Buddhist Psychology and Its Potential Contributions to Invitational Education

East or West, the Goal Is the Same: Buddhist Psychology and Its Potential Contributions to Invitational Education

Phillip S. Riner University of North Florida

After describing the basic tenets of Invitational Education and Buddhist psychology, this article explores four commonalities and their implications: The individual is in control; knowing is not doing; others can help; and we can facilitate others’ efforts to use effective strategies to reach happiness. The paper concludes by contrasting Invitational Education and Buddhist views on self, perception, and appropriate action. Invitational appropriate wisdom (pradjna paramita) and is totally under the control of the individual.

The United States has a multi-billion dollar weight loss industry. There are pills, books, DVD’s, CD’s, diets, food diaries, special foods, support groups, personal trainers, television programs, game shows, point systems, weigh-ins, an army of machines, and even special rubber suits…you name it, we sell it to those who want to lose weight. And why do we want to lose weight? Appropriate weight management is related to good health, longevity, a more active life, and, perhaps, also to one’s attractiveness. In the west, good health, long life, active living, and caring friends are all associated with the ultimate goal of happiness. Given the keys to weight loss we are concomitantly given the keys to one route to happiness.

Fortunately the keys to healthy weight If this is true, wouldn’t those keys be management are well known. There are few coveted, embraced, and used to guide our things in science known as well as we know daily living? the two irrefutable strategies for healthy weight management: exercise more and eat less. This is a guarantee. It does work. So why do so many have such difficulty with the concept? Paradoxically many of us do Phillip S. Riner is a Professor of Education at the not want to give up pleasure to get University of North Florida, Jacksonville, FL happiness. We desire an easier way and do [email protected] not like relying on the energy of our volition but prefer some substitute for self discipline. This propensity (but not necessity) for externalization presents us with a continual

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array of new problems, each in turn relying enhanced. However, it is always the purview on yet another externalized solution. of the individual to accept or reject the The premise behind describing this gloomy invitation. outlook is that even if we had unquestioned From the east, Buddhist psychology claims strategies that would lead us to happiness, as we all want to be happy. Further, all the individuals we would still confront causes and conditions needed to be happy substantial personal difficulties in accepting are already in us. (Gnanarama, 2000; Hagen, and implementing them. For example, just as 1997) Happiness is unlocked by the in weight loss, one significant roadblock to recognition that suffering exists as a natural getting to a state of happiness would be the state of being; this suffering is caused by pleasure we must for forgo to get happiness. desire; desire can be extinguished; and In short, happiness requires substantial happiness obtained. In response to these personal effort, perhaps too much effort. propositions the western view Rather than internal self discipline, our counterpunches with some problematic tendency is to avoid fundamental changes in issues: not everyone has the strength to our thinking and action in lieu of finding an accomplish this journey; someone must environment that requires considerably less teach the ways to happiness; life can present effort and self-discipline. In weight loss, we fostering situations but also stultifying look for the right gym, the right diet, the challenges; and self discipline alone cannot right gear, the right personal trainer, the right bring about pleasant events or meet personal supplements, and the right prepackaged needs. meals. And yet, for many of us, the goal of The perspective of Buddhist psychology, we weight loss and the benefits weight can conclude that both eastern and western management provides remains elusive. We views demonstrate that we cannot unlock do, however, have two vehicles that can help happiness for others. We cannot ensure the us, one from the west and one from the east. success of others. Both east and west have East and West Meet On Uncommon identified many barriers to happiness and Ground have provided a number of poignant solutions. When considering ways to help Invitational education is representative of others be happy, two very substantial western viewpoints and is designed to be a situations are confronted: (1) We confuse vehicle where one person can be of benefit knowledge with action, and (2) We cannot to others, usually through an invitation to control others; we can only control participation provided by way of the people, ourselves. Both invitational theory and places, procedures, processes, and policies Buddhist psychology clearly establish these (Purkey & Novak, 1996) that make up a parameters in that both recognize that the learning environment. By manipulating these necessary first step in being helpful to others variables the likelihood that others is to be helpful to oneself first. Fortunately experience success and happiness is greatly both perspectives offer direction, often

