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A Short History of Philosophy Published by James Maclehose and Sons, Glasgow QlorncU Htitucraitg Hibrari] ilthara. Nctti Dnrk BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THF SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE (TIFT OF W. HENRY SAGE 1 189: (Cornell HttittetHttg Slihrarg BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1691 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028972234 A SHORT HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY PUBLISHED BY JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS, GLASGOW, VttbXtsluvs to thf ^ntbcrfiitg. MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON. I/ew York, The Macmillan Co. Toronto^ The Macfnillan Co. of Canada, London, • Simpkin^ Hamilton and Co. Cambridge, • Macmillan and Bowes. Edinburgh, Douglas and Foulis. Sydney, • Angus and Robertson. A SHORT- HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY BY ARCH. B. D. ALEXANDER, M.A. GLASGOW JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS PUBLISHERS TO THB UNIVERSITY 1907 GLASGOW : PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS- BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD, —a PREFACE Increased attention has been devoted in recent years to historical studies. It will not be assumed that the history of action is worthier of consideration than the history of thought. While a number of books dealing with particular periods of philosophy have been written, it is somewhat remarkable that few, if any, English works have appeared treating of its general history. No subject is more frequently lectured upon in German Universities than the history of philosophy, and many of the larger treatises we possess are the products of such courses of lectures—^some of the most notable of these have been made available through translation. But with the exception of Lewes' Biographical History— book which is now half a century old, and one written to discredit all philosophy—and a small handbook in the Bohn edition which only came into my hands when my own book was completed I know of no purely British work which treats of the entire course of European speculation. Though I dare not flatter myself that I have succeeded in supplying the want, it seems to me that there is a need for such a volume. The true introduction to philosophy is its history. For students and those vi PREFACE who are interested in the progress of thought it is desirable to have a book of orientation in which one may discover the standpoint and significance of a writer individually and in relation to his times. " Such is the aim of this Short history of philosophy." I have called it a short history, because, though it seeks to furnish fuller information than may be derived from a mere outline or handbook, it does not profess to compete with larger works, such as those of Erdmann, Zeller or Kuno Fischer. I have endeavoured to indicate the salient features rather than to give an exhaustive account of the successive systems of philosophy, and have attempted to show the place and influence of each in the evolution of thought. I have included in the History an account of some German writers who, though not strictly regarded as philosophers, have exercised a powerful influence upon speculative thought as well as upon general culture. I have also devoted a larger space to English and Scottish thinkers than is usually assigned to them in German histories. Finally, I have sought to add to the value of the book by giving a resume of the progress of thought in our own country and on the Continent in the nineteenth century, and by bringing the history of philosophy down to our own day. It would be impossible to enumerate all the authorities to which I am indebted. I have made use of most of the larger German and French histories, and have consulted many of the writers who treat of special periods. While acknowledging my obligations to Hegel, Erdmann, Windelband, Kuno Fischer, Falckenberg, Zeller, Ferrier, Seth, Adamson, Caird, Green, and others, I may say that PREFACE vii in dealing with the more ftnportant writers and with many of the lesser, I have studied their own works. A list of the chief writings of each author has been given, but it has not been deemed necessary to cumber the text with a multitude of references. For the aid of students a fairly full bibliography has been supplied, while an index' of names and topics has been added. But for the kindly interest and helpful suggestion of Professor Jones of Glasgow University, who read some parts of the MS., the book would have been more imperfect than it is. He will allow me the satisfaction, I trust, of recording my sincere thanks. Langbank, Glasgow, May, 1907. CONTENTS PACK Authorities and Bibliography, .... xvii Introduction : Conception. History. Division, . i Part I. GREEK PHILOSOPHY. Sect. i. Physical Period. Chap. I. Systems of Unity: I. Ionic School, ..... lo ^. Pythagorean School, . .13 3. Eleatic School, . 