ser sorteado Hagamos todo por lo derecho y seamos leales a nuestros principios de la pordioseria. Una moneda necesito para tirar a cara o cruz" (207). At another time she appears to try to control the violence and confusion of the fight as the pages begin to attack each other in imitation of their mistresses, Opalos and Tasia. Dama Vinagre also brings closure to the action when the energies of Opalos and Tasia have been completely expended by recommending that they forget past grievances: "Amigaros desde ahora, nifias, y no se hable mas" (215).

Each of the contestants in this combat also has a "page," described by Nieva as "dre-B illaelQa.T....empuparnadoa. y....mediQ desnudos"

(204), who serve in the plot structure as a complement to their respective mistresses. Indeed, they are simple extensions of Opalos and Tasia since they perform their every wish in the fashion of the humble servants. Though their names are mentioned in the play (Miguel for Opalos and Tomas for Tasia), when they speak their dialogue is introduced as that of "el paje de Opalos" and "el paje de Tasia," a fact that tends to depersonalize them and to structurally fuse their actions and words into those of their mistresses. This fact would not 85 be so obvious to a spectator of the play because it is a feature of the dramatic text. When the female characters refer to them in direct address, they are called "ninos," demonstrating both a dramatic and social position as well as actual relative age.

An organizational symmetry of relationships thus develops among the characters of the play. Opalos and Tasia with their pages meet like the knights of chivalry as opposing equals, directed in their combat by Dama Vinagre, a figure who stands above all others in the play, directing and controlling their actions as would a director in the theater. Though somewhat ambiguous, it's important to note Dama

Vinagre's relationship with the absent Alto Sol, the youth whose love is the occasion for the altercation between Opalos and Tasia. She refers to him in the introduction of the play as her nephew, but later calls him "el hijo de mis entranas" (212). In the course of her description of the childhood of Alto Sol, she also refers to herself as the "nodriza" (wet nurse) and the "abuelita" (grandmother) of Alto

Sol. As we will see later, this ambiguity in no way lessens the importance of this relationship in the action of the play. Thus, each of the three female figures possesses a male counterpart who is related to and dependant on her. The absent Alto Sol is the central desired object of the affections of all three women. He is, in effect, the structural glue that binds them to one another. Dama

Vinagre longs for him as a parent whose child has deserted her, while to Opalos and Tasia, he is the lover who has deserted them for another. The role of Dama Vinagre, therefore, is crucial in the

presentation on stage of this dramatic structure. She orients the

audience as to the character and purpose of the battle between Opalos

and Tasia. As she tells us, the central purpose is to take delight in watching the "violence, passion and tears" in the play without being bothered by moralistic considerations. This she not only advocates to

the audience, but enjoys as spectator and participant herself. Not

only does she initiate the action from the beginning, she provides

closure at the end as well. She serves to distance the audience from

the actions and words of Opalos and Tasia by speaking directly to the audience in the introduction and closing as well as making comments on

it throughout. She intervenes as a referee to help the characters decide who will strike the first blow, and later as a coach to encourage the combatants in their struggle.

Dama Vinagre is also a prime example of the character type Nieva calls "La madre cenagosa” (another is La reina Kelly in Nosferatu). whose character is that of a "sabia y cinica tentadora, transmisora de la culpa." Her function is that of a "servidora de la naturaleza que obliga a sumergirse en un pielago pasional, sensualmente emporcado, inmoral o amoral."22 Nieva admits that her literary antecedent is

Celestina, the alcahueta in Fernando de Rojas' "tragicomedia" of the same name first published in 1499 who asimilates many occult and amoral elements into one character.

Nieva also adds to this character a uniquely playful mood which is demonstrated throughout the play. This is illustrated in the first 87

few lines of her introduction of the play to the public: "Publico, concurrencia, amigos que aqui estais: iSalud! Yo me encuentro de maravilla y la sangre me hierve de las muchas ganas que tengo de broma" (203). Her conclusion, also directed to the public and using the same call to attention, illustrates her deeper amoral purpose:

Publico, concurrencia, amigos que aqui estais, iSalud! Ya habeis visto una rina de mercado con el mejor fin posible. Y, amansadas estas tigresas corramos hacia otro nuevo escandalo. Artes buenas y malas siempre nos daran placer, si el escandalo las dora y no queda moraleja que entumezca vuestro paseo por las plazas del mundo. Seamos buenos espectadores de la hermosa violencia, la pasidn y las lagrimas. (215)

In addition to this, Opalos and Tasia must not be considered purely as individual opponents, but rather as another of Nieva's double characters, as the Sobrina and the Viuda were in El fandango.

Though Opalos is a seller of vegetables and Tasia a seller of castaway items she has found, in almost all other respects they are equals.

They are both poor, with large carts they push through the street with their respective wares. They both declare with equal vigor their love for Alto Sol. They are presented as an even match in the verbal and physical combat which takes place and when one faints from exhaustion, the other does also. In effect, everything they say and do is directly analogous to the other. In this they contrast with the Viuda and Sobrina pair in El fandango since the latter pair differed profoundly from each other in their sensitivity to the existence of the fandango.

Another aspect of the structure is the steadily increasing intensity seen throughout, which reaches its climax at the end. In this regard, the subtitle, "pequeno preludio orquestal," might refer to a theatrical piece in which there are a variety of "movements" leading to a final crescendo, in imitation of a musical piece. An indication of this is found in the first statement of Opalos upon entering the stage after the introduction of Dama Vinagre: "Con la venia de los senores: si todo combate tiene su preludio de insultos, dejame mirarte, Tasia, e inspirarme..." (204). After a series of verbal expletives are cast at one another, Dama Vinagre chimes in with

"iBien va, bien va!" (205). At this point a new phase is initiated in which a physical comparison is made of the sexual organs and attractions of each combatant. At the end of this phase, the two women come to physical blows. Before this can begin, however, Dama

Vinagre halts the action by pulling Opalos and Tasia apart and imposes order to the combat by suggesting that the first to cast a blow be chosen by chance. Lacking either coins to flip or straw for a drawing, she suggests a comparison of the size of the penises of the two pages. Tomas wins this contest and the final combat begins in earnest between Opalos and Tasia, during which the pages enter the action by dumping their respective wares onto the two battling ladies and later they themselves begin to fight each other. At one point in this final phase Opalos and Tasia both faint and are revived only to declare they are dying, Opalos of a fever and Tasia of the disintegration of her body and loss of its hidden treasures. At this point Dama Vinagre encourages Tasia to cry out "con todas tus cualidades tragicas" (211). Tasia then launches into a lament which 89

imitates stylized poetry and decries the loss or absence of a lover:

Ay, Alto Sol, indiferente, olvidar quisiera tus muchas gracias, que son las que me traen consumida y arrastrada a los pies de esa cochina. No puedo mas con mi memoria, pues en ella te presentas todo el tiempo adornado de mil fuegos permanentes. (211)

The word "cochina" is out of place in the rhetorical and elevated style of speech, an example of what van der Naald calls "ruptura estetica."23 In all phases of this work, we see this method at work: into the classical structure and style of speech are periodically injected the contrasting pornographic and scatolocial elements in order to produce laughter and diversion without regard for moralistic limitations.

The play ends with the discovery of a previously hidden musical talent which Opalos says she has refused to use in public until now.

Beginning quietly and gradually building, we hear a pure, well-timed soprano voice emanating from the sexual organs of Opalos, to the astonishment and amazement of all. To complete her part in the play,

Opalos takes Dama Vinagre's advice and adopts the training and use of this voice as her new vocation.

The character names are chosen to further support the function of the characters. "Dama Vinagre" is a name which reflects a double meaning: the humorous as well as the satirical aspects of her dialogue. The names Opalos and Tasia are typical of the names chosen in the 16th and 17th century plays in imitation of earlier grecolatin classics. As we have seen, the two pages are named only in the dialogue itself when they are examined by Dama Vinagre, but are referred to as "nifio" at other times when simply ordered to do

something. This indicates a tendency on the part ot the author to

name characters only when it is semantically important to do so and at other times to use generic titles which signify little.

Though Alto Sol never makes an appearance on stage, his role is

important as the imaginary focal point of affection of all the other female characters. The absence of Alto Sol appears to affect Opalos as a fire which is burning her insides. Her last words are: "Todo lo quiero en mi interior, en lugar de este fuego sin remedio ni manguera que lo aplaque. iSocorro!" (213). His absence not only heightens the desire of Opalos and Tasia, but also makes their debate and struggle more grotesque. They fight over a character who does not even deign to appear.

His name seems to remind us of the "Cava Alta" in El fandango, the workplace of Marauha, and it has vaguely erotic significance. In

Dama Vinagre's description of Alto Sol as a youth, she refers to his

"punta dorada" and the fact that he grew "como el sol." When he was offered a "moneda de oro," he left Dama Vinagre to sell himself to the rich. Dama Vinagre also describes him as "meando ambrosia dorada" on the king's breakfast biscuits. When we compare these references to the "resorte dorado" which Tasia drops later, an obvious phallic symbol, we begin to form a picture of Alto Sol as a metaphorical embodiment of the sexual desires of the women. He never materializes in the action in the same way that their desires are never satisfied.

He lives only in the memory of Dama Vinagre and the present laments of 91

Opalos and Tasia who constantly desire his presence and battle each other using him as a pretence.

This short play is unusual in the teatro furioso in its total lack of indications from the author concerning staging and musical background. There are no visual or aural semiotic elements to be analyzed in the dramatic text which do not originate from the actors themselves. There are several props presented throughout the play, but all of them are brought in with the actors and directly support the dialogue. Nieva's purpose in using this technique is to lend more emphasis to the significance of the spoken word as well as the visual movements which the actors themselves perform.

The dress of the characters is the only important visual element and illustrates Nieva's interest in contrasting the verbal references to the three female characters as "damas" of the Golden Age and their ragged and dirty condition. Dama Vinagre is introduced by Nieva as a

"fjguron barroco" in the introduction but her clothes are rags, her face is painted with mud, and she wears a bonnet of coliflor leaves.

Opalos and Tasia are alike in their dress, which satirizes that of the ladies of the barroque period: dresses that are ripped and torn, with

"mil deshechos v retazos." indecently opened in the front. In their excessively high hairdos they wear plumes like the ones put on horses.

Along with the two combatants come two "pages" who are half naked, each one is pulling a cart, loaded with rotten vegetables in the case of Opalos and garbage and various castaway items for Tasia. Even before they utter a word, it is clear from their dress that they are 92 satirizing the dress and demeanor of the upper class ladies of the barroque period.

The other visual effects are used to heighten the drama and chaos of the battle in which the two ladies engage. As Opalos and

Tasia begin to fight furiously, "buscan arrancarse los pechos a bQ£adofi-_y— cton lasJiorauillaB del neinado saltarse o.ios v oldos" (208).

At this point Dama Vinagre tells the pages to dump the contents of their carts on the contenders because she says "mas vale que se revuelquen en la basura a que se desnuquen contra el adoquinado”

(209). Thus is begun a visual process representing the ultimate destruction of the goods and bodies of the two women. It is illustrated visually later when Tasia begins to drop jewels from underneath her dress which she says she has been collecting: "mi cuerpo se desbarata, pierdo todas las joyas que atesoraba..." (212).

After a moment she utters a horrible scream and another object falls, in Nieva's words, "un objeto irreconocible" (212). According to Dama

Vinagre, this is the ultimate loss for Tasia, from which she will not recover, and she identifies what obviously is a sort of dildo or phallic instrument as "el resorte dorado que produce los espasmos de la dicha" (212).

Throughout the verbal debate is interspersed a stylized and satirically theatrical physical battle. This is illustrated in

Nieva's stage directions: "Ellas se machacan con los Puhos_las-naricea v se dan vuelta de tornillo a cada miembro" (209). Later this same stylized combat is described in this way: 93

Se hacen.-VQ.lar. lo8 cabellQB Y-se d&h.gr&ndes aentadfts sobre el vientre. l.a^a„^a_.eL^iL^nemiga...vma patada .eausl estomago v esta escuoe un eacuerzo. (209)

At this, Opalos picks the toad up by its leg and asks, "iEsto engendras en el estomago, dragona?" Nieva continues the same pattern in his next note, explaining the general visual impression the fight displays: "Se hacen un ovillo, mordiendose y chillando como^ratas"

(209).

Though the language of the play is explicitly erotic in nature,

Nieva takes care visually to avoid excessive nudity. Though the breasts of the combatants are exposed on one occasion, the women are basically clothed throughout. When the examination of the penises of the two pages occurs, they turn their backs to the audience, a fact which gives more play to the imagination of the audience listening to

Dama Vinagre'e description of these organs and more importance to the spoken word in the fabric of this play.

This verbal aspect of the play is worthy of the most careful consideration since in this play Nieva obviously places more emphasis on this element than he does in the other plays to be studied. The dramatic action of the play is based almost entirely on the spoken word. This characteristic has been noted by Perez Coterillo:

Una segunda caracteristica fundamental del "Teatro furioso" es la funcionalidad teatral de la palabra, a la que el autor confiere casi un valor fetichista. ... aqui la frase se condensa, la palabra adquiere un paladeo sonoro que se traduce en un efecto esc£nico de consecuencias verdaderamente llamativas.24

We will consider this subject from two points of view: first the technique of distancing in which the characters verbally relate much 94 of the significant subject matter of the play and then the use of metaphor and double entrendre to present the erotic and scatalogical elements.

As we have seen, the audience is initially presented with the character of Dama Vinagre who introduces the play. She also participates in the action and discussion throughout. For example, she recounts the past history of Alto Sol as he was growing up.

iNo habria de lamentarme yo, si tambien he gozado de vuestro querido Alto Sol como ninguna de vosotras? Yo, que le he visto crecer como el sol __ Y, a los ocho anos, el muy picaro se ofrecia para servirme de postre despues de la cena. Si eres bueno, le decia yo, la abuelita te sacara todo el dulce que tiene el el bote __ (211).

She then relates how Alto Sol abandoned her for the money the rich could offer and she quotes him as saying, "Quiero servir de postre a la mejor sociedad" (212). She declares that he was even acceptedinto the royal palace: "Y asi le he visto yo al hijo de mis entrafias, meando ambrosia dorada sobre la torta de miel y pasas de Su Majestad, que ya no gustaba de mojar en otra cosa” (212).

The humorous and pornographic episode of the measuring of the penises of the two pages is another example of this technique. The spectator sees the backs of the pages, and Dama Vinagre relates the action as she places herself between and in front of the two young men who have lowered their pants to the floor. She begins with Miguel:

iCielos, Miguelito, que Mollas y que blancuras! No sales a tu abuelo que era todo esqueletico y morado. Hijo, con que gusto te han hecho y con que primor te han torneado. Asombrada me tienes. Venga la sentencia del peine. Cuarenta y tres puas. i No! Cuarenta y nueve. ;No! iCincuenta y cuatro...! Que cambios, rapidos, asi no hay medida fija. (208) 95

With the other page, Tomas, she makes a marvelous discovery.

No es ni mucho menos eso. Estos conjuntos siempre se han compuesto de tres piezas. Pues bien, este nino tiene cuatro: un abeto y tres enanos (208).

In the course of their debate on sexual attributes, each of the pages in turn is ordered by their Damas to investigate underneath their skirts. Opalos initiates this with her page:

Nino, ven a mirar debajo de mis faldas y comunica a esta distinguida asistencia el fruto de tus conocimientos. (El p.age_se, introduofi-baio las ..faldas de Opalos. Eara_ hablar saca la cabeza.) iQue ves? (206)

At this the page pulls out his head and says, "Veo luces por todas partes" (206).

Tasia is not to be outdone, so she duplicates this action with her page, leading to other discoveries. She tells her page, "Nifio, ponte bajo mi campana y di luego lo que encuentras" (206).

Miraculously, the page disappears, whereupon Tasia comments, "iAh, sinverguenza!, se ha largado de paseo por el parque de las atracciones y volvera luego, cargado de premios y mareado de tantas sacudidas y movimientos" (206).

The purpose of this technique is to force the spectator to use his imagination stimulated by the metaphorical language he hears from the actors. This not only avoids the necessity of presenting the intensely sexual nature of the material discussed on stage for all to see, but adds to the effect of this material since the audience is forced to participate by creating the visual images for themselves.

It is also obvious that any attempt to realistically stage this action would be doomed to failure, or certainly would be much less effective 96 since the purpose of the author is to present a surrealistic view of the sexual organs and acts.

From what has been discussed to this point, it is obvious that corporal elements and more especially the sexual organs are central to the action. They are consistently presented using metaphors and words with double meanings, so much so that though the meaning is always obvious to the alert spectator or reader, it is never stated explicitly. To list all these instances is to catalogue all the important male and female sexual organs.

Those of the pages and of Alto Sol represent objects of desire to the women of the play. We have seen how Dama Vinagre was pleasantly surprised at the size of the sex organs of the pages while referring to them with terms like "mollas’' and "un abeto y tres enanos" (206). This "fir tree and three midgets" is not the most surprising metaphor that will be used to describe masculine sexuality.

Later Dama Vinagre admonishes one of the pages, as they battle each other, not to damage the "racimo de tu amigo" so that you not

"descabales la coleccion" (209). In Dama Vinagre's description of

Alto Sol, she discusses his physical attributes, "Pues tenia una punta dorada y unos cascabeles de raso vivo que mis manos de nodriza no se cansaban de calibrar el peso" (211). In a reference to the sex act,

Dama Vinagre quotes what she said to Alto Sol, "Si eres bueno ... la abuelita te sacara todo el dulce que tienes en el bote y te rebanara con el dedo cuanto quede pegado en el asiento" (211). Now in her old age, Dama Vinagre declares at the end of the play that she wants the 97

two pages to come now and work for her, and she will teach them to

"jugar a la flecha y a la diana" (215), in order that she may derive

pleasure from watching them. This reminds us of Celestina who also

derived pleasure from viewing the sex act performed.

These references to male sexuality are surpassed in creativity and detail by the references to the female organs. Because the main characters are female and the declared objective is to debate their

sexual attractiveness, Nieva expends his greatest effort in

imagination and inventiveness in describing the females. This is evident first in the insults of Opalos and Tasia, in which they throw words at each other like weapons. Some examples of the terms used are: "pulpetas velludas," "pichon" to describe a breast, "vientre de gualdrapa," "andamiaje de caderas," "lestrigon," "ballena de los mares," "pichon al vuelo," "camella revuelta," "dragona," "gata sucia," "gorgona," "guarra," and "cochina."

The descriptions of each combatant of their own bodies are the most creative as well as the most shocking. Opalos begins this part of the combat by explaining the statement of her page who declared that while under her skirts he had seen "lights everywhere" (206).

She explains that they are two "fuegos fatuos" which she says she has maintained for the purpose of beckoning Alto Sol:

Cuando el cuerpo me pide Alto Sol, subo por las noches a la azotea, alzo mis sayas y el amor de mi vida se me viene corriendo con la lengua afuera, guiado por el resplandor. i,Que mujer hay que tenga la fortuna de gozar con un juego de sefiales, como barco en alta mar? (206)

In competition, when Tasia sends her page under her skirts to report 98

on what he finds, he disappears inside, and her reaction includes her

metaphorical description of her own sexual organs:

iAh, sinverguenza!, se ha largado de paseo por el parque de las atracciones y volvera luego, cargado de premios y mareado de tentas sacudidas y movimientos. (206)

She continues with another metaphor: "Todavia soy una mujer de

principios y a mis Campos Eliseos solo pasan hombres hechos y

derechos, aunque les obligue a dejar fuera el baston, que siempre me

hace cosquillas" (206).

This detailed description continues in ever increasing

extravagance when at this point the page returns with a bouquet of

flowers in his hands and explains that he found them on the edge of a

"volcan," another vaginal metaphor, where there are others of all

colors that "huelen a mil delicias" (207). When Dama Vinagre comments

on the aroma the page brings with him, he explains that "meti el pie

en un charco de agua de colonia. Todo aquello esta lleno de sorpresas y picardias" (207). The most striking reference to the female sex

organs comes at the end when after having fainted, a finely tuned

soprano voice is heard to emanate from under the skirts of Opalos.

Dama Vinagre expresses her surprise with the question, "i,Se ha visto a nadie que cante con el 6rgano de la pasion, de verdad y sin quitarle una letra?" (214). Dama Vinagre convinces her to forget Alto Sol and make her living with this voice.

As we have seen, the desire for Alto Sol destroys both contenders for his love, but they do contrast one another in the way this occurs. Both are destroyed from inside their bodies, but in different ways. Tasia comes to her end by a process of expulsion of all she had sought to hold inside: "Yo tambien me siento morir, mi cuerpo se desbarata, pierdo todas las joyas que atesoraba, las siento caer sin remedio" (212). Opalos, on the other hand, declares she is perishing in this way: "iQue me quemo! iTodo se funde en mi interior!

(213). At this point she makes a chaotic and absurd list of things she would like to place inside her body to quench the fire burning there:

iTempanos del polo, bomberos cualificados, afios de nieve, fresca porcelana, ensalada de frutas, arroyos de la sierra, espadas de Toledo, mananas de roc1 0 , Picos de Europa! (213)

In this way, Nieva presents an absurd and grotesque contrast between the two contestants; the one is demolished by dispersal of her bejeweled insides (Tasia), the other by desiring to fill her insides with an absurd list of items which are parallel in that, except for a

"qualified fireman," they are mainly things that are cold, wet or snow-covered. While Opalos speaks of a fire which is consuming everything inside her, Tasia blames Alto Sol directly for her demise:

"iAlto Sol, ladron, canalla! 6Para esto has entrado en mi recuerdo? iTodo lo pierdo por el!" (212).

Purely scatological elements abound in the play, but appear to serve no other structural purpose than to increase the level of scandalous content. They are used almost exclusively as insults and include words like "meona," "lago de orines," "pildn de estiArcol,"

"vapores de cuerpo," as well as the expresion "meando ambrosia dorada." This metaphor used for the urine of Alto Sol becomes the 100

favorite liquid for dunking the royal breakfast sweetbreads, perhaps the most repulsive allusion in the play.

There are as well several references to "cloacas" and a "cloaca hirviente." These words are used by Tasia to refer to the inner parts of Opalos, an extreme contrast to the other references to the inside of the women's bodies: "un jardin de delicias," "parque de atracciones," and "Campos Eliseos." The "cloaca hirviente" also has reference to the internal fire to which Opalos succumbs near the end of the action. The purpose of such a contrast in metaphors for the same object is to shock the reader/spectator and has the effect of erasing the difference between positive and negative allusions. In other words, what is important to the author is to amaze the audience with either extreme for the effect it produces, and not to assign a moral value to either. Rather, moral neutrality is sought, without concurrently loosing the ability to tintilate the sensibilities and emotional reactions of the audience.

From the first words of Dama Vinagre in the beginning of the play, it is obvious that the author, using this character as a mouthpiece, intends to emphasize the humorous nature of the play:

P&blico, concurrencia, amigos que aqui estais: iSalud! Yo me encuentro de maravilla y la sangre me hierve de las muchas ganas que tengo de broma. (203)

Her attitude throughout the action demonstrates her perspective as a commentator who laughs at what she witnesses. Her periodic commentary on the actions of the other characters will illustrate this. 101

Dama Vinagre expresses her pleasure at the way the verbal battle heats up with a sort of cheer, "iBien va, bien va!" (205). When Tasia describes how her page has gotten lost in her "parque de atracciones,"

Dama Vinagre humorously comments, "no hay credito a mis ojos. iQue dira la madre del muchacho cuando lo vea en tan malos pasos?" (206).

Her concluding speech expresses the author's hedonistic intent in this play:

Artes buenas y malas siempre nos daran placer, si el escandalo las dora y no queda moraleja que entumezca vuestro paseo por las plazas del mundo. Seamos buenos espectadores de la hermosa violencia, la pasion y las lagrimas. (215)

The humor advocated by Dama Vinagre, and thus also the author, is amoral, that is, without reference to either morally good or bad subjects; but rather the author expects the audience to take equal pleasure in either.

A good example of a variety of the humorous elements presented in rapid succession is found near the end of the action just after the discovery of a mysterious soprano voice emanating from Opalos' vaginal area:

Dama Vinagre: iPor donde canta? iPor el semillero? iMadre mia, que gran misterio! Yo esto no me lo esperaba.

El paje de Opalos: Pues afina que da gusto mi ama. EstA trinando.

Dama Vinagre (ascultandola): Pero con arte, con arte consumado.

El paje de Opalos: Con un arte con ... iQue ha dicho?

El paje de Tasia: Con un arte de consumo.

Dama Vinagre: iQuereis callar? Esto es un puro arrobo. 102

Opalos, despierta y escucha lo que cantas, que te quedaras con la boca abierta. (214)

In this interchange, there is a clear progression from the initial surprise and amazement of Dama Vinagre to the pun based on the term

"un arte consumado" which the page terms "un arte de consumo." At this, Dama Vinagre adds a sentence replete with humorous plays on words: "Opalos, despierta y escucha [...] con la boca abierta." Her illogical statements provide a series of interesting contradictions: normally, one cannot sleep and sing at the same time, nor listen to what one is singing and then react with a mouth agape at the singing.

This is an illustration of the words of Dama Vinagre, who says that

"sorpresas y picardias" are the primary focus of this play. gonaluaion

It's obvious that, aside from the pure delight in the presentation of this erotic and suggestive combat, Nieva again makes an indirect commentary on the male-female relationship in Spanish society. Opalos and Tasia represent overbearing women who debate the sexual attractions they can present for Alto Sol, the supposed lover, but the greater the intensity of their debate, the more foolish it seems since Alto Sol has rejected and abandoned both. For his part,

Alto Sol represents the weak male who has fled from the women because of a lack of courage when faced with the overpowering virility of the two women. In the words of Dama Vinagre, Alto Sol has been "espantado de sus celos y de sus exigencias" and "huye y se esconde sin decidirse por ninguna de las dos" (204). Alto Sol, in addition, has prostituted 103 himself to the upper classes for money. Dama Vinagre relates that

"cuando una sefiora de carroza le puso en la mano una moneda de oro por toda la confiteria ya no hubo quien le hiciera seguir un oficio"

(212). In Nieva's terms, this action by Alto Sol may be taken as his surrender to middle class bourgeois materialism.

Both Fandango and Opalos y Tasia are alike in their imitation of the traditional theatrical forms of the "gAnero chico" (sainete and entremes). They both present a small number of characters who are often complementary versions of a single character. Each of these plays is alike in placing sexual desire in the center of the thematic structure, and in using explicit references and thinly veiled allusions to shock the reader/spectator.

An interesting contrast between these two works is their treatment of male and female roles in the sexual interplay of the action. In Fandango. the active role is given to the male, Marauna, who represents the supermacho. His success in his attempted liaison with Coronada is hindered by the indecision and hesitation of the female. In Opalos v Tasia. the viewpoint is totally reversed. The twin characters of Opalos and Tasia actively express and demonstrate their desire for the male figure, Alto Sol, who never actually appears in the play because of his timidity and indecision. Since neither attempt is met with real success, it may be seen that Nieva's view of the possibility of attainment of sensual pleasure and fulfillment is a pessimistic one. This contrast may be viewed another way. The masculine characters in both plays portray a depersonalized, dehumanized male, who is viewed principally as a phallic symbol, perennially present in the minds and consciences of the female characters. The response to this stimulus may be considered the contrasting factor in each of the two plays as well. El fandango can be characterized as a play in which the females lack desire, and therefore no fulfillment is possible. In Opalos v Tasia. on the other hand, the females' excessive desire frightens the male counterpart and causes him to flee. In El fandango, therefore, there is a great prize, but no desire to attain it; while in Qpalos v Tasia. there is a great desire, but the prize is lacking.

When considered in this way, these plays remind the reader of ritualized animal mating dances. Each sex postures in the presence of the other and performs a proscribed series of movements and produces the required sounds, but all to no practical outcome. It is essentially an empty exercise with no real fulfillment possible. 105

NOTES

1. Anje van der Naald, Nuevas.tendencies en el teatro espanol (Miami: Ed. Universal, 1981) 88.

2. On the life and work of Don Ramon de la Cruz, see: Juan Luis Alborg, Hifitoria de la Literatura Espanola. vol. 2 (Madrid: Gredos, 1967) 667-674; the "Discurso preliminar" of Emilio Cotarelo y Mori, DomRamon de la Cruz v sue obras (Madrid, 1899), and by the same author, Saine.te.fi. deJDQn..Ram on...da_la -Cruz....en au_mayoria ineditos, vol. 23 and 36 (Madrid: Nueva Biblioteca de Autores Espaholes, 1915 and 1928).

3. Alborg 667.

4. Alva V. Ebersole, LQfi__aainetes.de Ramon de la Cruz: Nuevo examen (Valencia: Ediciones Albatros Hispanofila, 1983).

5. Jose Ortega y Gasset, Gova (Barcelona: Espasa Calpe, Coleccion Austral, 1955).

6. Francisco Nieva, Teatro furioso. ed. Moises Perez Coterillo (Madrid: Akal/Ayuso, 1975). All quotes from El fandango asombroso and El combate de Qpalos v Tasia are taken from this edition.

7. John A. Moore, Ramon de la Cruz (New York: Twayne's World Authors Series, 1972).

8. The author's notes and stage directions included in his texts are underlined in this study as they are italized in the textof the plays.

9. Ramon de la Cruz, Sainetes. ed. John Dowling (Madrid: Clasicos Castalia, 1981) 28.

10. Dowling 29.

11. van der Naald 75.

12. van der Naald 71.

13. Marvin Carlson, Theatre Semiotics:_Sifins _of_Life (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1990) 28. The chapter called "The Semiotics of Character Names in the Drama" is a good introduction to the topic. 106

14. Carlson 26.

15. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 111-114. The titles he gives to them are: Coro; Personajes corales y presentadores; El personaje doble, La pareja unanime; El niho como ente arcano y superior; El joven heroe; La madre cenagosa; La mujer, victima superior; and Los constrictores. He also includes extensive examples from many of his plays to illustrate each category.

16. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 113.

17. Nieva, GaggQZft^SQ.CQnftda 98.

18. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 111.

19. van der Naald 72.

20. Tadeusz Kowzan, Litterature.. et spectacle dans leur _raPPorta esthetiques. thematigues et semiologjques (Warsaw: Editions Scientifiques de Pologne, 1970) 172.

21. Javier Huerto Calvo, El...teatro ..en..el-gigl£-XX (Madrid: Ed. Playor, 1985) 121-122. This work has a brief description of the "jacara entremesada" as well as the dialogue from the play quoted in continuation.

22. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 113.

23. van der Naald 68.

24. Moises P6rez Coterillo, introd., Teatro furioso, by Francisco Nieva (Madrid: Akal/Ayuso, 1975) 24. CHAPTER III

EXPERIMENTATION IN THEME AND FORM:

ES-BUENQ NO TENER..CABEZA AND PELO DE TORMENTA

Introduction

In this chapter, two plays will be analyzed: Es bueno no tener

Cftbsza and Pelo de tormenta. The first of these is a play to which, unlike most others by Nieva, the author has not given a subclassification within the larger category of "teatro furioso."

Moreover, it is more like a thesis work than a dramatic text designed for the stage. In this, it is unique among the plays to be analyzed in this study, but extremely important in light of the viewpoint the author expresses which embodies the philosopical and methodological underpining for many other plays by Nieva.

One of the plays in which this dramatic and methodological philosophy is demonstrated is Pelo de tormenta. the second play to be analyzed in the chapter. Pelo de tormenta. in contrast, is also classed by the author in two other subcategories within the "teatro furioso." Along with Nosferatu. a play dealing with the vampire theme set in Europe, it is also subtitled "redpera," a theatrical form that will be explained later. Further, Nieva classifies Pelo de tormenta as one of the three works he calls "apocalipticas" (the others are

107 108

Noaferatu and Coronada y el toro). These subtitles and

classifications serve to orient the reader somewhat as to the purpose

and meaning of the plays in question.

Es .buenQ.no tener cabeza.1

Francisco Nieva has indicated cleanly the source that gave rise

to this work:

En un articulo de etnologia descubri una leyenda -creo chilena- sobre las cabezas volantes que, de noche, cuando algunas personas dormian, se desprendian de los cuerpos y ambulaban por los aires y se adherian a otros cuerpos de personas o de animales.2

Obviously the idea of heads changing bodies is one aspect that

interested Nieva in this legend, but more important is the fact that

this took place in dreams. For Nieva, dreams can illustrate a truth

that waking consciousness may not accept, and their importance is

illustrated by a long Spanish literary and artistic tradition which

would include authors and artists such as Quevedo and Goya, who

present or describe dreams in their work. Nieva has stated that the

world of dreams is very appealing to him for the lessons they teach,

as well as the air of "libre delirio" they present, and he compares it

to the "esperpentismo apocaliptico" of Valle-Inclan and the "chistosas

asociaciones deformantes de Gomez de la Serna."3 Only in dreams is

it possible to free the fundamental instincts so inhibited in waking

existence: "En Es bueno no tener cabeza, como en algunas otras obras

cortas, he intentado, mediante un juego de situaciones tensas y magicas, un sentimiento de liberacion en los instintos basicos."4 109

In this Nieva demonstrates a direct affinity with the

Surrealists' emphasis on the importance of dreams. Paul Ilie, quoting and agreeing with Renato Poggioli, says that Surrealism

[...] ha cultivado formas artisticas nuevas, transformando temas y representando la metamorfosis de los objetos por medio de una idea radicalmente diferente: la identificacion de la vision estetica con el estado onirico. Para Poggioli, como virtualmente para todos, la poetica del sueno es el principio mas importante de la modalidad surrealista.e

The oneiric quality of Cabeza is demonstrated in its shocking thematic irrationality and in its bizarre and remote setting in the Middle

Ages.

This use of the world of dreams is praised by Perez Coterillo, since the "desprestigiado mundo de los suehos y de las alucinadas intuiciones de la magia" are necessary to "denunciar la situacidn estancada del presente con un desbordamiento de lo posible, en un acto de afirmacion rotunda de la vida."B The oneiric quality was emphasized visually in the staging done in the premier presentation of this work in the Escuela de Arte Dramatico. In this debut as in a later staging done in Paris in the Sorbonne, the characters were represented as "sombras chinescas," backlighted onto a screen so as to appear as shadows, and the dialogue was recorded on tape. All this in order to present the work as "una funci6n para luces y sombras."7

Carrying the extravagance of the staging one step further, PArez

Coterrillo indicates that Nieva indicated to him in conversation that he had previously imagined an even more dreamlike, though obviously somewhat impractical, staging for the play involving "un juego de 110

marionetas gigantes en medio del publico, en un espacio libre y

abierto One can see thematic parallels with the "pinturas

negras" of Goya's last period with their ghostly figures hovering

suspended in air.

In this context, this work introduces a fundamental theme of all

Nieva's work: the opposition of the natural sensual instincts, as

exemplified in the world of dreams, and the artificial rational

thinking that has typified modern man and Spanish society throughout

its history. It is clear that he believes the natural elements have

been suppressed and the need now exists to highlight them openly and without restraint. So important is this idea to the work of Nieva

that van der Naald has referred to Cabeza as the "leitmotif" of the

"teatro furioso," and has said that this is probably the best work of the "teatro furioso," and even that it is "una de las obras claves de este siglo en el teatro espafiol."9 As we will see, this is true in the sense that no other work of Nieva so directly demonstrates this dichotomy between the rationally constructed societal framework and sensual freedom in order to make it the central all-encompassing issue of the play.

This theme is interwoven integrally into the structure of this short play to the point that it almost takes on the character of an

"obra de tesis" or a moralistic allegory. The humorous and playful tone of Qpalos v Tasia and the emphasis on the centrality of sexual imagery are not the central issue of this play. The importance of the pleasure of sexual fulfillment is present here, but it plays a Ill

secondary role with reference to the more general discussion of the

aforementioned opposition of two ways of viewing the world and

responding to it.

As we consider the structure of the play, it is important first to note the compactness that is characteristic of all good short plays in general, but that in this play is demonstrated by the surprising rapidity with which the action progresses. It has been noted, in reference to Nieva's theatre in general, that "por encima de cualquier otra consideracion, es la accion continua y el continuo suceder cosas su caracteristica principal."10 One example that illustrates this is the first few lines of the play which serve to introduce the characters and begin the action with surprising brevity:

ROMUL/3: Estoy harto de tantos potingues. Ganas me dan de emprenderla a golpes con todos estos malditos cacharros. Anteo, amigo mio, decidme si no llevo razon... ANTEO: ildos al cuerno, maestro Romulo! Me habeis llamado vuestro amigo. De amigo no tenemos nada. Nos ha reunido desde hace tiempo -que ya es inmemorial- el deseo y la ambicion de encontrar la piedra filosofal. ROMULO: jPues estais listo! No vais a encontrar nada, nada. Seguimos un falso camino. (217)

This rapid development is certainly related to the play's oneiric quality since it provides continuously surprising revelations much in the way dreams are capable of presenting a wide range of pleasurable and terrifying phenomena to the dreamer.

The play is divided into two parts which demonstrate a surprising degree of structural parallelism, reminding us of the bipartite structure seen in Elfandango asombroso. The first involves only Romulo and Anteo and the second begins roughly at the midway 112 point when Tomasuccio enters having returned from an errand. In each of these parts Romulo acts as the tempter and deceiver, in the first part directing his efforts at Anteo and in the second at Tomasuccio.

Each sequence begins with an abrupt and unexpected declaration.

To Anteo, Romulo declares in the first part, "Soy una doncella" (218).

Romulo proceeds then to remove his clothing to prove his point to the obvious amazement of Anteo who, nevertheless, demonstrates some reluctant interest. To complete the revelation of his new female body, he proceeds to unveil a matching female head from a coffer.

This produces a mixed reaction on the part of Anteo. On the one hand he accuses Romulo of being the Devil himself ("iSois Satanas! Sois el diablo tentador.) and on the other acknowledges the beauty of the head

(iAh, que criatura tan bella!). Romulo here interchanges the old head for the young female head to complete his own transformation, the old head being hidden in the same coffer. Romulo ends the first part by pointing out to Anteo the error they made in searching for the "piedra filosofal," when they could have been dedicating themselves to cooking, in order to fortify themselves for love. This produces disgust on the part of Anteo, "Que un rayo me parta si siento palpitar nada de lo que me cuelga" (220). The first division ends at this point with each character adopting irrevocable opposing positions.