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complimentary, for overcoming these accepts that the individual is in control of the barriers. individual life given, Invitational Learning believes that improving the personal The Individual Is In Charge environment and providing experiences that Knowing what, knowing how, and choosing are personally rewarding will foster a to do are three distinct phases of education: resulting improvement in attitude, behavior, They correspond to content acquisition, skill self concept, and happiness. Buddhist development, and motivation-into-action. A psychology, however, maintains that a unifying and defining commonality between person’s mental well being is totally Buddhist psychology and Invitational independent of one’s surroundings and the Learning is that both recognize others may environment has little to do with the invite, but only the individual can accept: attainment of happiness. In the Buddhist The individual is in charge. We may view, whatever the environment may supply influence, encourage, discourage, facilitate, to create pleasure is impermanent and will and interfere, but the individual is always the surely pass. Happiness, encapsulated in a determiner of personal effort. Invitational Buddhist view, is living in mindfulness: That theory calls this process “honoring the net.” is, living in full awareness of the here and Both Invitational Learning and Buddhism now, without imposition of any judgment of consider opportunity to learn and practice to what “should” or “ought” to be. Any be critical to happiness. In invitational happiness that is dependent on things being theory the invitation sincerely sent by caring “just right” is condemned to create sorrow educators initiates the needed ameliorative and suffering. If favorable circumstances are emotional and cognitive processes. In needed for happiness, happiness will never Buddhist psychology the dharma (or “the last since all things are impermanent and way to wisdom”) is made available through will change, including the favorable written teachings and through the guidance circumstances on which one may base of the sangha, a dedicated group of scholar personal happiness. It is in this difference practitioners that readily assist those who Buddhism may contribute most to desire it. However, both invitational theory invitational thinking. and Buddhist psychology recognize that Shared Basic Principles coercion is no answer. While we may provide sufficient sanctions to suppress Psychological principles concerning success behavior in a certain forum, the decision to and happiness exist in both perspectives in act or not to act beneficially in a way the ways similar to the weight loss industry’s leads to true happiness is still the province of basic truths, but not quite as definite. Like the individual. our weight loss truths, these basic principles However, there is a glaring difference are easily overlooked because of the between Buddhist psychology and demands they make upon us. Invitational Learning. While each view

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Invitational Education provides a Strahan, 1995; Stanley & Purkey, 1994). In progressive logic in building success and getting individuals to recognize their happiness (Purkey & Novak, 1996): potential, the educator needs to provide opportunities for engagement or • Within every individual there is “invitations” to participate. Managing these unlocked potential. invitations so that they are systematic and • That potential often needs an systemic to the environment requires invitation to actualize. attention to context or in invitational • If we treat people with trust, respect, parlance, “the five P’s” (people, places, optimism, and intentionality, that policies, procedures, and processes.) Rather potential is more likely to emerge. than an incidental or haphazard management of these entities, the invitational stance is • The resulting engagement of one of deliberate action based on trust, potential results in success and respect, and optimism. happiness. One of the most direct linkages between Buddhism has its Four Noble Truths invitational theory and the Buddhist (Rahula, 1959; Thich Nhat Hanh, 1998): perspective of the mind is that each of us • Not everything in life will be to our needs to be helpful to others. In short, one liking. must attend to establishing and maintaining one’s own health before helping others. Thus • The more we attach ourselves to a in invitational theory being professionally single way we believe things should and personally inviting to oneself is a co- be, the more dislikes we will have. requisite to being professionally and • We don’t have to suffer personally inviting to others. disappointment and hurt as much as Invitational theory owes much to the we do. groundwork laid out in self concept theory • If we act in certain ways, suffering is where ideas held about oneself have a lessened and enjoyment is increased profound influence on the ideas and regardless of our surroundings. conclusions one has about the world and how it should be engaged (Novak, 1981; The Perspective of Invitational Education Purkey & Novak, 1996). Ideas about self are The basic tenets of Invitational Education thought to relate perceptually to ideas about are straightforward and are presented the world surrounding the individual. In graphically in Figure 1. The fundamental Invitational Education, it is argued that the premise of invitational theory is that within perceptions of the individual create the each individual that exists untapped potential reality he or she will assume is true and real that needs just a gentle nudge to actualize, and will act in accordance with those beliefs. there are strategies describing how that can Denying the perceptual reality of another be done (Purkey & Novak, 1996; Purkey & isn’t likely to bring benefits.

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Invitational learning places great emphasis on adding to the goodness of the world and in ameliorating the environment to create avoiding any harm. However, there is a positive conditions for learning and significant difference: In the Buddhist happiness. Both inviting theory and perspective, living an ethical and helpful life Buddhist psychology place great emphasis is not likely to affect the happiness of others.

Figure 1.

