The Challenging Continuity of Change and the Military: Female Soldiers – Conflict Resolution – South America
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The Challenging Continuity of Change and the Military: Female Soldiers – Conflict Resolution – South America. Proceedings of the Interim Conference 2000 of ISA RC 01 SOZIALWISSENSCHAFTLICHES INSTITUT DER BUNDESWEHR internationales Band FORUM Cahier 22 international Volume Gerhard Kümmel (Ed.) The Challenging Continuity of Change and the Military: Female Soldiers – Conflict Resolution – South America. Proceedings of the Interim Conference 2000 of ISA RC 01 Strausberg, August 2001 Opinions expressed are solely those of the authors. Die Verantwortung für den Inhalt liegt bei den Autoren. Copyright by Sozialwissenschaftliches SOWI 2001 Institut der Bundeswehr All rights reserved Prötzeler Chaussee 20 Alle Rechte vorbehalten 15344 Strausberg ISSN 0177-7599 Tel.: 03341/58-1801 Fax: 03341/58-1802 www.sowi-bundeswehr.de Table of Contents Introduction Gerhard Kümmel 9 I. Female Soldiers: Integration on the Rise? 13 Women in the Canadian Forces Donna Winslow & Jason Dunn 15 Women in the Portuguese Armed Forces: From Visibility to ‘Eclipse’ Helena Carreiras 57 Affirming Gender Equality: The Challenges Facing the South African Armed Forces Lindy Heinecken 97 Women in the South Korean Military Doo-Seung Hong 123 Challenging Gender Roles? Male Soldiers and the Complete Opening of the Bundeswehr for Women Gerhard Kümmel 143 Die ‚Soldatin‘ in den Printmedien der Bundeswehr: Eine inhaltsanalytische Untersuchung Sylvia Schiesser 169 5 The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society Uta Klein 201 Civil-Military Relations and Gender Equality in the South African National Defence Force at the Beginning of the New Millennium Rialize Ferreira 211 Dutch Female Peacekeepers in Bosnia and Kosovo: Between Marginality and Acceptance Liora Sion 233 Women Soldiers: The Enemy Within Marcia Kovitz 247 II. Conflict Resolution: Different Means, Different Challenges 265 Conflict Resolution trough Non-Cooperation: Cases from India Bandana Purkayastha 267 Political Violence, Human Rights, and Military Strategy: The Mexican Case Markus S. Schulz 293 Consociational Approaches to the Resolution of Identity Conflicts in Plural Societies Hugh Harris 329 6 Policemen or Soldiers? Organizational Dilemmas of Armed Forces in Peace Support Operations Karl W. Haltiner 359 Why Germany Sticks to (Mostly Fictitious) Universal Conscription Wilfried von Bredow 385 Motivating Soldiers. A Challenge for Officer Education Heiko Biehl, Ulrich vom Hagen & Reinhard Mackewitsch 399 III. South America: The Armed Forces in Regional and Domestic Contexts 411 The Armed Forces of the Southern Cone of America on the Threshold of the 21st Century: Some Alternatives for Change Virgilio R. Beltrán 413 Armed Forces and the Southern Cone Common Market (MERCOSUR) Omar L. Gutiérrez & Fernando G. Thauby 451 The Rule of Law and Federal Military Justice in Brazil Jorge Zaverucha & Anthony W. Pereira 479 About the Authors 529 7 8 Introduction Gerhard Kümmel This book is the result of a conference which took place in Strausberg, Germany, from 13–15 October 2000. The Interim Conference of the Research Committee 01: Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution within the International Sociological Association (ISA) was jointly organized by RC 01 and the Bundeswehr Institute of Social Research (SOWI) and found the attention of close to 70 participants from all around the globe. In thirteen panels social scientists in general and military sociologists in particular engaged in lively discussions about The Armed Forces on the Threshold of the New Millennium. As this title indicates, the conference was meant to cover and debate the changes and the challenges the armed forces are confronted with in these days. And, indeed, they are by no means belittling ones, as one easily recognizes when looking at the profound shifts in the recent past both within societies and on the global landscape at large. In 1964, Bob Dylan, the well-known singer and songwriter, issued an album called The Times They Are A-Changing and reflected on the subject of change in his title song. Change seems to be something like the basic law of societal development so to speak, and there is a good deal of consensus about this among social scientists. Much less consensus, however, is to be found when it comes to questions like this: How much change is there? Is there a direction to which change is heading to or is there no direction at all? How much continuity is there? What are the appropriate strategies by a given social actor – both reactively and proactively – to deal with continuity and change? 