Similarly, in the second part, Romulo begins his "temptation" of

Tomasuccio, the young servant of the old alchemists, with another unexpected exclamation, "B&jate las bragas, Tomasuccio" (222). There follows the same removal of Romulo's clothes, in which he has hidden 113

as Tomasuccio entered, and the same appreciation of his beauty by

Tomasuccio (iAh, que mujer tan bellai). Tomasuccio, in contrast to

Anteo, shows every sign of giving in to his natural sexual desires but, as in the first part, the head from the coffer plays a decisive role in the action. Anteo, in a fit of horror and disgust at the apparent fall of Tomasuccio into the sensual net of Romulo, seeks to convince Tomasuccio that Romulo is a devilish tempter by revealing the hidden head to him. This has the desired effect of dampening the sexual excitement of Tomasuccio as he begins to consider what the reason might be that Romulo has two heads. Thus he looses his desire for love while receiving the admonition from Romulo that if he desires to be happy, he shouldn't ask why Romulo has two heads: "No debes pensar nunca en lo que no has de comprender nunca" (223). At the same time, Anteo admonishes him to try to comprehend the possibility of the perdition of his soul if he doesn't resist the "blind forces" of his body and his tempter, Romulo. At this point, Romulo becomes the mouthpiece of the author in criticizing this false understanding advocated by Anteo:

iQue hablas de comprender? jHasta donde crees que llegas con el pensamiento? Pues sabe que sdlo piensas lo que puedes y lo que puedes no es mucho. Quieres que todo se adapte al orden arbitrario establecido por ti, sin paciencia para escuchar los mensajes y soluciones de misterio que estan en tu sangre. Por eso te dedicas a la alquimia, que es -yo lo se- una ciencia inutil y un modo de ordenar la ignorancia. (225)

As in the first part of the play, Romulo is still trying to educate Anteo with respect to the error of his thinking but this time he gives an object lesson. If Anteo truly desires that Tomasuccio understand, then Romulo will give him that understanding. This requires attaching the old head of Romulo from the coffer onto the shoulders of Tomasuccio beside his own young head. He at first resists the attachment of the head out of fear, but begins to listen to what it says to him and enjoys the knowledge it gives him. Now he says he wants to live with two heads, but Romulo asks him to return his old head since he only lent it to him to prove a point to Anteo.

Tomasuccio declares that he prefers Romulo's old head to his own, and gives over his youthful male head to Romulo, in spite of the constant warnings of Anteo. As he did to Anteo at the end of the first part,

R6mulo lectures Tomasuccio on his incorrect choice, declares he will keep the young head of Tomasuccio to interchange it with his own youthful female head when he pleases. He also directs the changed

Tomasuccio to remain in the laboratory with Anteo, since Tomasuccio

"se ha perdido, ya es viejo, ya es todo ceniza confundido con estos libros roidos y este polvo de incuria" (227).

As in El combate de Qpalos v Tasia. this play almost totally lacks staging directions. The initial indications of-the author about location and setting occupy the briefest space possible: "La Edad

Media. En un laboratorio. dos vie.ilsimos alauimistas buscan incansablemente la niedra filoaofal. Se l lamanJSQmulQ....y j&nt.eo" (217).

From this point on, all we learn of the environment on stage will be derived from the dialogue of the characters. This has the effect of lending greater significance to the spoken dialogue and to the relatively few props that are mentioned by the characters throughout 115

the play.

The time and place, a laboratory in the Middle Ages, evoke

initial impressions of age, secretiveness, and patient effort on the

part of the two alchemists. The latin character names, Romulo and

Anteo, give an impression of even greater longevity to the search

being undertaken for the "piedra filosofal." One cannot escape the

overwhelming feeling of futility visually expressed in the tirelessly

working alchemists searching for a nonexistent truth.

Several verbal allusions to the laboratory itself and its

contents underscore the uselessness of the activity conducted there.

Romulo refers to the "malditas cachorros" (benchlike construction

built into the walls of medieval castles) and the laboratory in

general as being filled with "polvo, inmundicias, y [...] cobellos"

(217). Later he again refers to the "polvo de incuria" as well as the

"libros roidos" (227). The fact that the "hairs" of the alchemists

are mixed with the other assorted trash in the room points up the fact

that the effort and time they have spent there is all to no avail.

The place and the activity performed there are therefore totally

stagnant and lack any possibility of future success. This is

indicated directly in Anteo's reference to the "tiempo inmemorial"

(217) that they have spent in their search and Rdmulo's immediate

response: "Seguimos un falso camino. Estamos perdiendo el tiempo

miserablemente" (217).

As proof of the truth of this assertion, Romulo asks Anteo if he has ever seen what he has become by looking in a mirror. This is the 116 first significant symbolic object in the initial few lines of the play since it thematically helps to define these two opposing characters as well as stimulates the successive dialogue and action. To respond to

Romulo's question, Anteo declares he has never seen a mirror in the laboratory. Romulo infers that this is a lack of perspicacity and effort on the part of Anteo because the opportunity exists everywhere:

"iPues qu§ son esos trozos de plata brufiida que andan sueltos en el laboratorio? Se hace un espejo de lo que se quiere, cuando se quiere un espejo" (218).

To this Anteo responds, "oQue clase de sabio sois que os ocupais de espejos como si fueseis una doncella?" For Anteo, wise men do not need the experience of looking at themselves in a mirror, a point of view obviously criticized by the author throughout the rest of the play. It is at this point that Romulo declares that he is a "doncella hermosisima." Romulo has looked in the mirror and now knows himself to be something other than what was previously thought- a beautiful young woman. From this point on the semiotic elements of the play may be divided into two categories: those that illustrate Anteo's point of view, which will be shown to be that of a reactionary opposed to all change and innovation in his thinking, and those that manifest the point of view of Romulo (and Nieva), which is the declaration of the necessity of a revolutionary change in thinking, illustrated by

Romulo's symbolic changing of an old male head for a young female one.

We will consider a series of these elements that expound Anteo's repressive point of view and contrast them with the opposing elements 117 that manifest the liberating point of view of Romulo.

One of the primary groupings of semiotic elements originating in the character of Anteo is that of allusions to religious doctrines.

His first reaction to the sight of the female body of Romulo is to classify it as a "burla infernal" (218) and to refer to Romulo as

"diablo peludo" (219). This criticism of the new body of Romulo is continued throughout the play with terms like: "Satanas, diablo tentador" (219) and "ramera infernal" (223). As Romulo tempts

Tomassuccio with his love, Anteo repeatedly warns against bowing to the temptation. Anteo tells Tomasuccio to flee the temptation to avoid the "mas negra perdicion" (222). He tells him not to surrender to the "orgia" in order not to "perder el alma" (222). Anteo is amazed that Tomasuccio appears to pay no heed and characterizes their union as "copular con el demonio" (223). He also promises Tomasuccio that his soul will be "sumergida para siempre en tinieblas" (224), adding that "el diablo lo ha tornado" (226). Indeed, this entire incident has been the "fruta de la confusion del diablo" (224).

Curiously, Romulo does not fear this satanic identification, rather he freely admits to having played a chief role in the illustrious temptation of San Antonio:

Yo fui caporala en las tentaciones de San Antonio. Aquel santo varon me hizo feliz por una temporada, sumando sue ojos a los infinitos ojos de la naturaleza. Nadie puede imaginar cuales son las tentaciones de una tentacion. Qu£ placer es ser inteligente y be11a y sentirse aborrecida por la impotencia de un viejo (221).

In the process of temptation, the true pleasure for the temptress

(Romulo) was a truly sadistic one, that of being hated by the impotent 118 old man rather than the love that R6mulo seeks from Anteo and

Tomasuccio. The parallel between historical San Antonio and theatrical Anteo is obvious. Both are trapped in a religious system that makes them impotent in the eyes of Romulo.

The allusion to the biblical story of Adam and Eve and their sin of wanting to gain knowledge and thus losing their innocence is one of the threads that underlie the entire second part of the play. The three characters arrange themselves into the manichean forces of good,

Anteo, and evil, Rdmulo, both of whom direct their efforts at gaining the soul and mind of Tomasuccio. As in the biblical story, evil triumphs, but Nieva injects several curious twists in the plot. When

Anteo reveals the old head of Romulo that had been hidden in the coffer, Tomasuccio asks Romulo who cut off his head. Romulo's response is that no one had cut it off, but that if he, Tomasuccio, desired to be happy, he should not ask that question since, in the words of Romulo, "no debes pensar nunca en lo que no has de comprender nunca" (223). These words would more appropriately have been those of

God to Adam and Eve: accept what you are and what I've given you and you will be happy. At this point, Anteo admonishes Tomasuccio to think, "debe pensar y horrorizarse como me horrorizo yo,” but Romulo responds that he should not be horrified at anything that gives him pleasure, but rather should "escuchar los mensajes y soluciones de misterio que estan en tu sangre" (225). Happiness for Romulo is to be attained through submission to those "blind forces" which inhabit everyone, and not by means of an "orden arbitrario establecido por ti" 119

(225). Romulo criticizes Anteo's efforts in alchemy as the effort to organize knowledge without the essential element of the physical, natural forces of the body. Religion also seeks to do this by classifying all things as good and evil, the former to be espoused and the latter to be shunned.

A direct parallel is therefore indicated between the alchemist's search for the “piedra filosofal" with its eternal youth, and the religious effort to obtain immortality by the search for God and the morality laid out arbitrarily by religious institutions. As Romulo presents Anteo with his new transformed self, it is truly a "horrible vision” (219) and a "desdicha" (221) since the ease and rapidity with which Romulo is changed belies the long difficult path that

Anteo/religion has pursued. Anteo tries to classify miraculous phenomena into "prodigios verdaderos y falsos” (226), while Romulo seeks to demonstrate that all are equally the one or the other. Later in this chapter, when the play Pelo de tormenta is discussed, we will see Nieva develop this antireligious theme more fully.

Anteo seeks to resist the transformation and its revelation by a continuous effort at containment. He does this first by trying to prevent Romulo from taking off his clothes and then hurriedly forcing

Romulo to cover himself when Tomasuccio enters: "Cubrid las desnudezes

[...] tapaos la cara" (220). Anteo is very anxious that the old head of Romulo which has been interchanged with the new one is hidden in the coffer: "Guardadla en el cofre si si [sic] no quereis que me muera de la impresion" (220). Anteo is surprised and unnerved that the door 120 is unlocked when Tomasuccio returns and would have prevented his entry if it had been possible. After Tomasuccio enters, he seeks to prevent further entry by making sure the door is locked. The laboratory itself thus becomes an enclosed and secret place where the two alchemists work. It is as much a prison as a place for creative research since the normal activity of the laboratory is carefully closed to those on the outside. In the same way, any discoveries would be carefully kept secret rather than disseminated.

This effort at physical secretiveness is controverted at every turn by Romulo. He is constantly opening what Anteo seeks to close.

The first example is his disrobing to reveal the female body, then his opening of the coffer to present the "cabeza joven" (219). With

Tomasuccio he disrobes again and persuades Tomasuccio to do so also for the purpose of making love. The final words of the play indicate that he is escaping from the confining atmosphere of the laboratory:

"Saldre disimuladamente por la puerta del huerto y mi desnudez tambien se confundira con la luz de la luna” (227).

At this point it is significant to mention the many enclosures that are a constant theme in Nieva's plays. In referring to the many boxes, trunks, caves, and beds that occur in Nieva, Angelika Becker has said that their meaning is very clear. She refers to the interpretation given to this phenomenon by Freud:

Segun Freud, el significado onirico de las "cajas," "estuches," "armarios," "cuevas" simbolizan a la mujer- madre, significado que tambien revisten en la obra de Nieva.11

The young head found in a coffer in this play could be the clearest 121

example of this interpretation found in the theatre of Nieva.

There are many semiotic elements in this play which illustrate

Romulo's philosophical point of view and that contrast the restrictive

ideas of Anteo. The logical place to start is with the symbol from which the play takes its name, the "cabeza." From the beginning, it

is explicit that for Romulo, the act of exchanging a young head for an old one is a metaphorical act symbolizing a change of method in his pursuit of "eternal youth." Since there are several exchanges of old and new heads in the play, it is important to see the progression from the beginning. Romulo's old alchemists'' head does not match his newly revealed young female body, so he extracts a young female head from the coffer and miraculously exchanges it for the old one. The previous head then is hidden in the coffer again. After Romulo reveals this totally new body to Tomasuccio, the youth is sexually aroused and begins making love to Romulo, at which time Anteo uses the previous old head of Romulo to frighten Tomasuccio and dampen his sexual desire. Curiously, Tomasuccio expresses interest at this point in having the old head of Romulo because of the wisdom and knowledge he would then gain. The youth is frightened though when Romulo places the old head on his shoulders beside his younger one. He is then presented with a choice, R6mulo advising him to think carefully and

Anteo admonishing him to rid himself of the monstrous old head of

Romulo. Tomasuccio eventually opts for the latter in his desire for the knowledge that he will gain, so Romulo removes his younger head and keeps it for himself. At this point, Tomasuccio, like the Adam 122

and Eve of the biblical story, realizes his error and begs Romulo to

return his younger head. At this Romulo wickedly reminds him of his

own choice and tells him it is irrevocable. At this, Romulo declares

his departure, now with two young heads, one female and the other

male, to use at the mood strikes him. The parting words of Romulo

indicate that this complex series of actions was actually a symbolic

lesson illustrating the futility of the original traditional pursuit

of the "piedra filosofal." In the last words of the play, he

declares, "he llegado a saber que bastaba deshacerme de la que ahora

llevas sobre tu cuerpo para conquistar la eterna juventud" (228).

The hallmark of this new attitude of Romulo is the pursuit of

the satisfaction of physical, principally the sexual, desires. This

is explicitly advocated by Romulo in his discussion with Anteo when he

says that instead of searching for the "piedra filosofal" they should

have dedicated themselves to good cooking in order to awaken "nuestros

sentidos, fortificandonos para el amor" (220). The new young

attractive female body of Romulo illustrates the tempting beauty of his new pursuit. This body is described in sensuous detail in order

to tempt Anteo: "senos inflados y blanquisimos," "cintura quebrada por medio," "vientre piano,” "piernas terminadas en punta" (218). The

"nalgas" are said to be the gift of "un sultan en la mas hermosa

decadencia de su reino" (218). His demonstration ends with the

"vertice de todos los deseos" and the question, "iQue os dice esta

llamarada rubia sobre un vientre de seda y este asiento tan hermoso como funcional?" Romulo's temptation of Anteo ends with this: "Si yo 123

me paseo huyendo del frio de las baldosas mi cuerpo pendulea como un

racimo de tentaciones" (219).

In the second part of the play, now in his complete female form,

Romulo tries to tempt Tomasuccio and persuade him to make love.

Romulo describes the youthful attractiveness of Tomasuccio in the same

detail:

Mira, Anteo, que gozo de criatura. Es como una espiga dorada. Mirad estas nalgas prietas y menudas, estas pernas [sic] tersas y musculosas como las de un joven potro. (222)

Romulo, in this moment of ecstasy, encourages Tomasuccio to consummate the sex act with him:

Di, tunante, ique ruta senalas con esa parte de tu cuerpo? Apuntale en un ojo y dejale ir a merced de su instinto, que se solace caprichosamente a la intemperie. (223)

This, of course, leads to the central theme of R6mulo: it is necessary to surrender to the "fuerzas ciegas del cuerpo" in order to gain eternal youth. In order to do this, the head must be changed, and the fear of nudity and sex must be overcome.

On two occasions in the play, it is implied that the darkness of night is the most appropriate time for the free play of these "fuerzas ciegas." At the moment Romulo takes out the young head from the coffer, he notes that the head sleeps during the daytime and is awake at night. Most significant, though, is the time of Romulo's departure at the end of the play. Following a time-honored literary allusion, the moonlight is indicated as the most appropriate place for the new

Romulo: "mi desnudez se confundira con la luz de la luna" (227). Since this play explicitly expounds a philosophical point of view that clearly is that of the author himself, it is easy to

illustrate several literary antecedents for the ideas and methodology presented. Surrealism as defined in the works of Artaud and Breton is a clear source for the underlying ideas we see in the play. For example, Romulo's realization at the beginning of the play that they had been following a false course in their work signifies that he has learned to accept, as he admonished Tomasuccio to do, the irrationality of contradictions and unexplainable paradox. He demonstrates this in the illogical forms his body takes throughout the play. First he is an old man, then he reveals a young female body with the old head, then the interchange of heads to complete the transformation from old to young. He is at once male and female, young and old. What Romulo is demonstrating is what Gloria Orenstein has called "psychic alchemy." In her book on the "Theater of the

Marvelous," she defines it as "the contemporary theater of surrealistic origins," which is the result of the synthesis of the theories of Breton and Artaud. She goes on to say that

The meaning that this new theater expresses might bear as its emblem the figure of the alchemist, for the surrealist writing that wielded the strongest influence on these works posited the belief in the alchemical process as a transforming agent. Man, as spectator, performer, or creator, is analogous to the metal that must be transformed.12

By means of this alchemical process, R6mulo has accepted a world of contradictions that can coexist compatibly, though irrationally. 125

One of the contradictions mentioned before is that of being at the same time male and female: androgyny. June Singer has defined the androgyne as "the One which contains the Two; namely, the male (antro) and the female (gyne). Androgyny is an archetype inherent in human psyche."13 The true androgyne is therefore equally male and female, a person of ambiguous sexuality. The character of Romulo does not fit this definition exactly since during the entire play he adheres to the process of moving from one sex to the other: beginning as an old man and transforming himself into a young woman, which he/she remains to the end. There are two important indications in the play, though, that lead the reader to consider him androgynous.

After completing his transformation into a woman by adding the young female head from the coffer, Anteo then becomes puzzled as to how to deal with this newly created person, and what to call him/her,

"Si, si, lo estoy viendo y no me lo creo. iComo os llamdis?" R6mulo responds, "R6mulo, R6mulo... Soy una doncella llamada Romulo. Un nombre no es tan facil de quitar como una cabeza" (220). Though a masculine name and a feminine body might not equate to androgyneity, perhaps indicated here is the maintenance of continuity in the personality of Romulo, though not in the physical manifestations of that personality. What is certain is that Romulo is "Maestro Romulo" to himself and to the other two characters to the end of the play. He is not changed except in physical form.

The last words of Romulo in the play upon escaping from the laboratory with the head of Tomasuccio are: "Ya lo ves: bajo mi brazo 126 llevo tu querida cabeza inocente para cambiarmela cuando me venga en gana" (227). The indication is that Romulo delights in the possibilities presented by a male and a female head continuously at his disposal which indicates an androgynous intent on the part of

Romulo. Also suggested is the new freedom of action opened up to

Romulo by the ability to present himself in the sex he wishes.

Androgyny, therefore, is viewed as a way of escape from the limitations of the unisexual life Romulo previously led.

A clear affinity with the ideas of George Bataille is also demonstrated in this play. In Bataille's book, Death and Sensuality, he contrasts the limitations imposed by society on natural sexual liberty.

In general man's attitude is one of refusal, man has leant over backwards in order not to be carried away by the process, but all he manages to do by this is to hurry it along at an even dizzier speed.14

Certainly there is no more direct example of this process than that of

Anteo in this work, who by his denial and rejection moves the action of the play, which is essentially the revelation of the true identity of Rdmulo, at a progressively faster pace.

Another of Bataille's works that demonstrates a thematic parallel is a chapter from Literature and Evil which deals with Emily

Bronte's novel, Wuthering Heights. In this insightful evaluation of the nature of this novel can be seen an illustration of Batailie's idea of "transgression" as personified by Heathcliff and Catherine

Earnshaw who represent young people in love, who 127

placed their indestructible love for one another on another level, and indeed perhaps this love can be reduced to the refusal to give up an infantile freedom which had not been amended by the laws of society or of conventional politeness.16

The rational viewpoint of the "real world" is then also described as being dominated by "reason and based on the will to survive."

Further, Bataille uses these two characters as an example of a means of revolt against the real world, "the rejection of its rationality."16 In word and action, Romulo seems an object lesson of this same principle. He not only decries the vain efforts of

Anteo's false efforts to organize truth in his own way, he demonstrates physically his denial in his youthful and sexual transformation. A parallel is obvious also between the youthful pursuit of "divine intoxication" and the pursuit of youth by Romulo and Anteo, but only achieved by Romulo.

Rather than a straight-forward enunciation of two opposing views, Nieva clearly means to objectively demonstrate the furious clash that will accompany the liberation of the natural instincts and desires against the "inquisicion puritana de tiempos inmemoriales."1V An unmasking of the hypocrisy and futility of the artificially created rationality must be achieved and a subsequent transformation in the thinking process must replace it. The desired result of this conflict, as illustrated by this work, is a complete intentional break with the outmoded stagnant restrictive way of thinking and an effort to replace it with a vision of man and of life as more complex, in need of more acceptance of the world of dreams, 128 and open to a realm of possibilities without limitations.

In several ways, this play is reminiscent of the ideas of the

Marquis de Sade. First of all, there is an element of cruelty in the sexuality of Romulo. He expresses clearly having derived pleasure from the hatred and helplessness of San Antonio in the temptations of which Romulo said he had the chief part. In the final moments of the action, R6mulo shows no compassion for the betrayed Tomasuccio, but rather expresses his happiness at being able now to able to leave and commends Tomasuccio to the permanent company of Anteo. This is a reminder of the ideas of Sade on this point as quoted by Simone de

Beauvoir: "The supreme intention that quickens all sexual activity is the will to criminality. Whether through cruelty or befoulment, the aim is to attain evil."18

The attitude of the play with respect to religion may be linked to the ideas of de Sade as expressed in his book, Pensees:

la religion est la chose du monde qu'il faut le moins consulter en matiere de philosophic, parce qu'elle est celle qui en obscurcit le plus tous les principes, et qui courbe le plus honteusement l'homme sous ce joug ridicule de la foi, destructeur de toutes les verites.19

Anteo again seems to personify this attitude in his use of religious cliches to weakly combat the "truths" expressed by Romulo.

It is in Sade's discussion of the artificial codes that society has constructed for its own self-preservation that he seems to come closest to the message of Nieva in this and other plays:

l'aveugle se fait des conventions relatives a ses besoins et a la mediocrite de ses facultds; l'homme, de meme, a fait des lois relativement a ses petites connaissances, ses petites vues et ses petits besoins.20 129

The same ideas are expressed in the words of R6mulo: "Quieres que todo se adapte al orden arbitrario establecido por ti, sin paciencia para escuchar los mensajes y soluciones de misterio que estan en tu sangre"

(225). This fundamental idea is found to a greater or lesser degree in all the plays of Nieva. For this reason, this play can be considered Nieva's answer to many of the problems and questions proposed in his other plays.

Pelo de. torment a21

The central overriding theme of Pelo de tormenta is one familiar in Nieva: the Spanish repression of natural sexual needs and desires which consequently incites “the aberrant behavior and sexual experimentation with the forbidden that it is trying to suppress."22

Though always present to some degree in the works of Nieva, and in particular in plays like Coronada y el toro. La aenora tartara and la

.quiero ,. gorxa , in Pelo de tormenta sexual desire and the characteristic reactions to it of various segments of Spanish society are the central structural core that unifies the work. In this play

"el microcosmo de la sociedad espahola vive entre la atraccion y la resistencia al deseo sexual."23 Nieva states that "En Pelo de tormenta hay una barraca por la que se manifiesta el fantasma ibSrico del deseo...el deseo es un gitano — asi lo intuyd Lorca— que llega, levanta una barraca y se va."24 The affinity with Garcia Lorca is obvious in the emphasis on popular subjects and sensual themes, but the increased level of intensity of Nieva's work demonstrates a 130 tremendous difference in the level of explicitness made possible only by a historical context much more permissive than that of Lorca.

Nieva explains his goal in utilizing this theme as the intent to create "un teatro maravillosamente insolente de la satisfaccion," or in the words of Jose Monleon: "la orgia de lo real."

The obvious purpose of the play is to criticize the traditional

Spanish tendency to repress these desires. In comparing this work to

Es bueno no tener cabeza. which also has a comparable theme, Jose

Monleon says that Es bueno no tener cabeza "se planteaba una cuestion" but that Pelo de tormenta "parece intentarse la critica de una sociedad y de una epoca precisas."25 Nieva is quick to delineate a difference here between his social criticism in this play and the method of criticism popular with the "Generacion Realista" in Spain.

He has said that instead of seeking "la justicia social con la forma social," he has rather sought "la juerga social como ultimo exorcismo de nuestra forma de ser espafioles."2e For Nieva, the social realists followed the style of "teatro de testimonio" which has proved ineffective in long years of trial. His approach is not that of ineffectual negative criticism, but rather a positive demonstration of a type of theater which will challenge society by presenting more attractive alternatives.

Es necesario un teatro triunfante para que el burgues diga: si estos lo pasan tan bien sera que tienen razon. iQue miedo puede infundir un teatro de la compasion que se vuelve hacia los dolores humanos? Mientras los autores del social-realismo se vuelven hacia una consideracion de lo triste que es la verbena, yo propongo una gran fiesta popular.27 131

A constant theme in Nieva, therefore, is the subversion of established values, especially those of the bourgeois-controlled society of traditional Spain. Perez Coterillo comments on Pelo de tormenta in his introduction to an edition of Nieva's plays:

El tema de la subversion de los valores [...] tiene [...] el valor de una extraha profesion de fe en el reves de los valores impuestos en la sociedad y el presagio de un fin del mundo que ha de dar la mano a otro en el que la liberacion de las fuerzas ocultas y su gozosa liberacion ha de ser el supuesto basico e incuestionable.28

Since the primary social value referred to directly in Pelo de tormenta is the repression of erotic freedom, and since Nieva believes that this has had a most detrimental impact on Spanish society, his use of a powerful image of a lustful phallic dragon living in the depths of a well in the center of the capital of Madrid is especially striking and significant. For Perez Coterillo this image serves not simply as an illustration but also as an "aviso" or a "profecia en la que se anuncia un acontecimiento decisivo y cercano."20

Because of this "prophetic” tone, Nieva has classed this work with two other plays of the _teatro_jfurio6o [ito.sfer.at.u_(.&qu&larr.e_y noche ro.ia de) and Coronada y .e 1 toro 1 as "una trilogia apocaliptica."

Perez Coterillo has compared these apocalyptic works of Nieva to the popular Jewish literature of ancient times whose purpose was to incite the desire of the Jews for religious and political freedom and to promote the establishment of a nation apart from the political subjugation of Rome. It accomplished this purpose by the prediction of the immanent arrival of cataclysmic events like the return of a divine Messiah who would supernaturally deliver his people from 132 bondage. This tone is found Nieva's plays, with the obvious difference in religious and dogmatic content which in Nieva does not exist except for “un cierto tinte en que se mezclan la mistica y la magia."3° A pronouncement of judgment was also always present in apocalyptic literature for the purpose of vengeance, but in Nieva this element takes on a "caracter redentor y generoso."

If Pelo._de tormenta is apocalyptic in nature, the oppressor would be that part of Spanish society which has tried to suppress inquisitorially the instinctive novelty of the "grandes fuerzas reprimidas de este pais." Nieva is fond of using the modern Spanish bourgeoisie as the prime example of this group. The oppressed are the common "people" with whom Nieva identifies: "Mi problems [...] consiste en la utopia de querer triunfante a mi pueblo, a todo mi pueblo."31 It perhaps is not always clear in Nieva to whom he refers as "mi pueblo." This is especially true in Pelo de tormenta since all classes of people are brought into the action and arrive at a certain unity of purpose in the final moments which would tend to override a division between the oppressed and the oppressors.

Turning to a more detailed analysis of the structure of the play itself, we are drawn to the "verbena" as a model and inspiration for the play. "Buscar un publico popular para mi ha sido siempre una obsesion [ ] el espectaculo que he sohado toda mi vida ha sido la verbena."32 This type of nocturnal fiesta of the common people, with its superstitious connotations because of the nights of the year when it principally occurred (San Juan, San Pedro) and its air of 133 collective permissiveness, is all obviously appealing to Nieva and is reflected perhaps more clearly in this play than any other.

This is the idea that underlines Nieva's brief and cryptic description of Pelo de tormenta:

Mi comedia Pelo de tormenta [...] puede ofrecer, al final, un sentido «acrata» cuando solo es vision panoramica de un magma acratico, ensonado, delirante, gozoso y humoristico, ligado al primigenio desahogo baquico. Elemento de suspicacia, pues sugiere la bacanalia popular -sensual, sangrienta y revolucionaria-, siempre escandalosa para los metodos practicos de gobierno.33

Nieva's play presents all the elements that are listed here and summed up in the term "bacanalia popular," the principal characteristic of which is a lawless sensuality and carefree anarchy. Those that would impose an arbitrary intellectual or rational form on society are fearful of this uncontrolled upsurge of popular frenzy. Nieva has stated that this repression is a relatively recent phenomenon in Spain and it appears that it is actually a certain "modernity" against which he reacts:

Nuestros abuelos fueron gente de tendencia liberal que creian mucho en la ciencia y en el progreso, mientras que nuestros padres han fabricado un mundo muy moderno, pero lleno de valores que no pueden ser creidos. Sin valores no podemos vivir, porque de algun modo es necesaria una jerarqia y tendremos que crearla nosotros entre gente excitante y preocupada. Con quien uno no puede convivir es con una serie de oficinistas y ejecutivos.34

Another aspect of the structure of the play is the creation of a new modality or way of writing plays which he calls "reopera." Pelo de tormenta and Nosferatu are the two works that Nieva has classified as "reoperas" within the more general classification of teatro furioso. In a brief two paragraph introduction to the first edition 134 of Pelo de tormenta. Nieva outlines the characteristics of this type of play.35 Primary among them is the attempt to create a "tecnica de escenificacion material 'totalizante'.”36 Nieva explains this as an experiment in theater like those of the "Living Theater” and

Grotowsky, in which the text is in reality a “pre-text," or "libretto" for the presentation on stage. The director and the actors are free to add to and to change the various elements of music, dance, and staging as they might wish. It may be presented on a normal stage "a la Italiana" or its "insercidn agresiva en el pdblico" is also possible. One suggestion that Nieva makes in his introduction to the play is that the action may appear as a triumphal procession with the characters and decorative elements mounted on carts in the barroque manner.

In Nieva's “reopera," the text itself is extremely compressed in the manner of a "libretto," for the opera offers only the skeletal outline of the work is not only open to development and expansion by the musicians, but requires it. The dialogue and the plot are therefore reduced to a minimum of space and can appear precipitous, with a chaotic accumulation of effects. For Nieva, the "reopera" is an "open theater" into which may be introduced not only visual effects but musical ones as well. All of this has the ultimate purpose of creating the atmosphere of a popular "fiesta" with all its surprises, vibrancy and energy. Referring to these two works, Nieva has said that

su desarrollo verdadero no existe en el papel, es pura sugerencia o incitacidn al desarrollo. En las ultimas 135

paginas de las doe obras suceden infinidad de cosas, bruscos cambios de situacion en el espacio de unas pocas lineas y su misma lectura no puede ser satisfactoria si no se tiene en cuenta el movil interno de su precipitacion como escritura. Un movil escenico dilatante: pausas, ruidos, musico, accion mimica.37

In addition to this, there are many elements in the play which

remind us of the "genero chico" of the Golden Age, as did El combate

de Onaloa y Tasia. The action takes place in a central plaza or

crossroads in Madrid. A Ciego with a "guitarra de pino” enters and

introduces the play in much the same fashion as Dama Vinagre. The

Ciego will participate in the action, comment on it, and laugh at the

characters in the way that Dama Vinagre did. Music of various types

fills the play. The Ciego sings, various groups or "choruses" sing,

we hear the sound of an organ and a trumpet, as well as numerous sound

effects.

The character and actions of the Ciego remind us also of the

"romance de ciegos," a song that blind men would move along the street

singing and reciting for money, a custom also popular in the same

period. The song would generally tell a story and entertain the people with wit and humor. The Ciego in this play loosely approximates this, often singing as well as recounting the action of the play. His poetry never exactly follows the octosyllabic format of the traditional Spanish ballad but rather is a loose imitation of it, as is seen in this example:

Viva el rey Dieciocho vestido de seda amarilla; viva la corte de Espana, tan abierta de puertas y balcones; vivan el aire de la sierra 136

y el santo Cristo de los notarios. (27)

The Ciego even begins to sell the program of the play to the

spectators while the action continues near the end of the play. In this program he also refers to the play as a "romance del genesis mundial" (34), which both indicates again the apocalyptic nature of the work and the historical themes of this type of ballad.

These three elements together, that of the ’'verbena," the

"reopera," and of the "romance de ciegos," all combine in the play to create a festive atmosphere of popular celebration to which the author refers in his introduction to the "reopera." He explains that its

"maxima aspiracion seria aparecer como un desfile triunfal al modo barroco, con elementos decorativos montados sobre carroaas" (26).

It's obvious that the play is meant to evoke the same historical period as EL_combate de Qpalos v Tasia, though in the listing of characters for the play, Nieva refers to the time of the play in a very ambiguous manner: "Todo acontece en Madrid, hace mucho tiempo, poco antes del fin del mundo" (26). This vagueness is significant since at the same time that the play evokes a certain period in the course of Spanish history, it also is meant to stand symbolically for all of that history.

In this regard, what the Ciego states in his introductory statement to the public assembled to watch the play is also significant:

Publico respetable, que vienes a ver y oir esta festosa reopera, genero intemporal, dificil y caro: Haz lo posible por acoBtumbrarte a estos prodigios y aceptarlos como verdaderos de un pasado desconocido que llevas dentro. (27) 137

Thus the vagueness in the temporal placement of the action is connected to what Nieva calls "un pasado desconocido que llevas dentro." The play, then, is explicitly designed to appeal to the collective experience and memory of the Spanish people. The references that we have seen to the baroque period indicate that in the author's mind, this is the period which is indelibly stamped on the consciousness of the Spanish mentality and that to evoke this period with its characters and situations is to directly appeal to a collective understanding.

The Ciego identifies with the spectator from the beginning as demonstrated in his respectful introduction which is meant to orient the listening audience to the type of characters and action they will witness as well as admitting the difficulty that will be encountered in believing what will be seen. He continually serves as a bridge between the public and the action, viewing what occurs on stage as the audience views it, commenting on it, and taking part only to a limited extent in the action. His is a literary pose- the blind man who sings his songs for the benefit of the patron. He is an omniscient narrator who can explain not only the surface visual and oral phenomena, but also the inner intentions and desires of everyone involved in the action. In this regard, he portrays himself as the chronicler and spokesman for the subterranean monster of the play: Mal-Rodrigo.

In addition, the Ciego is the character that provides internal structural unity to the play by introducing the play and the characters at the beginning, highlighting and explaining important 138 events in the action, describing the locations of the action and then facilitating the movement from each scene to the next, in the manner of a master of ceremonies. In this way he serves as an anchor or ballast to provide stability and direction in an otherwise supercharged movement on stage which involves a relatively large number of individual characters, groups, and stage effects which without him might seem chaotic.

An analysis of the movement of the play from scene to scene will illustrate the Ciego's importance. There are four scenes presented, involving three scene changes during the action. In all of these, the

Ciego plays a critical transitional role. His introduction in the beginning introduces the spectator to the "drago madrileho" called

Mal-Rodrigo who inhabits a well located in the first scene in the center of the stage. He also identifies the location as Madrid,

"ciudad real y administrativa, fundada en un extremo del mundo," where reigns a king without name, only a number, "el rey Dieciocho" (27).

His antagonistic exchange with the alguaciles who then enter serves to place the Ciego temporarily in the background.

The action of the first scene involves the rejection of

Ceferina, the virgin chosen for sacrifice, by the evil "drago" Mal-

Rodrigo. At the end of this scene, everyone on stage is dancing around the well, the home of Mal-Rodrigo, when "surge del pozo una excrecencia espantable y fdlica" from the center of the well. In the confusion that ensues, the Ciego takes charge of the action with these words: 139

Como habeis podido ver, al senor pueblo de Madrid se le ha cortado el regocijo. Por confiado y embravecido, a la bestia ha exasperado y, como el Mal-Rodrigo tampoco ahorra en desplantes, de un soplo ha fundido todas las campanas del contorno y ha abierto una brecha volcanica en plena Puerta del Sol. (30)

He then directs the action into the second scene: "Y yo nada mejor

puedo hacer que traeros hasta un rincon del convento para mostraros al

detalle la continuacion de la tragedia" (30). The conflict between

resistance and submission to the temptation of Mal-Rodrigo continues

in this second scene, but the Duquesa becomes increasingly unable to

resist. At the end of this scene she appears "en plenas carnes

encendidas." Again, the Ciego plays the key role in ordering the

direction of the action of the other actors. He says

iRan, raca, raca, raaan! El final ha llegado, va a librarse la gran batalla. [...] En la mal cuajada patria ha explotado sin amarras el estado de celo. Aqui llega la Duquesa escapada de su ropa y disuelta en el aire. iSujetadla, que se pierde! (33)

The third scene begins after a moment of darkness. In it the

spectator is taken to a cell in the convent where the Duquesa has been

tied up with ropes hanging from the ceiling and Sor Juana de la Coz

accompanies her. The final scene of the play brings the action back

to the street scene of the beginning. The first actor seen in this part is the Ciego who is pacing from side to side selling a program of

the "ceremonia." As he does this he prefigures the action of the final moments of the play:

iComprenme el programs de la ceremonia, el funeral de la carne gozada y pereciente, el horroroso responso de la malafollada, con todos sus espantables designios [...] la carrera por el tunel lleno de sebo, el chapuzon en el rodal mas fermentoso de la manzana, los fatuos fuegos 140

artificiales, el embeleso de la beea-miel y el embutido del endiosamiento...i (35)

In addition he announces the end of the play with these words: "Pues

icruz y raya! . Se acabo lo que se daba. Ha llegado la hora de

aburrirse. |Ay, pobre pueblo burlado, pobre victima toreada!" (36).

Among the many elements which foreshadow and heighten the effect

of the structural crescendo are the repeated efforts of the Ciego to

sell his program to the spectators. Beginning with the third scene,

the Ciego appears five times to repeat his call for the audience to

buy his "romance." The first of these efforts sets the form for the

rest:

i Comprenme el programa de la ceremonia, el romance solfeado del Mal-Rodrigo, con todos sus espantables designios, con todos sus maldecidos secretos...! (33)

The last two times this formula is repeated occur at the

beginning of the last scene, and almost in immediate succession. In both, the beginning and ending of the statements are the same as before, but the added elements in between now prefigure what will happen in the last scene. The Ciego says, for example, in the first

of these:

iComprenme el programa de la ceremonia, el funeral de la carne gozada y pereciente, el horroroso responso de la mala follada, con todos sus espantables designios, con todos sus maldecidos secretos...! (35)

A few moments later Ceferina and the Duquesa while being drawn into the well by a rope express verbal resistance, but their actions reveal that they nonetheless have succumbed to the temptation of Mal-Rodrigo.