Four Noble Truths Eightfold Path Three Qualities 1. Suffering exists Right View Wisdom (panna) 2. Suffering is caused by attachment Right Thought 3. Suffering ceases when attachment ceases Right Speech Morality (sila) 4. Freedom from suffering is possible by Right Action practicing the Eightfold Path Right Livelihood Meditation (samadhi) Right Effort Right Mindfulness Right Concentration Three Characteristics of Existence Things that hinder and restrict freedom 1. Impermanence (anicca) 1. Self-delusion 2. Sorrow (dukkha) 2. Doubt 3. Selflessness (anatta) 3. Clinging to ritual Friends to Freedom 4. Sensuous lust 5. Ill will 1. Loving kindness 6. Greed for material existence 2. Compassion 7. Greed for immaterial existence 3. Sympathetic joy 8. Conceit 4. Equanimity 9. Restlessness 10. Ignorance The Ten Perfections The Five Precepts 6. Patience (khanti) 1. Generosity I undertake the training of precept of refraining from… 7. Truthfulness (dana) (sacca) 2. Morality (sila) 1. harming living beings by practicing loving 8. Resolution 3. Renunciation kindness (adhitthana) (nekkhamma) 2. taking the non-given by practicing generosity 9. Loving kindness 4. Wisdom (panna) 3. committing sexual misconduct by practicing (metta) 5. Energy (viriya) contentment 10. Equanimity 4. false speech by practicing truthfulness (upekkha) 5. intoxicants by practicing mindfulness Apparent Truths 1. Everyone must die… 2. The remainder of our life span is decreasing continually. 3. Death will come regardless of whether or not we have made time to practice the dharma. 4. Human life expectancy is uncertain 5. There are many causes of death. 6. The human body is very fragile. 7. Our wealth cannot help us. 8. Our loved ones cannot help. 9. Our body cannot help.

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Each person’s happiness if self-determined. invitational theory is a natural progression of The following Buddhist teaching illustrates viewing self as an individual, complete, In some way, invitational theory enduring, and sufficient in its own right. wants to cover the world with Invitational theory extends the individuality leather. That is, the world should be of self to include consideration of the made a better place for each and perceptions and interpretations of self as every one of us. Buddhist psychology being a form of reality, at least to the tends to be more specific and individual holding them. In contrast, pragmatic on this point: Deal with Buddhists do not doubt the apparent nature the here-and-now of one’s own feet. of an individual self, but counter that this Once that is done, help others do the self exists only in relative reality and is a same. delusion blocking our understanding of ultimate reality; a reality where there is no In Invitational Education all individuals have permanent unchanging self. The basics of value and are valuable. One individual is not Buddhist conceptualizations of the mind put on earth to serve another. Instead, all are differ from most of the west on this point. considered equal in their pursuit of the The view of “no self” is usually unfamiliar happy and satisfying life. The centrality of in the west and frequently is viewed as the value of the individual also is reflected in paradoxical and difficult to understand. It is Buddhist psychology where each individual sufficient for our present purpose; however, contains “Buddha nature” or the potential for to point out that the western view of an consummate kindness and wisdom. The independent self can be logically and unlimited potential of each individual for rationally challenged. goodness is an inviolable principle. The Perspective from Buddhist Invitational Education places great Psychology importance on the development of skills that assist the individual in understanding self Most readers will be familiar with Buddhism and developing appropriate strategies, as a religion and may find the current view actions, and understandings of the world. of Buddhism as a psychology to be This perspective is a product of the western confusing. Various scholars, both east and viewpoint owing much to the ideas of west, study Buddhism from various William James (consciousness), George perspectives including religion, ethics, logic, Herbert Mead (social nature of perception), and psychology. (Mon, 1995; Thera, 1976; Art Combs and Donald Snygg (perceptual Tsering, 2006) There are a number of psychology), Carl Rogers’ (becoming), and reasons for viewing Buddhism from various Albert Bandura (social cognitive theory) and perspectives although each method has should be familiar. (Purkey & Siegel, 2003) limitations. For example, viewing Buddhism If reading from the western point of view, as a religion is difficult in that Buddhism has