17 „ II. Pluralistic Systems : 1. Heraclitus, . 21 V 2. Empedocles, . 24 3. Democritus, . .25 4. Anaxagoras, ..... 28 Sect. 2. Moral Period. Chap. I. The Sophists, . -31 „ II. Socrates, ..... 37 Cynics and Cyrenaics, . -43 CONTENTS Sect. 3. Systematic Period. PAGE Chap. I. Plato, 47 1. Logic, 49 2. Physics, 54 3. Ethics, 55 „ II. Aristotle, 63 1. Theoretic Philosophy—Metaphysics, . 65 2. Practical Philosophy—Ethics, . 71 3. Productive Philosophy—Art and Poetry, 79 Part II. PHILOSOPHY IN THE ROMAN WORLD. Chap. I. Ethical Theories : 1. Stoicism,. .... 85 2. Epicureanism, .... 94 3. Scepticism, 98 „ II. Religious Tendencies, . 103 1. Roman Moralists—Seneca, Epictetus, M Aurelius, .... 104 2. Neoplatonism—Philo, Plotinus, Proclus, 106 Part in. PHILOSOPHY OF MIDDLE AGES. Chap. I. The Patristic Period — Augustine and Church Fathers, . -113 „ II. ScholasticPeriod—NominalismandRealism, 119 „ III. Platonic Influence, . .123 Anselm, Abelard, Peter Lombard, . .124 „ IV. Aristotelian Influence, . .129 1. Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, . .130 2. Duns Scotus, Francis of Assisi, William of Occam, ..... 132 CONTENTS XI Part IV. REVIVAL OF PHILOSOPHY. lap. I. xii CONTENTS PAGE Chap. III. Sceptical Conclusion—Hume, . 232 1. Impressions and Ideas,. 234 2. Causality and Association, . 239 3. Duty and Utility, . .245 „ IV. Practical Questions : — 1. Natural Philosophy ^Newton, Hartley, . 251 2. Theological Controversy—English Deism, . 253 3. Ethical Theories—English Moralists,. 258 4. Scottish Philosophy—Reid, Stewart, etc., . 266 Sect. 2. Enlightenment in France. Chap. I. Earlier Rationalism, .... 274 1. Bossuet, Fontenelle, Bayle, . 276 2. Montesquieu, Condillac, Helvetius, . 279 „ II. Materialistic Tendencies : 1. Diderot, D'Alembert, . 286 Voltaire, — 2. La Mettrie, Holbach 'Systfeme de la Nature,' 291 3. Revolt of Rousseau, .... 295 Sect. 3. Enlightenment in Germany. Chap. I. Individual Idealism—Leibnitz, . 302 1. Theory of Monads, .... 305 2. Pre-established Harmony, . .311 3. Theory of Knowledge, . -313 4. God and the World, . .316 5. Freedom and Morality,. 319 „ II. Followers of Leibnitz : 1. Thomasius, . 323 2. Tschirnhausen, ..... 325 3. Wolff, 326 . CONTENTS Xlll PAGE Chap. III. Popular Philosophv? . 334 1. Mendelssohn, 335 2. Nicolai, . 339 3. Lessing, . 340 Part VI. GERMAN IDEALISM. Sect. i. Critical Philosophy—Kant. Introduction, . -347 Chap. I. Kant's Theoretic Philosophy,. 357 1. Transcendental Aesthetic, . 360 2. Transcendental Analytic, . 362 3. Transcendental Dialectic, . 367 „ II. Kant's Practical Philosophy, . 372 1. Source and Contents of Moral Law, . 376 ' 2. Kingdom of Ends and Summum Bonum,' . 380 3. Theory of Rights and Duties,. 382 „ III. Critique of Judgment, . -385 1. Aesthetic Judgment, .... 386 2. Teleological Judgment,. 389 3. Views of Religion, . -391 Sect. 2. Development of Idealism. Chap. I. Philosophy of Feeling, . 399 1. Hamann,. ... 400 2. Herder, ...... 401 3. Jacobi, . .403 4. Schiller and Humboldt, . 409 „ II. Subjective Idealism—Fichte, . 412 1. Science of Knowledge, . .415 2. Its Theoretic Principles, . 418 3. Its Practical Sphere, .... 423 1 XIV CONTENTS PAGE Chap. III. Objective Idealism—Schelling, 429 1. Philosophy of Nature, . 433 2. Philosophy of Identity,. 436 3. Mythology and Revelation, 439 „ IV. Romantic School,. 445 1. Novalis and Schlegel, . 447 2. Baader and Krause, 45 3. Schleiermacher, . 455 „ V. Reaction against Idealism, 463 1. Herbart, . 464 2. Schopenhauer, . 473 3. Pessimism, 479 Sect. 3. Philosophy of the Absolute—Hegel. CONTENTS XV Part VII. PHILOSOPHY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY. Chap I. Recent German Thought : 1. Influence of Hegelianism, 523 2. Materialistic Tendency, 527 3. Idealistic Tendency, 530 „ II. Recent French Thought, 543 1. Cousin and Eclecticism, 546 2. Comte and Positivism,. 549 3. Religious Philosophy, . 558 „ III. Recent British Thought: 1. Utilitarianism —Benthani and Mill, . 561 2. Evolution—Darwin and Spencer, 567 3. Influence of German Idealism—Green, 579 Conclusion, . 583 Index, .... 589 AUTHORITIES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY The works of writers mentioned in the text are not here cited. I. WHOLE PERIOD. Erdmann, ' History of Philosophy.' 2 vols. (Trans.) Fischer, Kuno, ' Geschichte der Philosophic.' 7 vols. Hegel, ' Geschichte der Philosophie.' 3 vols. Janet and Seailles, ' History of the Problems of Philosophy.' 2 vols. Lange, ' Geschichte des Materialismus.' 3 vols. Lewes, ' Biographical History of Philosophy.' Maurice, ' Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy.' 2 vols. ' Schwegler, Handbook of Philosophy ' (Trans.). Ueberweg-Heinze, ' History of Philosophy' (Trans.). ' Weber, History of Philosophy ' (Trans.). ' Windelband, History of Philosophy ' (Trans.). 2. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. Brandis, ' Handbuch der Griechisch-Romischen Philosophic.' 6 vols.
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