Their last words before being devoured reflect what the Ciego has 141 predicted:

CEFERINA. - iResistamosle con furia, que muera de nuestro pataleo.! LA DUQUESA. -iQue nos devore encendidas consumidas en nueetra repulsa! (36)

In the same way, the last cry of the Ciego to the public to buy his program involves a prefiguring of what is to come. He speaks of the "tunel lleno de sebo" and to "los fatuos fuegos artificiales" which clearly indicate a fire which will burn the tower constructed over the well and the excursion of the Sacristan Raboso and the

Abadesa through the underground portion of the city of Madrid represented by the stage of the theater and the rooms underneath it.

The names of the characters in this play illustrate the technique of avoiding personal given names, in most cases, in an effort to make the characters representative of a class or social group. They reflect as well Nieva's baroque tone. The "Duquesa" represents a class of traditional nobility and is described by the

"Coro" as "guapa, tonta y popular, como las espaholas de postin" (29).

The "Abadesa" represents the crusading religious woman; the "Obispo," a leader of the Church; the Alguacil, a representative of established civil authority; the "Sacristan," the unholy employee of the Church; and the "Sublimitas," the religious women as a group.

Ceferina, the lower-class maiden or maja offered to the underground dragon, and Mal-Rodrigo, the dragon himself, and Sor

Juana, one of the nuns of the convent are the only characters given personal names. This fact demonstrates a desire on the part of the author to draw a more detailed psychological picture of these 142 characters. Ceferina, termed a "maja salida" in the listing of characters in the beginning of the play, is the most psychologically developed of all in the play. She manifests a wide gamut of emotional reactions and attitudes throughout the work which are typical of her classification as a "maja." She is fearful upon being offered as a virginal sacrifice to Mal-Rodrigo, scornful of him after his rejection of her, persistent in her desire to gain the glory of martyrdom to the desires of Mal-Rodrigo, and angry with the Sublimitas' careless treatment of her. Having said all this, it's nevertheless true that with her pride and self-possession, she is to represent a certain class of Spanish lower-class working women as well.

Sor Juana, on the other hand, epitomizes the "monja boba" whose personality might be more developed than the other nuns, but whose actions are ridiculed in the play. The Abadesa fills in some of the history of this nun, a fact which contrasts the anonymity of the others.

He aqui una hermana, ejemplo de adversidades: un mozo con la boca mas fiera que un tiburon la persiguio hasta el dintel de esta casa, mas ella supo cerrarle la puerta en las narices, no sin antes haberle pateado el dragoncillo y Mal-Rodrigo que todos los hombres traen cubierto. (30)

As a result, she is given the honorific title of "Sor Juana de la

Coz.” The fact that the author highlights Sor Juana in the convent and Ceferina from the society at large appears to be an effort to avoid the impersonality of a play in which only groups of people or caricatures interact with one another. 143

The name of Mal-Rodrigo (perhaps to be understood in English as the Evil or Sickness of Rodrigo) could refer to the last historical

Visigothic king of Spain who is reported, in oft-repeated Spanish legends and ballads, to have betrayed his Christian nation to the

Moors of North Africa, all for the love of a woman. If this is the proper interpretation, it would be especially significant that this lustful figure should reside underneath the soil of the heart of

Spanish territory and only present himself visually in the play as a huge phallic monstrosity surging up from the mouth of a well in the

Plaza del Sol. Thus he indicates an unseen but everpresent sexual desire which the Spanish people have been seeking unsuccessfully to suppress and resist. This is clearly what the Abadesa has in mind when she mentions "el dragoncillo y Mal-Rodrigo que todos los hombres traen cubierto, a veces con mal cuidado disimulo" (30).

The remaining actors fall into three groupings: a quartet of

Alguaciles (aside from the "Alguacil MAs Gordo"), the Chorus of the

"Sublimitas," and a General Chorus of townspeople, illustrating perfectly Nieva's technique of "chorality." He describes their function and character as an

Eco del conflicto en el pueblo, comentarista desde un Angulo particular. Alocado, dispuesto al desafuero, drgiAstico [sic], justa o injustamente vengativo, burldn, anhelante, caprichoso, mAgico e ildgico. Aun sumido, asimismo, en el conflicto, es como un elemento indestructible y siempre renaciente.38

In this play they echo the speeches of the main characters, comment on their actions, react emotionally to the plot developments and contribute to the overall atmosphere of a festive "triumphal parade" 144

which Nieva expressed as the mood for this play.

The visual semiotic signs used in the staging demonstrate an

effort to portray an overview of Spanish society at large, all

elements of which, in some way or another, are engaged in a life-and-

death struggle with the temptation of Mal-Rodrigo. The well, through

which is thrust the "excrecencia falica" and through which the

characters communicate with "el dragon madrilefio," is placed

significantly in the center of the stage. The spectator is introduced

to the importance of this central symbol and the origin of the monster

living in its depths from the Ciego's introduction to the play:

Dificil es de creer en la cosa estupenda, nacida en el fondo de este pozo de las lamas y cochambre depositadas en el por los tiempos desmemoriados que imperan en Espaha. (27)

A theme that will reappear often in this play is first alluded to

here-the fact that the "dragon" is the product of the very same refuse

that the Spanish people themselves have deposited in the well over

long years. The Dragon and his temptations are not the result of some

external force, but stem from the innermost parts of the Spanish

character.

On each side of the well are placed the two typical Spanish

edifices representing essential segments of its society: a convent to

symbolize the Church, and a "palacio” called Mal-Rodrigo, to represent

the nobility. Though a typical central plaza of any Spanish town usually has a church and a town hall (ayuntamiento), the former two buildings represent basically the same groups that would be found in

the latter two. Each of these two social classes has its 145

corresponding female individual and group representatives: the Abadesa

and the chorus of Sublimitas for the Church and the Duquesa and the

Alguaciles for the nobility. Each of these two parts of society is

thus represented on several levels: the purely physical level (the buildings), and the human group and individual levels.

In between these two extremes are the common people, represented

in this play by a General Chorus and an individual, the Ciego. In the middle of the play, exactly between scene two and three, the Chorus surges out of the darkness of the orchestra and presumably through the space occupied by the audience and enunciates in the clearest fashion their role in the play:

EL CORO. -(En ritmo de pasacalle) Maquina de trituraciones, mala entrana, feroz embudo, esta es la romeria del Mal-Rodrigo. No perdamos un detalle del espectaculo. La curiosidad nos pone en dos pies. El pueblo de Madrid se ha vuelto bipedo, el miedo le ha puesto una guitarra en los brazos y los ojos en el sombrero. iViva el diente y la carne! iVivan la serpiente y el conejo! (33)

In these lines, they are identified with the audience in the desire to play the part of the spectator. They also enunciate the festive and curious mood that would typify the audience. Though these words only occur for a moment and in practical terms serve to cover a scene change that would occur in the darkness, what they say is significant since they exemplify what Mieva desires for the entire play-that it be considered a "fiesta" or "romeria” and treated by all as something to be enjoyed and something at which to marvel in the same way one does at all lively festive gatherings. 146

The well with its underground dragon is the source of several visual effects which all may be taken in some way or another as phallic symbols. The first of these appears for an instant when early in the play, Mal-Rodrigo demands another woman from the townspeople.

Nieva's note explains this occurrence: "(Al final sale del pozo y se oculta rapidamente una forma fantasitca [sic], con mil lenguas verdes y gaseosas.)" (27). Later another appearance of a symbolic projection is described more completely in the author's note and explicitly termed a phallic symbol:

Baila Ceferina, bailan todos, pero en lo mejor del baile surge del pozo una excrecencia espantable y falica, con verrugas estallantes como balones repletos de humo. (30)

The Alguaciles who witnessed the first of these two apparitions fall to the ground in fear and awe. The crowd who saw the second one screams and runs off stage in confusion to end the first part of the play-

It is interesting that each of these appearances occurs at a moment of emotional intensity. The first occurrence interrupts an argument between the Ciego and the Alguaciles. While the Alguaciles dance, the Ciego sings a song. A rush of air surges from the well, and an explosion of black feathers follows as Mal-Rodrigo makes his demand and the phallus appears.

The second appearance mentioned also interrupts a dance that has just begun. The Ciego requested it with these words: ”iFandango y seguidillas, danza y contra-danza! iQue todos bailen con los pies en alto y el mundo en la palma de la mano!" (30). In each instance, it 147 is the physical and emotional activity of the crowd above that stimulates these appearances from the well.

Other visual elements of this play also have phallic significance. Twice, in two separate locations, a very large and long tapestry is thrust out onto the stage. Its first appearance is described this way:

En este momento una de las ventanas del palacio de la Duquesa revienta y deja escapar en borbotones de estufa un grandisimo tapiz drapeado, brillante, escamoso y verde como la capa de un reptil taraceada de infinitos matices. (29)

Immediately after this, from underneath this tapestry, the Duquesa appears for the first time in the play, proclaiming that "Mal-Rodrigo me persigue, me asedia con su tentacion" (29). As the Duquesa seeks refuge in the convent with these words, "Quien entra de monja, del dragdn se preserve. A H A voy decidida," the tapestry "se retire con estremecimiento8 ritmicos y rumor de sonajas" (29).

The tapestry follows the Abadesa and the Duquesa into the convent and appears over the garden wall in the second part of the play in much the same way as in the first part:

La luz aumenta, vibra el aire con ondas zumbonas y bemoladas. Por encima del muro del jardin surge y se despliega el tapiz increible, con sus drapeados fastuosos. Enmedio [sic] de el chisporretea la dragonada ensefia de Priapo todo lo esquematica o descriptiva que se desee. (30-31)

The added element in this description is the "sign" of Priapus, the

Roman god of gardens and generation, which is the enlarged phallus.

Whether drawn realistically or not is not indicated by the author, but it serves to explicitly identify the symbolic significance of the 148

tapestry. As Ceferina approaches to touch it, it retreats again with

the sound of little bells.

Whereas the first two apparitions from the well were ugly and

terrifying, the two appearances of the tapestry seem to present the

aesthetically pleasing aspect of the same symbol. Ceferina infers

this in her description of the material of which the tapestry is made,

"Y que tela tan bonita ha sacado esta mafiana. Esto es seda original

venida de algun Ultramar reciente. Son cosas que no se encuentran en

el comercio" (31). One of the implications here is that this type of

material cannot be found in Spain, and therefore must have come from

abroad, in the same way that the sensual temptation is resisted by

Spanish people.

In the third and fourth parts of the play, Nieva makes use of

two separate ropes in a way that suggests a phallic symbol and a

connection to Mal-Rodrigo. One appears wrapped around the waist of

the Abadesa as she enters the cell where Ceferina has just freed the

Duquesa from a rope hanging from the ceiling with which the Duquesa had been bound. We have therefore a rope which bound the Duquesa to

prevent her from submitting to Mal-Rodrigo, and one tied to the

Abadesa which originates in the well itself and is seeking to draw her

in with "sacudidas periodicas" (34).

As the last part of the play begins, we are brought back to the

street scene of the beginning and see the rope extending from the well and still pulling the Abadesa inexorably toward it. Though she resists valiantly, it finally succeeds in pulling the Abadesa, 149

Ceferina and the Duquesa into the well together as all the other

characters watch and as a "ciudadela" constructed over the well

opening purposely for this moment, burns. This is the emotional

crescendo of the action of the play, and is celebrated with an

appropriate response from the Chorus:

i Fuiiiii...! i Fuiiii...!. Maquina de trituraciones, mala entraha, feroz embudo, saborea el femenino pastel con deleite y orgullo fiero. Se ha ganado la partida galante, ya llego la apoteosis tripera. iFuiiiii...! (36)

The "ciudadela," which refers in English to a castle keep or

that safest inner tower of a castle, is a surprising element which

meets the eye of the audience as the last part of the play is begun.

Though its significance is not totally explicit, it's obvious that it

is intended to play a part in the panoply of other phallic symbols

relating to and stemming from Mal-Rodrigo's home in the well. The

aforementioned rope stems from inside it. The well is covered by it

so that it in essence replaces the well itself for a time as the home

of the dragon. It is constructed from "caha y papel pintado con los

motivos del drama" (35), probably for two reasons: first, so that it

may be easily burned as a part of the fury of action at the crescendo

of the play and second, so that it may be painted easily with the

"motivos" of the play. The shape of a tower constructed over the well

is surely meant to present another facet in the wide range of

representations which illustrate the centrality of the phallic symbol

in the work.

These symbols taken together are meant to illustrate a multifaceted and omnipresent sensual temptation that is felt by all parts of society everywhere. The three women drawn into the well illustrate three possible attitudes: the Abadesa is the religious person who resists to the end, the Duquesa is the one who verbally declares her resistance but cannot control herself enough to resist physically, and Ceferina is the "maja," proud of her sexuality and willing to surrender if only Mal-Rodrigo would have her. There are many other visual signs present in the proposed staging for this play that are of a relatively minor nature, but that contribute to the total effect intended by the author. The desired mood is indicated partly in the author's classification of the play as "apocalyptic" and in his introductory statement following the list of characters: "Todo acontece en Madrid, hace mucho tiempo, poco antes del fin del mundo"

(26). Though the explicit location is Madrid, the center and administrative heart of Spain, the time and surroundings of the city are pictured vaguely and without precision. Part of the surrounding scenery Nieva describes as "calles que terminan en caminos y caminos que se dispersan en el desierto." As far as the time is concerned, we have this description: "Es un dia desastroso y sin hora, ni claro ni oscuro. El sol se va por donde quiere y los vientos se disputan."

Confusion and ambiguity are the fundament a environmental aspects of the play.

Before this backdrop, the author seeks to continually surprise and shock the audience with unexpected visual occurrences. During the song of the Sublimitas, they mention a lightning rod and the visual effect of lightning is in truth presented, followed by the appearance 151 of several electrocuted birds falling to the stage. A moment later, the Ciego sings of "las colas de paloma.and a rush of air "dispara del pozo una lluvia de plumas negras" (27). Such unexpected phenomena lend an air of impending final disaster characteristic of the apocalyptic theme.

The lighting effects, as well as various symbols which are significant for their light, are an essential element of this play.

They have two purposes, the first is to complement the general mood at particular moments in the play, and second to aid in the management of stage props and scene changes.

The play begins with a non-descript initial effect, "ni claro, ni oscuro." The Alguaciles enter soon thereafter with lances and lanterns which parallels the later entrance of the Abadesa and the sacristan who brings "una vela en la mano" (29). The sun returns at a later point to signify that "todo se restaura" (30). The light is increased when the tapestry surges over the garden wall. When confusion reigns in the convent, the use of lightning reflects this:

"Nueva confusidn. Se hace paso el ciego en un circulo de luz relampagueante" (33). In the darkness at the scene change from part two to three, "un astro rojo" appears over the audience which the chorus seems to use as its beacon in its mad rush to the stage and off again. The light of a candle is again used in part three by Sor Juana in the cell where she hatches the eggs, and oppressive darkness is then commented on by the Sacristan: "iUi, que oscuridad tan fecunda!"

(34). More lightning flashes accompany the scene change to part four 152 but the general climate of this last part is described this way, "Se

intensifica el clima oscuro, ventoso, y espantadizo..." (35). This continues, of course, until the "ciudadela" burns on top of the well, but this light quickly fades as the play winds down to its close: "El coro se arrastra, busca el pozo, extiende sus manos al debil resplandor que de el se escapa, hacen oido en un total silencio" (36).

In all these examples, an increase in the intensity and manipulation of stage lighting accompanies moments of emotional intensity, while darkness increases the sense of fear, dread, and stagnation. The individuals who carry candles or lanterns seem in a sense to be combating the oppressive darkness, but their efforts are weak compared to the cataclysmic lightning and final fire which demonstrate a superior force at work, that of Mal-Rodrigo.

There is one striking visual element in the play which stands out in its evocation of a blend of two uniquely Spanish artistic and cultural traditions. In the first part of the play, on the occasion of the presentation of Ceferina for sacrifice to Mal-Rodrigo, Nieva describes the scene.

(Aparece la procesion. Viene la rnaia tendida en unas parihuelas, muv compuesta, entre. co.iines__de__aIcQba prestados al cuadro de Gova. La sisue el PuebIo__de Madrid, nublado por las capas v los sombreros. La p r eC-C.de. el Alcalde Oficiante. con su vara v una cincha-cfnturon con el escudo en bronce de la Villa) (28)

Two different images are at work here: that of the religious procession common to many Spanish festivals and Goya's famous dual painting of the "Maja vestida" and the "Maja desnuda.” Especially well known are those processions that occur around the celebrations of 153

Holy Week in Spain. They are typified by a procession through the

street of a group of men called a "cofradia" which carries a wooden

cart-like structure with long poles ("parihuelas") in order for it to

be carried on the shoulders of these men. The images of saints from

many churches are mounted on these "carts" and serve as the focal

point of each procession. Those of the Virgin Mary are the most

revered and the most popular, as is the "Macarena" of Seville, for

example.

Goya's painting of the "Maja vestida," located in the Prado

Museum of Madrid, and its famous second version, the "Maja desnuda,"

are evoked in this play in a doubly sacrilegious way. It is not only

sacrilegious to think of placing a representation of a semi-erotic portrait of the Duquesa de Alba in the place of the Virgin Mary, but also that this should be presented in a procession whose purpose is to sacrifice this woman to a subterranean monster in the way pagan tribes might sacrifice virgins to the devils they believe inhabit nearby volcanoes. This image is further underlined as the procession approaches the well (volcano) and Ceferina is lowered into the well by means of an elevator constructed for the purpose. Her final speech also emphasizes this secular and sacred dichotomy: "Quiteme su sefioria el atadijo, que quiero bajar como buena cordera. iViva EBpaha y la calle del Barquillo que es mi patria chica!" (28). The patriotic

"Viva" contrasts sharply with the reference to the "buena cordera" symbolizing reverential humility. We now turn to an analysis of the various sound effects,

including orchestral background music, found in the play. The

elements that might be characterized as noise, exclusive of music, are

numerous and function in a way that parallels the visual elements.

Certain unspecified "ruidos insolitos," for example, accompany the

first appearance of the tapestry from the window of the Duquesa's palace which adds to the dramatic surprise and importance of this event. A church bell rings to announce and give importance to the private conference held between the Abadesa and the Santo Obispo. A terrifying "bocina" (horn) is used, along with a darkened sky, to augment the feeling of confusion when the Enano Deletereo and the

Raboso begin to fight and the others in the convent scurry about to try to stop them. The "ritmo seco y acompasado" of a clock is used to measure the seconds of time that pass in the scene in which the

Duquesa is shown imprisoned to prevent her surrender to Mal-Rodrigo and Sor Juana is seen sitting on the basket of eggs. As the play draws to its conclusion, the sound of a trumpet, which blows twice, intensifies the expectation and shouts of the people forming the group of townspeople and as the rope inexorably begins its final rhythmic pulling. Contrasted to this is a silence that is immediately produced when the Abadesa appears tied to the rope as she is pulled from the convent. This lack of sound is continued and expanded by the Chorus of townspeople as they recite: "(En un grave nianisimo) Ya salen las abrazadas, las enracimadas y presae. Ya van derechas al pozo. Todas, todas. iDesgraciadas!. Las santas, las sabias, las sosas, las Sixtas, 155 las Siras, las Saras..." (36). The repetition of the consonantal sound of "s” in this passage uniquely emphasizes the quiet mood, filled with intense expectation. Just at the moment in which the

Duquesa and Ceferina disappear into the well, the sound of a drum is meant to produce emotional effect: "Emocion aderezada con redoble de tambor" (36). These visual and aural elements not only supplement the significance of these alterations of mood, but also significantly add to them.

The author also indicates at several points that an orchestra is to be used. He does not, however, explain what specific type of music is to be played. Aside from the organ which accompanies the first song of the Sublimitas, the music of the orchestra is mentioned three times. As the play is just beginning, the Ciego introduces the mood of the play saying that the "elementos se estremecen" in expectation of what is going to happen. Part of this initial mood appears to be indicated by music from the orchestra. The Ciego refers to its music in his speech to the public: "Escuchen a esa orquesta azorada y el tiritar de los cobardes violines. (Al director) Maestro, guarde la calma y no se despepite" (27). A "preludio" is used to introduce the speech of Mal-Rodrigo from the well in part one (28). The orchestra is mentioned again in the confusion surrounding the change of scene from part two to three, but because of the lack of further indications by the author, one must presume this is an element that the staging must develop as it will. 156

Because of the richness in quality and quantity of semiotic elements of a visual and aural nature originating in the actors themselves, it is necessary to organize these elements thematically for a clearer understanding of their significance. In the discussion of each thematic segment, both the visual and aural elements will be presented and discussed together.

The first of these thematic areas is the baroque period in

Spanish history. The costumes of all the characters are drawn from this period. The long cape and overlarge hat under which a man could hide is the standard costume for the men of the town, as well as the

Ciego. The Alguaciles and Alcalde Oficiante also wear the garb of the period, as well as other symbols of authority, such as the "vara" and

"cincha cinturon" with the town emblematic "escudo" attached to it, which is the mark of authority of the Alcalde. The Ciego is a character familiar to the period: a blind singer of ballads and tales.

The character of Ceferina is a typical "maja" of the period in dress, language and mannerisms. The Duquesa is described as "bribonica, mas blanca que la cal, la que anda sobre patines y lleva una mariposa en la cabeza; guapa, tonta y popular, como las espanolas de postin" (29), which is truly an exaggerated and stereotypical view of a character type of the period. In like fashion, the Abadesa, the Obispo and the

Sublimitas represent the stereotypical view of representatives of the

Church in Spain.

It seems obvious that the author does not have in view a particular period, but intends for these characters to symbolize all 157

Spanish society and its various segments in all its history. This is the viewpoint inferred in the introduction of the Ciego and his use of the present tense in his description of the Madrid presented in the play:

Este es Madrid, ciudad real y administrativa, fundada en un extremo del mundo, casi en su borde, azotada por vientos muy frios y calores purgatoriales. Aqui vive el rey Dieciocho, con sus boIsillos llenos de tabaco y asistido por una perezosa Inquisicion, porque son tiempos de flojera, en los que prolifera el desconcierto. (27)

The play therefore is intended for a Spanish audience which can most readily identify with the action and its significance, and is meant to draw the audience into the action.

There are many other elements in the play which indicate the author's preoccupation with Spain and its people. This is obvious first in the location of the play, Madrid, and its central Plaza del

Sol, which can be considered the heart of the city, and therefore the entire country. The dragon of the well in the center of the plaza is a "drago madrileno," a creation of the trash that the people have deposited there, according to the Ciego. He explains its origin this way: "Dificil es de creer en la cosa estupenda, nacida en el fondo de este pozo de las lamas y la cochambre depositadas en el por los tiempos desmemoriados que imperan en Espafia" (27). While the people of Madrid may be responsible for the creation of Mal-Rodrigo, it is clear that he is now out of control as evidenced by his demand of the sacrifice of a woman each week and his ridicule of the people above for their weakness, calling them "maricones" and "cobardones" (27).

Mal-Rodrigo also refers to those above as “iAmigos de la fatalidad!" 158

and "iEspanoles de sangre gorda!" He declares his power to turn the

earth upside down if he chose: "Como a mi me de la gana, las torres

creceran hacia abajo y los espanoles viviran bajo tierra" (27). The

speech of the Alcalde Oficiante to Ceferina as she is lowered into the

well exemplifies this attitude: "Y ahora ia aguantarse!. No hay

fuerza contra la fatalidad. Cumplase todo como el destino testarudo

se lo ha propuesto" (28). The Chorus of townspeople enunciates once

more this attitude as it witnesses the sacrifice of Ceferina:

i Desventurada, triste— ! Asi has de morir bajando al pozo, alimentando nuestros pecados y haciendo cornudo al pueblo que te crio. Maldita sea nuestra estampa. iCastigo, castigo y penitencia...i (28).

If the central message of the play is the resistance of the Spanish

people of sensual desire, here personified in Mal-Rodrigo, then this

is truly a fatalistic attitude since they themselves are viewed as the

creators of the desire itself. The more they valiantly resist, the

greater the monster becomes and the greater the resultant tragedy.

The next theme to be developed is that of chorality, the use of

groups of characters to speak and act in unison. There are three such

groups in this play, each representing a segment of Spanish society:

the quartet of Alguaciles (to represent the executive arm of the

invisible King "Dieciocho"), the Sublimitas (to represent the devoted

followers of the Church), and the "Coro general" (which acts as the

voice of the masses of common people). This particular division of

characters parallels the visual aspects of the staging with its

palace, church, and central plaza. As each is discussed in turn, it will be obvious that they take on an individuality as the play 159 progresses which develops as an individual character might. The fact that each is composed of several individuals adds a unique sense of communal uniformity, within which is a demonstrated diversity of opinions toward the problem of Mal-Rodrigo.

The interplay between these groups and their clearly delineated individual characters may be characterized as that of an echo and/or a commentator.39 When they adopthis role, unpredictable elements of humor and satire are injected which sometimes degenerate into absurdity. A significant portion of their verbal interjections take the form of poetry and song, and this is many times accompanied by various types of dance.

The Alguaciles as a group are the least central to the central action of the play. Visually they are described as carrying lances and lanterns to illustrate their duty as watchmen or guards who represent the authority of the king. The Ciego describes their activities as spying on the movements and activities of Mal-Rodrigo.

His description of the smell of their garments illustrates his attitude, and the author's, with respect to their activities: "jUff!

Los tales siempres [sic] me hacen estornudar con la humedad de sus tercioplelos [sic]. En ellos se mean en cuanto salen de su alcaldia"

(27).

As the symbols of the despised establishment the Alguaciles seek to control the actions and speech of the public, all in the name of the supreme authority of the absent king. After entering together, the "Alguacil mas gordo" tries to silence the Ciego: 160

A ver si te callas, ciego verboso, y te vas a otra parte con tus comentarios. Tu eres quien enardece a esa bestia, quien le apunta sus malas proezas. i Fuera ya de aqui!. Largate, si no quieres probar el sello de mi mano. (27)

In the same manner, the Alguacil mas gordo speaks to the Sacristan:

iMaldito sacristan!, iPueblo incivil y desobediente!. Mil veces te he dicho de no vaciar las inmundicias del convento en ese pozo tormentoso. Eso es echar aceite al fuego. (28)

Near the crescendo of the action in the final part of the play, the

Alguacil and the Alcalde Oficiante engage in a verbal battle with the townspeople. The result is the absurd effort to control them with the unheeded threat of imprisonment: "De orden del senor alcalde la ciudad de Madrid queda detenida" (35). The last words spoken in the play are those of the Alguacil seeking to clear the street of the Coro that remains still curious and unsatisfied after Mal-Rodrigo has fled:

"iFuera, fuera!. iDesalojen!. Ya esta apagada la caldera. [...] Aqui s61o se ventean cenizas. Idos antes que la noche nos escupa de este mundo" (36). In all these instances, the Alguacil appears as a buffoon, powerless to alter the actions of anyone. Clearly the force emanating from Mal-Rodrigo and the other groups is seen as superior and capable of laughing with impunity at this symbol of authority.

One example exists in the beginning of the play of their dancing together around the well while the Ciego sings. This dance is referred to as a “danza de negros" and is ended upon the appearance of the phallic Mal-Rodrigo which causes the Alguaciles to fall on their backs and to rise trembling with fear. As they dance, the Ciego sings a song alluding to themes to which the Alguaciles might 161

identify:

Viva el rey Dieciocho, vestido de seda amarilla; viva la corte de Espana, tan abierta de puertas y balcones; vivan el aire de la sierra y el santo Cristo de los notarios. iOle y ole! Viva el esparto de Andalucia, Vivan las colas de paloma... (27)

There is a steady progression from a logical objectivity to an

illogical and chaotic enumeration of seemingly random images in the poems and songs of all three of the groups as well as the poetry of the Ciego. The progression in this poem also seems to move from the person of the king outward to include many significant areas of

Spanish geography. They may be listed this way: the king dressed in yellow silk, the city of Madrid (corte) of open doors and balconies, the air of the sierra (Castilla), the Holy Christ of the notaries, the grass of Andalucia and dove's tails.

The second of the three groups is that of the Sublimitas, whose character is developed most fully throughout the play. The form of their speech imitates that of religious litany and prayers spoken in unison but often the themes and images degenerate into vulgarities.

In the same way that the author criticizes the Alguaciles by showing them as buffoons, he portrays the nuns as reciting meaningless and even sacrilegious lyrics.

Their prayers are the first sound heard in the play as the action begins after the introduction of the Ciego. They are backstage, in their convent, and recite this prayer, accompanied by 162 the organ:

Santa Casilda con la camisa hueca San Pedro con su gallo, San Jorge vestido de guardia, preservadnos del desastre en este reducto colmado de virgenes, rogad por nos ante el trono del Padre, el escabel del Hijo y la percha del Espiritu Santo, Aaamen...!

The theme introduced here will be theirs throughout the play: preservation from the disaster of surrender to the fleshly desires personified in Mal-Rodrigo. It is also a sacrilegious version of a prayer to the Virgin seeking her intercession with God. Each of the three saints is linked with comical or derogatory symbols as is the case with Saint Peter with the cock which crowed to reveal his treachery. Even more shocking is the reference to the "perch" of the

Holy Spirit, obviously referring to the symbolic dove. Their nonsensical recitation continues at intervals in the discussion that follows between the Ciego and the Alguacil and enumerates other saints in the same way:

San Antonio con el Nino en los brazos, Santa Justa con su puchero sevillano, Santa Barbara con su pararrayos... (27) [...] San Ignacio con su boina, San Miguel con su caballo sarraceno... (28)

The central function of their actions and words is to echo those of the Abadesa. In the first appearance of the Abadesa to receive the

Duquesa into the convent, they follow the Abadesa singing:

iGloria a los encajes de Bruselas! iGloria a los panales de Golgota! iGloria a los castillos del Loire! 163 [...] iGloria a la lluvia de mayo! iGloria a las perdices de la via Appia...! [...] iGloria al otono del Coliseo! iGloria a la desembocadura del Tajo! I Gloria a las uvas de Napoles! iGloria a las rimas de Becquer...! (29)

No semantic continuity or connection with the simultaneous action

taking place on stage is apparent. Rather this list of unconnected

places and things appear to have a totally random character which is

significant in its lack of meaning. The author has a double purpose

in creating this choral effect: first to lend the atmosphere of a

convent and the music typical of it to the concurrent action and

second to highlight the repetitiveness and lack of significance of

that very music.

In the second part of the play, the Sublimitas present both a

visual and verbal semiotic impact on the play. Visually, they are

present on stage as described in Nieva's note:

Se retire el ciego v salen las monies en fila india. el sacristan raboso delante llevando un Palo en cuvo extremo hay colgado un sonoro triangulo que tafie con medida. La procesion forma un semicirculo. Todas las monias llevan cofias de formas lineares y rlgidas que lescubren_casi por completo las caras._Bara aue las descubran han.de tirar de un cordon gue enrrolla mecanicamente__un pafio_del tocado. (30)

The most striking image is the "cofia" or box-like structure covering

their heads, a symbol we have seen before in other plays of Nieva which symbolizes the effort to escape from outside influences by hiding in an enclosed space. The use of a cord to pull the cloth

aside like a curtain on a window is a unique effect which adds a comic 164 dimension as well as implying a grotesque deformation of the normal garb of nuns.

The Sublimitas' role of echoing the statements of the Abadesa continues to the end of the play, with very little variation.

Immediately after being presented in the garden in the second part of the play, they offer this prayer, for example, always speaking in chorus:

Santo plato de verduras que adornas las escaleras del altar, ahuyenta de nos la carne con sus despellajados estremecimientos, danos la salud del brecol y el pudor de la alcachofa, que viva nuestro espiritu en cuaresma y nuestro cuerpo en verde letargo... (30)

This prayer for deliverance from the "flesh" is directed at a "plate of vegetables" and seeks the "health of broccoli" and the "modesty of the artichoke." There are several parallels with the Lord's prayer that are inescapable: "Santificado sea tu nombre" becomes "Santo plato de verduras;" "libranos del mal" becomes "ahuyenta de nos la carne;" and "danos el pan de cada dia" turns into "danos la salud del brecol." The purpose of such a creative variation on this theme is to cause surprise and laughter as well as to again indirectly reveal a new and shocking meaning: the hollowness of the words so often repeated without conscious thought.

The Sublimitas react later in the play with extreme disgust to the tapestry thrown over the garden wall. Nieva's note reveals nonetheless for the first time that these representatives of purity are themselves tainted with a degree of carnal desire. His note reads

"(Seducidas v horrorizadas)" and their exclamation upon seeing the 165 tapestry is ";0h, desvergiienza inaudita! jOh, indecente joyeria...!"

(31). They demonstrate their fluctuating resolve in a conversation they have later with the Raboso who has just put on the clock given him by Mal-Rodrigo.

SUBLIMITAS: — Que guapo estd Miguelin con ese traje de rey mago. EL RABOSO: — (Contoneandose) Asi se marca la liturgia, asi se pisa por el tempo [sic] de Salomon. SUBLIMITAS: — Que guapo esta Miguelin vestido de angel desdehoso. EL RABOSO: — Asi se arrancan los placeres del paraiso, asi se funda una sucursal. SUBLIMITAS: Que guapo esta Miguelin desfrazado de si mismo. EL RABOSO: — Asi se derrocha mi persona, asi se corrompe la vara de nardos. (Aspira el humo del cigarro) iAy, que cahas de la Habana quema ese dichoso rufian! SUBLIMITAS: — iTan bueno esta? Danos una brizna siquiera de esa sustancia regalona. (32)

The Sublimitas are attracted especially by the gifts Mal-Rodrigo has given El Raboso, the "bata bordeada" which they take for a "traje de rey mago" and the smoke of the Cuban cigar which they consider a

"sustancia regalona" (32).

They are used to cover the absence of the Abadesa and the Santo

Obispo who are in private conversation by chanting another chorus which presents religious themes in a chaotic fashion. The Sublimitas divide into two groups in order to permit one part to respond to the statements of the other:

LAS UNAS. — Vela, vela, y se desvela la santa conversacidn. LAS OTRAS. — iAleluya coeliiii...! LAS UNAS. — Baldaquinos y palmas para los dictados romanos. LAS OTRAS. — iAleluya coeliiii...! LAS UNAS. — Pregunta de mieles y respuesta de maiz. LAS OTRAS. — jAleluya coeliiii...! LAS UNAS. — El obispo propone y el obispado dispone. LAS OTRAS. — iAleluya coeliii...! TODAS. -Que la luz se rompa en granos para ver la solucion.(32) 166

Two processes continue here that typify the chants and choruses of the

Sublimitas throughout the play. The first is the parody of prayers and chants of the Church and the second is the inclusion within this framework of a series of chaotic, unexpected and irrational elements ridiculing various elements and sayings of the Church. Though logical references exist in this example which refer to the conversation taking place ("conversation," "dictados romanos," "pregunta [...] respuesta," "obispo" and "obispado"), the illogical and seemingly random elements predominate.

From this point on, the Sublimitas continue to the end of the play to act and speak as a unit in the struggle against the depredations of Mal-Rodrigo. They attempt to restrain the Duquesa from being sucked into the well by Mal-Rodrigo and the long rope extending from the well. In this effort, their words only seem to hasten the crescendo of the ending: "i Sujetadla, sujetadla! iNo podemos, no podemos! iYa se desgarra el vac1 0 , rueda la cuesta, se escurre el pozo!" (33). As they hold the Duquesa, they gaze at the

Santo Obispo who ascends in death to heaven, and they offer this prayer to him: "Santo y sal del santoral, desde la corte celestial libranos del auturullo y del mal" (33). As the rope begins to pull with more intensity, they form a unit to resist in the fashion of a tug-of-war, and return to a listing of illogical exclamations as they pull:

Por las cosas de la vida iMiserere! Por el curso de la Historia... iMiserere! Por el coro de las cosas... iMiserere! . Por el pelo de la dehesa iMiserere! (Tremendos tirones) iOooh! iYa se desgarra el vacio 167

rueda la cuesta, se escurre el pozo...! (35)

At the peek of the emotional intensity of the play, they are

both seen and heard as the supreme force for resistance against Mal-

Rodrigo. Just as the rope is about to pull the Duquesa, Ceferina and

the Abadesa into the well, they are seen to form a "cuadro numantino,"

referring to the famous historical example of native Hispanic

resistance to the Roman invaders. Their final speech refers to the well and the significance of what is happening: "iEntierro de los vientos, guiso de agujeros, salida sin entrada, historia sin moraleja...!" (36).

The theatrical device of a group which acts as an individual is especially effective because of the variety of ways that the collective individuals may be manipulated. The group may act in perfect unison, or it may subdivide and dialogue with itself. It may both act and react to its own action. Semiotically, it may signify a class of people or an individual in that class. The greatest novelty of Nieva in the presentation of this group is the element of its surrealistic verbiage.

The last of the choral groups is that of the "Coro General" which represents the voice of the common people of Madrid. The primary function of this group is to identify with the viewing public by maintaining the illusion that they are simply present to enjoy the action as the audience does. They are also quick to comment on the actions of the main characters and to react with emotion to what occurs. 168

This group first appears as Ceferina is presented to Mal-

Rodrigo. They accompany her and add their sad commentary to her sacrifice: "iDesventurada, triste ! Asi has de morir bajando al pozo, alimentando nuestros pecados y haciendo cornudo al pueblo que te crio. Maldita sea nuestra estampa. iCastigo, castigo y penitencia!"

(28). In response to the defiant "vivas" of Ceferina, they respond with their own encouragement: "iViva, viva! iQue modosa! iQue morena tostada! . iQue regalo de individual. Pues le va a saber a poco a ese colmo de lujuria" (28). They describe the Duquesa on her appearance ("la Duquesa bribonica, mas blanca que la cal") and the

Sublimitas ("Aqui llegan las suaves, las conservadas en almibar, las que escurren el bulto de su cuerpo. iQue blancas, que pulcras, que lentas...!).

In the shift from the second to the third part of the play, they appear out of the midst of the audience in the darkness dressed and equipped for a "romeria." This is the pose they adopt throughout the remainder of the action, thus forming an extension of the spectators on the stage. Their pronouncement of this, according to the author's note, is to be delivered in "ritmo de pasacalle":

Maquina de trituraciones, mala entraha, feroz embudo, esta es la romeria del Mal-Rodrigo. No perdamos un detalle del espectaculo. La curiosidad nos pone en dos pies. El ~ pueblo de Madrid se ha vuelto bipedo, el miedo le ha puesto una guitarra en los brazos y los ojos en el sombrero. iViva el diente y la carne! iVivan la serpiente y el conejo! (33)

Especially significant is the reference to the "espectaculo" that they are watching, an effect which draws the audience into the action of 169 the play by making them feel as if they are participating in the action on stage.