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no god, no cosmology, and discourages faith As psychology, Buddhism employs reason while demanding active use of reason. The applied to the study of apparent reality, that Buddhist dependence on reason, practice, is, that which is around and inside us, which observation, and outcomes more closely in turn leads us to understand the more matches western psychology than religion. subtle ultimate or true reality. The first Reason is central to Buddhist thought but conclusion of reason applied to reality is only has value if it is used to direct practice. undisputed observation that no matter whom In establishing day-to-day practice, all things one is, what one has, where one in Buddhist thought are subject to question lives…everyone is subject to suffering. and, indeed, if not questioned, then perpetual Everyone get sick, gets old, and eventually happiness and the accompanying dies. This “unsatisfactoriness” of life enlightenment cannot be obtained. (dukkha) is first of three basic facts of The distrust of faith and the dependence on existence. The second is impermanence reason is illustrated best by the Kalama (annica) of all material things. The third is Sutra, a teaching by the Buddha encouraging the complex concept of “no self” previously questioning and doubt. He admonishes his mentioned. This is the fact of egolessness students not to believe in anything simply (anatta), or the lack of an eternal, because it has been said. He cautioned not to unchanging, and independent self. Anatta is believe in traditions, the teaching of elders, a challenging concept, particularly from the or the authority of teachers without west. In brief, “no self” means the self is subjecting them to intense questioning and ever-changing and dependent upon the thought. Only when these lessons agree with conditions of the moment. An unchanging, reason and after observation and analysis are permanent, and fixed self does not exist. found to be conducive to the good and the Anatta is controversial yet its unique benefit of all is a teaching to be accepted and perspective has a potential contribution to practiced. invitational learning discussed later in this paper. Knowledge is important but only insofar as it remains practical and guides practice. Any In Buddhist psychology the primary purpose benefit in following a Buddhist path comes of life is to be happy and end suffering. from the practice of being a caring and kind Although the pain of existence may be person. The Buddha historically rejected external, suffering, however, is internal; speculation about such matters as God, the suffering exists only in the mind. The nature of the universe, and the afterlife Buddha taught that humans suffer because (Hagen, 1997; Rahula, 1959; Trainor, 2001) we continually strive after things that do not where the nature of the problem limits the give lasting happiness. We desperately try to utility of knowledge and reason. Buddha hold on to things…friends, health, material instead urged his followers to focus on the things…that do not last, and cannot last. All Four Noble Truths (see Table 1) by which things change and are impermanent. they can free themselves from suffering. Attaching oneself to a specific view of how things “ought to be” is the cause of sorrow.

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To try to provide the apparent self with the happiness. This process only creates the things and activities it desires for pleasure is desire for “more” and obtaining “more” only condemned at the outset as an approach to

Figure 1. Elements of Invitational Education.

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results in more suffering when these things 1. Right Understanding refers to the study pass. Freeing oneself from attachment to and understanding of the existence, specific views, desires, or things is the creation, and cessation of suffering. avenue to the highest happiness. This is 2. Right Determination requires the perhaps the premiere psychological individual to give up what is wrong and challenge: Detaching from things, both evil; to undertake what is good; and to material and ideas, lessens suffering. abandon thoughts that have to do with bringing suffering to any conscious The Four Noble Truths being. In general one’s duty is to and the Eightfold Path cultivate thoughts and acts of loving The psychological outlook of Buddhism is kindness by attending to others' suffering formed by four progressive premises and sharing a sympathetic joy in the described above and collectively are known happiness of others. as The Four Noble Truths: 3. Right Speech outlines appropriate ways of communicating with others. It 1. All of life is marked by suffering. includes abstaining from deceiving 2. Suffering is caused by desire and others; avoiding talk that brings harm, attachment. embarrassment, or hurt to others; and 3. Suffering can be stopped. abstaining from harsh, rude, impolite, 4. There is a way to end suffering. malicious or abusive language. According to the Fourth Noble Truth, one 4. Right Action requires abstinence from can permanently escape suffering by taking life, theft, and misappropriation. following eight basic ethical principles Right action is peaceful, honorable known as The Eightfold Path. Basic conduct; abstaining from dishonest Buddhist principles are not typically well dealings; and fostering what is good. In understood in the west and therefore a brief short, doing things that alleviate introduction is provided here to ground the suffering while avoiding things that comparison to invitational learning. The create suffering. following is a compilation from Bhikku 5. Right Livelihood encourages work that (1997; Gnanarama (2000), Hagen (1997), does not cause harm to people, animals, Rahula (1959), Thera (1976), and Thich or the environment. Nhat Hanh (1998) and reference to any one 6. Right Effort is preventing “the arising of of these sources will provide a unwholesome thoughts that have not yet comprehensive and comprehensible risen, to abandon unwholesome thoughts introduction. The Eightfold Path is rich in that have already risen; to develop teachings, theory, practice, and pragmatic wholesome thoughts that have not yet strategies that offer a rich source of thought arisen; and to maintain wholesome for invitational theory. thoughts that have already arisen.” (Gnanarama, 2000, p. 87).

