bailes_hb.qxd 21/3/06 2:14 pm Page 1 Alyson J. K. Bailes (United Kingdom) is A special feature of Europe’s Nordic region the Director of SIPRI. She has served in the is that only one of its states has joined both British Diplomatic Service, most recently as the European Union and NATO. Nordic British Ambassador to Finland. She spent countries also share a certain distrust of several periods on detachment outside the B Recent and forthcoming SIPRI books from Oxford University Press A approaches to security that rely too much service, including two academic sabbaticals, A N on force or that may disrupt the logic and I a two-year period with the British Ministry of D SIPRI Yearbook 2005: L liberties of civil society. Impacting on this Defence, and assignments to the European E Armaments, Disarmament and International Security S environment, the EU’s decision in 1999 to S Union and the Western European Union. U THE NORDIC develop its own military capacities for crisis , She has published extensively in international N Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa: H management—taken together with other journals on politico-military affairs, European D The Processes and Mechanisms of Control E integration and Central European affairs as E ongoing shifts in Western security agendas Edited by Wuyi Omitoogun and Eboe Hutchful R L and in USA–Europe relations—has created well as on Chinese foreign policy. Her most O I COUNTRIES AND U complex challenges for Nordic policy recent SIPRI publication is The European Europe and Iran: Perspectives on Non-proliferation L S Security Strategy: An Evolutionary History, Edited by Shannon N. Kile F establishments. SIPRI Policy Paper no. 10 (2005). SIPRI Research Report no. 21 This multi-author book combines the E paperback and hardback T THE EUROPEAN techniques of reporting and analysis, H Gunilla Herolf (Sweden) is a senior research U debate and prediction, to illuminate the R fellow at the Swedish Institute of International E Technology and Security in the 21st Century: consequences of these challenges for the O Affairs (SIIA). Her research interests are in A Demand-Side Perspective N five Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, P security and defence cooperation in Western O Amitav Mallik E SECURITY AND Iceland, Norway and Sweden. The views R Europe, including the European Union and SIPRI Research Report no. 20 A D expressed in it by Nordic and non-Nordic, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, in N paperback and hardback I younger and more established, analysts C particular France, Germany and the United S reflect the political and intellectual ferment E Kingdom, but also including the Nordic Reducing Threats at the Source: C DEFENCE POLICY C countries. Her recent publications include O triggered in the Nordic region by these A European Perspective on Cooperative Threat Reduction U France, Germany and the United Kingdom: U developments—in the process shedding Ian Anthony R N light on defence and security challenges Cooperation in Times of Turbulence I SIPRI Research Report no. 19 T T (SIIA, 2004). R that matter deeply for Europe as a whole. paperback and hardback Y I A E EDITED BY Bengt Sundelius (Sweden) is the Chief N Confidence- and Security-Building Measures in the New Europe S Scientist of the Swedish Emergency Manage- D Zdzislaw Lachowski A ALYSON J. K. BAILES, ment Agency and a professor of government N SIPRI Research Report no. 18 D D at Uppsala University. He is the founding paperback and hardback E GUNILLA HEROLF AND F Director of the National Centre for Crisis T E Management Research and Training H Military Expenditure Data in Africa: N BENGT SUNDELIUS E (CRISMART) of the Swedish National A Survey of Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda C Defence College. He has been Director of the Wuyi Omitoogun E International Graduate School of Stockholm SIPRI Research Report no. 17 P University, Head of the Security and Foreign paperback and hardback O Policy Research Programme of the Swedish L I Institute of International Affairs and Director Business and Security: C of Research at the Swedish National Defence Public–Private Sector Relationships in a New Security Environment Y Research Establishment. He has published Edited by Alyson J. K. Bailes and Isabel Frommelt numerous scholarly articles and books on European security and foreign policy issues, most recently The Politics of Crisis Manage- ment: Public Leadership Under Pressure (Cambridge University Press, 2005, with Arjen Boin, Paul ’t Hart and Eric Stern) and Protecting the Homeland: European Approaches to Societal Security and their Implications for the United States (Johns 1 Hopkins University, Center for Transatlantic Relations, 2006, edited with Daniel Hamilton and Jesper Grönvall). OXFORD The Nordic Countries and the European Security and Defence Policy Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SIPRI is an independent international institute for research into problems of peace and conflict, especially those of arms control and disarmament. It was established in 1966 to commemorate Sweden’s 150 years of unbroken peace. The Institute is financed mainly by a grant proposed by the Swedish Government and subsequently approved by the Swedish Parliament. The staff and the Governing Board are international. The Institute also has an Advisory Committee as an international consultative body. The Governing Board is not responsible for the views expressed in the publications of the Institute. Governing Board Ambassador Rolf Ekéus, Chairman (Sweden) Sir Marrack Goulding, Vice-Chairman (United Kingdom) Dr Alexei G. Arbatov (Russia) Jayantha Dhanapala (Sri Lanka) Dr Willem F. van Eekelen (Netherlands) Dr Nabil Elaraby (Egypt) Professor Helga Haftendorn (Germany) Rose E. Gottemoeller (United States) Professor Ronald G. Sutherland (Canada) The Director Director Alyson J. K. Bailes (United Kingdom) Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Signalistgatan 9, SE-169 70 Solna, Sweden Telephone: 46 8/655 97 00 Fax: 46 8/655 97 33 Email: [email protected] Internet URL: http://www.sipri.org The Nordic Countries and the European Security and Defence Policy Edited by Alyson J. K. Bailes, Gunilla Herolf and Bengt Sundelius OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2006 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © SIPRI 2006 First published 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of SIPRI, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to SIPRI, Signalistgatan 9, SE-169 70 Solna, Sweden You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset and originated by Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Printed and bound in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 0–19–929084–9 978–0–19–929084–0 Contents Preface xii Abbreviations and acronyms xiv Introduction 1 The European defence challenge for the Nordic region Alyson J. K. Bailes I. The role of this introduction 1 II. A historical sketch of the Nordic region, 1945–2000 3 III. Nordic midwives at the birth of the European Security and 11 Defence Policy IV. Future challenges: what are the common elements? 16 V. Concluding remarks: divided we stand, united we change? 25 Table I.1. Basic facts about the Nordic countries 6 Table I.2. Basic facts about the military sectors of the Nordic countries 10 Table I.3. European security institutional relationships of the Nordic 14 countries Table I.4. Non-EU security institutional relationships of the Nordic 18 countries Map of the Nordic countries and associated territories 2 Part I. Institutional and national politics Editor’s remarks 29 Gunilla Herolf 1. Denmark and the European Security and Defence Policy 37 Klaus Carsten Pedersen I. Introduction 37 II. The history of the opt-out 38 III. The evolution of Danish security policy 40 IV. The 1990s: Denmark as producer rather than consumer of 43 security V. The Atlantic dimension 47 VI. Conclusions: the Nordic dimension 48 2. The Nordic countries and the EU–NATO relationship 50 Teija Tiilikainen I. Introduction 50 II. Four positions growing out of a common heritage 51 III. From the European Security and Defence Policy to the 55 Common Security and Defence Policy vi THE NORDIC COUNTRIES AND THE ESDP IV. The Nordic states and the St Malo process 56 V. The Nordic countries and the European Security and 59 Defence Policy in the Constitutional Treaty VI. Conclusions 65 3. The Nordic countries and the EU–NATO relationship: further 67 comments Gunilla Herolf I. Introduction 67 II. The positions of the four Nordic countries 68 III. The meaning of non-alignment and relations with NATO 69 IV. Institutional EU integration versus military contributions 71 V. European and world developments 73 VI. Conclusions: the future 75 4. Domestic influences on Nordic security and defence policy: from 77 the perspective of fusion Lee Miles I.