As the end of the play approaches, the Chorus continues its periodic commentary on the action, except for one brief section of dialogue which humorously captures the typical dialogue of individuals caught in a large crowd. When the Alcalde Oficiante tries to gain control of this group with the words "iComo presidente de esta lidia de dragones y mujeres pido respeto y prudencia de continente y de lengua al soberanisimo puebloi," various voices from the crowd respond with indignant insults:

VOCES DEL PUEBLO INDIGNADO.— iQuita de ahi mantecon, pacifists, baloncesto...! (35)

At this the Alguacil absurdly attempts to arrest everyone saying that

"la ciudad de Madrid queda detenida," at which one voice from the crowd yells for him to shut up: "iCalla, meticulosoi" (35). At this point the author indicates that the crowd begins to move in "grupos espesos" from which are heard these protestations:

OTRA VOZ DEL PUEBLO.— iNo empujeis tanto, que vais a correr abajo el pueblo de Carabanchel Alto! VOCES CORALES EN EL MENEO.— i Uuuuuuuh...! UNA MUJER.— iQuien me ha violado de pasada...! OTRA.— iQuiAn me tira de la lengua...! UN HOMBRE.— iQuien es esta familia que no conozco y que tengo subida en los hombros...! OTRA VOZ DEL PUEBLO.— iAnimales! iHabeis empujado tanto que se han juntado los pueblos de Carabanchel Alto y Bajo...!(35)

Above all, the significance of this dialogue against the backdrop of the final emotional crescendo presents as a humorous and ironic contrast to the apparently serious nature of the battle with Mal-

Rodrigo . As the action of the play ends in the plaza around the well, the

Chorus continues its commentary, posing as usual as an audience viewing a spectacle. They comment in unison, for example, on the heroic resistance of the Abadesa, referring to her as the "Sublime":

"Bien ha estado la Sublime. Asi se torea al deseo. Viva el mundo, viva el miedo y vivan las rojas bocas del espaholado misterio" (36).

Here is repeated the central theme of the play, the resistance to

"deseo," in this case metaphorically related to the bullfights. We again see the Chorus functioning as spectator to the central action.

Their commentary here imitates the songs and poems of the Chorus of the Sublimitas in that it presents a chaotic listing of three elements which are logically unrelated, but nonetheless are similar in rhythm and rhyme. The three "vivas" lead to "mundo," "miedo," and

"misterio," elements which appear to have been chosen as much for their phonetic effect as for meaning. A moment later they again comment on the action with another irrational poetic statement: "iViva el hoclco de don Juan, vivan sus pechos de alquitran!" (36).

This Chorus is given the final announcement of the apocalyptic ending in which Ceferina, the Abadesa, and the Duquesa are sucked into the well by Mal-Rodrigo. At the height of this emotional climax, the

Chorus repeats some of their previous statements: "iFuiilii...! iFuliil...!. Mdquina de trituraciones, mala entrafia, feroz embudo, saborea el femenlno pastel con deleite y orgullo flero. Se ha ganado la partida galante, ya llegd la apoteosis tripera. iFuiiiii...!”

(36). Referring to Mal-Rodrigo as a "grinding machine" and a 171

"ferocious funnel," they declare his victory and render him the honor due to the victor of an athletic game.

Aside from the fact that the author makes use of characters associated with the Catholic Church, there are also several elements that originate with the actors that are directly critical of the doctrines of the Church as well as the people who are related to it.

This can be noted from the first statement of the Ciego referring to the Nunnery as a "prayer and marmalade factory" whose inhabitants are

"dying with fear" of Mal-Rodrigo, even though it is known that the monster prefers "las pecheras levantadas y las faldas de mucho vuelo"

(27). This fearful attitude is parodied and presented continually as a ridiculous and useless attempt at resistance against the inevitable force of the temptation of Mal-Rodrigo. This attitude is first presented in a poem of the Sacristan:

Contra el sagrado del claustro no puede ni el Mal-Rodrigo. Aqui se cantone la pureza y se recalcitra la verguenza. (28)

The key words presented here like "sacred" and "purity" are contradicted in the actions and speech of the nuns as the action develops.

The Sacristan continues at this same point with a song accompanied by a dance which he later repeats and which serves as a sort of theme song for himself which indicates as well his own ridicule of the nuns with whom he lives:

En un valle caliente hay un convento y en el convento hay treinta prisioneras del rey Herodes 172

treinta pajaras ciegas, treinta cebollitas verdes. Hay un convento y en el convento xm sacristan Colorado un entierro con muchas luces y una torre llena de paja... (28)

The tripartite identification as "prisoners of King Herod," “blind birds," and "green onions" are indicative of the various techniques the author uses to present the nuns. First, they are prisoners because of their futile desire to hide from Mal-Rodrigo. Then they are placed in the animal kingdom when compared to birds and in the vegetable kingdom when likened to green onions. These metaphorical themes continue throughout the play and are developed in inventive and surprising ways, especially the identification of the nuns with birds.

Throughout the play there are indications of the hypocritical nature of the verbal resistance of the nuns. This is true of the nuns in their conversation with the Sacristan about the clothing which was given to him by Mal-Rodrigo. It is also true of the most vehement representative of repressiveness, the Abadesa. As she instructs the

Duquesa in the attitude of resistance to sensuality, Sor Juana is infected with "una mala crisis" and says: "iAy, que todo el cuerpo me pica! iAy, que me acuerdo de mi madre! iAy, que me esta saliendo un grano! [...]" (30). This vague sensuality infects the Duquesa in turn and she exclaims: "iLa tentacion me persigue! iYa la siento llegar con todo su cortejo babildnico!" (30). Her admonition to the other two is not to upset her "nervios," but the author's note indicates that she herself is "contagiada a su vez" and she expresses this in 173 much the same manner as Sor Juana: "iAy, que me ahogo en un mar de agujeros! iAy, que una sombra me atraviesa la garganta!" (30).

Implicit in this is the criticism of those whose words say one thing and whose actions another. The Abadesa is willing to resist to the ultimate extreme of giving her life, which is demonstrated by her actions at the end of the play, but this hypocritical resistance is made foolish by her incapacity to truly conquer the temptation more than any of the others.

Along with the Abadesa, the Santo Obispo is the most important church figure held up for ridicule in the play. Visually he is presented in the dress of a pilgrim and with an air Nieva describes as

"venerable y temblon" (32). After discussing the problem of Mal-

Rodrigo with the Abadesa, he declares a Holy Crusade against the dragon and offers the lance for the first attack to the Abadesa. His words here imitate those of the church fathers of the past on such occasions: "Animo, hija mia, denuedo, oracion y perseverancia. Mi bendicion os acompaha y sobre vosotras vierte las indulgencias de toda la tropa celeste" (32). At this point he suggests that the Abadesa share a cup of hot chocolate with him which is the one luxury he allows himself in an otherwise austere diet. As the Duquesa is carried away with the influence of Mal-Rodrigo and the Sublimitas hastily try to subdue her, the Santo Obispo bestows his final benediction on the efforts of the Abadesa saying that he is dying of the "escandalo y la fatiga" (33). The Obispo further promises that he will intercede in heaven for the efforts of the Abadesa and then 174 announces his "deseado ascenso." This ascension is displayed in truly dramatic fashion as the other action stops and the Sublimitas watch as the Obispo is lifted in an attitude of prayer into heaven.

The implied criticism in this character is obvious. He succeeds in passing the burden of the crusade against the evil Mal-Rodrigo to the Abadesa, shows his taste for forbidden luxury in his weakness for chocolate, and then avoids contact with the difficult battle that will ensue by being carried up to heaven.

The elements related to various types of enclosure are very numerous in Pelo de tormenta. The enclosures offer refuge from the deleterious influence of external sexual temptation. Both the purpose for such enclosures and the ambivalent reaction of the Spanish toward them are expressed by the Alcalde Oficiante as he comments on the entrance of the Duquesa into the Convent:

Ese es un buen ejemplo senoras. Contra el drago disoluto toda Espaha debiera vivir encajonada y en paquetes para la salvacion. Pero somos mala carne llena de zozobra maritima en esta tierra sin agua. (29)

The same desire for salvation by enclosure is expressed by the Obispo in his prayer upon being taken up to heaven: "Senor, abreme tu caja de algodones, encastrame en ella y ponme al reparo de este mundo disoluto" (33).

The motif of enclosure is essential in the visual presentation of the Sublimitas in several ways. The "cofias" whose curtains are opened by the pulling of a cord are one example, as well as the

"caperuza negra" used to cover Sor Juana to quiet her as one would a bird. The cell of part three as another example. It is the prison of 175 the Duquesa and an inner room which is used both to guard the Duquesa from temptation and keep her prisoner. The Abadesa expresses the need for this in these terms: "Encerradla en una celda, vestidla de sombra espesa, que yo aguzare mi lanza contra el insensato tragadero y le disputare su empeho" (33). The "dark shadows" of which the Abadesa speaks here are significant since they point to the intellectual darkness inherent in this effort at conservation and protection. The author would rather argue for the opening of such enclosures by demonstrating their ineffectiveness. This is the point of all the action surrounding the largest of the enclosures of the play: the convent itself. It is ineffective in its ultimate protective purpose protection not only because of the outside forces, but also because of the inbred desires that are not eradicated from the natures of those who enter.

The character of the Duquesa most clearly represents the battle between the verbal external expression of resistance and the internal natural attraction. Though her protestations upon entering offer the hope of protection in the convent, she soon recognizes her defeat and surrenders: "iYa has ganado la partida galante! Sea yo tu esposa picada, tu manzana partida por el eje, pase ya por el desconocido y sin igual suplicio" (33).

There are also two types of grotesque deformation of individual characters in this play: the first might be termed "animalization," the purposeful and extended identification of certain characters with a variety of animals, and the second is ambiguous sexual orientation 176

or androgyny. Though these two techniques appear sometimes in the

same characters, we will consider first the technique of animalization

and then that of sexual ambiguity.

The identification of the Nuns as birds is especially well

developed. The Sacristan refers to them this way when the nuns accept

the Abadesa into their number: "iOtra palomita al horno! |Una mas que

se libra de Mal-Rodrigo!" (29). Sor Juana de la Coz stands out in

this regard as the character almost totally identified with birds. In her first statement upon being introduced by the Abadesa is the

statement: "iAy, que me gustaria vivir en los arboles!" (30). In the third part of the play she is presented in the cell with the Duquesa who is bound to prevent her escape. Sor Juana is presented as a hen sitting on a nest of eggs patiently waiting for them to hatch and complaining about any interruption. When the Sacristan surreptitiously enters to free the bound Duquesa, he puts a black cape over Sor Juana and she remains immobilized in the way birds will not move when covered and placed in darkness. Sor Juana is faithful in her task of caring for the eggs to the end but when she cracks one, she is horrified that there are "alimahas bayaderes" inside (35).

Another minor character whose visual and aural presentation is identified clearly with animals is the Enano Deletereo who appears as the servant of the Santo Obispo. The Obispo refers to him as a "mono redimido y confitero" (32) who prepares his chocolate for him. The author's note at this point describes him as a "salvaie_enano." The

Enano responds to the interference of the Sacristan with the sound of 177

a dog: "iGuau, guau!," a sound which accompanies the only other

speaking part this character has in the play. As this faithful pet

watches his master ascend to heaven, he utters a speech like that of a

dog being forsaken by his master:

iGuau, guau! Pater, no me dejes solo, iAupa! iLlevame contigo! iGuau, guau! iQue sera de mi en este mundo de otras medidas? Senor. iYa te vas al cielo! iAy, sehor, no me abandones!. Senor, iMandame una enana!. iGuau, guau! iGuau, guau! (33)

This character is a grotesque and deformed version of the common

practice in the palaces of the Baroque period of using midgets as

servants and maintaining dogs and other animals as pets in the palace.

The combination of dog and midget would carry the greatest visual

impact of any of the characters of the play.

This same effect is used with the character of the Sacristan

Raboso, who is variously referred to in the play as the SacristAn, as

is the case early in the play, or as the Raboso, as is true later in

the play when the Santo Obispo shows interest in his hidden tail.

Upon the inquiry of the Obispo, the Abadesa provides a description of

the truly magical origin of the Sacristan:

[...] Es un mulato hembrado, hijo de una jumenta muy servicial que hubo antano en el convento y de un mal aire semillero que a veces llega de las montafias. Desde pequeho se ha criado entre nosotras, triscando por este jardin y nos es muy fiel. Un guardian muy celoso de los precintos de esta casa. (32)

The Sacristan himself proudly continues the description as he raises his tail and shows "las pestiferas" to the Santo Obispo. As he does he discovers another hidden part of his body of very surprising nature that he displays to the Obispo and describes as 178

Un ojo azul tengo aqui que todo lo analiza con mucho garbo, cuenta las hormigas, las flores del campo, los cabellos que se pierden, la sombra de los pasos y la creacion de todo lo bajo y superbajo.

When these statements are taken together it appears that not only is the Sacristan to represent some animal with a tail but also an androgynous being. This is partially indicated by the term, “mulato hembrado," and by the two parts of the body which can be taken for symbols of the male and female sexual organs united in the same body.

In addition, the tail as a phallic symbol appears in other plays by Nieva. It has been noted that

when Zoe, the female protagonist of Te quiero. zorra. literally grows a fox's tail (which might be interpreted as a male phallic symbol) as an explicit punishment for her sexual promiscuity, she becomes evermore desirable and irresistible to Villier, the disguised aristocrat who poses as a pimp. Nieva ironically transforms the feared tail of shame and dishonor, [...] into an erotic and exquisitely ambiguous object of lustful passion.40

At one point, the Sacristan offers the use of the tail to Mal-Rodrigo in return for his favors, a fact which lends weight to the interpretation of the tail in this play as a phallic symbol. The "ojo azul" reminds us somewhat of the analysis of the sexual organs of

Opalos and Tasia, but with differences since this organ of the

Sacristan is described as a veritable "eye" which sees and analyzes objects on the ground.

The visual and aural elements of the play that derive from the characters all point to an atmosphere of rising and falling emotional intensity to which the Sacristan Raboso refers in an exclamation that might be considered a summary of the emotional atmosphere of the entire play: "|Se ha declarado el estado de celo! iAy, locura de

ropasuelta, pelo de tormenta, mundo que va a reculones!" (31). Some

of the characters resist the "estado de celo," others openly succumb to its attraction, but all are disappointed in the end because of the disappearance of Mal-Rodrigo in the moment of maximum emotional tension. Several of the principal characters are pulled into the well at the end of the action: the Abadesa, the Duquesa, Ceferina, and the

Sacristan also enters in an effort to save the Abadesa. Shortly thereafter, Ceferina and the Duquesa reappear wearing very long

"mantillas negras," a very traditional Spanish dress for women on festive occasions. Each carries one of the symbols attached to the two others who were drawn in to the well: one with the unattached tail of the Sacristan and the other with the lance of the Abadesa. Both are reminiscent of useless and ineffectual phallic symbols which illustrate graphically Ceferina's unhappy announcement: "iNo hay Mal-

Rodrigo! . Se ha ido con todos sus aparejos a engahar otro festival.

Es una bestia itinerante. Un mal amante escapadizo y traidor" (36).

Two images are presented to the audience which typify the resultant state of disappointment on the part of the characters in the play, which of course represent all Spaniards in general. The Duquesa relates that underneath the plaza the entire country is "minado por catacumbas" filled with "corrientes adversas" (36). At this moment, the Sacristan and the Abadesa reappear, drop their pose as actors in a play, and begin to describe their journey through the basement of the theater itself with its rotting machinery and its rat infested dusty 180 ruins. On a purely theatrical level, this change of pose on the part of these two characters distances the action of the play from the audience as they identify themselves with the audience. The author intends to make a final point to the audience with the words of the

Abadesa, "Este edificio se hunde. Cimentado esta por las ratas" (36).

C o n c l u s i o n

The two plays studied in this chapter are closely related thematically since both investigate the Spanish problem as seen by the author: the sexual repression characteristic of its entire history.

The first, Es bueno no tener cabeza. enunciates the problem and its solution, while the second, Pelo de tormenta. illustrates the deleterious effects this repression exhibits in various stereotypical

Spanish character types. Nieva's method is grotesque distortion of these characters and their actions. The two longer plays discussed in the next chapter amplify in unique ways the themes and methods found in Pelo de tormenta. NOTES

1. Francisco Nieva, Teatro furioso, Riaza, Hormigon. v Nieva. (Madrid: Cuadernos para el dialogo (Edicusa), coleccion Libros de Teatro 37, 1973) 217-228. This edition includes these plays by Nieva: L a ...carroza-de .jiIqbiq c a n d e n t e , El-combate de Oualos y Tasia. Es bueno no.-tener cabeaa, and KLfandanao..asombroso. This edition will be used exclusively in the analysis of Es__bueno no tener cabeza. Cabeza will be the shortened form of the title for reference in the future.

2. Jose Monleon, Cuatro autores criticos 100.

3. Francisco Nieva, "La magia anecdotica y el realismo psiquico," Primer Acto 132 (May, 1972): 66.

4. Nieva, "La magia" 66.

5. Paul Ilie, The Su r r e a l iatic_Mo.de .In Spanish-LLtsr.aturo. (Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1968) 15.

6. Perez Coterillo, "Teatro actual," Primer Acto 152 (1973): 61.

7. van der Naald 57.

8. Perez Coterillo, Teatro actual 61.

9. van der Naald 60.

10. Jesus Barrajon, "Concepcion teatral" 71.

11. AngSlika Becker, "Sorpresa en el teatro espanol: un nuevo autor antiguo," .Cuademoj Jhispano^merioanon 253-254 (1971): 268.

12. Gloria Orenstein, The Theater of the Marvelous: Surrealism and....the-,Contcmpora ry_.St.age 9 .

13. June Singer, Androgyny: Toward a New Theory of Sexuality (New York: Anchor Press/Doubleday, 1976) 20.

14. George Bataille, Death and Sensuality: a Study of Eroticism and the Taboo (New York: Arno Press, 1977) 61. 182

15. George Bataille, Literature and Evil. Trane, by Alastair Hamilton (London: Calder and Boyars, 1973) 6. Originally published in Paris in 1957, La Litterature et le Mai. Editions Gallimard.

16. Bataille, Literature and Evil 7.

17. van der Naald 55.

18. Simone de Beauvoir, The Marquis de Sade 60.

19. The Marquis de Sade, Pensees (Paris: Edition Pauvert, 1986) 520.

20. Sade, Pensees 518.

21. Francisco Nieva, Relo de...tormenta, Ecimer.Jto.tQ 153 (February, 1973): 26-36. This edition will be used in the analysis of this play and Pelo will be the shortened form of the title for future reference.

22. Iride Lamartina-Lens, "Masculine, Feminine and Androgynous Sex Roles in Nieva's Theater: the Case of Coronada v el toro." Estreno 15.2 (1989): 17.

23. van der Naald 77.

24. Mjrancjgcd Nieva, "Auto-biobibliografia," Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973): 18.

25. Jose Monleon, "Francisco Nieva, o la orgia de lo real" 16.

^ 26. Wrancisccfr Nieva, "Contestacion a M. Elena Neira," Primer Asrta 155 (Apr., 1973) 10.

27. FiteHeiscb Nieva, "Confesiones" 25.

28. Moises Perez Coterillo, introduction, Teatro furioso, by Francisco Nieva (Madrid: Akal/Ayuso, 1975) 36.

29. P§rez Coterillo, introduction 36.

30. Perez Coterillo, introduction 30-34.

31. Nieva, "Contestacion” 10.

32. Nieva, "Confesiones" 25.

33. Freafc^isco Nieva, "Poetica" 102.

34. Nieva, Confesiones 25. 183

35. Francisco Nieva, Pelo de tormenta. in Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973) 26-36. All quotes from the text are from this edition. The text of the introduction to this edition of the play follows:

La reopera es una modalidad de teatro de breve escritura, susceptible de un profuso desarrollo en manos de un "maestro de ceremonias”. Teatro abierto, para introducir formas y reformas de caracter visual: bailes, desfiles, escenografia cambiante y efectista. Se trata, pues, de un canamazo inductor, un guion conciso sobre el que pueden engarfiarse otras intenciones y conceptos. El texto puede ser musicado, convertido en cancion o melopea e, igualmente, desarrollado en improvisaciones o en anadidos marginales. Busca ser una fiesta de variable duracion y tanto admite su realizacion frontal y distanciada como su insercion agresiva en el publico. Puede ser un espectaculo envolvente y su maxima aspiracion seria aparecer como un desfile triunfal al modo barroco, con elementos decorativos montados sobre carrozas. Por lo tanto, es preferible que el espacio teatral, cubierto o descubierto, sea amplio y capaz de acoger una distribucion imaginativa y sorprendente. Dicho esto, lease el texto — comprimido al maximo — supliendo idealmente cuando le falta, como se hace con un "libretto" de opera. Como en estos, existe aqui una curiosa compresion del dialogo y las ideas, una precipitacion y acumulacion de efectos escenicos que — sin la obligada dilatacion impuesta por la musica— puede producirnos la impresion de un teatro aun desconocido. En parte abortado y en parte "reparable." CD CO Riaza, Nieva, Hormigon 155.

37. Riaza, Nieva, Hormigon 161.

38. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 111.

39. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 111. Nieva discusses his use of the element in two plays: Pelo de tormenta and Nosteratu. His short paragraph description on the function of the "coro" follows:

Echo del conflicto en el pueblo, comentarista desde un angulo particular. Alocado, dispuesto al desafuero, orgiastico [sic], justa o injustamente vengativo, burIon, anhelante, caprichoso, magico e ilogico. Aun sumido, asimismo, en el conflicto, es como un elemento indestructible y siempre renaciente.

40. Lamartina-Lens 17. CHAPTER IV

THE FINAL PLAYS OF THE TEATRO FURIOSO:

IAjGflBBOZA.DE ...PlflMP CMDENTE AND .CQRQMDA-XJiL. JOEQ

Introduction

The two full-length plays to be studied in this chapter, La gflEEQZft-.dc plomo cendento and Coronada y el toro. do not differ substantially in theme or tone from earlier ones. They do, however, exemplify Nieva's dramatic aesthetic concepts in theatre of more

"normal" length. This will allow an analysis of the "teatro furioso" as applied to a play whose length permits more semiotic detail, development of character and situation, as well as thematic development. In addition, both have been offered up to public scrutiny on the commercial stage and have achieved some success.1

La carroza de Plomo candente2 (Rome, 1971)

Subtitled a "Ceremonia negra en un acto," La carroza presents an explicit example of Nieva's vision of a play as a "ceremony" collectively celebrated. As the subtitle also indicates, overtly occult overtones are combined with the typical religious, sensual, and popular elements that have been evident in the other plays examined above. Of significance also is the fact that it is explicitly called

184 185

a "one act play," which differentiates this work from the "reoperas"

discussed previously and the full-length play which will follow in

this chapter, Coronada v el toro.

The internal structure is organized into three parts, the

central and most extensive in length is a gathering of characters for

the purpose of the ceremonial exaltation of sexual desire. The first

of the three parts may be considered an introduction to and

explanation of the ceremony, and the third portrays the total failure

of the intent of the gathering. The tripartite nature of this work

has been studied before,3 but the significance and dominance of the

central ceremony for which the first part is simply preparation and

after which the third part lays out the failure has not been

emphasized enough.

The first division of the action is the introduction to and

progressive gathering of the characters around the main figure, Luis

III, the "heredero del trono" who becomes king early in the action at

the death of his father. As we will see, it is also significant that

the entire play takes place in the bedroom of Luis and the most

important prop therefore is the large bed placed in the center of the

stage from which Luis hardly escapes during the action. The first to

enter is Frasquito, the "barbero sinvergiienza," who is one of the

friends of Luis. Next comes Camaleon, the "fraile inquisidor," bringing the news of the death of Luis' father. Soon Garrafona, the wet nurse of Luis who is also a witch, also arrives with Liliana, the

"cabra infernal," and Saturno Chico, a "torero rondeno." It is 186

Garrafona who explains to Luis the problem which will bring disastrous results on everyone if a solution is not found, namely, that Luis must overcome his impotence and lack of sexual desire in order to impregnate his wife, the "hija del rey de Europa," thus assuring an heir to the throne as well as his own position.

Garrafona the witch is prepared to aid in bringing about a solution. Her attempt to sexually arouse Luis with the visual object lesson of the attempted copulation of Liliana, the "cabra," and

Saturno, the bullfighter, forms the central visual effect of her ceremony. The themes evoked in this section include the appeal of a primitive sexuality as well as the consciousness of aesthetic beauty into which Liliana is transformed, both of which contrast with the impotence and lack of desire of Luis. Garrafona presides over the ceremony, orchestrates its surprising transformations in the appearance of various characters, and seeks to aid Luis in the production of the desired heir. All these attempts are doomed to failure, much to the surprise and desperation of the characters, including Garrafona. Though by means of another miraculous transformation Luis produces a prodigy, Tomas, he is only a twelve year old child who embodies "el prototipo del espanol maldito."4

The short third part of the play dwells on Tomas who has no interest in the education and civilization which all the other characters present to him. To everything they suggest, Tomas responds in childish sentences like "Pues yo no quiero 'na'" (90). Finally in desperation, all the other characters smother the new prince with 187 pillows, at which point, in a final unexpected transformation, Luis reappears from under the pile of pillows only to end the play with the words, a mi no me importa 'na'" (96).

This play is unique in its selection of characters and their names. Left out are the choral characters and those which represent groups like the townspeople of Madrid or Spain seen in Pelo da tormenta and which will appear in the next play, Coronada y el toro.

Though the significance of the characters projects broadly to the

Spanish people, those who appear on stage present a more private group in a more sequestered scene than is usual in the other plays of the

"teatro furioso." The names given to the eight characters of the play indicate their relationship to the central figure, Luis, the king, as well as the degree to which they are stereotypical characterizations or more developed personalities.

Luis and the character which he produces, Tomas, are given names of neutral semiotic significance. They are also the most psychologically developed and structurally central characters of the play. Around these two characters are arrayed the more stereotypical ones whose names indicate more or less clearly the characteristics they are meant to represent. Frasquito, the "barbero sinvergiienza," bears a name which is the diminutive form of the word "frasco," which might indirectly refer to the small containers of liquid used in his stated profession. It also might more indirectly remind us of the word "fresco," one of the meanings of which is "desvergonzado," the description given by Nieva of this character. His shamelessness takes 188

the form of a presumed homosexuality which describes part of his

relationship to Luis.

"El Padre Camaleon," described as the "fraile inquisidor," bears

a name that directly describes his hypocritical character. Like the

chameleon, he repeats the conservative religious cliches his

profession seems to demand, but at the same time participates in the

superstition and the demonic ceremony of Garrafona as do all the

others. The name "Garrafona" has two possible meanings: first it might be the feminine form of the word "garrafon," which refers to a glass container for wine or other liquids, or, in addition, it might be an expansion of the word "garras," which means "claws" in Spanish

and therefore has direct significance in this play due to the

importance of the claws which miraculously appear on Garrafona's hands at the moment she declares herself to be a witch and initiates the ceremony.

Two of the characters are given names of Roman gods or goddesses

in an effort to evoke an antique sensuality embodied in pagan literary and religious tradition. Saturno Chico, referring to the "torero rondefto," ironically classifies this Roman god as "small," and

likewise indicates the tradition of giving nicknames to bull fighters.

La Venus Calipigia, called the "divinidad fresca y pagana," not only evokes the Roman goddess of love, a central theme here, but also the concrete representation of this goddess in a statue in the Maffei collection in the Farnese palace in Rome which is described as having a "grande y hermoso trasero, vista de espaldas."5 The only other 189 character in this play is Liliana, the "cabra infernal," whose name might not have special significance, but whose demonic and sensual role as the "cabra" is central to the action.

A series of visual and aural semiotic elements demonstrate the careful attention of the author to the creation of an environment appropriate for the actors. These features will parallel closely the other plays included in this study. The first and most obvious are the lighting effects. The play begins in complete darkness, a state which indicates an intellectual and moral condition as well as a physical one. The darkness functions as a palate upon which the author will use various lighting effects to paint his picture, significant in itself even as it serves as a backdrop to complementary action presented by means of the characters on the stage.

The first addition is a clap of thunder, followed by its lightning bolt, in obvious contradiction to the laws of nature.

Indeed, the upheaval of the natural world lends a chaotic mood to the entire play. On many occasions, thunder and lightning interrupt or serve as the backdrop to the action (51, 54, 60, 79, 88, and 95). The curtains around the bed of Luis are blown by the wind (51). The author includes in his introductory note an indication that is meant to give this impression, but which would be difficult to present on stage: "En el cielo deben estar naufragando todas las veletas de la ciudad" (51). There are a series of other such elements: a screeching door (51), a thick cloud of smoke (74), "huracanes de luz" (79), and a candelabra which appears to be overcome by the pure force of the 190 darkness that surrounds them: "Una vela se asusta en noches como estas," in the words of Frasquito (52). Along with the sound of gusts of wind come the sound of cats: “Ma.ullanJLoB gatos serafines entre las amhaa-t.idaa_.d£L-VlfiiLtQ (73). All these elements point to cataclysmic nature of the action occurring on stage.

At precise moments of high emotional tension, lighting is used to bring attention in a very controlled manner to objects or characters on stage. This is the case with the pedestal on which

Liliana, the “cabra" is placed, and upon which a special light falls to highlight the importance and centrality of what she represents: carnal sensuality. At this same time more lighting effects are brought to bear on the "cabra." "Saturno hincando sus o.ios. ha ido ac.eraandQ-.eada ve^_maa_la llama al ano de la cabra, por la que ahora se escapan.laschispas de una beneala" (73). Curiously, this effect is repeated at the last moment of the play in an effort to remind the audience of its importance: "[...] smaft-la. fesaena-£aliEigieLmontMa en Liliana, que deja una estela de bengala" (96). At the moment when

Liliana, the "cabra," is miraculously transformed into the Venus

Calipigia, a unique lighting effect occurs. It involves specially prepared "projections" which are shown on the "nalgas de la Calipigia" of "nubes que paean, flores en eclosion, repollos de. caleidoacopio y otras tantas amenidades" (76). These are symbols which relate to the sexual nature of the scene and its visual aesthetic attractions.

The extensive and significant use of music in this play primarily functions as the accompaniment to the ceremony conducted by Garrafona. She begins this central part of the action as if she were a "maestro de ceremonias" (70) by enunciating the command, "iMusical"

(70), and plays the suggestive music of the flute on her long finger nails in order to produce "dos arpegios.” At this point, she states ceremoniously "iAcompanadme, fuelles del aire! La solemnidad, comienza. iVivan los novios!" (70). At the same time Nieva notes that a "musica__sQlemne acompafia los arpegios de la nodriza" (70).

Soon after this, at her command "iObertura!," the music of the

"obertura del "Rapto en el serrallo"" of Mozart begins (75). Later the music is transformed into a "marine vals .dealizante v triunfal"

(79). This is then interrupted by a "trueno enorme" which leaves the scene in total darkness, and then, "Como fondo sonoro nermanece un guap.en.siyQ .redoblejmy_^aB&gadQ..y.-lelano" (79).

Later in the last part of the play, the author gives characteristically vague indications of how the music should continue:

"Comienza una suave musica_de_violines._maullantes, ■C.QrL_algQ...-.de_nanflr minus" (92). Further indications at this point indicate an action which approximates an opera or a ballet: "Ahora. ba.io la musica. cada personage se levanta a su turno y acciona ■con .una .gracia^nitmioa"

(92). As the play ends, the author indicates that a "bolero muy alegre" should be played and that all the characters should appear dancing (96). Thus ends the play. The cumulative result of this musical nature is to augment the ceremonial nature of the action directed by Garrafona. A unique kind of ballet within the play in thus created which suggests the influence of the author's experience 192 in the production of ballets and operas, and also creates a hybrid art form in this work, one composed of music, dance and dialogue.

The importance of the bed as a symbol of the central theme of the work cannot be overlooked. It dominates the center of the stage throughout the action of the entire play. As the efforts of Garrafona in her ritual come to no avail, the bed is seen to rotate and to move around the stage with Luis and Saturno on top of it. It is this movement which prepares for the transformation of Luis into Tomas, a miraculous event which takes place as the bed is turned away from the audience. The bed also takes on added significance since it appears like a "gran carroza de aparato o un retablo de Semana Santa" (88).

The author in this way thematically connects the action to the religious procession as was done in Pelo de tormenta and will also be seen in Coronada y el toro.

The visual and aural elements which emanate from the actors are important because they aid in determining the place of each character in the ceremonial structure of the play and the relationship of each one to the others.

Luis III, the prince who inherits the throne, is seen first lying in bed, "hecho un ovillo." The position of unborn children in the womb is indicated by this position and indicates the immaturity and impotence obvious later in Luis. He is further described by the author as "bobo.gracioso_y asexuado," facts which make possible the use of a female actress for the part, according to the instruction of the author for the casting of the play (51). Thus once again the 193

author includes a character of doubtful sexuality as a major figure in

the play. In addition, the invitation for Frasquito to join him in

bed points to his homosexuality (52) and the fact that a family of

cats, a mother and three kittens, already lives there further

complicates Luis' sexuality even further. All these factors may be

considered the causes or the results of his impotence, but the most

important factor for Luis is his demonstrated lack of interest in

procreation for the purpose of providing an heir.

In everything that Luis says in the play he demonstrates a

profound disinterest and lethargy. When told of the death of his

father the king, he only worries about losing the company of Frasquito

and the cats. He continually uses expressions which portray himself

as ill or unhappy: "me siento apocado" (59), "soy un cuitado" (67),

"no tengo apetito" (76), "me siento malparado" (80), and "me teneis

mareado" (84). Luis is seen to laugh at the death of his father but

then become angry with Camaleon for laughing, thus demonstrating great

emotional instability.

Luis also plainly casts the blame for his own problems on the

people who surround him, and by analogy, all of Spain: "Todos sois mi

castigo" (59). He also lacks the courage to face up to the reality of

those surrounding him and the events which occur: "Me estais volviendo

tarumba entre todos. iEstoy sofiando? Esto es el fin del mundo" (63).

The idea of life as a dream, or in this case a nightmare, continues

throughout the play. Luis appears to desire that the entire world wake up: "Se va a despertar todo el mundo y me van a sacar en hombros. 194

iLargo de aqui, pesadillas!" (64). To all of this may be added the

characteristic of superstition, which is especially evident as the

play opens and Luis comments on the thunderclaps to Frasquito: "No

bromees bajo los truenos, que dicen con eso se caen las pestanas"

(51).

It is important to remember that all these characteristics stem

from one primary source, that of the lack of proper attitude and

action with regard to sexuality and sensuality. In spite of all the

efforts of Garrafona to sexually arouse Luis, he is incapable of more

than the slightest interest in observing what she orchestrates. He

says at one point in her presentation, "deseo ver en que para todo

eso" (73), but after all is completed, he can say nothing else than

"no tengo apetito" (76). Luis therefore is a representative figure, used by the author to incarnate the problem of Spain that we have seen before in other plays, the incapacity to relate properly to and enjoy

sexuality.

Frasquito, the closest personal friend of Luis, represents the common man in Spain. By profession a barbero, he is described in the introductory note as "un Picaro capon, nalaudo v aboti.iado" (51). His superstition is manifest as he proclaims the almanac has predicted the death of the king: "El almanaque lo anunciaba y no se ha equivocado: la noche del 40 de mayo un rey muy famoso entregara su alma a Dios"

(52). He adds that "Los espafioles siempre hemos creido en los calendarios. No hay que creer en los periodicos" (52). Without shame, he also admits that he is somewhat bewitched as is Garrafona: 195

"Yo no tengo inconveniente en ser brujo. Los barberos siempre lo hemos sido un poco" (65). Frasquito is not totally unmoved by the sensual temptation presented by the ceremony of Garrafona and relates that Saturno "se sentira Mahoma, sediento de paraisos negros como el carbon" (73), in reference to the idea of arab sensuality in the

"imaginacion popular espahola."6

Camaleon, the "fraile inquisidor." is a hypocritical religious figure of the type which was also present in Pelo de tormenta and which will be seen again in Coronada y el toro. He acts as his name indicates he should, always changing his course of action to meet the needs of the moment. He laughs, for example, along with Luis at the death of the king, expressing his satisfaction with these words: "iLo que nos vamos a divertir en el entierro!" (57). At the same time, he states that he is laughing at "mis malas intenciones, senor. Me rio de quien se ria y la pena, que por otro lado tengo, me pone furioso contra mi mismo. Debemos desterrarme por desalmado e hipocrita" (57).

Garrafona's ceremonial marriage of Saturno and Liliana is to Camaleon an "abominacion" and an "escandalo" (69), but one which he nonetheless agrees to conduct for a price.

As the vision of the Venus Calipigia is presented, Camaleon portrays a hypocritical combination of visual attraction contrasted with verbal renunciation: "iDejame ciego, San Antonio! ;Ay, que mina de belleza, que caricia de los sentidos! Yo me mareo. ;Arreniegote,

Satanas!" (76). Ironically, the voice of Camaleon is heard at the highest point of sexual stimulation, but his words are religious, 196

"iAlabado sea Dios! iAlabado, alabado!" (79). After all this, it is

not surprising to find that Garrafona accuses Camaleon of hiding a

"rabo" under his skirts, an obvious reference we have already seen in

Pelo de tormenta to a phallic symbol. Another likeness to other

church figures of the same play is his taste for chocolate. For a

"pension de chocolate y almendras," he is willing to perform the

sacrilegious marriage for Garrafona.

Garrafona presents the only possible solution to the problem of

Luis. She simultaneously offers several contrasting facets of

character: her function as a "maestro de ceremonies," for example,

contrasts with her role as the wet nurse of Luis. In the same way,

her role as a demonic witch belies the fact that she is also the

"redentora de monarquias" (63). By means of these attributes, she

endeavors to inject life and sexual desire into Luis, but all to no

avail as her spells appear to ultimately fail completely. Nieva has

classified this character type as "la madre cenagosa," who "se afirma

como sabia y cinica tentadora, transmisora de la culpa [...]