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7. Right Mindfulness consists of being in understanding of right concentration the “here-and-now,” not “adding” would be the state of mind where the interpretations to the experiences, and other seven of the eightfold path are avoiding judgments (that is, place on the practiced, in invitational terms, with experience attachments to what “should” intentionality. or “ought” to be.) Mindfulness, however, Invitations, Self Concept, and Anatta is somewhat complex to encapsulate in a summary, yet may have the greatest William Purkey, one of the founders of contribution to invitational practice. My inviting theory, demonstrates self-concept as personal example of experiencing a spiral. In the very center is the “I” which is mindfulness is the experience of the very essence of who we are. Along the reclining on a grassy lawn on a spring spiral at various distances from the “I” are day feeling the sun on my skin, smelling circles which represent circles of existence. the crispness of the air tinged with the These he calls “Me’s”. There are many smells of spring; hearing the sounds of “Me’s” such as scholar, father, friend, wind and bird. I do not think, “the sun is basketball player, and so on. Not all of these hot; the birds are singing; the air is “Me’s” are as important to the “I” as others. sweet” or “it is three o’clock and 74 These “Me’s” are a relational existence; that degrees; the bird songs are from mating is, these “Me’s” are dependent upon the magpies, and the air quality index is situations, the context, and others involved. ‘moderate’.” Rather I just experience it Yet, it is evident that the “Me” isn’t the “I”. without processing it in any way. In fact, Both invitational theory and Buddhist I don’t even think, “This is pleasant; I psychology have elements of dependent like this.” Rather I just experience the selves and both generally agree that these moment. “Me’s” are more of an illusion of reality 8. Right Concentration is the state of rather than representative of one’s total thought where the mind is disciplined being. At question is the nature of the total and focused only on the intended object. being. In Buddhist psychology the central While mindfulness includes awareness “I” is not an individual; rather, once one of all experiences, right concentration understands the central “I” is understood it excludes attention except to the thing fades as awareness of the unity of all things intended. The most familiar form of right becomes apparent. concentration combined with mindfulness is anapanasati meditation This is a wide deviation from invitational where the meditator sits cross-legged in theory. We are familiar with the Decartian a lotus position and concentrates on the proof of existence commonly translated, process of breathing in and breathing somewhat inaccurately, as “I think therefore out. There are many other types of I am.” From the Buddhist psychological meditations, some done while walking, perspective, the saying would be “I think or sitting, or doing work. A general therefore I am deluded.” As introduced

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earlier, the primary delusion is that of the “I” Anatta is obviously in conflict with self- or independent self. While the substance of concept theory and is very difficult for those the “I” differs greatly from invitational reared in a culture of individualism to theory and Buddhist psychology, the understand and accept. However, the substance of the “Me’s” are quite similar. comparison between inviting theory’s “I” The key to the use of the “Me’s” is to help and anatta is worth the effort regardless of self and other’s realize the transitory and one’s conclusion as to the validity of either relational nature of existence. position. By examining these commonalities As an exercise, try imagining yourself from and differences, we can gain a great deal of the beginning of your existence to the insight into the relationship of “self” to present moment as existing in a space that “other” and possibly to a number of contains nothing; no light, heat, matter, hypotheses that potentially can advance sound, thing, bird , fish, or fowl…absolutely invitational theory. nothing. If you are like most, such an One of the more instructive hypotheses that existence is not conceivable; we exist in a can be constructed by unifying the two world where other things exist therefore our views addresses the role of invitations in concept of existence (feeling, smelling, developing self concept, the type of touching, communicating, etc.) is in communication that would compose the relationship with other people and other most effective invitation, and how students things. Your existence is conceived in can be taught to be inviting to themselves as relationship to the other; existence of the “I” opposed to being dependent upon an is dependent on something else, “the other.” environment structured by others. Whether or not the final “I” is relational and According to invitational theory, self is changing as are the “Me’s” is a matter for primarily conceived in terms of messages each individual to determine. What both received from others and the environment. invitational theory and Buddhist psychology “Blue” or positive messages and experiences have to offer us, however, is that they enhance the value of self while “orange” or demonstrate that we tend to identify negative messages and experiences detract ourselves only in relationships to external from self. In invitational theory, the things. We are tall or short only in caregiver or helping professional is to relationship to a comparison to other people. provide an environment with an ever We are hot only in relationship to our increasing number of blue cards (positive experiences of being cooler. Everything we experiences). In the Buddhist perspective, think is in relationship to something else. the provision of inviting theory to provide Our existence is composed totally as one more messages to counter negative ones and relationship or another. But this need not be attempting to flood the students’ the case. We do not need to be trapped by environment with only the positive would be our environment. right action and right effort. However, at best, these efforts are only temporary,