9 Or is Bob Dylan right in his pessimistic perspective laid down in the lyrics of the song just mentioned: “Your older now, but no wiser it’s true”? These issues also come to the fore with regard to the armed forces as an organization of society and gave reason for the wording of this book’s title: The Challenging Continuity of Change and the Military. Of course, echoing Dylan, the present volume cannot provide the definite answers to the questions raised or solutions to the problems associated with them nor does it attempt to. Yet, what it does is to explain and examine three broadly defined issue areas thus following the assumption that, contra Dylan, there is a chance that we might get a bit wiser at least: In the first part of the book the interested reader will find a whole bunch of articles covering the integration of women in the armed forces. In the more recent past, and especially during the last couple of years, this process has made considerable advances which met both full-fledged approval, sometimes even enthusiasm, and fundamental criticism or outright objection in the societies. Thus, this section assembles both case studies from different countries reflecting the differences and similarities in the integration of female soldiers and theoretically oriented analyses of the impact of this move on civil-military relations and of the degree to which gender roles are shifting in society. The second part entails chapters dealing with military and non-military means of conflicts resolution. Here, the contributions range from case studies of India and Mexico to the discussion of the pros and cons of consociationalism; from an analysis of identity problems of soldiers torn between police and ‘genuinely’ military functions via the debate on the format of the armed forces in Germany to the issue of soldierly motivation. The third section of the book, then, is devoted to regional and domestic developments in one part of the globe, South America. Here, three chapters deal with the changing security and economic context of the region, its move 10 toward economic and political integration and its effect on the armed forces. In addition, by taking Brazil as a case study, the position of the military within the domestic political and judicial system is analyzed revealing certain tensions between the rule of law and military justice. One last word goes to the SOWI. Neither the conference nor this book would have been possible without the generous support of the SOWI and, pars pro toto, Colonel Klaus Lohmann, the director of the institute. This help is deeply appreciated. 11 12 I. Female Soldiers: Integration on the Rise? 13 14 Women in the Canadian Forces Donna Winslow & Jason Dunn 1 Introduction Military organizations are considered to be conservative organizations that are resistant to social change. Like many other male-dominated institutions in society, the military has been slow in fully integrating women. Traditionally, most militaries banned women from combat positions since war was seen as a man’s world with no place for women. Women were characterized as having a different moral voice, that is, one based on caring and compassion. And even though women have always been casualties of war, the battlefield itself has been considered to be an exclusively male domain (Dunn 1999). Canadian women have a long tradition of military service. They have been a part of Canada’s armed forces for over one hundred years when trained nurses were first called for active duty during the suppression of the North West Rebellion in 1885 (Schacter 1997: 28; Robinson 1985: 100; Committee on Women in the NATO Forces 1982: 11). Canadian nurses have served continuously in this nation’s forces. During the First World War, they were assigned on hospital ships, in field ambulance units and to overseas hospitals. They have also been wounded and killed in action during the World Wars. By the end of the Second World War, approximately 50000 women had served in the women’s divisions, 5000 nurses had served in the medical corps of 15 the navy, army and air force and 53 nurses had died while on duty.1 Canadian servicewomen have been located in combat zones, been taken prisoners of war and killed, and Canadian civilian women have participated in irregular warfare (e.g., espionage, intelligence operations etc.). However, at no time in their military history have Canadian women ‘officially’ participated as combat personnel in military assault units – ground, sea or air (Park 1986: 3). In terms of the integration of women into combat, MacKenzie and Acreman argue that the Canadian Forces (CF) are at the forefront of social change. However, they also tell us that a “concerted effort is required if we are to be successful in overcoming widespread resistance and reactionary attitudes regarding the employment of women in the CF and, in particular, their employment in the combat arms” (MacKenzie/Acreman 1991: 18). “It is quite clear that acceptance of women in the military service and questions about their ability as leaders have been overshadowed by controversy over whether they should participate in combat and whether they could lead in battle. Much of the debate is rooted in attitudes, and changes in laws and regulations will not automatically alter social tradition.” (Staff Support Branch 1978: 147) Controversy over women in the CF reached a head in 1998 when Maclean’s Magazine published a cover story exposing cases of alleged rape, 1 The Canadian Forces’ Charter Task Force reported that women in traditional and support roles served with distinction during Canada’s wars.