Servidora de la naturaleza que obliga a sumergirse en un piAlago

pasional, sensualmente emporcado, inmoral o amoral."7

Like a "master of ceremonies,” she governs the progress of the

action and initiates the ceremony and its music, light and action with

the word "Empecemos" (67). She directs the action of the other characters at each step, as when she tells Saturno to "cuenta lo que ve [...]" (76). She also declares the effort a failure: "Nada ha

salido a derechas" (80). Parallel to her relationship to all the 197 characters is that of her role as wet nurse to Luis. This aspect is amply illustrated by her constant reference to Luis as "Cachuchin" and

"Pitusin," terms of endearment used for small children. Luis refers to this relationship when he declares that everything is going badly

"por no cuidar de la leche que entra en palacio" (65). This relationship underscores the immaturity of Luis who reacts to the revelation that Garrafona is a witch with helpless tears.

Garrafona combines both demonic and messianic characteristics in an indiscriminate mixture designed to aid in the revelation of natural forces even more elemental than these figures, the "misterios primitivos" which she intends to illustrate by means of the Cabra,

Liliana. From the mouth of her chief adversary, Camaleon, come descriptive elements like "lengua de serpiente" (59), "bruja rebruja"

(64), "Lucifera, hija de puta" (65), and "Satanasa" (68). The author's note declares that she "rie diabdlicamente" (72). In visual confirmation of this, her fingernails appear to enlarge, and she then plays them like a pan flute, thus presenting a doubly significant demonic element. She simply points her index finger at the Cabra and her eyes are illuminated with an infernal light (64-65). She also has supernatural demonic powers which she uses to impose a deep sleep on the entire castle while her ceremony is in progress and also to revive the dead cats which Saturno killed. Combined with these demonic elements is the messianic reference to her as a "redentora de monarquias" (63) and her explicit objective in all she has done: "Por salvar la monarquia hemos probado con todo" (82). All her powers, 198 from whatever the source, ultimately meet with failure in this task, for Luis remains at the end of the play totally unmoved by all

Garrafona has attempted, in as deep a state of indifference as ever.

The ceremony of Garrafona involves the other two characters:

Saturno and Liliana, the "Cabra." Both, of course, are highly symbolic of the two complementary facets in elemental sensual desire, the visually attractive sensual object and the "macho" which it attracts. The encounter thus produces the desire for and the production of the sex act. By means of the visual reproduction of this scene before the eyes of Luis, Garrafona desires to indirectly inspire sexual desire in him. This part of the play thus appears like a play within a play, but moreover, since part of the action performed by these two characters involves the projection of various objects on the body of Liliana and the verbal description of those objects by

Saturno, we have in reality two levels of presentation, or a play within a play within a play.

It is Liliana, the "cabra infernal," who occupies the place of honor in the "ceremonal negro" of Garrafona, who gives this description of Liliana: "Es bruja y brujo. La Liliana es cabra y cabron, todo en uno. Son misterios del misterio y no hay que preguntar mas" (66). In her is mixed the holy and unholy: "es la esposa mas sucia que podemos encontrar. Y tambi<§n la mas divina"

(69). Garrafona begins then with an androgynous and amoral animal sensuality in the incarnation of Liliana which will serve as the object upon which Luis is to gaze and to whom Saturno is 199 sacrilegiously "married" by Camaleon. This done, Garrafona positions

Liliana so that her hind quarters are exposed as darkness envelops the stage except for Liliana, who is spot-lighted and raised on a pedestal. At this point Garrafona gives Saturno a candle which he uses to closely investigate the body of Liliana, but as he does a flare and a burst of smoke explode from Liliana and she disappears.

Out of the smoke, Venus Calipigia miraculously appears in place of Liliana. Saturno has to be restrained because he is "loco de amor"

(7 5 ) and would attack the Venus in his lust. Garrafona directs

Saturno and Luis to watch carefully as she directs Venus Calipigia to begin "la funcion" for which she has been contracted. This "funcion" also consists of her turning her back and a light concentrated on her back projects "mb e s que. pagan, floree_en ec los ion, repollos de fiflleidosc.opiQ y otras-tan t a s_agienidade.a" (7 6 ) according to the author's note. At this point the emphasis is on a visual aesthetic beauty. Garrafona commands Saturno to carefully observe the beauty of the body of Venus and to relate "todo fielmente o no te soltamos"

(7 6 ). Saturno describes what he sees on Venus, a scene which is reminiscent of the Pages in El combate de Qpalos v Tasia: "Veo el mar por primera vez. Lo veo entero. Todo por fuera y por dentro, y la luna baMndose en el, y a todas las ostras con la boca abierta..."

(7 7 ). The sea, the moon and the oysters which Saturno describes all are symbols of physical sexuality. The desire of Saturno reaches the greatest intensity at this point: "iMe mareo, me ahogo sin probar el agua salada! iSocorro! [...] Si me voy, me voy de mi, me voy por todo 200

el cuerpo. Dejad, dejad que se bafie un torero (78). Camaleon

and Frasquito are also greatly excited sexually by this demonstration

and Garrafona admonishes Luis to look at this example and "aprende a

navegar con ella! No la temas, que es un suerio" (78). Before any

response is given by Luis, a tremendous thunderclap interrupts the

action and surprises everyone, including Garrafona, who clearly states

that "esto no contaba en el programa" (79). As the light returns,

Liliana has returned in place of Venus Calipigia and all Garrafona's

efforts have failed.

The role of Saturno in Garrafona's presentation has been

consistently that of the "macho” which uniformly and promptly responds

to the sensual stimulus presented to him. Significantly, he is a

"torero," "hijo de Ronda," a profession Nieva uses often as a symbol

for the chauvinistic elements in his plays as is seen in Coronada v el

toro. Garrafona also refers to him as an "hombre negro" (74) and he

at times emits animalistic sounds like "Brrr" (76). A demonic element

is seen in him as he sprouts "colmillos" (76) when he gazes upon

Liliana. Interestingly, though presented as an physical brute who

cannot control his nature, he is called upon to interpret verbally the

aesthetic beauty of Venus Calipigia and does so admirably under the

influence of extreme sensual excitement.

The people of Madrid or Spain are never physically present on

stage, but reference is made throughout the play to various elements

that describe the attitudes of the Spanish people and their history.

The emotional state is one of discontent and desperation as Camaleon 201 explains:

El pueblo esta descontento, desesperado. Quiere ver por encima del horizonte. Madrid no puede mas, revienta por todas partes, se hunde o se levanta en promontorios pot’ todas partes, se hunde o se levanta en promontorios 8 0 spechosos. Ayer mismo se ha abierto una brecha volcanica en pleno barrio de Lavapies._[_] Secesion tenemos y guerras carlistas en perspectiva. (57-58)

The physical manifestation of the emotional condition reminds us of

Ee.lP-..de tormenta and the caves which were discovered under the city of

Madrid. The "guerras carlistas" are discussed by Luis and Camaleon, and become the theme for a humorous dialogue on the subject of names and naming (58). The conclusion of Camaleon is that "Todos los espanoles son Carlos por dentro, senor. Unos buenos desalmados" (58).

The reason for this discontent is the "falta de brios" of Luis, according to Camaleon. Thus, the people are an unseen force which drives the actions and thoughts of the characters and which provides urgency for the ceremony of Garrafona. For Luis, the demands of the people are a "castigo" (59) which only serves to frustrate him all the more.

The primary effect of all these elements which derive from the people is to produce an air of impending catastrophe and cataclysm.

The words of Luis are indicative of the feeling produced: "iEsto es el apocalipsis!" (56). The "momento muy critico" (64), in the words of

Garrafona, has been fatalistically foreseen and predicted in the almanac and the calendar which were so often referred to in the beginning of the play as the superstitious reason for all the trouble which occurs now. In this location, which Garrafona calls "esta 202 maldita tierra" (64), the mood produced is one of total pessimism in the face of which the characters simply laugh.

A unique feature of this play is the surrealistic linguistic use of Spanish place names, especially towns and cities, as expletives.

Saturno, for example, uses two place names as if they were curses:

"Aqui estoy para batirme y estoquear a quien se me ponga por delante. iCamunas! iSocuellamos!" (62). Garrafona refers to these words as

"maldiciones." Later, Saturno uses the word "Alcorcon," to which Luis comments, "iLo bien que escancia este hombre las palabras malsonantes!" (72). Saturno in his excitement begins to project series of such names: "iAy, c6mo me enciendo, Canete! iGuarroman! iGozar! iCarratraca!," which Camaleon refers as a "mar de blasfemias"

(73). Indeed, Saturno cannot seem to stop using this method of cursing in the context of his excitement as witnessed by one further example: "iMazarrdn! iMaldita sea! iCozar! iDejar! iCogolludo!"

(75). These words are used for their vague onomatopoeic value, but their principle purpose in this context is to present a pessimistic picture of Spain which hyperbolically extends even to the names of villages and towns.

From all that has been studied to this point about this play, it is obvious that the problem to which the author is pointing is the lack of sexual satisfaction due to impotence which in turn produces distorted characters and cataclysmic events. Luis, along with his progeny, Tomas, are the physical and symbolic incarnations of this problem. Since Luis is unable to reproduce with his mate, the 203 daughter of the King of Europe, he miraculously transforms himself unaided, except for the "embrujo" of Garrafona which has gone astray, into a young prodigy, Tomas. The topic of autoreproduction is also seen in this play in the case of the cats whom Frasquito considered capable of reproducing unaided by contact with other cats and in Luis' reference to Spain: "A1 presente, por la mano del diablo, la nacion es autosuficiente" (85). He proclaims this at the exact moment in which he himself is transformed into Tomas.

The product of this transformation, though, is the totally impotent, unconcerned, and immature Tomas, who can only utter phrases like "no me imports 'na'" (96). The author's note describes him thus:

Es..-im..chiquiLlQ_cmiiQ-de._dQce_^anoa, cQstroso y leganoscL, con-fil entrecMo corrida y los pelos en remolino. Solo lleva un.pantalon, medio largo, suieto p o p un tirante. v una gorrilla sobre el occipucio. T...1 Se siente asediado. amenazado. (89)

With a voice "ronca y rebelde." Tomas rejects all offers of aid and instruction from all the other characters. Finally, it is obvious that he is totally stubborn and uncooperative and is therefore suffocated by the other characters. Tomas is, as van der Naald has stated, "el prototipo del espafiol maldito," and his death the

"expresidn de la muerte espiritual del espanol. Ha sido exterminado por la inquisicion, la recepcion de la sensualidad y una erianza malsana."8

The fundamental elements of the next play to be studied,

Coronada v el toro. demonstrate a close parallel to La carroza de

•plomo candente in their thematic substance but a contrast in plot 204

structure.

Coronada y el toro (Madrid, 1973)

This play is one of those Nieva has called "apocalipticas"

(along with Pelo de tormenta and Nosferatu), a fact which indicates

some likenesses in their "composicion y en el §nfasis ritmico de la

frase."9 Several parallels with Pelo de tormenta will be noted in

this analysis, the most striking of which is the apocalyptic

transformation of the characters in the final moment of the action.

Another is the use of the leitmotif of the Spanish popular fiesta as

the context in which the action develops.

The author has characterized this play as a "burla sin

escrupulos" of the "Espana negra" which seeks to hide under its cape

"una Espana embrujada gustosamente por un alegre instinto dionisiaco, germen de todas las fiestas."10 In this play, in contrast to Pelo de tormenta. the author develops this theme with much greater detail.

This is due primarily to the length of the play which is more like a

full length drama than the "reopera" Pelo de tormenta.

The structure of the action is divided into two "parts" which,

like those of Es bueno no tener cabeza, are parallel in their internal development. In each part, there is a movement from the public arena, the town of Farolillo, to the private room of Coronada. The first part begins with an introduction of the characters by the mayor of the town of Farolillo, Zebedeo. Though no precise location is mentioned at the beginning of the text, it is inferred from the action that he 205

is in a central public location in the town such as the plaza. He

then introduces the characters to the audience as they appear on

stage. After the main characters are presented, he announces officially the beginning of the "fiesta" of San Bias. It begins with the traditional annual photograph of all the townspeople, with Zebedeo of course taking the most important position. Zebedeo then calls for the annual bull for the traditional bullfight as well as the "matador" named Maraufia whom Zebedeo keeps captive all year except at the time of the fiesta. Habitually, the bull appears through a large "manga" or sleeve which leads from the pasture to the location of the fight in

Farolillo. Instead of the bull, a character of ambiguous sexuality appears from the sleeve, the "Hombre-Monja" or "Man-Nun." At the end of the first part, the scene changes to the private rooms of Coronada, who has been confined there for her insubordination to Zebedeo.

Coronada is first seen alone, performing a ritual with demonic and sexual connotations. She is interrupted by the Hombre-Monja, Marauna, the Melga and the Dalga who also enter to take refuge there. After the Hombre-Monja announces in prophetic terms that the punishment of

Coronada will be martyrdom, he initiates the final action of the first part of the play with these words:

Vayamos de procesidn por los volanderos montes de estas sierras, entremos por los embudos del aire y patinemos en el suefio hasta que la mafiana cruda nos eche encima la costalera realidad. (138)

At these words they leave in procession amid a dense cloud that turns to darkness. A break in the action of the play indicates that fourteen days

have passed, but the action of the second part demonstrates the same

movement from the public arena to the private rooms of Coronada, with

a surprise and cataclysmic ending, not unlike the procession ending

the first part. This part begins with a prosaic scene in which the

audience is taken to a cemetery wall called in the note that

introduces this part of the play a "tapia urinaria" (139). The first words are spoken by the character called the Voz Cantante who warns

the audience of the possibly disturbing scatological scene that is to

follow so that those with heightened sensitivity to such things may

step out a moment. This scene entails several children in the act of defecating and urinating at this wall and their lively and creative conversation which is dedicated to the pleasures related to this activity. They are interrupted in this by Zebedeo who appears larger than life, standing on the wall and blocking out the light of the sun, to swear his vengeance on the ones responsible for surreptitiously stealing the bull and thus destroying the fiesta of San Bias. This event visually parallels the forceful imposition of the figure of

Zebedeo we saw in the arrangement of the townspeople for the photo in the first part. Though his efforts to continue the traditions of the town are controverted at every turn, his stubbornness in seeking to maintain them is uniformly single minded.

Mairena and Panzanegra are next seen searching the rooftops for signs of the guilty parties who have stolen the bull. At the house of

Coronada she hears the sound of the wheezing of the bull from inside, 207 an indication that the culprits have been found. The scene

immediately changes to the interior of Coronada's home where Marauna is making a demonstration of the art of bullfighting for Coronada, the

Hombre-Monja, the Melga and the Dalga. Zebedeo, along with his partisan lackeys, interrupts these festivities and demands that

Marauha fight the bull that Coronada has been hiding in another room.

The bull, unhappily, is found to have expired.

Coronada, the Melga, the Dalga, and the Hombre-Monja are then condemned by Zebedeo to death and are forced to enter a tomb, represented by a trap door in the stage floor. In a procession reminiscent of the ending of the first part, they enter the tomb only to reemerge with transformed bodies of light. A large white bull also appears, called the "Toro de la Nieve," upon which these characters mount and ride off. As a final footnote to the action, Mairena curses her fate and takes the tail of the bull, wraps it around her neck, and symbolically commits suicide while dancing and singing in the flamenco style.

In the preceding plot structure, a schematic arrangement of the characters gradually becomes apparent. They are loosely, but clearly, organized into two opposing groups, each of which presents a parallel internal series of relationships. The titular heads of each group are

Coronada and Zebedeo, a brother and sister pair of opposite opinions regarding the significance of the Fiesta of San Bias and its most important feature— the bullfight. 208

Zebedeo's self-characterization is that of an "alcalde perpetuo y por mi voluntad popular" (99). He seeks to maintain in force his own version of Spanish national traditions with brute force. In his first monologue of the play, he is seen to offer obeisance to the only powers to which he feels subservient:

Sehor gobernador de la provincia, con su puro en boca y sus zapatos de mucho lustre; sehor obispo reverendisimo, vestido con tantas cortinas; sehor capitan de la guardia civil de plomo yo me arrodillo ante sus divinas autoridades y con la antigua cortesia china de los hidalgos espaholes solicito vuestro permiso [__ ]" (99).

Zebedeo addresses these "authorities" as if they were in the audience which is viewing the play, thus the audience is given the role of a judge which will decide the fate of the contrasting opinions of the factions presented in the play. In this light, the play takes on the cast of a contest or court case in which each contestant will seek to plead or argue a case.

The tradition Zebedeo is most interested in maintaining in this play is the bullfight. This typically Spanish phenomenon becomes the central theme of the play to which all the parts will point, in the same way that, for different reasons, the bull becomes the desired object of both Zebedeo and Coronada. Coronada indicates the universality of the confrontation with the bull when she states that

para la fiesta estamos sentenciados. A ser valientes nos condenan y aqui torea todo el mundo. Torean los ninos en brazos de sus abuelas [...] Torea la banda de musica [...] Torean las viudas para vengar a sus maridos. (101)

This explains Zebedeo's consuming interest in finding the bull which has escaped him. Whatever the cost, his words stand: "[...] quiero 209 toros, y los tendre" (158).

Zebedeo's method in pursuing his aims is the consistent use of force. His words to Coronada indicate this: "Una mano de palo duro es lo que mereces y una buena condenacion a sombra" (103). His actions also illustrate this: "[...] ya me lleva matados con su escopeton de truenos a tres novios en lo que llevamos de invierno" (103). Mairena also refers to him as a "matador de jabalies" (106).

The autocratic and chauvinistic attitude of all that Zebedeo says is consistent throughout the play. When the bull escapes his grasp in the first part of the play, he responds, "a mi no se me contraordena ni me pone en verguenaa" (121). In his oath in the cemetery in the second part, he states: "Juro vengar esta afrenta en quien recarga la culpa de haberme birlado un toro que pague, a duro contante, la cantidad lisa de 1.000" (142-143). This autocratic attitude reaches a climax near the end of the play as he condemns

Coronada and the others with these words: "iMuerte, muerte y penitencia! [...] iJuicio final convoco, pues soy alcalde postrimero y supremo mandalcaraj o!" (161).

Around Zebedeo are arrayed several other characters that aid him in his efforts or enunciate a sympathetic message. The first of these is another example of Nieva's double characters: Panzanegra and

Tenazo, the pair of "alguaciles ejecutivos," which act only in obedience to the orders and desires of Zebedeo. They are characterized by Nieva on their first appearance as "tipicamente caninos y con la lengua afuera" (101). Their actions throughout the 210 play consist primarily of pursuing the objects of the anger of

Zebedeo. Their first assigned task is to apprehend Coronada and return her to her residence. Even the words used by Zebedeo on this occasion are similar to those used with dogs: "iAqui, alguaciles! iPanzanegra, Tenazo, llevarosla, que nos vilipendia y nos pierde!"

(101).

They also act and speak in tandem as exemplified in their speech on the rooftops when they locate the lost bull in the home of

Coronada:

PANZANEGRA.— Vayamos con el alarma a Zebedeo y a preparar el entierro en vida y pie de esos ladrones de festejos. No habra perdon. [--.] TENAZO.— Verguenza publica y ejecucion capital del hombre monja, de Coronada la senorita y de Marauha, el huerfano torero. [ — ] Ahora mismo voy a preparar los tambores y el cuerno. iNo habra perdon! (147-148)

Another of the characters in the orbit around Zebedeo is don

Cerezo, the "parroco" or priest of Farolillo. Coronada introduces him and his relationship to Zebedeo: “A don Cerezo le tienen apihonado de miedo para que no acuse desde el pulpito y le contentan cada ano con tres cuarterones de tabaco para San Bias, que no fuma" (100-101). Don

Cerezo is the powerless religious and moral conscience of Zebedeo.

Though he does seek to ameliorate the excesses of Zebedeo, he himself admits the emptiness of his advice and his own lack of authority. He admonishes Zebedeo about disposing of the "novios" of Coronada, for example, with the words: "Pero no hagas tanta liquidacion de los novios de Coronada o los colmillos de esa moza te van a minar el pueblo" (109). At the warning of Zebedeo, don Cerezo responds "Ya 211 sabes que cuanto digo y afirmo lo hago solo interinamente y el obispo me lo revoca si tu lo pides" (109).

Another of the characters in orbit around Zebedeo is Mairena, a gypsy flamenco dancer with exhibitionist tendencies. She, we are told, was drawn to Farolillo because of the Fiesta of San Bias and never left. She is only tolerated by Zebedeo, who considers her crazy because of her excesses, because she is a true "patriota" (104). She is a character who is at once unhappy with her present state and unwilling to accept any change in it. She addresses the Hombre-Monja as a saint who might solve her problem: "iSalveme usted de esta vida, madre con barbas, y expliqueme por que vivo aperreada!" (118). Truly desperate at the end of the play, she ironically commits suicide with the bull's tail around her neck and admits her failure: "iMaldita sea mi suerte, que siempre me quedo a las puertas del cieloi" (167).

Coronada and her allies in the dramatic structure reflect a curiously parallel group of relationships. First comes the double character to parallel Panzanegra and Tenazo of Zebedeo: the Melga and the Dalga. Nieva describes them as "feministas espontdneas" in the list of characters but Zebedeo refers to them as the "partido de las

Martas" (119), a term they use to describe themselves and the contentious nature they inherit from the biblical figure of the same name.11 Indeed, their first statement in the play is "iProtestamos, protestamos!" (106). Their declared intention is to give support to

Coronada: "Y aqui venimos a dar la cara por Coronada, la maestra, la que por todos pide justicia a pecho descubierto" (106). The 212 structural parallel with the two alguaciles is obvious from the first scene they are presented since Zebedeo uses these faithful servants, to whom the Melga refers as "galgos," to threateningly pursue them off the stage.

Marauha is another of those characters which gravitate into the orbit of Coronada during the action of the play, though at the beginning he is the captive of Zebedeo and a "torero por condena,” as identified by the author. Zebedeo maintains absolute control over him by keeping him imprisoned except on the occasion of the annual bullfight at the Fiesta of San Bias, at which time he is brought out with a rope around his neck to either live through the fight to be returned to prison, or die in the attempt. His attitude is humble, he is weak and sickly in bearing, and his "traje" is a "desperdicio." At the first opportunity to escape, he flees to the home of Coronada and in the second part provides a satirical private lesson in the art of bullfighting for those gathered around Coronada. His role as a curious example of a typically hispanic character type is parallel to that of Mairena, who portrays another stereotype— the gypsy flamenco dancer.

In the same way that Zebedeo has a religious figure in his agglomeration of related characters, the group of Coronada also includes an interesting character named the "Hombre-Monja." The name itself indicates a sexual ambiguity which typifies this character through the play until the final moment when he tears off the beard he has worn as a symbol of his masculine side and states: " A M se os 213

queda esa reliquia, una de las muchas barbas que uso para despistar"

(166).

Because of his or her religious profession and the fact that he

or she foretells Coronada's future punishment, the role given to this

character is prophetic in nature. It has the effect of heightening

the emotional impact of the final cataclysmic event. Several

statements illustrate this: "Voy dando soluciones de urgencia" (120),

"Yo bendigo a la asamblea y me voy" (121), "Anuncio la llegada del mal

tiempo." (122), "Somos el ultimo toro [...] la revelacion y la purga

de conciencias" (130), "Coronada tiene que soportar el martirio"

(138), "Que la solucion llegue pronto y podamos leer de carrerrilla en

los misterios del universo" (154), and "[...] por testarudos y

apollinados el alto cielo sin amarras os va a ofrecer el espectaculo

remordentero de la resurreccion de la carne" (164-165). In all the

actions and words of this character is demonstrated a contrast with

Don Cerezo, a figure who always accedes to the wishes of Zebedeo. The

Hombre-Monja, on the contrary, always opposes him.

With this highly structured opposition of two parties, the

author points to a double character present in Spaniards of all

classes. One side is resistant to any change in the traditions and

customs and attitudes of its forebears, and the other understands the uselessness of this position and is willing to accept and participate

in change. The central issue discussed in this play is that seen before in other plays of Nieva: the latent sensuality present in the

Spanish character and the overt resistance to succumbing to its 214 influence.

This may be seen in the pairings of the characters we have just discussed. Coronada and Zebedeo are brother and sister. As the conservative representative of the Spanish stereotype of the jealous brother, he fends off her "novios” and seeks to lock her away when she desires more freedom. Coronada, while locked away in her room, visually illustrates the sensuality Zebedeo would suppress. The

Melga/Dalga double character rebel publicly to the authority of

Zebedeo while Panzanegra/Tenazo obey it explicitly. Mairena, the gypsy, follows her ordained profession of flamenco song and dance while Marauha tries to escape his traditional prison. Don Cerezo is the vocal but pliant priest, while the Hombre-Monja foretells the destruction of this status quo with cataclysmic events. Viewed as a whole, this configuration of characters, though diverse in individual personalities, unites to form a uniquely complete vision of Spanish society which involves two opposing attitudes on every social and personal level.

All the other characters in the play not only lack the developed individuality of these aforementioned groups, but also lack any important participation in the plot structure and development. "La

Voz Cantante" is used as a choral reflection of the other characters and as a "presentador," in the terminology of the author.12 The role of "presenter" is especially obvious at the beginning of the second part as this character speaks directly to the audience and warns of immanent obscenities that might offend them and humorously 215 suggests that some might want to step out for a minute to avoid watching them.

The name "Voz Cantante" is indicative of the other function of this character, which is to provide a choral background and commentary on the actions and dialogue of the remaining characters. Nine times throughout the play he enters to recite or sing a poem or song. These brief lyrical passages are characterized by imaginative and loose verse forms and are used to set a tone and underline the theme of the play as a whole.

The first example of this occurs early in the first part of the play as the town awaits expectantly the arrival of the bullfighter

Marauha at the command of Zebedeo. At this point, the Voz Cantante

"se arranca con una casi saeta fundida en jota":

A la roja mancha que se ensancha. A la negra negra vela que se cuela. A Najalandia me voy en el maldito convoy. Doy mi luz si sale cruz. Tus manos danos, Jesus. (111-112)

He then finishes with the shout: "iViva Cristo Muerto y Marauha reseatado...!". The tone, as usual in these poems of the Voz Cantante is apocalyptic and religious, and uses the bullfight and the related issues of blood and death as central images. This is illustrated by the second poem as well which the Voz Cantante presents as the town of 216

Farolillo awaits the appearance of the bull:

Toque la campana vana con un badajo de trapo, que la muerte tiene frio y con mi capa la tapo.

No se nos muera la muerte, vecinos, a ver si hay suerte. (114)

This passage is significant in that it personifies, or animalizes, death, expressing the ironic hope that death not die. Later in the play it becomes obvious that the long awaited bull for which Zebedeo is searching is the physical representation of "la muerte" and that, in fact, that bull later perishes.

Not limited to using verse, at the next moment the Voz Cantante exclaims in the manner of a call to arms: "iEsta es la fiesta del miedo y no debe haber escatimo! iVecinos, a subirse en cualquier palo gallinero y a disfrutar, que es San Bias!" (114).

There is also a group of five characters, three men and two women, who represent the population of two hundred persons of

Farolillo but take very little part in the action and lack individuality due to the fact they always act in unison and to their use of interchangeable masks. The following interchange with the Voz

Cantante illustrates their normal attitude with respect to Zebedeo and the "fiesta":

EL PUEBLO. — iViva la manga de toros! LA VOZ CANTANTE. — iViva la morena fiesta y el Farolillo de San Bias! EL PUEBLO. — iViva el rico Zebedeo! LA VOZ CANTANTE. — iViva la moreilia asada y las punetas en vinagre! (109) 217

They are seen to act unexpectedly when Mairena says that the people of the town are “en un solloso," this group "rie cavernosamente" (113).

Another group of five children complete the cast of the play.

Appearing as we have noted in the first scene of the second part, their role is designed to be an emotional relief and humorous interlude in the middle of the much more serious nature of the rest of the action. They also exemplify a character type Nieva has called "El nino como ente arcano y superior" which he explains in this way:

En efecto, distante, superior y arcano, este personage se manifiesta con frecuencia finamente marginado del conflicto, rebelde y dispuesto a desviar su curso o contrariar o invertir los significados. Aparece casi siempre como algo irreductible y participando de una esencia entre divina y diabolica.13

In a structural sense, it is important to note that the fact that these characters are children automatically isolates them from the central issues with which the "adult" characters are concerned.

As in other plays, the character names bear special significance. Coronada and Marauha are names that have already been used in El fandango asombroso and were discussed earlier. The characteristics of each are markedly different here, though. Marauna represents masculinity in both plays, but the distance between the strong elemental sensuality of Marauha in El fandango asombroso and the emaciated and subservient matador of Coronada v el tore is very great. The indecisive Coronada of El fandango asombroso is also substituted for a decisively rebellious character in Coronada v el toro. Coronada is the central female figure in both plays, indicating the author's interest in investigating the various aspects of the 218 female psyche and interest in sensuality. In this play, the pairing of Coronada and Marauna has none of the sexual overtones of El fandango asombroso.

Zebedeo's name is of biblical origin. He was the father of two of the twelve apostles who followed Jesus in the New Testament, James and John. The family name of both Zebedeo and Coronada is "Sapido," meaning a substance "que tiene algun sabor."14 The central role of these characters is most probably indicated in these names.

Mairena bears a significant name as well since there are several towns in Andalucia with this name. She is therefore given a name appropriate to the geographical area of Spain renowned for the flamenco dancing she espouses in the play. The use of place names in other more creative ways will be seen in Lacarroza de Plomo candente.

Panzanegra (literally translated "black belly") and Tenazo

(possibly the masculine form of “tenaza" meaning "tongs") are names applied for their negative connotations. The first might be considered a criticism of the looks of the character and the second of his actions, but above all, the impression these names produce is one of revulsion and laughter.

In the case of the Melga and the Dalga, only the first has reference to the name of something objectively real: "faja de tierra que se marca para sembrar."1B This does not, however, aid in interpreting the reason for using this name for this character. Since these two are an example of a character type we have called a "double character," it is perhaps significant that their names are 219 phonetically similar.

Since so many of the names the author gives to characters and places are significant, it is tempting to find meaning where it might not be intended. Such is the case with Don Cerezo ("cherry tree") or the name of the town, Farolillo (in the diminutive, this may refer to a "Chinese lantern" or plants, and without the diminutive, like lanterns or lamps). In general, the implications of such names remain vague.

With the name "Hombre-Monja" there can be little doubt of the intentions of the author. Here are combined the two sexual opposites into one character, reminding the reader of other androgynous characters previously discussed. This is indicated in the name "Man- nun" as well as his/her order: "de la Orden Entreverada." The definition of the word "entreverado" is something that "que tiene interpoladas cosas varias y diferentes."

The Voz Cantante and the Ninos bear generic names which relate more to their function in the play than to any intended reference on the part of the author. This is true of many characters in the plays of Nieva, especially when their function is a lesser one in the framework of the play as a whole.

In the consideration of the visual semiotic elements present in the staging of Coronada v e l t o r o . the most striking and well- developed element is the use of stage lighting. Increasing darkness and lighting effects which contrast with low light are employed in order to heighten the sense of mystery and fantasy of the work as well 220 as the impact of the final cataclysmic events which end each of the two parts.

The prevalent shades of darkness have thematic implications as well. As we have seen, this play makes concrete criticism of the

"unenlightened" state of the "Espaha negra" which is seemingly trapped by its past and its traditions. To this the author refers directly in his introduction, declaring that the time period in which the play is set is a "tiempo de Espaha en conserva" (98). In this way, the ample use of darkness itself refers to the general environment of Spain.

From the beginning of the action, darkness seems a pervasive force which seeks to gradually impose itself on the weak resistance of the events and characters of the play. As the action begins in the first part, all the townspeople gather for a picture but the photographer, after several attempts, cannot produce more than a very weak flash of light. As Zebedeo worries that the joyfulness of the fiesta will be overshadowed by the appearance and message of the

Hombre-Monja. The author's note indicates the alteration in lighting:

"Comienza a oscurecer. Un viento sombrio se va apoderando de todo"

(119). Thus a process is begun in which the darkness increases aided by the sound of the wind.

Later as the Hombre-Monja is forced to leave in the manner of a biblical prophet who is not accepted in his own country because his message is rejected, he leaves with a warning: "anuncio con dedo baromStrico la llegada del mal tiempo para este lugar sin entranas"

(121-122). To accompany this, the author again underscores the 221 dialogue with advancing darkness and wind at the same time the action appears to halt: "El H.M. se retira por el tubo, muy digno y dejando tras de si un suspenso de silencio y de incertidumbre" (122).

The brute force of Zebedeo and the fear it inspires in the people is portrayed graphically with a visual scene characterized by its interplay of light and darkness. As the people huddle together,

"la sombra mayor del alcalde se destaca con amenaza." As Zebedeo brandishes a double-barreled gun in all directions and then fires into the heavens, "el cumulo pueblerino se ilumina lo suficiente para que veamos sus rostros fijados en el espanto" (124). The "Sombra" is unmistakably identified with Zebedeo and his authority over the people.

Soon after this event, the townspeople are seen dancing a "jota de tinieblas," suggested by the Voz Cantante. Almost in total darkness, they organise a parade of "sombras" that seem to form one single body. At this point the braying of a bull is heard which causes great fear, confusion, and a “marea de movimientos diversos"

(127). Don Cereso decries the lack of light in these terms:

;El toro! Ya tiene ahi la tragedia, Zebedeo. Bajo este apagaluces, la fiera no sabra quien es el torero. [...] Una corrida nocturna que de improvise nos sorprende sin un mal cabo de vela. (127)

In like manner, Mairena exclaims a prayer to San Bias: “iEl toro! iAy,

San Bias, pon tu farolillo en alto y mira lo blancos que estamos!"

(127). Zebedeo proclaims that all the others are cowards and proclaims his fearlessness in these terms: "Con el trueno que me queda en la escopeta no le temo yo a unos cuernos" (127). As all this is 222 occurring, the light progresses from "un fulgor inexplicable" as the group of characters moves in "la mayor desorientacion," to total darkness as Zebedeo shocks everyone with a shotgun blast aimed wildly into the darkness. Moments of darkness are indicative throughout of disorientation, fear, and confusion, all of which typify the grotesque fiesta Zebedeo so earnestly attempts to continue.

To contrast this preponderance of somber lighting and underscore the importance of the events at the end of the play, lighting effects are used to underscore the importance of the end of the action of the play. When the Hombre-Monja stands before the grave and speaks of the resurrection of the flesh in prophetic tones, a "chorro seminal de fuego" emerges as a prefiguration of what is to follow. As the figures return from the grave with transfigured bodies, the author indicates that "un sol enceguecedor" fills the stage as the "Toro de la Nieve" arrives, crowned with "flores blancas," and the transformed characters mount the bull for their dramatic exit.

Above all other visual effects, that of the bull is the largest and most impressive. As the central object around which all the action and dialogue revolves, the actual appearance of the bull is a major event. This occurs, very significantly, not in the central public plaza for all the townspeople and Zebedeo to see, but rather in the room of Coronada as she carries out her private masturbatory ceremony. The author's note indicates that the head of a bull "de una grandeza monumental" (134) appears in Coronada's room. Darkness covers its entrance for a moment and when the light returns, a tail is 223 visible at the door on the other side of the stage, indicating that the bull has entered and transversed the stage only to hide in another room on the opposite side. Though the action of the play indicates that the bull never leaves this retreat, but dies there, the same symbol reappears at the end of the play as the "Toro de la Nieve" that bears the party of Coronada off stage in their triumphal exit. The bull is symbolic of the sensuality and virility which is the central concern of all the characters, though from differing points of view.

The "manga de toros” through which the bull was supposed to appear is another symbol related to the bull. It is hard to avoid the phallic implications of this stage prop, which, like the bull itself, is of immense size. It is large enough, in fact, that the Hombre-

Monja actually makes his/her appearance through the center of it.

Other less important objects appear for short times on stage and appear to have less significance or more obscure implications. These include the "tapias urinarias" where the children are urinating at the beginning of the second part and the chimneys on the rooftops where

Mairena and the Alguaciles are searching for indications of the bull.

The trap door in the stage which represents the tomb at the end of the play is reminiscent of the well in Pelo de tormenta and therefore it is tempting to equate this with some phallic significance, especially in light of the surging "chorro seminal" (165) which emanates from it.

The sound effects chosen to accompany the action of the entire play not only aurally complement the visual action, but also are significant semiotic elements in themselves. Two trumpet blasts underscore the words and the authority of Zebedeo in the first scenes

of the play, but they also signal the beginning of the festivities

which Zebedeo is so anxious to begin. The unexpected ringing of a

bell announces "una peste," in the words of Don Cerezo, from which

there is no escape: "iQue vamos a hacer ahora para salir del

atolladero?" (125). To accompany the sensual scene in which Coronada

displays her female attractions to the "Alticolocados" is added the

distant music of "una musica acordeonistica y avinagrada con algun

rastro de tango reconocible a traves de la expresiva deformacion"

(132). This scene is ended with the sound of "cascabeles y guitarras"

as Marauna, the Melga and the Dalga, and the Hombre-Monja enter

Coronada's room. At this point, the Hombre-Monja delivers what he

refers to as a "buen sermon" to the accompaniment of "sonidos

degenerantes y turbios" which, in Nieva's words, "hacen irreal la

escena" (137). As the scene is colored with varying shades of light

throughout, it is also extensively influenced by the music which seems

a fundamental part of the whole effect.

As the bull was a visual sign of great import, the "mugidos"

that the dying bull produces are a constant reminder of his presence,

even if he is not visually present. This is the case throughout the

entire second part of the play. These sounds structurally unite and

stimulate the action as the play draws to a close. It is, for example, the “largo mugido agonico" (144) of the hidden bull which

frightens the children in the cemetery and initiates the search scene of Mairena and Panzanegra and Tenazo. The same sounds help locate the 225

bull in the residence of Coronada. They also accompany Marauna's

discussion of the art of bullfighting and especially the skill

involved in the kill.

As the sounds of the bull become more insistent, the emotional

intensity also rises. When "el toro golpea la puerta y chivatea

agonicamente con insistencia" (152), the Hombre-Monja seems to point

to the crisis that is coming: "Si que es tarde. [...] Que la solucion

llegue pronto y podamos leer de carrerilla en los misterios del

universo" (153-154). At the final moment of revelation, the "mugidos

horrisonos que se van acercando" (165) announce the appearance of the

transformed "Toro de la Nieve" who arises from the tomb as do the

other condemned characters. By means of this accumulation of the visual and aural elements related to the bull, the author emphasizes

the importance of this central defining element.