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ephemeral, and will not have an enduring The Buddhist psychological solution can be presence in the long term. instructive: Messages, be they blue or Buddhist psychology would suggest a more orange, are just messages. Messages are substantive way by providing instruction in nothing more and nothing less than thoughts. “seeing things as they are” and recognizing Thoughts are mental formations and as such that the momentary perceptions are only can be controlled by us. A negative message comparative. In short, they are just thoughts is negative because, using invitation theory’s and as such, can be set aside with mental language, our perception and interpretation discipline. In short, blue cards as well as gives them their orange cast. If we can see orange cards are only thoughts. We can learn messages as they truly are (for example, an to set them aside. This “setting aside” of attempt to demean an accomplishment as a thoughts and seeing things as they are paves result of unproductive envy), accept them for the way to self understanding as opposed to what they are (the unhappiness of another), relying on encouragement of others. then we will be saved suffering. Providing a plethora of blue cards to An example of “seeing things as they are” is students who are experiencing hardship, we found in Haim Ginott’s (Ginott & Goddard, only encourage more and more attachment 2003) Parent and Child when he discusses to blue cards and aversion to orange cards communication strategies parents use with and run the risk of communicating that children. When the child comes home and happiness is a collection of joyous moments, complains, “The teacher hates me; she thinks strung together by interactions with a I’m stupid,” Ginott would have us see the cooperative and nurturing environment. comment for what it is. The congruent response is, “You’re upset because the Buddhist psychology would suggest that teacher said things you didn’t like.” The heaping ever increasing amounts of teacher said something. The child did not pleasurable sensation on a self that can never like it. The child is upset. While the be satisfied is futile. The self will only want comment does not remove the teacher’s more, crave more, and demand more words and acts nor the hurt they cause, it pleasure for the future. This process, does convey to the child that someone ironically, results in suffering since understands and cares. It also clearly states ultimately, the very nature of life cannot “what is” without misleading interpretations. provide pleasure endlessly. Also, since all things are impermanent, the blue cards must Ginott argues that the child will find solace come to an end sometime. Hence, ultimately and will be better able to deal with his or her the sending of blue cards results in samara, feelings of the actual event if given support or the process of suffering: wanting more to see the experience for what it is, not for and more, never being satisfied, and at the what emotion can make of it. Attempting to same time growing older, getting sick, and tell the child the teacher isn’t mean is eventually passing from this earth. confrontational to the child and adds to suffering. To counter with an assertion, “I

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think you are smart” only perpetuates the extend far beyond sensory receptors child’s dependence of the perceptions of to include such personal experiences others. Trying to analyze the event while the as feelings, desires, aspirations, child is angry or hurt will not work because hopes, as well as opinions about the child’s emotional state is not conducive ourselves, others, and the world to rational analysis. Giving the child (p.27). compliments to “override” the teacher’s Inviting theory argues that “we are comments only contributes to the child’s conscious agents in the process of our own need for external validation or, in Buddhist’s development.” (Purkey & Siegel, 2003, p. words, more craving. “Seeing things for 27) In this view of the perceptual process, what they are” is a skill of infinite utility and perception includes all that we experience, should be considered as an alternative to interpret, construct, decide, and act. This is “sending blue.” “Seeing things as they are” in contrast to Buddhist psychology where is known as mindfulness and is of critical perception is but only one of several importance in maturity, and assists each of processes involved in interacting with the us in forming a view of self based not on the other. For example, prior to perception there views of others, but on our own thoughts and is consciousness, that is, a state where actions. “Seeing things for what they are, ” information can be received. Then there is or mindfulness also has contributions to awareness, a state where the information is other areas of inviting theory such as the experienced and is actually incorporated. employment of the perceptual tradition. Awareness does not interpret, it is simply the The Perceptual Tradition and function of mind that prepares us to receive Mindfulness information. It is, at least in part, a Another conceptual modification that might precognitive function. Note that without advance invitational theory comes from consciousness and awareness any event in comparing invitational learning’s perceptual the environment is a “non-event” to the tradition and the Buddhist psychology’s individual in that without consciousness and mindfulness training. The perceptual awareness, no perception could occur. tradition plays a large role in invitational Third in the string would be perception theory. Purkey and Siegel (2003) write: where the mind writes a transcript of the The perceptual tradition is a way of attributes of the event that the mind can understanding human behavior that engage. In Buddhist psychology, perception, includes all the ways we as humans like awareness, does not interpret; rather it is are viewed as we normally view like a recording of the external event ourselves. The term perceptual refers converted to a vehicle the mind can not only to the senses but also to encounter. Interpretations, such as meanings--the personal significance overlaying concepts or labels, establishing of an event for the person meaning, relating this to that, and so on, are experiences it. These meanings to be avoided at this stage. Avoiding