The important visual and aural semiotic elements which originate

in the characters themselves will be classified into broad thematic groupings for ease and clarity of analysis. The first and largest category includes those elements related to Spain: its traditions,

fiestas, and stereotypical characterizations of various Spanish national personality types. Following this, a variety of lesser categories will include religion, animalization, androgyny, phallic symbols, and enclosures.

Coronada y el toro is above all a play preoccupied with Spain.

It presents and ridicules many aspects of the country and its people.

This primary purpose is amply illustrated by the quantity and 226

intensity of the semiotic elements that relate to this topic. Even before the action starts, the text makes clear the action will take place in "Farolillo de San Bias, pueblo serrano" (98). As Zebedeo begins to speak, he identifies the location as "la sierra de

Mangatoros" (99), a name which refers to the "manga" we have already mentioned. Both the town and region thus bear fictitious names, increasing their universal representative value. The author also identifies the time of the play in vague terms: "tiempo de Espaha en conserve." The time and place, therefore, are meant to signify a vagueness in time and location which increases its referential parameters to all Spain and Spanish history.

The traditions and customs that have been practiced and stubbornly maintained are presented as a condemnation that has isolated and ostracized Spain. The general statement of the Hombre-

Monja concerning Spain encapsulizes this idea: "Espaha es diferente en todo y esa es la voluntad de Dios" (152). In the words of Coronada,

para la fiesta estamos sentenciados" (101). She continues to say that “Hemos dejado de ser chinos, como mandaba la urbanidad espanola y las antiguas costumbres que heredamos de Hernan Cortes.

Todo se pierde y se va por un albollon" (101). When the photographer is not successful at making a picture because of the lack of a flash,

Zebedeo says, "Pues que sirvan las del aho pasado y corra la tradicion barata" (108). Don Cerezo adds his complaint to all the others, "iAy,

Espaha, que mal servicio de fiestas tienes ya!" (124). It is obvious that a pessimistic view is presented of Spanish tradition in general 227 with special emphasis on the "fiesta," which in this play refers principally to the bullfight.

A fundamental element of this "fiesta" is the cruelty which involves everyone. Thus the Hombre-Monja refers to Spain in general:

"Pague esta tierra cruel sus culpas en la balanza de la precision celeste" (138). The Voz Cantante states, "iEsta es la fiesta del miedo y no debe de haber escatimo!" (114). The fact that all ages and classes are involved is illustrated by Coronada:

A ser valientes nos condenan y aqui torea todo el mundo, torean los ninos en brazos de sus abuelas, que tanto los miman. Torea la banda de musica, por gusto de ver saltar el bombo. Torean las viudas para vengar a sus maridos. (101)

Upon seeing the bullfighter lead out from his imprisonment, the reaction of Mairena is to urge Marauna to confession: "Declara tus penas, echa el soplo de la compasion, que andamos muy deseosos de soltar una lagrima." Finally, according to Mairena, "En este pueblo todos somos simpatizantes" (112).

Power and cruelty are the hallmarks of all the actions of

Zebedeo as well. His condemnation of all those who oppose him makes clear his violent and ironic reaction to dissent:

Mueran todos los que se opongan a los toros de muerte y al comportamiento rasero en Farolillo de San Bias, pueblo serrano de mi digna jurisdiccion y sometido por ley de afios mil a mi codigo cerebroso. Quien se pase de la raya sera sacrificado en justicia y en un funeral de marca mayor, segun la usanza del entierro en vida y pie. (158)

Both the secular and religious foundations of the authority of Zebedeo seem to be indicated as a support for Zebedeo's death sentence. The fact that the condemned rise again, immediately transformed into 228

bodies of light, indicates a final failure of this misuse of power on

the part of Zebedeo.

In both their words and visual presentation, the characters of

this play are presented as grotesque distortions of stereotypical

Spanish character types. Zebedeo, for example, presents a clear

example. He appears at various times as a "sombra mayor" which "se

destaca con amenaza" (124). The most dramatically charged scene

involving Zebedeo occurs as a contrast to the playful vulgarity of the

children at the “tapia urinaria." They are interrupted in their

playful conversation by his appearance: "Tras la tapia se va levantado

ahora con espantosa ligereza de gran muheco el alcalde Zebedeo

ensanchado por la capa y solapando con mucho efecto los rayos del

crepusculo" (142). In these appearances he is like a diabolic shadow,

blocking the light with his immense size. The diabolic nature of

Zebedeo is emphasized in his oath to the dead in the cemetery as he

stands on the wall. He addresses the dead as if they were able to hear and that he were one of them: "Muertos que pudris y almas que

pedis, escuchadme todos vosotros, aqui enterrados" (143).

Described by the author at her first appearance as a "gitanilla

amarga," Mairena illustrates an exaggerated and pessimistic picture of

the fatalistic Spanish woman devoted to her flamenco dancing and

superstitious about the future. Her mysticism overcomes her at the appearance of the Hombre-Monja. She is "penetrada por una fe escatologica" and exclaims: "iAl fin ha llegado un Santo y un hombre abadesa de confianza! iSalveme usted de esta vida, madre con barbas, 229 y expliqueme por que vivo aperreada!" (118). Her masochistic delight resides in the pain she suffers. As she searches for the sound of the bull on the rooftops, she exclaims to Panzanegra: "Como gitana que soy, me hago cachos por el cariho renido, la pena negra y la mala justicia. Sin ese gusto no soy nadie" (145-146). In addition, her prayer of invocation on the rooftops also illustrates her satanic leanings:

Cielo bendito si no me escuchas cuando te grito, ire al infierno con mis acusas en un cuaderno. Me doy al diablo y a su gobierno. Voy de verano, dejo el invierno y tu Sujeto me importa un cuerno. (147)

The glorious resurrection at the end of the play of Coronada represents her ultimate defeat and true to her extreme nature, she commits suicide as the final act of the play. Ironically she uses the discarded tail of the dead bull to strangle herself. In explicit envy of those who have been transformed, she exclaims:

Y ahora mismito me ahogo con este rabo de toro, a ver si, entregando el alma, doy el jipio que me valga la resurreccion de la carne. iEsperadme, venturosos, hermanos blancos! (167)

Lead by her emotions and controlled by pessimism, Mairena seems trapped between heaven and hell, unable to attain either because of her vacillation. She is as she says, always waiting "a las puertas del cielo" (167). 230

The other characters are also grotesque and exaggerated caricatures. The two alguaciles, Panzanegra and Tenazo, are weak and obsequious servants, totally devoid of individual moral character, who act only at the command of the alcalde in power, Zebedeo. As we have seen, the author uses a process of animalization to emphasize this subservient canine behavior. In the same way, the two "sufragistas," the Melga and the Dalga, also present a typically one-sided view of the feminism which seeks to resist the excesses of the chauvinistic

Zebedeo, but not in a fully developed character.

The grotesque matador, Maraufia, presents all the opposite characteristics of the true bullfighter: he is cowardly, subservient, humble, and badly dressed. Called a "torero por condena" in the list of characters, he first appears before the public handcuffed, a rope around his neck, on his knees and with his head lowered. His body is anemic and his costume is in tatters. His first words indicate a comparison with a carnival costume: "A la autoridad me remito por haber nacido pelele" (112). His abject submission is illustrated verbally: “Y digo para terminar que morire como sumiso collon para complacer a la asamblea y por purgarme la culpa de no haber nacido con alas" (113). The author seeks to criticize these character types by exaggeration, as in the case of Zebedeo, or a process of reversal of the normal attributes, as in that of Marauna.

The process which is most widely used in this play to depersonalize virtually all the characters is animalization. The verbal and visual attributes of various animals are used to ridicule 231

and detract from the humanity of the characters. Panzanegra y Tenazo

both sound and act like dogs. The Melga and the Dalga are cast as

birds. In the description of Panzanegra as to how they escaped from

him, he says that "se han librado saltando un valladar de dos metros

en las volandas del aire arrebatadas y alii detras se han puesto a

cantar con una voz pajarera muy dulce" (110). The townspeople are

admonished by the Voz Cantante to "subirse en cualquier palo gallinero

y a disfrutar, que es San Bias” (114). The cruelty discussed above is

thus seen in light of its animal origins which Coronada admits in her

address to the "autoridades": "Pido clemencia para tanto desafuero

animal como se comete aqui" (100).

In this statement as well as in her actions in general, Coronada

reveals a sense of more humanity developed and common sense that the

other characters lack. In this way, Coronada acts as a mouthpiece for

the author's point of view on the issues of the work. Though

incarcerated for her rebellion, she not only identifies her origins as

those of Zebedeo and the others, but also reveals her sensual and

satanic secrets in a long monologue that ends the action of the first part. Speaking to the absent Zebedeo, she states:

No sabes de tu hermana Coronada ni la mitad de cuanto ella es en el secreto de su alcoba. Espafiola y bruja naci para no quedarme atras en las filas del gran baile que se organize cada noche sin que tu lo sepas en los dominios de mi fantasia. (131)

In truth, the secret of the bedroom of Coronada is much more

sensual and erotic than demonic. The action which accompanies the words of Coronada in this scene is composed of the glorification of 232

the sensuality of the human body and the levels of sexual excitement

to which Coronada can attain in her "tren masturbatorio" (133), to use

the words of the author in his note. Immediately upon closing her

door, Coronada says that "las palabras me salen como titiriteras desnudas que blasfeman en el columpio," and then "la trenza se me

deslia." After partially disrobing, she places a disk on the record player as if it were, in the words of Nieva, "un pan viatico de todos sus demonios, una especie sacramental y comulgante de misa nigromantica" (132). Her excitement grows until the bull interrupts her. She verbally submits herself to it without effect.

In this scene, there are many elements that illustrate the sexual theme. The first is the metaphor of the "agujero de culo prieto" as an eye by means of which Coronada says she has seen the

"tentadoras sombras del mundo." She refers to the record as a "negra oblea de reflejos, torta que grita, yo te consagro a la picadura y al rasca-rasca, al bulle-bulle de mis tripas." She refers to herself as a "mujer verdadera" who has a "luz de lampara debajo," and who is a

"circo de c a m e donde el leon de la mujer se come entero al trapecista" (132). Other erotic images of the same type are: "la que sabe mascar rabo bailando el tango argentino," the moonbeam entering in the window, "lunares" which "muerdan durante toda la noche," the

"rico frenesi" of the "Grandes Expresos Europeos," and a “tunel de fuego" which Coronada claims to become until she calls into a mirror.

The echo of the stories Alice in Wonderland and Snow White come to mind as Coronada addresses the mirror and interrogates it: "Espejo que 233 tiene el mundo detras, hablame, que yo te contesto... Hablame, mi rey sin ley, desvergonzado, dime quien es esa Coronada que se me esconde bajo el sobaco. iLa conoces?" (133).

When the bull appears, it provides more opportunities for a continuation of the enumeration of sensual allusions. She first threatens to hang herself with her "soga del mono." When the bull retires to the other room without paying attention to her requests, she pulls on the tail, exclaiming, “A donde vas, mala bestia? iNo me buscabas a mi? [...] Te digo que tuya soy y no quiero vivir mas, que me des el revolcon sacudido que me envie a las estrellas" (134).

As the bull retires to Coronada's private room and does not return, Coronada takes comfort at least in the pleasure of maintaining this animal in secret: "Solo me queda cerrar aquella otra puerta y gustar de este secreto a mis anchas" (134). It is at this point that

Coronada seems to become the mouthpiece of the author and present what appears to be the moral of the entire play:

iMueran de una vez las fiestas del miedo y de la pena carcelera y hagase otra voluntad en Espaha donde ya no existan mas hermanos que tengan su honra entre ceja y ceja y en donde se den por ley toros blancos que coman en la mano de los toreros y no estos malos bichos de carbon con cuerpo de botijo grande! (136)

The reference made to "toros blancos" prefigures the final scene in which Coronada and her band of followers rise transformed from the grave and ride off on a white bull. The Hombre-Monja calls her out of the tomb on this occasion using images reminiscent of those Coronada used in her private ceremony: "Coronada, giganta hermosa, sal de ese agujero ciego como habrAs de ser por siempre, por los siglos de los 234 siglos, en el bafio de luz sin tino que es de veras la Gloria

Innominable" (165).

Since the entire play may be considered a picture of a bullfight, the audience viewing the play represents the public at a bullfight and those '‘autoridades" to which Zebedeo and Coronada direct their comments represent the special places at the fight reserved for people of prestige and importance. In this play there are three introduced by Zebedeo in his first monologue of the play. Each is accompanied by an object or two which are meant to characterize them:

Senor gobernador de la provincia, con su puro y sus zapatos de mucho lustre; senor obispo reverendisimo, vestido con tantas cortinas; senor capitan de la guardia civil de plomo yo me arrodillo ante sus divinas autoridades. (99)

In the case of the first two, the author uses visual objective items: the cigar and well-shined shoes for the governor, and curtains for the bishop. The captain of the "Guardia Civil de plomo" is a reference taken from Federico Garcia Lorca which refers to the Guardia as having

"calaveras" made of lead.16

Coronada addresses these same imaginary figures as "jSenores

Alticolocados, Cesares augustos de la provincia!" (102) in her effort to convince them to intervene and stop the travesty on stage. Zebedeo later addresses the governor as "Muy Senor mio y Besopies" (102) as he asks what he might do with his rebellious sister: "ique hago con ella? iLa degiiello en el tajo de la cocina?" (102). From this point on, these "autoridades" are called the "Alticolocados" and seem to command reverence throughout the play. This technique has the effect of 235

placing the theatrical audience in the role of judges of what is

happening on stage. Theoretically, this would emotionally draw the

audience into the action from the start.

The verbal semiotic elements which directly or indirectly refer

to religion not only encompass a wide thematic breadth but also are

exceedingly numerous in comparison with any other play studied in this

work. The apocalyptic nature of the central theme seems to demand

extensive inclusion of references to religion in general; church

personalities of historical importance; biblical figures, places, and

quotes; references to the rites and rituals of the Catholic Church;

critiques of the practices and changes recently made in them; as well

as the prophetic biblical themes of final apocalyptic judgement and

the resurrection of the dead. The ultimate purpose of all these

elements is to place the final scene in an appropriate context. They

all in varying degrees point to and prepare the ground for the final

climax in the action.

From the beginning, Coronada proclaims her dedication to the

religion of Spain: "El corazon dolorido y bahado en Alacoques y

Suplicios de nuestra santa religion, eso tengo yo“ (100). The Hombre-

Monja proclaims that Spain is as it is because of the "voluntad de

Dios" (152). Even Zebedeo is willing to recognize divine authority:

"iTodo sea por Dios, hermanos!" (157). It is also true that each

appears to view these matters from his or her individual point of view

and to manipulate doctrinal issues for individual purposes. 236

The many references to saints and famous church historical figures serve as a constant reminder of a religious context. Some examples are the patron saint of Farolillo, San Bias, whose fiesta

Zebedeo desires to begin are: San Pedro and the papacy in Rome (104),

Cardinal Malaspina (118), the Macarena of Seville (115) a famous image of the Virgin, and San Fermin from Navarra. Zebedeo expresses his fear of some "disgusto vaticano" (119) which will disturb the festivities. The Hombre-Monja serves a hypothetical religious order, the "orden Entreverada" (118), as a missionary journalist. Even

Marauna participates in this enumeration of religious figures by making saints out of several bullfighters of the past: “Hoy ya serian

San Frascuelo, San Bejarano, Santos Machaquito y Pastor" (151).

The elements which refer to biblical personalities, places or famous quotations are even more numerous. Places mentioned include

Jerico and Jordan. Personalities of importance are Mary and Martha,

Adam and Eve, Judas, the angel Gabriel, the Antichrist, along with

"Belcebu" and "Luzbel" which are references to the Devil. The missionary work of the Hombre-Monja causes her/him to be called a

"Magdaleno selvatico" (118) in reference to Mary Magdalene, a famous follower of Jesus.

References to various events described in the scriptures are numerous. When the Hombre-Monja commands his group to proceed to

Coronada's house, he/she proclaims that "todas las palmas del cielo nos van a alfombrar el camino" (130) in reference to the palms thrown in the path for Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem. The Hombre-Monja 237 also proclaims in another place that a "profeta en su tierra" (121) can never gain the respect he deserves, just in the way Jesus referred to his own experience in his native area of Galilee. These two

instances point to a messianic role for the Hombre-Monja which will be discussed later.

Various rites or rituals are mentioned in the same way. The act of giving a blessing (159), the act of contrition (138), the customary processions to accompany important fiestas (138), the mass (132) and sermons (137) are all elements used to continually emphasize the religious context and setting of the play.

Many aspects of religious worship are presented in a negative and critical way, albeit generally with a degree of humor. Don Cerezo states that he doesn't trust "esta modernidad de servicio" (116) referring to the surprise appearance of the Hombre-Monja as well as to modern changes in Catholic worship. Coronada agrees that "la religion se tergiversa y ya no hay dignidad ni sentimientos favorables” (101).

Zebedeo worries that the Hombre-Monja is bringing "predicaciones e incordios que nos van a chinchar el festejo" (119). Commenting on miracles, Don Cerezo says that “se hacen solos y son cientificos"

(110). Mairena characterizes the intentions of Panzanegra as “una doctrina de amenaza" (146). Don Cerezo confesses that he doesn't understand the ideas Zebedeo espouses, referring to them as "ese

Evangelio tan gaseoso" (165).

Not only is the play designed to imitate a bullfight, but it also presents a religious parallel to that image, and combines these two in a way that makes them inseparable. This is expressed explicitly by the Hombre-Monja: "Somos el ultimo toro. Tras de la revelacion y la purga de conciencias, vendran otras fiestas nuevas mas conformes" (130). The bullfight and the religious component are thus integrated into a "fiesta nueva" with a cataclysmic final outcome.

The final and most important religious element is the apocalyptic prophecy relating to final judgement and resurrection, as well as the transformed bodies of light that will be adopted for the purpose of living in another heavenly state of being. It is to this point that all the previous elements relating to religious events, rites, and personalities have been leading. The Dalga recognizes this when she exclaims, "iCielos, que libertad tan grande hay en el otro mundo!"

(153). The Hombre-Monja indicates this as well: "Que la solucion llegue pronto y podamos leer de carrerilla en los misterios del universo, riendonos de lo sencillos que son" (154).

Only by means of death is possible the total transformation which permits escape out of the present life to the one to come.

Nleva's message here is that the means of escape from the stagnant traditions and the sensual repression of the past also lies in a ritualized death which ends one age or state of being and begins another. Ironically, it is Zebedeo who initiates and hastens the very transformations which he doesn't understand or expect. In his revenge against Coronada, he convenes a "Juicio Final" which will end in an

"Apocalipsis que sea sonada" (161). 239

As Coronada is forced into the tomb represented by an open space in the stage, her final words indicate she is conscious of the religious significance of her death: "Vuestra justicia de enero me ha cogido en pleno celo y me meto por la sombra de esta tumba a ver si me desentrano por vosotros. No penseis que estoy en Babia, sino en el camino de mi salvacion y la vuestra" (163). After entering the tomb, she is called out by the Hombre-Monja in a scene reminiscent of the resurrection story of Lazarus. At the word of Jesus, Lazarus comes forth from the grave after having been dead several days. Here the

Hombre-Monja calls to Coronada in the same way:

Coronada, giganta hermosa, sal de ese agujero ciego como habras de ser por siempre, por los siglos de los siglos, en el bano de luz sin tino que es de veras la Gloria Innominable." (165)

It is important in this context to make clear that the new state of being achieved by Coronada and the others is characterised by a heightened sensual sensitivity. Coronada asks the Hombre-Monja upon leaving the tomb why each step she takes "me produce un estremecimiento cosquillero, como si estuviera ya mas que sobrada de novio?" (165). To this the Hombre-Monja explains: "Pues que te mueres de gusto sin acabar de morir y ya eres llama que rie sin encontrar sombra a tu paso" (165). With this play on words, the author indicates the nature of the transformed body of Coronada. It is one which can enjoy sensual pleasure without having to worry aboutdeath.

The use of the image of the flame or light contrasted with darkness as an illustration of the different states is significant in light of the emphasis throughout the play on visual and aural elements relating to 240 light versus darkness.

The Hombre-Monja earlier in the play gave an object lesson which adds an illustrative footnote to the ending of the play. In reference to the pleasure that the Hombre-Monja has derived from drinking chocolate, she adds: "Parece mentira que una materia tan oscura ilumine el alma con tantos rayos caloriferos. Asi es la divina providencia" (152). In this statement, which reminds us of the pleasure the Obispo of Pelo de tormenta derived from the same drink, is summarized the entire significance of the play.

Because of the prophetic and messianic nature of the personality of the Hombre-Monja, the androgynous side of this character takes on more significance. It is only this de-sexualized character who can predict the ending and direct the transformation of Coronada. Since the reaction of the Spanish people to the issue of sensuality is one of the central issues of the play, it is the task of this character to continuously focus attention by his visual appearance on that issue.

An ambiguity about the true sexual nature is maintained as well for the same reason. Visually, the Hombre-Monja is characterized by a masculine beard and a feminine nun's habit. The aural elements used to refer to the Hombre-Monja are always masculinized feminine words or feminized masculine words. Examples are "padre materno," "Magdaleno selvatico," and "madre cura." As a final twist and surprise, the

Hombre-Monja throws off the beard as he leaves with Coronada at the end of the play with the words: "Ahi se os queda esa reliquia, una de las muchas barbas que uso para despistar" (166). Since there is no 241

further explanation, we might interpret these words to indicate that

throughout the play, the Hombre-Monja has adopted an androgynous pose,

and only reveals her true feminine nature at the end.

Related to the issue of sexuality are the many references to

phallic symbols as well as female sexual organs. Coronada has

exemplified the female elements throughout this study. Many of the phallic symbols have been seen before in other plays, but one is new.

The tail of the bull, the rope around the neck, and the horns of the bull are obvious phallic elements which appeared in other plays, especially Pelo de tormenta. The new element is the "manga de toros."

This huge tube-like construction through which the bull for the fight was supposed to come, represents an innovation. It is significant that the Hombre-Monja appears through this tube instead of the bull, probably indicating a lack of virility in the repressive characters like Zebedeo, a problem which the Hombre-Monja will seek to solve in her fashion. Another element which parallels closely the significance of the well of Pelo de tormenta is the tomb, visually performed as a lift which forms an open space in the stage floor. Like the previous play, in Coronada.y el toro, various items surge out at appointed times inferring ejaculation. Also, tremendous change is occasioned on any and all who venture therein.

The tomb opening may also be considered one of the several symbolic enclosures present in this play as with others we have studied. In this category may be included the private rooms to which

Coronada is forced to retire by Zebedeo, and the more private room to 242 which the bull retires after taking refuge in the home of Coronada. A public space and private space appear to be drawn again as in Pelo de tormenta, with a tomb in the middle of the public space for the final scene (a well in Pelo de tomenta). The more private the space, the more sensual and secret the activity.

In this as in all Nieva's plays, the festive and humorous nature of the imaginative symbols and characters used is important to emphasize. Though it has an unexpected ending, this is in essence what many other plays of Nieva are: a version of a popular fiesta in which the prime purpose is pleasure brought about by the varied elements analyzed in this study. NOTES

1. La carroza de plomo candente was first staged in the Figaro Theater, Madrid, 27 April, 1976. Coronada v el toro was first staged in the Theater Maria Guerrero, Madrid, 27 April, 1982.

2. Francisco Nieva, La-.carrQza_.de,.,plomQ._c.andent.e and Coronada v el toro. ed. Andres Amoros (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1986). This edition is used exclusively in this chapter for all quotes taken from the these two plays, garrcaa and Coronada will be the short forms used.

3. van der Naald 62. Emil George Signes also follows van der Naald and expands on the tripartite nature of the play in The Theatre of Francisco Nieva. unpublished doctoral dissertation, Rutgers U, 1982, 168-174.

4. van der Naald 63.

5. From the note of Andres Amoros, in Francisco Nieva, La carroza de.Plomo candente and Coronada v el toro 50.

6 . Andres Amoros, ed., La carroza de Plomo candente 73.

7. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 113.

8 . van der Naald 63-64.

9. Nieva, Icatro furioso 159.

10. Nieva, Teatro furioso 159.

11. Mary and Martha were the brothers of Lazarus. An account of their meeting with Jesus is found in Luke 10:38-42.

12. Nieva, M&Mit&aZDelirio ill.

13. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 112.

14. Diccionario de la lengua espanola, Real Academia de la Lengua (Madrid: Ed. Espasa-Calpe, 1970).

15. Diccionario. _de. la^lenaua eapanola. 244

16. Federico Garcia Lorca, Qbras completes (Madrid: Ed. Aguilar, 1954) 379. From a poem entitled "Romance de la guardia civil espanola." CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Introduction

The purpose of this final chapter is to summarize the important aspects of Nieva's theatrical aesthetic that have become apparent from the foregoing study and to evaluate the contribution and novelty of

Nieva's theatre in Spain. The first part of this final chapter is devoted to a summary of the aesthetic and technical elements in order to develop a macroscopic view of the “teatro furioso." This summary draws relationships with other Spanish artists as well as with Nieva's display of "self-conscious drama" or metadrama. The second major division of the chapter presents and discusses the two central themes in the plays studied: Nieva's preoccupation with Spain and sexuality.

The third division of this chapter presents an evaluation of the place and the contributions of this author in contemporary Spanish and

European theatre.

Throughout this chapter, we will note an ongoing eclectic method on the part of Nieva which began in his youth and continues in maturity. Though his reference point, which he never abandons, is that of a thoroughly Spanish dramatist and artist whose primary initial aesthetic models are Spanish, he has demonstrated an eagerness

245 246

to examine any and all new aesthetic developments of the avant-garde

in Europe, accepting and incorporating into his own writing those

aspects that appeal to him and rejecting others. This fact forces the

critic to consider Nieva as a multifaceted author in whom not only the

analysis of individual parts is important, but also the synthesis and

global evaluation. This synthesis is the aim of this chapter.

Summary of-the VlBU&l-find-.AuralJElementa in the "teatro furioso"

The first aspect that one notes, even in a casual reading of

Nieva's plays, is the emphasis on visual semiotic elements and

lighting effects. The simplified plot structures in these plays tend

to de-emphasize the narrative aspects of the story and emphasize the visually symbolic and pictorial elements. In effect, visual images

generally predominate over the complexities of plot development based

on dialogue. The static aspects are preferred over the dynamic ones,

producing, on the one hand, a sense of stagnation indicative of the

Spanish context to which the author refers, and, on the other, the possibility of greater development of the visual and aural aspects.

Tne quantity and diversity of the visual semiotic elements that are present in the works studied here range chronologically from the very simple and plain, as is the case with a play like Cabeza or

Fandango, to the very dense and complex, as in the case of Pelo or

Coronada. This development from the earlier shorter plays to the

later and generally longer ones relates to the author's practical

aesthetic presentation over time. The earlier plays are more 247 theoretical and state a philosophical point of view. They approximate a "cuadro" or picture of Spanish society (i.e. Fandango1 or present a theoretical statement (Cabeza).

The later plays (Pelo, Coronada, and Carroza) on the other hand, exemplify the multiplication of visual semiotic signs resulting in plays with much more action and movement as well as density of meaning. A single phallic symbol appears in Fandango, for example, to exemplify the virility and desirability of Maraufta. In contrast, a later play like Pelo. for example, continues to use this same symbol for the same reason but in many surprising and creative ways. Not only is the phallic symbol seen surging from the well, but also a rope, and a tapestry develop and emphasize the theme.

In nearly every play, the lighting effects are the central visual elements, used to portray or to instill a desired mood. The emphasis on darkness is the dominant characteristic of lighting. Two explanations seem to justify this dominance: the first is to portray a pessimistic picture of the "Espafia negra" which the author uses as a foil for the action of his plays and the second is to provide the appropriate setting for inquiry into the “fuerzae ciegas” which attract him so much. The cataclysmic mood of Carroza and Coronada is created with the surprising lightning flashes stabbing into the darkness. The candles blown in the wind and suffocated by the heaviness of darkness add to the oppressiveness of the mood in which

Garrafona carries out her dark ceremony. In Pelo. lightning flashes add an element of pure surprise while in Fandango it is the light of 248 the symbolic moon in which the appearance of Maraufta occurs as well as the imagined fandango. The darkness is a palate on which the author draws like a painter would with his paint. Little indication of color in the plays shows a preference for the effect of various lights contrasted with the darkness and the absence of significant coloring.

As darkness iB significant in itself, so also is light. It clearly indicates a celestial state at which Coronada and her band have arrived after their entrance in the tomb and resurrection to ride off on a white bull. This light is steady and intense, an obvious contrast to that failed light of the camera flash or the brief violent burst of light of the shotgun of Zebedeo. When the author describes in his notes the lighting effects like "la luz en el espacio con toda su delirante realidad" (Carroza 70), he expresses artistically an effect that might actually be reproduced with greater or lesser success on stage, but which always points to what he calls "una magia sensual" (Carroza 77). The lighting effects therefore are not simply a backdrop to the action, but one of the essential parts of the semantic framework.

An important comparison can be made between these drawings by

Nieva and those of Francisco de Goya in his series of etchings called

"Los Caprichos.“ There are the obvious similarities of the black and white print produced by an etching and pen and ink drawings. But in addition, Nieva imitates an artistic drawing style as well as the choice of characters present in this series of eighty etchings. The backgrounds of Goya in the etchings are predominantly dark and 249 foreboding, a fact which points to his pessimistic view of some of the characters and customs of his day as well as his advancing age and blindness. Goya uses the technique of animalizing his subjects in varying degrees in order to imply criticism of their actions.1 His favorite animals are birds and donkeys which often are seen flying or floating in air.2 In this way, Goya surreptitiously criticizes various elements of the society of his day like corrupt nuns and priests, procuresses and pimps, the rich taking advantage of the poor, as well as ignorant people viewed in their cruel activities.

The parallels between the mood and characters presented in these etchings by Goya with the mood, characters, and settings of the plays analyzed in this work are inescapable. Pelo and Carroza are the best examples: the nuns characterized as birds in the former and the witch

Garrafona and the donkey in the latter. It is also important to remember the reference to a painting by Goya, "La maja desnuda,” to which Nieva refers in describing how Ceferina is presented when she is to be sacrificed to Mal-Rodrigo. This, at the very least, demonstrates an explicit interest in the works of Goya on the part of the author. Perhaps the most famous in this series by Goya is the etching entitled, “El suefio de la razdn produce monstruos." In it is portrayed a man with his head resting on a table sleeping. Above and behind him are hovering monstrous birds seemingly ready to pounce on him. If Goya thought of the world of dreams as fertile soil for the production of horrible monsters, then Nieva's viewpoint about the oneiric realm expressed in his play Cabeza could be considered a 250 direct contrast to the idea of Goya's work. Nieva seems to be attracted to the monsters Goya considered reprehensible and disgusting.

The emphasis that Nieva places on the visuality of the characters in these plays is illustrated by the detailed drawings that accompany most of the publications of the plays. These predominantly pen and ink drawings highlight several of the fundamental characteristics of Nieva's theatre: his imitation of Spanish artistic models like Goya, the careful attention to detail in creating the costuming and props related to the characters, as well as the centrality and importance of the characters themselves over surrounding settings, geographical contexts, and the development of the plot.

It is also obvious that this emphasis on the visual aspects of his plays derives from his early career as a painter and his extensive and fruitful experience with the physical construction and painting of backdrops and scenery for plays and opera. Nieva's plays can be criticized for an excessive devotion to the visual and a lack of the action necessary to maintain interest in the plot of the plays. The early plays especially must appear on stage somewhat like pictures with drawn figures who deliver their dialogue in a static environment.

The three major categories of aural semiotic elements we have seen are the musical elements, other sound effects, and those originating in the linguistic production of the actors. In the effort to produce what the author terms "teatro total," he seeks to balance 251 visual and aural and linguistic elements. The creative quality in the use of spoken language belies a true balance in the importance of these elements since the greatest aesthetic success of these plays is found in the speech and dialogue of the actors.

Nieva often uses some sort of music as an essential part of the complete structure of his theatrical work. In four of the six plays studied, there are indications by the author in the text that an

"orchestra" or recorded music should be used as accompaniment to the action: Fandango, Eelo, Carroza. and Coronada. In the earlier plays there are very lyrical and vague descriptions about what music should be played, leaving this element almost entirely in the hands of the director. In the later plays, Carroza and Coronada. Nieva is careful to be precise about the exact pieces or genres of music he believes necessary to use. Indeed, it is important to note that these pieces of music are woven into the fabric of the play's structure to the extent that, if taken out, an essential element would be lost. This is the case, for example, with the music of Mozart which becomes a waltz accompanying the private scene in Coronada's bedroom. In

Coronada. the Flamenco music sung by Mairena and the "saeta" of the

Voz Cantante are further examples of foundational building blocks in the structure of the work. It is logical to view these musical elements as necessary if we consider the plays, as does the author, works of a ceremonial nature which seek to present a "total" experience to the spectator. Of significance also are other sound effects punctuating the plays, many of which are repetitive from play to play, often bearing an intertextual semiotic significance. Bells, for example, are used in EandangQ, Pelo. and Coronada to indicate the passage of time, a religious ceremony, or a coming disaster. The sound of an organ is logically used to accompany the Sublimitas in Pelo. Trumpet blasts in

Pelo and Coronada seem to invoke the biblical trumpet of judgement.

This is especially evident in Coronada as it accompanies Zebedeo's preparation for his "final judgement." A greater variety and precision in the use of such elements in the last two plays, Carroza and Coronada. indicates Nieva's heightened concern for this part of the complete spectacle and his care in using them as often as practical. In Coronada this is especially true, where along with the elements already mentioned, can be mentioned an accordion to play a tango for Coronada, as well as "cascabeles" and guitars for Mairena.

Of special importance is the use of thunder to instill surprise, fear, and unrest in the face of the cataclysmic events of Pelo. Carroza. and

Cfircmda-

A final visual technique obvious in all Nieva's plays to a greater or lesser degree is the multiplication of surprising stage effects produced in rapid succession. In addition, the element of surprise is used not only to maintain interest and contrast serious thematic content, but also to provide a visual aesthetic experience at times approaching spectacle for the sake of spectacle. No visual technique is more ubiquitous than this in all the plays studied. These effects are more subdued in the two early plays, Cabeza and

Fandango. In these the surprises are changes in the physical form of

the characters, Rdmulo changing heads and bodies, and the phallic

Hombrecito Venereo projecting itself from the trousers of Marauha.

These elements take on a playful tone in Pelo: lightning bolts flash and birds fall electrocuted from the sky and bursts of air explode from the well scattering feathers over the stage, to mention but two examples. In the two later plays, CftEgPZft and Coronada. these effects continue but with perhaps a less gratuitous character. Lightning still does flash unexpectedly, however, as well as the explosion of shotgun fire, rotating beds, and various lighting effects, at times vaguely described by the author as "humcanes de luz." All these elements serve two basic purposes: the first is to provide an essential visual aesthetic experience the author deems a necessary part of a good play and second to illustrate and underscore the unpredictability and uncontrollability of the very elemental forces to which he is thematically pointing.

Falling between the pure sound of the above elements and the linguistic elements to follow are the animalistic sounds produced by the actors themselves or actual representations of animals. Examples of this are the grunts of Maraufia in Fandango, the barking of the

Enano Deletereo in Pelo. and the "mugidos agdnicos" of the bull in

Coronada. These are important links in the aesthetic of Nieva between the elemental world of animals and the "civilized" one of human beings. They provide a channel between these two in order that the 254 human beings might come into contact with the sensuality that is normally submerged in the social activities of society, but which for

Nieva is the means of escape from restrictive social norms.

The variety of registers and styles employed in the linguistic elements of the six plays of the "teatro furioso" is extensive.

Moreover, development from the simple, general, and theoretical in the early plays to the complex, particular, and practical in the later plays can be noted. Cabeza is a theoretical debate of an expository nature, in which the author expounds his theories about the imposition of religion and society on the personal and sexual freedom of the individual. In fandango, a more lyrical dialogue is used to illustrate the true nature of the sensuality of the fandango, incarnated in the first Maraufia. Next is the play about the "majas,"

Opalos and Tasia, who delight in the obscene and scatological contest for their love, Alto Sol, using the most prosaic and explicit elements of language, gesture, and action to attain high levels of audacity.

Pelo takes on a much more prophetic and threatening tone, mixed with black humor. The author therefore terms this work apocalyptic and uses it as a biblical prophet would a authoritative message from a divine being.

The last two works, Carroza and Coronada, are developed linguistically to a much greater degree as demonstrated in the characterization and the development of the plot. Each is a compendium of the various linguistic modes which have just been enumerated. Equally as important as their appearance and actions, 255 their language helps develop the personality of the characters. The emaciated and unresponsive Luis, as well as his miraculous offspring

Tomds, are most aptly provided with language appropriate to their hopeless condition. In the same way the other characters are drawn in more detail than in previous plays mainly by their speech. Frasquito is the humorous voice of the common man, Camale6n that of the religious hypocrite who doubts everything, Saturno is the brute motivated by his lust, and Garrafona is the witch who directs the entire group.

In Coronada. linguistic characterization is heightened even more. Zebedeo's oath in the graveyard, for example, clearly draws his character in all its chauvinistic reality. Mairena, the gypsy, is the stereotypical self-destructive flamenco dancer. The group of children is also an interesting case of verbal characterization since they seem to epitomize an ideal the author has in mind for childlike openness and freedom in the context of a conversation of a scatological nature.

Perhaps above all others, Coronada is a character who describes herself verbally in the long monologue in the privacy of her room.

She declares of herself: "Espanola y bruja naci para no quedarme atras en las filas del gran baile que se organize cada noche sin que tu

[Zebedeo] lo sepas en los dominios de mi fantasia" (Coronada 131).

The truth of this is carefully enunciated in the five page monologue that follows and the erotic nature of the action which accompanies the words. 256

In broad terms, the linguistic elements here studied demonstrate the widest variety in source and register. They range from poetry and song to carefully considered theoretical exposition, from formal oaths on the bones of dead ancestors to the private jokes of intimate friends, from the sacred to the most profane, and from the most animalistic to the most cultured. This eclecticism reflects the interest of the author in the pattern of the public gathering or fiesta as a model for his plays. In a public place, in a time of collective permissiveness, all of these verbal manifestations might be heard and the widest range of character types observed. This is true particularly of those plays which proclaim to be set in the framework of a public celebration, Pelo and Coronada. but it is used as an aesthetic principle in all.

The relationship of the characters to one another forms a similar diagrammatic structure in all these plays. As we have seen, viewed diachronically, their actions are ritualistic in nature, but when analyzed synchronically at any single point in their progression, their relationships are organized in a very uniform manner.

These relationships may be diagrammed as spokes in a wheel, the hub of which is a manifestation of some symbolic sexual stimulus or desire. In Cabeza, the hub is the character Hdmulo; in Combate, the absent Alto Sol; it is Maraufia in fandango; the dragon Mal-Rodrigo in

Pelo; the toro in Coronada; and the cabra in Carroza. Whether seen or unseen, it is always a dominant overpowering force which cannot be contained or controlled by the characters who contemplate it. This 257 symbol manifests itself in a wide range of forms: from largely unseen animals or monsters (Pelo and Coronada), to absent individuals

(Combate), to characters who incarnate these sensual forces but who verbalize it very little (Carroza and JEandango).

Around this central symbolic figure are arrayed all the remaining characters. They classify themselves by how they react to the sexual, sensual symbol or character: some resist, others are attracted, and still others remain incapable of response or arousal

(Luis in Carroza). Two groups are normally arrayed around the central figure: those who relate positively to the sexuality of the central symbol and those who resist in some way with varying degrees of success. The latter group is diverse in the expression of its resistance, and is often partially tempted, but ultimately maintains the integrity of its position. Distinct and separate from all the other characters are those who may be considered "presenters" or

"masters of ceremonies" such as the Ciego in Pelo. and Dama Vinagre in

Combate. They take part in the central action of the play to a lesser degree and serve as intermediaries with the audience, explaining and interpreting the actions of those characters more intimately engaged in the central action.

This structural phenomenon lends further strength to the overall static nature of the presentation of the plays. The structure presents a visually clear arrangement of elements which does not change or evolve. Rather, there develops an ever increasing pressure from the radically opposing opinions of the various factions of 258

characters. This pressure only serves to heighten and ossify the

deeply felt ideas of the individuals involved, leading to cataclysmic

explosive endings which are in turn ironically demonstrated not to

have altered the initial status quo at all. Nieva's theatre can be

criticized therefore for its lack of development in character or plot.

The initial situation which surrounds the characters and the

characters themselves do not change. What it does do is further

underscore the initial reality by a process akin to the tempering of

metal. Heat is repeatedly applied to the metal which is then abruptly

cooled, strengthening the innate quality of the substance. In Nieva's

theatre a dramatic pressure is repeatedly built up which at the climax

is rapidly dissipated returning everything involved in the process to

an initial state even more structurally firm than before.

This process may be likened to the cathartic process described by Aristotle with the obvious difference that the result of the process in Nieva's plays is usually one of dissatisfaction, not a

feeling of pleasurable completion. It is also obvious that the central issue around which this tension is built is sexuality, and that the lack of a sense of completion equates to an unsatisfactory sexual experience. We will return later to this theme and develop it

further.

We have seen in chapter one (47) that the characters used in

Nieva's plays are prototypical in nature, lacking psychological development and usually driven by a unidimensional idea or passion.

One group are those that incarnate a caricature of a type of person or profession common in Spain: the "alguacil," "alcalde," nun, bishop, bullfighter, and "majo" or "maja." A second group is characterized by the use to which Nieva puts these and other stereotypes. These uses have been named and described by the author as we have seen throughout this study.3 A consideration of the purpose of these groupings points to an important aspect of the technique of Nieva in creating his plays: characters are used in a play primarily for the structural function they will carry out in the scheme of the work and second for their individual characteristics. Indeed, the characters are undeveloped psychologically to the point that they approximate the ultimate stereotype of puppets or marionettes. This analogy is appropriate as long as one remembers that these "puppets" are described in detail and point of view that are developed synchronically, but they do not develop or change over time, except perhaps to intensify those aspects already present in their personalities.

This treatment of the characters parallels closely that of

Valle-Inclan as described by Antonio Risco in a chapter called "La deformacion esperpentica:"

En este caos se agitan, por tanto, seres desajustados, ambiguous, monstruosos, como elaborados con el desecho de la naturaleza. Personajes infrahumanos, reducidos por momentos a bus meros instintos zoologicos. En otras ocasiones, carentes incluso de vida animal o vegetiva, confinados en la pasividad del objeto, devueltos a la materia inerte, con una vaga forma humana, que en sus esquemAticos movimientos de autdmatas o marionetas proyectan una grotesca parodia de los entes orgdnicos.4

In Valle, the deformation of the characters is carried out for purely 260 aesthetic reasons. Nieva follows this method generally, but also appears to have a more complex rationale for his characterization which would include social criticism and philosophical debate as well.

As a general rule in all the plays considered, the author places more importance on the development of the dress and appearance of the characters than on the ambience in which they function. This is true of much theatre, of course, but with Nieva the difference in the amount of time and effort expended to visually develop the characters far surpasses that of developing the scene. One indication we have already mentioned of the precision of the ideas of the author with respect to the visual representation of the characters is the drawings which are published with plays. The pen and ink drawings published in the texts of Pelo and Carroza are especially good examples.® They present a stylized idea of the author's concept of the character, but with great detail and precision, which might in some cases be hard to fully reproduce on stage. They are therefore, in the same manner as some of the stage directions which include details impossible to reproduce, the author's conception which might serve as a theoretical guide to the directors of the stage production.

A technique the author employs for intensification of the stereotypical effect of the characters is duplication or doubling.

Many of the characters are doubled (Melga and Dalga in Coronada) or form choral groupings (the Sublimitas in Pelo). There are opposing pairs of characters as well whose purpose is to directly contest the words and actions of another character. Examples of this are Zebedeo 261

and Coronada, and Opalos and Tasia. Many subdivisions of characters

reflect social positions in society (all the church figures in all

plays, and the alcaldes and alguaciles). All these internal

subgroupings are organized and characterized by their primary

relationship to the supreme sensual force at the center, a fact which

tends to underscore the importance and centrality of Nieva's direct

criticism of the Spanish repressive attitude to sexuality.

This prototypical aspect of the characters is underscored by

their lack of human characteristics. They are often imbued with

animal characteristics in order to more closely relate their reason

for being to the theme of primitive sensuality. The term "primitive sensuality" is used to denote that elemental, natural sexual drive which seems to have its origin in the earth itself, or in the author's terms, the Cava Alta, the workshop where Maraufia and his brothers collaborated with the four elements of earthly matter. Nieva uses the technique of combining human and animal characteristics in the same character to emphasize this type of sensuality which is present in all human beings, but often sublimated by intellectually imposed social constructs like religion, science, custom, and tradition.

Marauha's brooding silence and animal grunts are the initial indications of a technique to be developed extensively in other successive plays. The Enano Deletereo and the nuns of Pelo. as well as the alguaciles of Coronada, are further developments, the Enano and the alguaciles acting much like dogs barking and crying, while the nuns, especially Sor Juana, act much like birds. They are characters 262

of mixed animal and human identities, driven by the basic urges

instilled in them by their animal natures: the Enano and the

alguaciles to serve and follow their master and the Sor Juana to hatch

eggs. A final most explicit example of this is the goat Liliana used

first as the object of sexual desire in the ceremony of Garrafona and

later metamorphosized into another symbol of perfect aesthetic beauty,

the Venus Calipigia.

Further underscoring their prototypical nature is the fact that the author repeatedly returns to the same characters in several different plays. The most obvious cases of this intertextuality are those characters with the same names, such as Coronada and Maraufia.

In his classification of the characters, Nieva declares, for example, that these Coronadas (they appear in the "teatro de farsa y calamidad" as well) are examples of "la mujer, victima superior."® A character named Coronada has appeared in two of the works analyzed in this study: Fandango and Coronada. In each, this character is the central female figure, placed in relationship to a Maraufia, a variant of the

Spanish male chauvinist. Each Coronada is distinct in many ways and contrasts with the other, reflecting a clear individuality. The

Coronada from Coronada. for example, is a much more developed character, with precise views concerning the oppression of Zebedeo and the role of her own private sensuality. Maraufia, in similar fashion, differs greatly in the details of his presentation from play to play, but still represents the same chauvinistic ideal. To this point in the description of Nieva's use of the characters, they appear to be excessively repetitive in nature. This conclusion is perhaps belied somewhat by two factors: the detailed description of each, which at least makes them interesting as statues in a museum because of their intricate detail and the metamorphosis which some undergo in the final stages of the action of the plays.

This second factor refers to a radical, unexpected transformation in the basic nature of the character brought about because gradual change is so difficult in the settings the characters find themselves in these plays. The radical nature of the solution, with its accompanying intensity, is therefore justified. The clearest examples of this are

Cabeza and Coronada. The final sequences of these plays aim at an experience akin to religious rebirth or resurrection, which in religious terms, leaves behind an old self or way of acting in order to take on a new, radically different identity. These endings are certainly unjustified by the preceding action and seem gratuitous attempts at a solution to the problems outlined by means of unexpected supernatural intervention.

Chronological Development in the "teatro furioso"

A clear chronological development may be noted in the plays studied above. They illustrate plays written over a twenty year period of development in Nieva's thinking about theatre and reflect his accumulating experience in all phases of theatrical and operatic production. 264

The earlier shorter plays like Cabeza and Fandango illustrate a nascent interest in enunciating a theoretical idea by means of the dramatic form. Cabeza in particular can be seen as less a play than a philosophical debate on the difference between oneiric freedom and the limitations of rationally organized thought. In Fandango the author begins to apply this debate to what he perceives as the Spanish problem of repression. As he does so, various character stereotypes begin to appear which will continue throughout all his dramatic production: the characters of Maraufia and Coronada, for example, and all they represent.

With Qpalos. Nieva evokes the tradition of the Spanish "gdnero chico" and continues his playful exploration of and experimentation with the same theme— the need for sexual freedom in the face of inordinately severe traditional and institutional repression. At the same time, a growing interest is evident in the use of the theatre itself as a means of investigation into the possibilities of dramatic presentation.

Pelo is a work of experimentation in the art of the theatre.

The “redpera" as a dramatic form created by the author and discussed at length above illustrates his effort to revitalize and renovate an institution that he believes is a valuable part of a society which is experiencing dramatic political and social change. Though a short play, it contains many seeds of dramatic experimentation current in and out of Spain at the time. It does not, however, vary significantly in theme from the previous works. 265

Coronada and Carroza are full-length, fully developed works of a master playwright. They illustrate the maturity of a dramatist who has taken the previous steps and applied the lessons learned. Though the characters are prototypical and similar to those that have gone before, the complexity of plot structure and the thematic development have reached their logical fruition. They are also the plays that speak most directly and forcefully against the repression which has been the constant theme throughout all the author's work.

A valid criticism of these plays as a group is their repetitiveness of theme which produces the uniformity of character types so evident in this study. As we have seen, the characters may be categorized into perhaps half a dozen types and even bear identical names in several plays. It may be argued that a Maraufla or Coronada is never exactly the same character in any given play in which they appear, and although this is true, the types are repetitive enough that one has to look to other elements than theme and character for variety and innovation.

Metatheatre. Ceremony, and Celebration in the "teatro furioso"

Beginning with the seminal work of Lionel Abel in 1963

Metatheatre: a New View of Dramatic Form, many critics and theorists have investigated the idea of self-conscious theatre or "metatheatre."

Richard Hornby, for example, gives this definition: "metatheatre can be defined as drama about drama; it occurs whenever the subject turns out to be, in some sense, drama itself.’"7 As we will see, much of 266

the work of Nieva can be considered metatheatre.

Hornby outlines several varieties of manifestations of conscious or

overt metadrama: 1. The play within the play, 2. The ceremony within

the play, 3. Role playing within the role, 4. Literary and real-life

reference, and 5. Self-reference. To a greater or lesser degree, most

of these are not only present in Nieva's work, but are key in

illustrating the central preoccupations of the author. We will

discuss here primarily the use of ceremony as the main metatheatrical

device Nieva utilizes primarily in the "teatro furioso."

In Nieva, the metatheatrical elements are the result of his

investigation into the process of creating theatre. After considering

the background and experience of Nieva himself, one arrives at the

conclusion, when reading his texts, that he is writing his plays as

imaginative experiments into the concerns of playwrights as they

construct plays as much as he is giving directions for the staging by

directors and dialogue for the actors. Indications of his

preoccupation in this regard are present outside the texts themselves

in his discussions of the "redpera," for example, as well as his

frequent articles and interviews which seem to reinterpret

continuously what he intended. Internally, the rites and ceremonies built into the fabric of the plots attest to the author's interest in the process of dramatic creation. In addition, the notes inserted in

the dialogue frequently describe the staging effects and dialogue as

if Nieva were the director instead of the author of a dramatic text.

These indications are often subjective in nature, going beyond precise 267 staging indications into the area of moods and dramatic environments that should be created.

These examples do not necessarily indicate clear examples of metatheatre, but rather explain why metatheatre is found frequently in his plays. We will analyze first Nieva's use of the metatheatrical ceremony. The definition that Hornby gives for this phenomenon is broad: "the ceremony within the play involves a formal performance of some kind that is set of from the surrounding action."8 He further classifies these ceremonies into two types, those which are fulfilled and those which are not fulfilled due to "ineptitude, interruption, or corruption." Nearly all of the plays in this study contain some example of this. In Qpaloa y Tasia. the audience is introduced to a pugilistic encounter between two women of the street. In Pelo. the chorus of nuns acts out religious ceremony, the Bishop is assumed into heaven to the astonishment of all, and in contrast the townspeople offer a virgin to a monster in a well in a version of the pagan rite.

In Fandango, there is the off-stage ceremony of the fandango which is heard and to which some of the characters desire to go, but never do.

In addition, the witches' sabbath of La carroza. and in Coronada. the fiesta of San Bias provides the frame for several ceremonial events: the annual picture, the bull fight, the formal oath of Zebedeo, the private masturbation sequence of Coronada, and the final judgment scene which serves as the climax.

The distinctive nature of these ceremonies is that they are largely unfulfilled or not fully completed successfully. This fact 268 engenders a feeling of disorientation, discord, and sadness.

According to Hornby, "it is more important whether the ceremony within the play is fulfilled or not, in terms of emotional effect, than is the nature of the ceremony itself."® Nieva uses this emotional effect for two reasons: first as criticism of a static and stagnant social situation he would like to see changed in Spain and also as a means of obtaining elicit emotional and sensual delight in that which is condemned.

The author desires to present in his plays ceremonies which involve the audience as well as the actors in the act of

"transgression," a term adopted from George Bataille, in which no thematic, artistic, or moral boundaries or taboos are recognized or respected, but rather are purposely subverted and debased. Thus, in practical terms, everyone, actors and public alike, are meant to participate in a ritual which combines the sacred with the profane, the popular with the cultured, and the historical past with the events of the present day. This aspect of Nieva's theatre is described in a section of the poem he wrote on one occasion to provide "un primer juicio muy subjetivo sobre mi concepcidn del teatro":

Es una ceremonia ilegal, un crimen gustoso e impune. Es alteracidn y disfraz: Actores y publico llevan antifaces, maquillajes, llevan distintos trajes...10

The author writes his "teatro furioso" continually aware of the presence of the audience, of their emotional responses to what he presents, and of the means he must use to break down the distinction 269

between stage and the public.

The aspect of "chorality" that has been seen in most of the

plays analyzed is a further facet of this effort at the identification

of the play with ceremony. In Pelo. for instance, the role of the

humorous commentary of the crowd is unique in that it imitates what

the author believes might be the comments of the typical theatrical

audience on the occasion of viewing the play. The same purpose is

illustrated in Coronada, where Nieva uses five actors or actresses

with masks to represent the audience on stage, though giving them no

significant dialogue, but referring to them as "townspeople." The

author, notwithstanding these examples, never seeks to directly

involve the spectator in any participatory role beyond that of a

witness. The actions of the actors are limited to walking through the

area of the theater destined for the public, but no verbal or other

interchange occurs between the actors and the audience. With these

techniques, Nieva not only blurs the distinction of the realms of

audience and actors, but also multiplies the levels of theatrical

presentation on stage. In this sense, the plays of Nieva fail as

metatheatre since they do not clearly present the vision of two or more levels of reality on stage. In this case they simple enlarge the

world of the stage to include that of the audience.

Nieva seems to equate his plays with festive public gatherings

in which the popular aspect is always emphasized. As the author

invokes the importance of the "verbena" and the "fandango," he seeks

at the same time to present the mixture of secular and profane aspects of the celebrations made by the people for their own enjoyment. All types of ritual seem to interest the author simultaneously. The religious figures might be ridiculed for their religiosity, for example, but the aspects of the religious celebrations that reflect a carefree popular celebration are praised. Classic artistic beauty is contrasted with the vulgarity of the "cabra" in the same scene in

Carroza. Religious, aesthetic, and ethical distinctions are disregarded in the search for an environment like that of the verbena, in which all the taboos of everyday life are thrown off in search of the emotional excitement drawn from the freedom experienced as the populace unites in the search for collective pleasure. The central effort of the author is to arrive at a point in which a secret delight can be experienced by those gathered in the theatre, audience and actors alike.

The metatheatrical ceremony is clearly present in the plays of

Nieva but it tends to be submerged and blurred in the effort of the author to arrive at the integration of audience and spectacle. For a truly cathartic experience to take place between these two entities, the external world and its concerns are suspended, allowing the process of liberation to occur in the theater that he builds into the warp and woof of so many of the plays studied here. When successful, the audience may experience the release from socially imposed restrictions and responsibilities. When this occurs, in the author's view, a primitive sensual freedom will gain control in a permissive atmosphere like that of the popular festivals like the "verbena" to 271 which he has referred so consistently.

Thematic Development: Spain and Sexuality

The central themes that have surfaced in this study of the

"teatro furioso" are Spain and it's historic repression of sexuality.

These two ideas are really united into one rationale the parts of which we will discuss in this division of the chapter. The initial step in understanding Nieva's theatre is to understand his preoccupation with Spain, its theatrical models, its people, its bourgeois attitudes, and its historic repressive attitude toward sexual freedom. The next step is to understand the author's view of how sexuality should be properly viewed and exercised as a reaction to the long-standing Spanish status quo.

The diverse nature of the variety of structural models in which to encase these plays also reflects the breadth of the author's literary and dramatic study and experience, as well as his preoccupation with the literary traditions of Spain. At the same time, though, it must be said that the Spanish popular models predominate over any others. Rather than Saturno contemplating the attractions of the Venus Calipigia, or the witches' sabbath, the author appears to prefer the model of the Spanish fiesta, of the

"fandango," the "verbena," and popular forms of the "genero chico": the "entremes" and the "sainete." The choice to use these forms to embody his criticism of the Spanish misunderstanding of sensuality illustrates his preoccupation with the "Espafia negra" so often 272 mentioned in Spanish authors from the Generation of 1898 to the present. The culminating example of this is the play Coronada and the use of the stereotypical ly dominant example of the Spanish popular

"fiesta": the Bullfight.

The short length of most of the plays of the "teatro furioso" and the division of the longer ones into conveniently short "parts," illustrates the author's intent to appeal to a broad audience by imitating the brief length of the traditional and continuously popular

Spanish "g§nero chico." Rapid development in the action of the plot and a high degree of dramatic intensity are additional results of this brevity. The opportunity for boredom on the part of the audience is therefore eliminated and a process of reduction and concentration of all the semiotic elements results in a high emotional level being maintained, whether that resultant emotion be delight, desire, or disgust.

That Nieva's plays are directed to a Spanish audience is also obvious in the exaggerated stereotypical characters drawn from Spain's tradition, the hypothetical historical situations created which are typically Spanish, and the ritualistic and festive ambience to which the Spaniard would be drawn and with which he would feel some affinity. That the author intends some "medicinal effect" to be performed in the public by the plays is explicitly stated in the aforementioned poem:

Es medicina secreta, hechiceria, alquimia del espiritu, jubiloso furor sin tregua. 273

In this way the public becomes part of the phenomenon Nieva calls

"teatro total" in a way reminiscent of the "Theatre of Cruelty" of

Artaud, who theorised that the audience should be continuously challenged by the actions as well as the dialogue presented on the stage.

From the point of view of the cultural preparation of his general audiences, Nieva appears to divide them into three classes: the truly educated, who understand completely his point of view; the

"publico popular," who understand in their own way and enjoy themselves; and the petty bourgeois who have the most difficulty in understanding since they are always seeking complication and perhaps venerate culture too much. That part of modern society which is dominated by bourgeois values seeks to dominate society. Those involved in this effort "han de temer en este teatro a ese enigmatico perturbador que invita a la catarsis.,,;L1

This historically closed-minded attitude of Spain is illustrated thematically in Nieva's work by means of the use of various types of enclosures. Robert Nelson has defined works of this type as plays

"that take place wholly or largely 'inside,' with the containing space as large as a house (Ibsen's A Doll'-S. House) or as small as a funeral urn (Beckett's Plav [...]). He goes on to add that "the enclosure is oppressive and constricting, a barrier to purposeful action and a denial of human freedom." As an example of such a play, this author has chosen Garcia Lorca's La casa de Bernarda^Alba as a "'pure' or classic expression of the motif."12 Eric Bentley, in describing his 274 own staging of this same play, states that "no playwright using the

'closed' form of drama with an indoor setting ever managed better than

Lorca to give an impression of a whole village, a whole civilization. "13

In all the plays of Nieva analyzed here, except for Or>alos. we have noted a varied use of this visual and structural staging effect.

Coronada, for example, is imprisoned in her room and proceeds to act out her private ceremonies hidden from an oppressive public view. In

Cafoeza, the laboratory is a closed space from which Romulo "escapes" at the end by transforming himself. The nuns use their convent in

Pelo as a refuge in which to hide and try to protect themselves from the ravages of Mal~Rodrigo. In Fandango, the wall is the primary staging effect, enclosing the women from Maraufia, who occupies the street outside. They eventually surrender to him at the final moment and come out too late to accept his invitation to the fandango. It is correct to say, therefore, that all these plays to a greater or lesser degree carry echoes of La casa de Bernards Alba in using the enclosure for a dual purpose: to trap and hold in that which desires to and eventually will escape, and to try without success to keep out the sexual temptation that will progressively undermine the artificial barrier of the walls.

Nieva takes this motif a step further. Many smaller and more creative enclosures have also been noted such as rooms in larger dwellings, cells in the convent, "cofias" to cover nuns heads, and boxes in which to hide things. A method of multiplication of the 275

larger effect of enclosure takes place as the larger enclosures are

shown to have smaller and smaller enclosures inside them. The feeling

of oppression and imprisonment is therefore amplified by duplication.

It is true also that Nieva portrays an entire civilization or country with this technique, as did Lorca in Rernarda Alba. All of

Spain is symbolized by the enclosures we have seen. The escape,

interestingly, in Nieva's plays is through the earth and the elemental forces emanating from it. These forces were referred to in Fandango as the place where Maraufia and his brothers worked with the four basic elements, the Cava Alta. They are exemplified amply by the underground phallic personification of Mal-Rodrigo in Pelo. And in a final escape from the oppression of Spanish society (or the ultimate enclosure?) Coronada enters the earth, the tomb, only to gloriously rise again transformed into a celestial being.

The attempt to enclose is seen in these plays as a fundamental and traditional Spanish characteristic, but it is doomed to failure from the start because of the power of the sexual nature that lies beneath the feet of those who give themselves to this restrictive effort. The implied moral is that when the Spanish people finally come to understand and accept this temptation, the moment for satisfaction is past and cannot be regained. Therefore, we note that

Pelo ends with the disappointment of the people of Madrid that the monster has left and the underground portion of the city remains a honeycomb of empty, dusty, and windy passages. 276

Though limited to the context of a dramatic production in a theatre, the implied solution is nevertheless essentially a public one, to be accepted and experienced as a group. The role of the many enclosures comes into play at this point. Some individuals and groups characteristically desire to hold back in a grasping and selfish fashion what should be shared. These works, however, depict the impossibility of the attempt at enclosure since each closed space is invaded by the surreptitious influence of the ever present temptation.

The conservation of the status quo is impossible because of the omnipresence of the opposing force of temptation. It is present everywhere under the feet of the characters and audience alike, making its presence explicitly felt in plays like Pelo and Coronada, and is implicitly felt in plays like Fandango and Cabeza. The attempt to throw up religious, logical, or societal barriers to resist the influence of this natural force is demonstrated to be doomed to failure. These barriers are nonetheless a necessity in the aesthetic structure of the plays, serving as a foil and a resistance to the onslaught of sensuous temptation. Without this resistance there would be no dramatic tension.

Sexuality

Nieva's second major theme is sexuality. We will summarize here his use of this theme in the "teatro furioso" and analyse the various manifestations of this theme in his work. First the rationale Nieva uses for concentrating on this theme will be outlined. Then some 277

important manifestions of sexuality will be analyzed, such as the author's use of androgyny and phallic symbols. A conclusion will then be made about Nieva's practical definition of sexuality.

It is obvious that Nieva views modern bourgeois society as an entity which is fearful of the type of theatrical ceremony we have described, viewing it as too disturbing to the status quo. Nieva's message to us through his theatre is to leave behind the conservative inhibitions of modern society and to yield to the temptation to experience theatre as if it were a hallucinogenic drug one might take without knowing its full effects in advance.

Pues cedamos a la tentacion. Acerquemonos a el. Ante el se levanta — si bien nos fijamos— una barrera construida con excelentes materiales defensives, que pueden ser "ejemplaridad”, "didactismo", “entretenimiento", "parcialidad critica."14

The idea of "tentacidn" is central to the thinking of Nieva. For

Nieva, the theatre is "una tentacidn 'cumplida', como la voluntaria toma de una alucinogeno... Indomable como los sueflos de nuestra totalidad desinhibida cuando dormimos."15 We are reminded of

Artaud's "theatre of cruelty" when Nieva speaks of delving into this

'totality' so that we may derive pleasure from "el terror panico de ver representadas las partes m&s oscuras, las mas inexploradas o contenidas del corazdn humano."16

In theory, then, Nieva first sees a barrier set up by that conservative part of society which cannot accept the sensuality unleashed by surrender to natural forces. This is the barrier that must be crossed in the process the author refers to as 278

"transgression," the term we have seen that comes directly from George

Bataille. According to Nieva, we should collectively accept the resultant state of “culpa" as a more natural pleasure-giving state.

He presents this process as if it were a cathartic experience communally lived. In this sense the collective "celebration" in the theater is a communal "religious" experience in the way we are told ancient theatre in its origins was meant to be. The entire process is termed then an "estetica de delito."

From this initial rationale, it is easy to understand why Nieva uses so many visual elements with a sexual significance in his theatre and why they are so provocative. His ends are the destruction of the time-honored taboos of the Spanish society and the substitution of a new sexual ideal. The theatrical means employed for this purpose are primarily of two kinds: characters with ambiguous sexuality and grotesque exaggerations of common sexual symbols.

Sexuality is called most clearly into question in the androgynous characters which appear in works like Esbueno no tener cabeza and Coronada v el toro. When considered as a group these characters present no statement on considerations of gender as such but are used in Nieva as a means of expressing the need for freedom from past restrictive and inhibiting prejudices. In Cabeza, Romulo does this by changing into a female, first by changing his head and then revealing a body to match. In this fashion he is able to escape the trap of the alchemists' laboratory with its futile effort to organize human knowledge logically. The Sacristan raboso of Pelo is called a "mulato hembrado" and reveals upon questioning by the Obispo that he has the sexual organs of both sexes: the symbolic tail and an "ojo azul" (Pelo 32). Hardly a clear statement on sexuality, this case appears to be representative of the hypocritical corruption present in the convent in spite of the protestations of purity on the part of the Abadesa and the nuns. A note of the author refers to the tail as a “cola diablera." thus making clear its sinful significance. The Hombre Monja of Coronada is another androgynous character with an explicitly religious sense.

His/her role is principally that of a prophetic religious figure in whom the question of androgyneity is part of an overall apocalyptic purpose. Indeed as this character escapes on the white bull with

Coronada at the end of the play, he/she tears off the beard that was the masculine part of the characterization, declaring that it was a

“reliquia, una de las muchas barbas que uso para despistar" (Coronada

166). Androgyneity is thus part of the prophetic pose which this character uses during his/her task in Farolito but is no longer needed as he/she takes leave of the town, presumably as a female nun.

These same characters also illustrate the connection the author makes between the consideration of sexual matters and the rituals and ceremonies of religion. Andrew Greeley, speaking of human society in general, has noted this connection, saying that "the ecstatic, primordial, contemplative, ceremonial, ritualistic, communicatarian, and sexual are words that can be predicative of almost any religious

1 it.nrgv that the human race has observed." He goes on to say that "sex and religion are the two most powerful non-rational forces of the human personality [...] it is not surprising that they should be linked."17 Nieva purposes to illustrate the hypocrisy of religious resistance to sexual desire while employing a system of rituals that are themselves variant forms of a primeval sensuality. He does this by the juxtaposition of the pagan and nominally pure in plays like

Pelo. Ceferina is the primitive virginal sacrifice to a pagan deity in the phallic form of Mal-Rodrigo. She is contrasted to the

Sublimitas, the nuns in the convent, led by the fanatical Abadesa, all of whom demonstrate an interest in the temptation of Mal-Rodrigo at the same time as they participate in ceremonies and recite religious poetry which have as their stated purpose the rejection of that temptation. The author's intent is to graphically illustrate that sex and religion are inseparable, regardless of the many attempts to deny it.

Another more shocking visual symbol of the indestructible and irrepressible sexual force, which Nieva uses consistently, is the phallus. Its omnipresence in the plays discussed here is an indication of the author's preoccupation, some might say obsession, with the phallus itself and its significance in these plays. Its multiplicity of form points to a creative effort of no small proportions. Illustrations of the phallus vary from mere references to small objects like the "resorte dorado" in Qpalos, to ropes and tapestries in Pelo. to the "manga" through which the bull appears in

Coronadaas well as the bull itself, to the personified symbolic 281 appearances as in the "Hombrecito Venereo" of Fandango and the gigantic phallus which appears from the depths of the well in Pelo.

The visual centrality and overwhelming size of this symbolic object relates to the author's attempt to shock the audience. The location and size are exaggerated to the extreme in order to provide more than adequate counterpoint to the problem of repression which the author criticizes. Its varied forms and manners of appearance parallel the forms the repression has taken in Spanish society over the years. For the public gatherings in the town square which we see in Eelfi and Coronada. the author uses the largest of symbols in opposition to the relative size he believes the social ill to have.

The nuns in their convent are tempted with tapestries and ropes. The women of Fandango are presented with the phallus from the pants of

Maraufia.

The bull of Coronada is a more complex version of the same symbol. Of immense size, it is never seen in its totality. Coronada catches a glimpse of its horns and tail as it passes through her room.

The bull represents all of the viewpoints on repressed sensuality that the author has enunciated in the various other phallic symbols. The bull, for example, is the desired object of Zebedeo: he wants to have it killed in the “traditional" manner of the bullfight. This illustrates the classic wish to repress sexual desire. Marauna is cast as an emaciated bullfighter in this play to illustrate the weakness which is the result of the continued effort at killing the bull as well as the emaciation which is the result of his continual 282 captivity at the hands of Zebedeo. Coronada seeks to hide and protect the bull from Zebedeo, just as she does her true devotion to her own sexuality and the pleasure she derives from privately enjoying it.

The importance of this symbol is underscored as well in the final scene in which Coronada and her followers are transformed upon their exit from the tomb. It is a transformed white bull upon which they ride away indicating a new freedom in their relationship to sexuality.

The corresponding female sexual organs are presented in these works only indirectly by means of the verbal description of the characters themselves. This was the case in Oralos in which the pages were sent on a tour under the skirts of the protagonists and called upon to render a verbal description of what marvels they had seen.

Exaggeration is present here in the description of the vaginal areas of Opalos and Tasia which are likened to "parques de atracciones" and volcanoes. The buttocks are another part of the anatomy of the character Venus Calipigia in Carroza upon which sensually charged images are projected in an attempt to arouse the sexual interest of

Luis. A contrast is obvious from these examples in the manner of presentation of the female sexual organs, which are referred to in a much more oblique manner when dealt with at all. It can be affirmed, therefore, that if the transgression of sexual taboos is one of the main themes of the author, as has been demonstrated on various occasions in this study, those relating to male sexuality receive the primary focus and emphasis in visual perspective. An interesting contrast is evident therefore between the implicit message of the work 283 and its visual representation. The former highlights the repressive nature of masculinity while the latter places it in the central geographic position on the stage, thus lending visual importance to something at the same time that thing is criticized.

Both the traditional roles of male and female are demonstrated graphically to be unsatisfying. Neither sex is capable of gaining satisfaction in its search for a relationship with the other. The male symbols of virility disappear without satisfaction or are impotent and the females' desire is always disappointed. The male characters, like Luis in Carroza, are impotent and Coronada must seek self gratification in the imprisonment of her room.

Nieva seems to point to true sensual satisfaction in his characters with an undefined sexuality. This is true in the early play .Cftbsaa as it is in the later plays like Coronada. No clear verbal statement is made in the plays of Nieva or in his writings about this point, but an implicit homosexual viewpoint could be intended. Sexual satisfaction, in this view, would derive from sensuality without regard to the traditional sexual roles played out by the two sexes.

Nieva's relationship with European_Iheatre

Nieva is now known as perhaps the best example of a contemporary

Spanish dramatist who has employed the principles of the French surrealists. What follows then is a discussion of some of the striking similarities and the clear differences between the theories 284

of the two central figures of surrealism, Artaud and Breton, and the

dramatic practice of Nieva.

We have mentioned the similarity of some aspects of the "teatro

furioso" and the Theatre of Cruelty of Artaud, but it is important to

note at this point that there is at least one major dissimilarity

between Artaud and Nieva, that of the significance given to verbal

language on the stage. Artaud's distrust of “language as a

satisfactory medium of expression for profound emotion” and his belief

that "those who can use words easily may be accused of a glib

intellectual laziness and a lack of personal integrity,"18 led him

to a new program for the theater, expressed in the "First Manifesto of

the Theatre of Cruelty," in which

The stage will engulf the audience, not with words, but with physical and concrete sounds and images, music and dance, testing the nerves of the spectators by their conjunction and mixture. Colour and light and costume, everything theatrical, will be added to the effect. If words are used, the actors will make special use of their sounds, their intonations and incantations, to go with the new music and the new instruments.19

On this point, Lazaro Carreter has summarized the ideas of Artaud with respect to the "language" of the theatre in this way:

El lenguaje ordinario no sirve; hace falta un sistema de signos propios, como acontece en el teatro oriental, anterior al lenguaje, en el cual se integrardn la musica, los gestos, los movimientos y las palabras. Asi, en este orden: la palabra en Ultimo lugar, desprovista de su significado normal y reducida a ruidos, a los sinsentidos que poseen Io b exorcismos o las formulas de encantamiento.20

The relative prominence that Nieva confers on theatrical

language differs substantially from that of Artaud. The textual 285 spoken language of the plays of Nieva will be seen to have great importance "como medio irreemplazable, aunque no unico, de comunicacion."21 The contrast with Artaud is clear when Nieva states that it is "imposible, claro estd, renunciar a mi condicidn de escritor, incluso como escritor que crea y paladea la palabra, que la crea por creencia en ella misma."22

Perhaps above all Artaud served Nieva as support for his concept of what the theatre in its essence should be:

Artaud anunciaba entonces cosas que me parecian maravillosamente vergonzosas para el teatro, tentaciones que no se harian a la luz, la muerte deseada de un modo tibio y jer&rquico.23

Much later in his "Breve poAtica teatral," Nieva develops his own description of theatre as an

Arte espureo, hibrido, el mas mediatizado e intervenido socialmente, [...] su forma originaria [...] tenia mucho de consults ceremonial a nuestro intimo oraoulo y como deaahogo pasional apractico. Como ceremonia saturnal.24

In reference to Breton's L'Amour Fou. Orenstein notes four key notions that can be deduced which characterize the theatre of surrealists:

(1) Simultaneity, or the negation of chronology and of linear temporal sequences. (2) The dislocation of language from its usual function of communication to one of simultaneous, discrete, and interwoven monologues. (3) The juxtaposition of new and unexpected elements in a single image or conversation, obliterating the dictates of logic, reason, or chronological time sequence. (4) The spiritual climate of rite, ritual, or ceremony.25

To some degree, all of these are present in the theatre of Nieva, but, as we have seen, especially important are ritual and choral aspects 286 that Nieva consistently injects in plays such as Pelo de tormenta. Of special interest, though, is the treatment given to chronological temporal elements and the use of illogical elements in Nieva's plays which have been discussed above.

Both Breton and Artaud agree in the concept of the theatre as a type of alchemy, and that the essence and goal for both is the same.

Artaud states:

There is a mysterious identity of essence between the principle of the theatre and that of alchemy. For like alchemy, the theatre, considered from the point of view of its deepest principle, is developed from a certain number of fundamentals which are the same for all the arts and which aim on the spiritual and imaginary level at an efficacity analogous to the process which in the physical world actually turns all matter into gold.26

Analogous to the gold of the alchemist is the effort of theatre in which "the human spirit would be liberated from the matter in which it was imprisoned."2,7 On this theme, Nieva presents a curious object lesson in the play Es bueno no tener cabeza. In a poem written in his

"Poetica" to describe in "la m&s estrujada ambigiiedad verbal" what the theatre is in essence, Nieva says in part:

Es medicina secreta, hechiceria, alquimia del espiritu, jubiloso furor sin tregua.28

Alchemy in the plays of Nieva can be seen as the escape from a present confining spiritual, psychological, or social reality. This pursuit of freedom will contrast with many passages that indicate a closure or entrapment. 287

According to Andr§ Breton, one of the most important goals of

Surrealism is to achieve a mode of experience in which opposites would cease to be contradictory and a new synthesis would result, one that would transfigure our vision of reality:

Everything tends to make us believe that there exists a certain point of the mind at which life and death, the real and the imagined, past and future, the communicable and the incommunicable, high and low, cease to be perceived as contradictions. Now, search as one may one will never find any other motivating force in the activities of the Surrealists than the hope of finding and fixing this point.2®

In Nieva, this fusion of opposites is used in the realm of sexuality to blur the distinction between the sexes, in the moral realm to bring together sacred and profane, and in the aesthetic realm to combine the grotesque and beautiful.