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“overlaying” meaning is a practice of is to avoid unneeded judgments and mindfulness. endeavor to practice mindfulness in order to Mindfulness is a critical element in Buddhist try to see things as they. psychology in that it is our interpretations An example might help here: Consider the that distort reality and overlay attributes that event presented earlier of the child coming are not there when we are mindful. These home from school angry at the teacher. We interpretations and judgments of how we need to seriously consider if the anger is feel things ought to be give rise to suffering: caused by the actions of the teacher or is the In our quest to understand, to attach to those anger caused by the interpretation of the sensations, we apply meanings and child? Invitational theory proponents would interpretations that ultimately are not the more frequently view the teacher as the thing itself and leads to delusion which, in culprit for sending the negative message. turn, leads to unsatisfactoriness. We have Those employing the perspectives of attached meanings to things that do not have Buddhist psychology would say the that meaning and we cling to those meanings suffering is caused by the student. The as if they are real. This misinterpretation of cause, however, would not be in the poor things gives rise to confusion, study habits per se, it is because the student disappointment, inappropriate expectations, has added so many interpretations and and a whole host of states that bring on expectations to the event. The Buddhist view disquiet and suffering. would find both the teacher’s talk and the Invitational theory is in stark contrast at this student’s unsuccessful study habits point with Buddhist psychology. In regrettable, and teacher and student should invitational theory “Behavior is understood consider the consequences and alternatives. as a product of the way we see ourselves and However, the student’s anguish and the situations in which we find ourselves.” suffering is caused by the student because of (Purkey & Siegel, 2003) Perception includes a lack of mindfulness. the interpretations, generalizations, and In mindfulness, we experience the thing but reference to the image of self. Buddhist we do not add or take away by psychology would not contest that interpretation. Typical of this type of event, individuals perform in this manner. The the unmindful child would think, “The Buddhist view would simply counter that teacher was mean to me. She said I wasn’t making life’s decisions in such a manner smart enough to do the work without gives rise to suffering. Attaching meaning to studying. And I studied, I did…a whole past events and hanging on to those hour. I know it was an hour because I interpretations of events to relate to future watched a Star Trek episode. She says I ones simply compounds the attachment. We can’t do it, I’m dumb.” The child’s thinking begin to interpret events and ideas as we is consistent with the perceptual tradition in believe things ought to be instead of the way that the meanings and interpretation have a things are. The key element to keep in mind life of their own. If we, as helpers, choose to

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focus on the acts of the teacher it does not There is nothing in invitational theory that ease the child’s suffering. Perhaps action on would contradict the veracity of mindfulness our part may prevent such acts in the future; and making students aware of distorted perhaps not. Perhaps the teacher was too messages. However, if mindfulness were a blunt and to the point, but if she was major tenet of invitational theory, there accurate, what then? would be much less focus on altering the If we focus primarily on changing the environment, sending invitations, and environment to foster changes in student otherwise attempting to make the external activity, we would probably work in two environment “satisfactory” to each areas: changing the speech patterns of the individual. Much of this effort would be on teacher and changing the study habits of the providing teachings assisting the individual child. These are, of course, both reasonable to be mindful or “to see things as they are.” strategies and fit the Eightfold Path well. However, this formula is analogous to our However, neither will ease the student’s earlier reference to the rules of weight loss. current suffering. However, if we add Just because it will help does not mean they mindfulness to the equation, we would work we are willing to employ it. Do we enjoy our on helping the child see things without misery too much? addition. The child’s thoughts might be One of the difficult parts of perception is the different: “The work I did was not experience of the pain of hurt feelings, acceptable to the teacher. She feels I do not disappointment, anxiety, and other make adequate effort. I think I made emotional states that cause suffering. “The adequate effort but I did share my study time first step to destroy such suffering is to with television watching. I did not like accept the reality of it, not as blind faith but today’s class because my work was rejected as a fact of existence that one realizes by the teacher.” This type of mindful through careful examination and thinking can prove very helpful to each of investigation” (Abeysekera, 2002, p. 147). us. By not adding interpretations, not Buddhists do not attempt to gloss over this including an image of how I see myself, not hurt. Instead, it is to be examined and imposing a moral judgment of “right or studied. Even so, continued work on wrong” on the situation, we can see things mindfulness and experiencing things as they more clearly and as a result, the course of are continues: “…everything within the action to less suffering is much easier to Buddhist canon is meant to help us relieve discern. In fact, by not clinging to the suffering and achieve happiness, and that notions about the self (“I’m smart enough to only happens through the mind. Medicine do my homework and watch TV at the same can cure the body, but that in itself cannot time”) and of others (“You cannot say things make us happy.” (Tsering, 2006, p. 1). to me that I do not like”) much suffering is Conclusion averted. While a belief in continual examination of our values is a natural conclusion reached by

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reason from the tenets espoused by each An invitation is not a sugar-coated viewpoint, it is actually rare in society. At demand. It is a cordial summons to large, great effort is exerted for individuals consider something beneficial for to conform in all types of social acceptance or rejection. True organizations…from family units, to commitment cannot be forced, only schools, to the workplace, and even nations volunteered…Ends do not justify the to have the “right” view where “right” is means. (Purkey & Siegel, 2003, p. provided prepackaged and not subject to 11) inquiry. Both invitational education and One important similarity between Invitational Buddhism reject this imposed believing Education and Buddhism is the respect given outright. The individual is sacrosanct. to the independence of thought of each Rather than relying on one program, individual. No coercion or enforcement may one policy, or one process, be used in the teaching of Buddhist views of Invitational Education addresses the mind and thought. In sending invitations we total zeitgeist, the spirit within a must use the right action and right effort. school. It has a wider focus of Inviting theory calls this being inviting to application than traditional efforts to oneself. Indeed, although each of us is filled make schools safe. It is concerned with shortcomings, each perspective wishes with more than grades, attendance, us to be gentle to others, but also to be gentle academic achievement, discipline, to ourselves. “Knowing that the only person test scores, and even student self- one can change is oneself, should we not then esteem. It is concerned with the skills be spending more time where we can have of becoming a decent and productive some effect? We know now where we must citizen in a democratic society concentrate. We must eradicate greed, hate, (Purkey, 2009) and delusion.” (Abeysekera, 2002, p. 159). References Abeysekera, R. (2002). Practicing the Dhama with a view to Nibbana. Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Education Foundation. Bhikkhu, T. (1997). Dhammapada, a translation. Tullera, Australia: Buddha Dharma Education Association. Ginott, H., & Goddard, H. (2003). Between parent and child. New York, NY: Three Rivers. Gnanarama, P. (2000). Essentials of Buddism. Tullera, Australia: Buddha Dharma Education Association. Gunaratana, B. (2002). Mindfulness in plain English. Boston, MA: Wisdom. Hagen, S. (1997). Buddhism plain and simple. New York, NY: Broadway Books. Mon, M. (1995). Buddha Abhidhamma: Ultimate science. Tullera, Australia: Buddha Dharma Education Association.

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Novak, J. M. (1981, April). Clarity begins at home: An analysis of key ideas of invitational education. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, CA. Purkey, W. W. (1999). Creating safe schools through invitational education. Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/safe.htm Purkey, W. W., & Novak, J. (1996). Inviting school success: A self-concept approach to teaching, learning, and democratic practice (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Wadsworth. Purkey, W. W., & Strahan, D. (1995). School transformation through Invitational Education. Research in the Schools, 2 (2), 1-6. Purkey, W., & Siegel, B. (2003). Becoming an invitational leader. Atlanta, GA: Brumby Holding. Rahula, W. (1959). What the Buddha taught. New York, NY: Grove. Stanley, P. H., & Purkey, W. W. (1994). Student self-concept-as-learner: Does Invitational Education make a difference? Research in the Schools, 1 (2), 15-22. Thera, Nyanaponika (1976). Abhidhamma studies: Researches in Buddhist psychology. Kandy, Ceylon: Buddhist Publication Society. Thich Nhat Hanh (1998). The heart of Buddha’s teaching: Transforming suffering into peace, joy, and liberation. New York, NY: Broadway Books. Trainor, K. (Ed.). (2001). Buddhism: The illustrated guide. London: Duncan Baird. Tsering, G. T. (2006). Buddhist psychology: The foundation of Buddhist thought. Summerville, MA: Wisdom.

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