The goal of the Surrealists was a transformation in man "which will liberate him from the deadening prison of his body and permit him to attain true contact with his spirit."30 Nieva seems to question at this point whether this type of theatre is possible when he says

Probablemente s61o una cultura muy en su origen o muy exhausta pudiera permitirse ese delictivo placer, gustar... el terror panico de ver representadas las partes mds oscuras, las mas inexploradas o contenidas del corazdn humano.31

Nieva and Contemporary Spanish Theatre

Based on Nieva's breadth of experience in all parts of Europe, working with the leading playwrights and directors of theatre and opera as a scenographer, artist, and writer, it is natural to affirm that he is one of the best known living Spanish writers and producers 288 of plays outside the confines of Spain itself. One of his major contributions to the Spanish theatrical world is that he helped introduce dramatic innovations into Spain gleaned from his work all over Europe. The historical moment which saw the writing and production of his best plays was also the moment of transition from dictatorship to democracy, from censorship to artistic freedom. This set the stage for the period of his greatest dramatic productivity.

Beginning in the late 1960's, his importance to Spanish theatre was as a scene designer. By the mid 1970's, he had published a significant portion of his work and had begun to see his plays produced on the commercial stage, several of which achieved some success, especially in the moments of transition when the Spanish people were hungry for anything new and different after the long awaited end of the stifling boredom and grayness of the period of dictatorship. Around this time, he also began a career as an instructor in the Escuela de Arte Dramatico in Madrid. In more recent years, he has begun organising theatre groups with which to perform a wide variety of plays of his own choice. The upshot of all these experiences, along with many others too numerous to mention, is not only a wide breadth of experience but also a position of prestige among those who write, direct, produce, and critique Spanish theatre today.

Though there might not be a great number of Spanish playwrights who would claim to follow closely the theatrical precepts of Nieva, there are probably few who could say that they had not been affected 289

in some way by his discussion, writing, scene design, or by his drama

productions. Certainly it would be difficult to find a Spanish

playwright who had written more articles and critiques, worked in such

a wide range of the various aspects of stage production, or

demonstrated a greater understanding of domestic and foreign dramatic

styles and movements.

Conclusion

It is easy to slip into praise for Nieva the well-rounded man of

the theatre and not isolate his role as author of dramatic texts as

the most important basis upon which to judge his work. If we set

aside all the other accomplishments except for the plays he has written, we find much critical praise but little commercial success or

collegial imitation. It is my belief that the works of Nieva can be viewed as technically innovative, linguistically challenging and

interesting, and masterfully constructed, especially the later, more fully developed plays. While there might be imitators of these aspects (Miguel Romero Esteo is one example mentioned earlier), the thematic preoccupations and audacious scatological symbols probably are seen to lack viability on the commercial stage, and therefore have

few imitators.

The position of Francisco Nieva in contemporary Spanish theatre

is that of an author who has historical importance but who does not represent the interests or themes of the most current theatre.

Because of this, his theatre has gained a respect illustrated by the 290 many awards he has won, but few imitators follow in his steps. Nieva

represents the ideas of the avant-garde movements of the 1950'e which are not in vogue now. Though it is possible for an author like

Antonio Gala to live an openly homosexual lifestyle and gain success on stage, Nieva also has, in addition to a openly homosexual

lifestyle, highlighted the theme of homosexuality in his theatre, a theme which few dramatists find of primary importance in current

Spanish theatre. One cannot consider the theatre of Nieva an example of gay theatre or theatre that advocates a homosexual lifestyle, but rather Nieva utilizes these elements as part of his overall exploration of the theme of sexuality.

There are as well several apparent contradictions in the ideas

Nieva has expressed concerning his theatre. While he rails against the bourgeois values which dominate man, he has proclaimed himself a conservative who desires to integrate into society and not stand out as a rebel. His "Teatro de farsa y calamidad" reflects this in its control of the excessive elements which appear in the "teatro furioso." Nieva also proclaims an aesthetic which is based on the pursuit of a totally free imagination, but in reality, his plays seem locked onto one central theme and change little except in orientation to that theme. This lack of thematic diversity seems to me to be

Nieva's greatest weakness.

Nieva's theatre can be justly accused of a certain elitist character. Though he is fascinated with the popular celebrations as a theme that coincides with his emphasis on aesthetic freedom, his use of this theme in the context of an avant garde ideology would make it difficult for the average man of the street to enjoy it, uninitiated as he may be in the complexities of dramatic theory. This I believe to be true in spite of the protestations of the author to the contrary. The daring nature of the sexual allusions and nudity, as well as daringly provocative uses of language, are titillating for a time but lose their appeal quickly if the spectator does not see the underlying reason for their use and the structural context of which they form an integral part. These elements in the theatre of Nieva are not simply gratuitous appeals to popularity based on an ever increasing degree of audacity in language and visual representation.

They are the logical outworkings of a well reasoned and carefully developed aesthetic.

On balance, Nieva's theatre will probably not be viewed historically as appealing to a broad audience, but rather one for a cultured elite with specific tastes. This is certainly a weakness since the author's declared intention and expressed desire is to reach a broad audience with a type of theatre from which he feels that audience will profit.

One of the aspects of Nieva's writing that appeals to other writers is his mastery of the imaginative use of language. His innovations in the use of many linguistic levels of prose and the emphasis on the word as a theatrical tool with measured dramatic impact are characteristics admired and copied by other writers. 292

If we set aside the thematic content of these plays as

individually acceptable or not depending on one's personal viewpoint

and background, there are several readily apparent characteristics

which make these works important in the contemporary panorama of

Spanish theatre.

In my opinion, perhaps the foremost of these is the balance

achieved in the presentation of significant visual and aural elements.

This balance, coupled with the immense variety supplied by the fertile

imagination of Nieva, creates a powerful instrument for the

transmission of ideas, regardless of whether the ideas might be

pleasing to the spectator or not. All theatre communicates with the

audience on a variety of levels, but Nieva has not only mastered the

art of multiplicity of level, but also amplitude within each level.

It is not illogical to begin to speak here of a new dramatic genre whose impact goes beyond that produced by simple traditional dialogue

accompanied by a limited number of complementary visual elements.

This new form is composed of highly significant music, sound effects,

lighting effects, dance, as well as dialogue spoken by individuals and by groups. It is a composite of many elements carefully orchestrated to produce maximum effect.

Another important area of innovation in Nieva is in the creative use of language which resorts to a wide range of poetic devices as well as prosaic ones, choral recitation as well as individual declamation, all part of an eclectic character which is the result of the author's aesthetic preoccupation with multiplicity and variety. 293

While the visual elements and their importance in his plays may be

Nieva's greatest innovation, his use of language may produce the longer lasting fame and popularity. The techniques of condensation, as seen in Bslo, and distortion, which is everywhere apparent, are used to continually investigate novel and creative uses for language on stage.

The author also delights in the investigation of the significant uses of theatrical space. Of special importance are the many enclosures, trapdoors, wells, windows, private rooms and public squares which are not simply convenient places for the action and dialogue to be situated, but are always significant in themselves.

They become as much a part of the semantic fabric of the productions as the other visual and aural elements. Nieva seems also to be interested in the investigation of the relationship of this space to that occupied by the spectators.

Above all else, what is appealing about this theatre is its honest effort to investigate and experiment with those processes and elements that make theatre a significant aesthetic experience.

Perhaps this effort can be criticized as a purely academic and sterile endeavor, but it has produced true innovation and development in all artistic endeavors. Based on an examination of the experiences of

Nieva and the dramatic product this study seeks to analyze, it is obvious that he is unique in his single-minded effort to investigate theatre in theoretical and practical ways. 294

NOTES

1. Francisco de Goya, Los Caprichos, text and translations by R. Stanley Johnson (Chicago: R. S. Johnson Fine Art, 1992). Examples are those etchings numbered 20, 21, 27, 38-42, 47, 60.

2. Goya, Caprichos 19, 20, 60.

3. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 111-114.

4. Antonio Risco, L^L-Sstetica^de_Valle-Inc 1 An en los espernentos v en "El ruedo iberico" (Madrid: Editorial Gredos, 1966) 225.

5. See especially Eela 26 and Carroza 53, 71, 83.

6. Nieva, Itelditag/PeliriQ 113.

7. Richard Hornby, Drama, Metadrama, and Perception (Lewisburg: Buchnell UP, 1986) 31.

8. Hornby 55.

9. Hornby 55.

10. Nieva, Malditas/Delirio 93.

11. Nieva, "Podtica" 96.

12. Enclosure: A Collection of Plays, eds. Robert J. Nelson and Gerald Weales, introd. Robert J. Nelson (New York: David McKay Co., 1975) 1.

13. "The Poet in Dublin," in Eric Russell Bentley, In Search of the Theater (New York: Vintage Books, 1959) 212.

14. Nieva, "PoAtica" 96.

15. Nieva, "PoStica" 98.

16. Nieva, "Poetica" 96.

17. Andrew Greeley, "The Sacred and the Psychedelic," Th& Critic, vol. 27, no. 5 (April-May, 1969) 25. 295

18. J. L. Styan, Modern Drama In Theory and Practice, vol. 4 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981) 108. Chapter 14 of this work is entitled: "Theatre of cruelty: Artaud and Peter Brook."

19. Styan 109.

20. F. Lazaro Carreter, "Artaud y el teatro contemporAneo," Primer Acto 159-160 (August-September, 1973): 16.

21. Jesus Maria Barraj6n, "La concepci6n teatral de Francisco Nieva," Primer Acto 219 (1987): 71. This short article accompanies the first edition in Primer Acto of Nieva's adaptation of the classic novel Las_aventuras de Tirante el Blanco.

22. Nieva, "PoAtica" 93-117.

23. Nieva, "Artaud" 34.

24. Nieva, "PoAtica" 95.

25. Orenstein, Theater., .of the Marvelous 21.

26. Antonin Artaud, The Theater and Its Double (New York: Grove Press, 1958) 48.

27. Orenstein, Theater. ..of. the...Marveloua 26.

28. Nieva, "Poetica" 94.

29. AndrA Breton, Manifestoes of Surrealism (Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1972) 123-24.

30. Orenstein, Theater of the Marvelous 28.

31. Nieva, “PoAtica" 96. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Works bv Francisco Nieva.

A. Published plays.

Es bueno no tener cabeza. £rlffle.K-As.ta 132 (May, 1971).

Teatro furioso: Es_bueno no tener cabeza, El combate de Qpalos y Tasia. -g&ndent.e. Private edition (300 copies). Madrid, 1972.

Tortolas. crepusculo_ y^.. .telfin. Madrid: Escelicer, Coleccidn Teatro 723, 1972. Introd. Francisco Nieva: "Algunos puntos de aclaracidn”. funeral-y Eaflaoalle (extracts). £dLme£_AQt.Q 148 (Sept., 1972).

Pelo de t o m e n t a . Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973).

Coronada y el toro. Primera Apoca. Pipiri.1 aina-textos 2 (1973).

Teatro furioso, Riaza, Hormiadn v Nieva: La carroza A e pIokiq candente, El combate de Qpalos v Tasia, Es buenQ^o_:tenerLJiabeza, El fandango asombroso. Cuadernos para el Dialogo. Coleccion Libros de Teatro 37. Madrid: Edicusa, 1973.

Teatro furioso. Coleccidn Expresiones. Serie Teatro. Madrid: Akal- Ayuso, 1975. (Plays included are: Pelo d etormenta, Nosfftratn (Aouelarre v noche ro.ia d e ), Coronada y eL-tor.Q, y peste de loco amor, El pafio de injurias, El jMii. lfi.de. log. ardientes) Introd. by Mois§s Perez Coterillo.

La carroza de plomo candente. In Jos§ Monleon, ed., Cuatro autoraa criticos. Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1976.

El corazdn acelerado. Nuey.a...Eafc.afeta Lit.e.r.aria 2 (1979).

sefiora Tartara (Funcidn de farsa y calamidad). Madrid: Ediciones MK, 1980.

296 297

Malditas aean_CorQnada v. b u b M.ias, Delirio del amor hostil. Ed. Antonio Gonzalez. Madrid: Catedra, 1983.

La .aarrQzeL_da__PlQmQ_candente., Coronada y el toro. Ed. Andres Amords. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1986.

Triloffia italianaj Teatro de farsa_y calamldad. Ed. Jesfis Maria Barrajon. Madrid: Catedra, 1988. (Contains: Salvator Rosa o El .ant.ifi.ta; El_.J3aile.de los ardientes o Poderoso Cabriconde; and Los ■_espanQleaJaaJ_o_tierra o El infante iamas).

Teatro completo. 2 vols. Toledo: Junta Castilla La Mancha, 1991.

B. Versions of works by other authors.

Sombra ,.y .OHimera-de-Larra (Representacidn alucinada de No mas mostrador). Coleccidn Cuadernos Practicos 22. Serie Teatro. Madrid: Fundamentos, 1976. Introd. Francisco Nieva: "Pequeha teoria sobre un teatro historico-didactico."

La paz (celebracidn grotesca sobre Aristdfanes). Nueva Coleccion Teatral «La Farsa». (March, 1980).

Casandra. Coleccidn Escena. Madrid: Eds. MK, 1983. A version of the work of Perez Galdds.

Las aventuraa-de__Tirante el^Blanc.o (Farsa dpica). Primer Acto 219 (1987).

EJLdCflgdn, Schwartz, (unpublished)

Los bafios de Argel. Madrid: Coleccidn Centro Dramatico Nacional, 1980.

C. Unpublished works of Nieva.

La Pascua Negra. Paris, 1955.

Funeral v Pasacalle. Madrid, 1971.

Los espafioles ba.io tierra (o El infame .lam&s). Madrid, 1975.

Avila viva. Madrid, 1978.

ElBuscdn (unfinished)

Danza gollarda de. la suerte .y la.muertfi. (unfinished) 298

D. Articles and books by Nieva on theatre

Francisco Nieva. "Virtudes plasticas del teatro de Valle-Incldn." Primer Acto 82 (1967): 12-21.

— . "Un nuevo sentido de la puesta en escena." Primer Acto 88 (Sept. 1967): 48-52.

"La estetica moderna y las nuevas tendencies del teatro." Yorick 33 (1969): 8-28.

"Cuatro obras de Jose Ruibal: nuevo teatro y nuevo publico." Primer Acto 109 (June, 1969): 62-63.

"Defensa condicionada del teatro de autor (Las formas abiertas en la dramaturgia de Peter Weiss)." Primer Acto 123-124 (Aug.- Sept. 1970): 42-44.

"Lo que he escrito" and "La magia anecddtica y el realismo psiquico." Primer Acto 132 (May, 1971): 65-66.

— . "Contestaci6n a Maria Elena Neira." Primer Acto 155 (Apr., 1973): 10.

. "Es dificil traducir a E. Ionesco." Primer Acto 155 (Apr., 1973): 40-42.

— . "El por qud de las nuevas formas." Primer Acto 157 (June, 1973): 12.

— . “El hipndtico y sibilino Artaud — MiscelAnea." Primer Acto 159-160 (Aug.-Sept., 1973): 34-35.

— . "Artaud y Vitrac." Primer Acto 159-160 (Aug.-Sept., 1973): 47- 52.

— . "Encuesta sobre la censura." Interview. Primer Acto 165 (Feb., 1974): 7-8.

— . "Claves excedentes" (opusculo al Baile de.los ardientes). Teatro furioso, 1975: 389-93.

— . "Francisco Nieva, un dramaturgo en el silencio." Interview. Insula 343 (June, 1975): 4.

— . "Carta abierta a Rodriguez Mendez y a Martin Recuerda. Pasidn y suerte del autor espafiol." Informaciones 19 June 1975, Supplement Artes y Letras 362: 5. 299

. "Autobiografia," "Entrevista con Francisco Nieva,” and "Volver a Granada." Jose Monleon. Cuatro autores criticos. Granada: Graficas del Sur, 1976. 99-111.

"Lorca y Valle-Incan: Dos latifundios culturales." Infom&clflnea 10 July 1975, Supplement Artes y Letras 365.

. "Nueva aventura teatral del centre dramatico." ABC Report ale 6 Dec. 1979, Edicidn Aeria: n. pag.

. "El mal teatro que hacemos." Informaciones 15 Apr. 1976, Supplement Artes y Letras 405: 8-9.

. Nieva, Francisco, Marina Mayoral, and Andrds Amoros. An&lisis de_cinco comedias (teatro eapafiol de la Postguerra). Literatura y sociedad 14. Madrid: Castalia, 1977.

. "Francisco Nieva." Teatro espanol actual (1977): 265-76.

. "Un poco de historia." El pais 6 Feb. 1977: 21.

. "Primeros sintomas de un colapso." Informaciones 1 Sept. 1977, Supplement Artes y Letras 476: 6-7.

. "Desvalorizacidn cultural." Year 1. El pais 23 Oct. 1977, Supplement Arte y Pensamiento: 15.

"De Valle-Inclan al nuevo teatro." El pais 15 Jan. 1978: 11.

. "Vanguardia y epigonismo de Asi cue pasen cinco afios." Primer Acto 182 (Dec., 1979): 36-39.

. "Mesa de redaccidn." Primer Acto 184 (Apr.-May, 1980): 38-57.

. "Autobiografia: Es asi como los que suefian descubren la realidad." Triunfo 35.7 (May, 1981): 55-63.

. "Mi teatro es total." Interview. ABC Report aJe 12 Feb. 1981, Edicion Aeria: n. pag.

"Sobre nuestra imagen de nuevos autores en el extranjero." Estreno 4.1 (Spring, 1978): 5-7.

. "Francisco Nieva y los dilemas del teatro." Interview. ABC 8 Jan. 1978: 46.

. "Delirio del amor hostil: Erotismo y pornografia." Tnfnymflclonefl 19 Jan. 1978, Supplement Artes y Letras 495: 6-7. 300

"Francisco Nieva y el lenguaje teatral." Interview. ABC 22 Jan. 1978: 28.

— . "Antecritica de Delirio del amor hostil." Interview. ABC 22 Jan. 1978: 56-57.

— - "Con Paco Nieva, premio nacional de teatro." Interview. ABC 18 Jan. 1980: 40.

— - "A la Msqueda del gran teatro." Interview. Primer Acto 194 (1982): 23-26.

. "El auroral teatro de Lorca." El pais 19 Aug. 1986, Supplement Artes y Letras: 6-7.

"La estetica y la imagen en la Nueva Cultura." Interview. Punto v Coma 6 (1987): 57-59.

"Nieva: Antimorale,)as de un pesimista muy vital." Interview. El Pfiblico 54 (Mar., 1988): 17-19.

— ■ E&-lLelft-..de .iulcio: La..literature_y la vida, la moda v el teatro. Madrid: D.L., 1988.

— . "Vanguardia teatral." Primer Acto. Separata 225 (Sept., 1988).

— . "El baile de los ardientes." Primer Acto 232 (Jan.-Feb., 1990): 41-43.

Bg£findanL.fiQurces:_ ArMclea_andJx^oks JBrinciPallv dealing with Nieva ftnfiLMs-work,

Amoros, Andris. "Tres 'Casandras': de Galdos a Galdds y a Francisco Nieva." Acta8_del_ae^undQ_congre8Q_ internaclonal de estudios galdosianos II. Las Palmas: Ediciones del excmo. Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, 1980: 69-102.

Aragonis, Juan Emilio. "Coronada y el toro. de Francisco Nieva." Nueva Estafeta 43-44 (June-July, 1982): 131-132.

Barea, Pedro. "En busca de la totalidad." Pipiri.iaina 17 (Nov.- Dec., 1980): 48-49.

Barrajdn, Jestis. La poetica de Francisco Nieva. Diputacidn de Ciudad Real: Biblioteca de autores y temas manchegos, 1987. 301

— . "Trilogia italiana." £1 Publico (Cuaderno) 21 (Feb., 1987): 63- 70.

Becker, Angelica. "Sorpresa en el teatro espanol: un nuevo autor 'antiguo.'" Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 253-54 (Jan., 1971): 260-68.

. "Un teatro de la sorpresa." Primer Acto 132 (May, 1971): 61-64.

Bilbatua, Miguel. "En torno a la dramaturgia espafiola actual." In Luis Riaza, Francisco Nieva and Juan Antonio Hormigon. Teatro de Riaza. Hormigdn. Nieva. Libros de teatro 37. Madrid: Cuadernos para el dialogo (Edicusa), 1973: 5-23.

Buendia, Enrique. "Entre el apocalipsis y la subversion: Pelo de tormenta. F. Nieva." Resefia 13.91 (Jan., 1976): 24-25.

Cuartas, Javier. "El dramaturgo Francisco Nieva gana el Principe de Asturias de las Letras." El Pais. Overseas Edition (Jun. 1, 1992): 19.

Gonzalez, Antonio. "Introduccidn" and "Bibliografia." In Nieva, MaJL.dj.taB., gMiLJCjagonadft-y . aus M .i&s and Delirio del amor hostil. Letras hispanicas 119. Madrid: Catedra, 1980: 9-81 and 83-91.

Gorna-Urbanska, Katarzyna. "Viaje al teatro de Francisco Nieva." El Pfiblico (Cuaderno) 21 (Feb., 1987): 21-61.

Gortari, Carlos. "Malditamente consagrado: Francisco Nieva." Resena 12.88 (Sep.-Oct., 1975): 14-16.

Martin, Sabas. "Teatro de autor y teatro de grupo: Buero, Nieva, el T.E.I. y 'La cuadra.'" Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos 317 (Nov., 1976): 434-43.

Medina Vicario, Miguel. "No es verdad. Te guiero. zorra." Resena XXV: 183 (Apr., 1988): 183.

Monleon, Jos6. "Francisco Nieva, o la orgia de lo real." Primer Acto 153 (Feb., 1973): 15-17.

— . "Una obra de Francisco Nieva." In Larra. escritos. sobre_teatro. Madrid: Cuadernos para el dialogo (Edicusa), 1976: 72-74.

"oCual es el valor actual del teatro que se opuso a la dictadura?" Triunfo 769 (Oct., 1977): 58.

— . "Francisco Nieva." In Teatro breve contemporaneo: Buero. Mufiiz. Nieva. Oimo. Primer Acto separata 239 (1992). 302

Perez Coterillo, Moises. "'Teatro furioso.'" In Nieva, Coronada v el toro, 1974, 17-24.

"Nuevos autores: Apocaliptico e irrecuperable: Francisco Nieva." Informaciones 25 July 1974, Supplement "Artes y Letras" 315: 6-7.

. Introduction to Nieva, Teatro furioso. 1975, 7-38.

"Francisco Nieva: teatro como gimnasia mental: La paz. una gozosa celebracion de Aristofanes." Blanco v Negro 3420 (Nov., 1977): 44-45.

"Los caminos de Francisco Nieva." In Francisco Rico, Historia v ■critlca de la... literature espafiola 8. Domingo Yndurain, Epoca gontemporanear 1939-1980. Barcelona: Editorial Critica, 1981.

Petit, HervA. "'Teatro de farsa y calamidad.'" In Nieva, Coronada v el toro. 1974, 7-16.

Santos, Jesus Maria. "Nieva: Antimoralejas de un pesimista muy vital." El_EuMlfifl 54 (Mar., 1989): 183.

Signes, Emil George. "The Theatre of Francisco Nieva: A Summary, Analysis, and Bibliography, together with an Edition and Translation of La_carroza de Plomo candente." Diss. Rutgers U, 1982.

Valdivieso, L. Teresa. “Nieva: encarnaciAn de Dionisos revolucionario y satanico." In Valdivieso, "Una aproximacidn semiolAgica al teatro clandestino espanol." Diss. Arizona State 1975: 250- 260. van der Naald, Anje C. "Francisco Nieva." In van der Naald, Nuevas tendencies enel teatro espanol: Matilla. Nieva. Ruibal. Miami: Ed. Universal and Barcelona: Artes Graficas Medinaceli, 1981.

General works on theatre.

A. Spanish theatre.

Abelian, Manuel L. Censura v creaclon literaria en Espafia, 11939- 1976). Barcelona: Peninsula, 1980.

Alvaro, Francisco. El espectador y la .crltica. Valladolid, 1983.

Amell, Samuel and Salvador Garcia Castaneda, eds. La cultura espafiola en el POStfranguismQ. Madrid: Ed. Playor, 1988. 303

Aragones, Jose Emilio. Velnte afios de teatro espanol (1960-1980). Society of Spanish and Spanish American Studies. Boulder: U of Colorado, 1987.

Ar.te esc&ilco. Coleccidn teatral de autores espafioles. Madrid: Ed. Preyson, 1985.

Artiola, Carmen. "El papel del ritual en el teatro espafiol del siglo XX." Diss. Purdue U, 1985.

Berenguer, Jesus. Introducel&a_a_LaumJ3Jj&Q^„Ia JMiaa^El-Suacta poder. Madrid: Catedra, 1984.

— . "Para una aplicacion del metodo estructuralista al estudio del teatro espanol contemporaneo." Paris: Proemio, "Etudes Iberiques," 1971.

Borel, Jean Paul. El teatro de lo impoaible. Madrid: Ed. Guadarrama, 1966.

Buero Vallejo, Antonio. Teatro espafiol actual. Madrid: Fundacion Juan March/Catedra, 1977.

Cabal, Fermin and Jose Luis Alonso de Santos. Teatro espafiol de los 8 0 . Madrid: Fundamentos, 1985.

Cata.lQgQ__de„Qbras_ de- teatro espafiol del aiglo_XX. Madrid: Fundacion Juan March, 1985.

Cotarelo y Mori, Emilio. Don Ram6n de la Cruz y__sua Qbraai_enaayo blogrdfico_.y bibliogr&fico. Madrid: Imprenta de Jose Perales y Martinez, 1899.

Cruz, Ramon de la. Sainetes. Ed., intro., and notes John Dowling. Madrid: ClAsicos Castalia, 1981.

Domenech, Ricardo. El teatro. hoy. Madrid: Edicusa, 1966.

— . "El teatro desde 1936." In Jose Maria Diez Borque. Historia de la literature-espafiola. Vol. IV, 20th Century. Madrid: Taurus, 1980. 391-451.

Donahue, Thomas John. The -Theatre of Fernando Arrafcali_JL.Garden-.Qf Earthly Delights. New York: New York UP, 1980.

Ebersole, Alva V. Los sainetes de Ramon de Aa_QcuaiJ8ueyQ-..ex6m.en. Valencia: Ediciones Albatros Hispanofila, 1983.

Edwards, Gwynne. Dramatists in Perspective ^-Spanish Iheatr.e. In... the Twentieth Century. Cardiff: U of Wales P, 1985. 304

Elizalde, Ignacio. Temas v tendencies del teatro actual. Madrid: Planeta/Universidad, 1977.

Garcia Lorenzo, Luciano. "El teatro." In Yndurain, 1981, 556-687.

— - Doaumeatofi sobre elJbsatep. Madrid: SGEL, 1980.

— . El. teatro espafiol hoy. Barcelona: Planet a, 1975.

— . "Teatro y sociedad en la Espafia de posguerra." In El teatro y su crltica. Malaga: Diputacion Provincial, 1975.

Garcia Templado, JosA. Teatro experimental-espafiol■ Madrid: Escelicer, 1965.

Halsey, Martha T. and Phyllis Zatlin. The Contemporary Spanish Theatre: A-Collection_of Critical Essays. Eds. Martha Halsey and Phyllis Zatlin. New York: UP of America, 1988.

Holt, Marion P. The Contemporary Spanish-Theatre (1949-1972J. Twayne's World Author Ser. 336. Boston: Twayne, 1975.

. Drama Contemporary: Spain. New York: Performing Arts Journal Publ., 1985.

Hormigdn, Juan Antonio. Ramon del Valle-InclAn. Madrid: Alberto Corazon, 1976.

Huerto Calvo, Javier. El teatro en elSiglo_XX. Madrid: Ed. Playor, 1985.

Hie, Paul. The Surrealist Mode in SpanishJLdteralure^Jki Interpretation of Basic Trends from Post-Romanticism... to_the. Spanish Vanguard. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1968.

Isasi Angulo, Armando C. Di&logos del teatro espafioLde_la postguerra. Madrid: Ayuso, 1974.

Lain Entralgo, Pedro. MAs de cien espaholea. Barcelona: Planeta, 1981.

Larraz, Emmanuel. Teatro espafiol contemPoraneQ. Paris: Masson, 1973.

L6pez Mozo, Jeronimo. “Breve panorama del teatro espafiol durante el postfranquismo," Estreno 12.2 (Autumn, 1987): 24-27.

Lyon, John. The Theatre of Valle-Inclan. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983. 305

Medina Vicario, Miguel Angel. Teatro. espaflol en el banguillo. Valencia: Fernando Torres Editor, 1976.

Miralles, Alberto. Nuevo teatro espafiol: una alternativa cultural fiooial- Madrid: Villalar, 1977.

Molero Manglano, Luis. Teatro espafiol contemporaneo. Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1974.

Monleon, Josd. Treinta afios de teatro de la derecha. Barcelona: Tusquets, 1971.

Moore, John A. Ram6n de la Cruz. Gen. ed. Sylvia E. Bowman. Spanish ed. Gerald Wade. Twayne's World Author Ser. New York: Twayne, 1972.

Nuevas. tondfe3aoiaa_esfi.^niofta., La_escritura teatral a debate. Ed. Centro Nacional de Nuevas Tendencias Escenicas, Coleccidn Teoria Escenica. Madrid: Ministerio de Culture, Direccion General de Musica y Teatro, 1985.

O'Connor, Patricia W. "Government Censorship in the Contemporary Spanish Theatre." MucationalJEhe_atre_Journal 18 (1966): 443- 449.

Oliva, Cesar. .Cuatro jdr.amatur.gos..x^aliabaa_.en la escena deJaovi-fiUB contradicciones esteticas. Murcia: U of Murcia, 1978.

Ortega y Gasset, Jos§. Goya. Barcelona: Espasa-Calpe, 1950.

Perez Coterillo, Moises. Guia.teatral de Espafla. Madrid: Centro de Documentacion Teatral, 1987.

Pdrez-Stansfield, Maria Pilar. "Un exilio sin exilio en el teatro espanol vanguardista actual: situacion y problematica." Monographic Review/Revista monogr&fica 2 (1986): 126-139.

— . Direcciones del teatro. egnafiQl -de PQSguerra^_ruB-tura_c.Qi]L-eI teatro burguds v radicallsmo.. CQntejat.at.ariQ ■ Madrid: Porrua Turanzas, 1983.

Portl, Klaus, ed. Reflexionea. sobre_el Nuevo-Teatro Espano.1. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1986.

Rodriguez Mdndez, Jose Maria. Comentarios impertinentes sobre. el teatro espanol. Barcelona: Ed. Peninsula, 1972.

Romero Esteo, Miguel. Fiestas_gordas del vino y tocino. Madrid: Jucar, 1975. 306

— - Pizzicato-irrisorio y gran pavana de lechuzos. Author's edition. Madrid: Catedra, 1984.

— . El vodevil de la palida, palida, palida, palIda rosa. Madrid: Fundamentos, 1979.

Ruibal, Jose. Teatro sobre teatro. Madrid: Edicusa, 1975.

Ruiz Ramon, Francisco. EsAudioS-.de-tfi.atr.Q-eapahoL.clasic.Q_.ff contemporaneo. Madrid: Fundacion Juan March/Catedra, 1978.

— . Historla.del teatro espafiol: sielo XX. 6th ed. Madrid: Catedra, 1984.

Salvat, Ricardo. El teatro de los alios .70, Diccionario de urgencla. Barcelona: Ediciones Peninsula, 1974.

Sanchez Vidal, Agustin. Bunuel,. Lorca. Dali:._ El _enigma .sin fin. Barcelona: Ed. Planeta, 1988.

Schwartz, Kessel. The Meaning.of Existence in Contemporary Hispanic. Literature. Miami: U of Miami P, 1969.

Sender, Ramon J. Valle v la dificultad de la traeedia. Madrid: Gredos, 1965.

Teatro espahol actual. Fundaci6n Juan March. Madrid: Catedra, 1977.

Torrente Ballester, Gonzalo. Teatro espafiol contemporaneo. 2nd ed. Madrid: Guadarrama, 1968.

Urbano, Victoria. El teatro espafiol y b u s directrices contemporaneaa. Madrid: Ed. Nacional, 1972.

Valdivieso, Maria Teresa. Espafia: Bibliografia de un teatro sllenciado. New York: Society of Spanish and Spanish American Studies, 1979.

Wellwarth, George E. SpaniBhJJnderground Drama. University Park: Penn. State UP 1972.

— . The Theater ol_ Erotea^_anci_£amdQX. New York: New York UP, 1971.

Zahareas, Anthony, gen. ed. Ram6n_del Valle-Inclan: An .Appraisal..of his Life and Work. New York: Las Americas, 1968.

Zatlin, Phyllis. "Homosexuality on the Spanish Stage: Barometer of Social Change." Espafia.Contemporanea 1.2 (Spring, 1988): 7-17. 307

B. Theatre outside of Spain.

Abel, Lionel. Metatheatre: A New View of Dramatic Form. New York: Hill and Wang, 1963.

Artaud, Antonin.... The..Theatre and Its Double. Trans. Mary Caroline Richards. New York: Grove Press, 1958.

Balakian, Anna. "Surrealism." Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 2Qth .Century, 4 vols. New York: Ungar, 1975.

Bataille, Georges. Death and Sensuality: A Study of Eroticism and the Taboo. New York: Arno Press, 1977.

— . Eroticism. Trans. Mary Dalwood. London: John Calder, 1962.

— . Lltemture_and_Ey.il. Trans. Alistair Hamilton. Guilford (Surrey), Great Britain: Calder & Boyars, 1973.

Beauvoir, Simone de. The Marquis_de Sade. Ed. Paul Dinnage. Trans. Paul Dinnage and Annette Michelson. New York: Grove P, 1953.

Bentley, Eric Russel. In-Search of. the Theater. New York: Vintage Books, 1959.

Blanchot, Maurice. LautrAamont et Sade. Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1949.

Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht .on Theatre. Trans. John Willett. New York, London: Hill and Wang/Grove P, 1958.

Brook, Peter. The Empty Space. New York: Atheneum, 1981.

Caillois, Roger. L'Homme et le Sacre. 2nd ed. Paris: Gallimard, 1950.

Cohn, Ruby. Currents in Contemporary Drama. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1969.

Enclosure: A Collection of Plays. Eds. Robert J. Nelson and Gerald Weales. Introd. Robert J. Nelson. New York: David McKay Co., 1975.

Esslin, Martin. An Anatomy of Drama. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977.

— . The Theatre of the Absurd. Rev. ed. Anchor Books. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1969.

FAbregas, Xavier. Introduceion al_lenguage teatral. Trans. Jos§ Bat116. Barcelona: Batll6, 1975. 308

Fergusson, Francis. The Human Image in Dramatic Literature. New York: Doubleday, 1957.

Fourny, Jean-Francois. Introduction a la lecture de Georges Bataille. New York, Paris: Peter Lang, 1988.

Fowlie, Wallace. LautrSamont. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1973.

Grotowski, Jerzy. Hacia un teatro nobre. Mexico: Siglo XXII Editores, 1971.

Hornby, Richard. Drama, Metadrama, and Perception. Lewisburg: Bucknell UP, 1986.

Jarry, Alfred. Qeuyres__completes. Paris: Gallimard, 1972.

Kirby, E. T. ToiaI_Theatre: A-Critical Anthology. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1969.

Meyerhold, V.E. Teoria teatral. Madrid: Ed. Fundamentos, 1975.

Morris, C.B. Surrealism and Spain: 1920-1936. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1972.

Naish, Camille. A Genetic Approach to Structures in.the Work of Jean Genet. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1978.

Orenstein, Gloria Feman. The Theatre of the Marvelous:_„SurrealisnL_and the Contemporary Stage. New York: New York UP, 1975.

Pavis, Patrice. PicaiQnarifl-dal-tfefttJgfi■ Trans. Fernando de Toro. Barcelona: Paidos, 1980.

Richman, Michele. Reading George Bataille, beyond theJGift. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1982.

Shrager, Sidney. Scatology in Modern Drama. New York: Irvington Publishers, 1982.

Smith, Maxwell. Alfred,Jarry. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983.

Strauss, Botho. Critica teatral: Las nuevas fronteras. Barcelona: Ed. Gedisa, 1989.

Styan, J.L. Modern Drama in Theory and Practlce. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1981.

Todorov, Tzvetan. Poetique de la Prose. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1971. 309

Valency, Maurice. The...End of_.the.World:An Introduction to Contemporary Drama. New York: Oxford UP, 1980.

Wellwarth, George. T he_..Iheat.re__oiLPro-test and Paradox: Developments inthe Avant-Garde Drama. Rev. ed. New York: New York UP, 1971.

C. Theory and methods of semiotic analysis

Alter, Jean. "From Text to Performance: Semiotics of Theatrality." Poetics Today 2.3 (Spring, 1981) 113-139.

Birdwhistle, R. L. "L'analyse kinesique." Languages 10 (June, 1968) 101-106.

Bobes Naves, Maria del Carmen. Comentario de textosllterarios. MAtodo Semioldgico. Madrid: Cupsa/U de Oviedo, 1978.

Bogatyrev, Petr. "Les signes du theatre." Poetioue 8: 517-530.

Carlson, Marvin. Theatre.Semiotics: Signs of Life. Boomington and Indianapolis: Indiana UP, 1990.

Chaudhuri, Una. No. Man'a Stage: A Semiotic Study of Jean Genet's Maior. Plays. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research P, 1986.

Diez Borque, JosA Maria and Luciano Garcia Lorenzo, eds. Semlologia del teatro. Barcelona: Ed. Planeta, 1976.

Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1979.

Elam, Keir. The_Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. London: Routledge, 1988.

FAbregas, Xavier. IntroducciAn al lenguage.teatral. Barcelona: Los libros de la frontera, 1975.

Garrido Gallardo, Miguel Angel, ed. Teoria SemiAtica: Lenguaie v textos hispanicos. Vol. I. Las Actas del Congreso Internacional sobre Semi6tica e Hispanismo celebrado en los dias del 20 al 25 de junio de 1983. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas. Madrid: Taravilla, 1983.

— . Crltica 5emi6tisa_.de textos literarios hispanicos. Vol. II. Madrid: Taravilla, 1983.

Helbo, Andre. "Semiologie du texte et/ou de la representation: une crise fAconde." Degree 6.13 (Spring, 1978) g (pag. by letter). 310

Koechilin, B. "Technique corporelles et leur notation symbolique." Langftggfi 10 (June, 1968) 36-47.

Kowzan, Tadeusz. Litterature et spectacle dans leurs rapports esthetigues thematiquea et semiologigues. The Hague: Mouton, 1975.

— . ed. Analyse semiologjque duspectacle theatral. Lyon: Centre d'Etudes et de Recherces Theatrales, Universite de Lyon II, 1976.

Kristeva, Julia, ed. Essays ln -S.effiio.fcigs. The Hague: Mouton, 1971.

"Le geste, pratique ou communication?" Languages 10 (June, 1968) 48-64.

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