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Imagining the Tupamaros: Resistance and Gender in Uruguayan and U.S. Revolutionary Movements, 1960S-1980S Lindsey Blake Churchill

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Imagining the Tupamaros: Resistance and Gender in Uruguayan and U.S. Revolutionary Movements, 1960S-1980S Lindsey Blake Churchill Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2010 Imagining the Tupamaros: Resistance and Gender in Uruguayan and U.S. Revolutionary Movements, 1960s-1980s Lindsey Blake Churchill Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES IMAGINING THE TUPAMAROS: RESISTANCE AND GENDER IN URUGUAYAN AND U.S. REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, 1960S-1980S By LINDSEY BLAKE CHURCHILL A Dissertation submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2010 The members of the committee approve the dissertation of Lindsey Churchill defended on March 19th, 2010. __________________________________ Robinson A. Herrera Professor Directing Dissertation __________________________________ Brenda Cappuccio University Representative __________________________________ Alex Aviña Committee Member __________________________________ Andrew Frank Committee Member __________________________________ Ed Gray Committee Member The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to first and foremost thank Robinson Herrera for his unfaltering support and input concerning this project. From the first semester I began my course work in the History Department in 2006, Robinson spent countless hours not only helping me to better develop my dissertation but also as a scholarly mentor. He has challenged me to conceptualize history differently and because of his guidance I have improved both my research and writing abilities. I am deeply indebted to him for giving so much of his time to helping me to improve this dissertation, challenging me to look at different sources and approaches and always pushing me to do my best. I am also incredibly thankful to my other committee members, Alex Aviña, Brenda Cappuccio, Andrew Frank and Ed Gray who, through their suggestions concerning sources and variant ways to look at my dissertation, have also helped to greatly enhance this project. I would also like to extend a special thanks to Elna Green and Matt Childs who have been very supportive of my academic career. The overseas and in country research I conducted for this dissertation would not have been possible without outside funding. Special thanks to the Graduate School at Florida State University for awarding me the International Dissertation Semester Research Fellowship for the Spring and Summer semesters of 2009. This fellowship allowed me to conduct research in Uruguay and Argentina. I also was able to initiate greater research into the US side of solidarity in both 2007 and 2008 because of the Mary Lily Research Grant from Duke University. Thanks especially to Kelly Wooten at the Sallie Bingham Center for Women's History and Culture at Duke University for supporting my work. My family and friends have helped me immensely throughout this process. Thank you Mom and Dad for being incredibly steadfast and supporting me in every way imaginable. Nana, just like when I was growing up, thank you for being there for me and listening to me vent. Jess, my best friend, I have really appreciated your words of encouragement! Also I want to say thank you to Jamie, Eileen and Sherri for helping me iii to stay positive. And last but certainly not least, a million thanks to my dear Jeremy for the seemingly never ending amount of patience and kindness he has shown me throughout this process. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………............................................................................... vi 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 1 2. NOT ANOTHER CUBA: THE UNIQUE REVOLUTIONARY CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE TUPAMAROS...................................... 20 3. SUPPORTING THE “OTHER” AMERICA: WHAT LEFTIST URUGUAYANS THOUGHT ABOUT US RADICALS .................... 55 4. SOLIDARITY AND RECIPROCAL CONNECTIONS: US ACTIVISM ON BEHALF OF URUGUAY......................................... 78 5. “A PISTOL IN HER HAND”: SEXUAL LIBERATION, REPRODUCTION AND HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE TUPAMAROS AND THE GREATER URUGUAYAN LEFT.......... 102 6. CONCLUSION.................................................................................... 143 REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 155 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...................................................................... 168 v ABSTRACT Using sources located in archives and special collections in Argentina, Uruguay and the United States, this dissertation challenges long held assumptions about the Uruguayan Tupamaros. I employ the methodologies of social and cultural history and feminist scholarship to examine the relationship between state repression and revolutionary resistance, the transnational connections between the Uruguayan Tupamaros and leftist groups in the US as well as issues of gender and sexuality within radical movements. I argue that the Tupamaros engaged in an active discussion with US-based revolutionaries. Focusing on the perspective of Latin Americans during the Cold War, this dissertation examines what the Uruguayan left thought about US politics and culture. I uncover that the Uruguayan left saw the US as two Americas. They criticized the US government but allied with many of its people. This occurred both in the imagination of Uruguayans and in real life connections forged between leftists. While scholars have primarily explored Cuba’s influence on the North American left, I focus on the ways in which the Uruguayan left (particularly the Tupamaros) shaped the activism of US leftists. This study also adds to the discussion of gender and sexuality in Latin America as I investigate whether or not gender reorganization represented a true political goal of the Tupamaros or if their inclusion of women primarily constituted revolutionary rhetoric. While most of the Uruguayan left focused on motherhood as inspiring women’s politics, the Tupamaros disdained traditional constructions of femininity for female combatants. Therefore, although at times problematic, the Tupamaros offered women a new avenue for political participation. vi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION “Como el Uruguay no hay! There is nothing like Uruguay!”1 On a sunny January morning in 1971, British Ambassador Geoffrey Jackson rode to his embassy in Montevideo, Uruguay to meet with a visiting businessman. Just a few moments before he arrived at the British Embassy, a red van emerged from a side street and rammed into Jackson’s vehicle. To Jackson’s horror, when his driver Hugo got out of the car to survey the damage, a young man ran from the van and struck the driver over the head. Seconds after Hugo was knocked unconscious, urban guerrillas holding machine guns surrounded Jackson. Even a seemingly innocent bystander pulled out a gun that had been concealed in a fruit basket.2 After shooting into Jackson’s car, four young guerrillas brazenly climbed in, blindfolded Jackson and injected him with tranquilizers. After a bumpy car ride and a subsequent forced descent into what seemed like an underground fortress, Jackson’s kidnappers finally removed his blindfold. Obviously amused, one of the numerous masked men and women who surrounded Jackson asked him in English, “And who do you think we are?” Jackson, who had heard stories about his controversial kidnappers replied, “We all know that.” The captors wanted more. “But say so,” they insisted, “say so, use the word.” Jackson paused then finally answered, “Of course…the Tupamaros.”3 1 Popular Uruguayan nationalistic expression. Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Human Rights and Democratization in Latin America: Uruguay and Chile (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 18. 2 Sir Geoffrey Jackson, Surviving the Long Night: An Autobiographical Account of a Political Kidnapping (New York: The Vanguard Press, 1973), 28. 3 Jackson, Surviving the Long Night, 39. The Tupamaros derived their name from the Andean revolutionary Tupác Amaru, born José Gabriel Condorcanqui. Tupamaro was used to identify the militants of the Uruguayan Movimiento para la Liberación Nacional (MLN-T). Tupác Amaru organized one of the most impressive rebellions against Spanish colonization. Amaru and his followers’ revolt lasted from November 4, 1780, when his followers kidnapped a representative of the Spanish Crown, to May 18, 1782, when Amaru was executed in Cuzco. See Alain Labrousse, The Tupamaros: Urban Guerrillas in Uruguay (England: Penguin Books, 1973), 15. 1 For over half a year Jackson lived in a small dank underground cell that the Tupamaros deemed the “people’s prison.” During this time, Jackson met dozens of gun wielding male and female revolutionaries. Indeed, in a memoir about his experiences as a prisoner of the Tupamaros, Jackson most consistently and disdainfully mentioned, Tupamaras (term used to describe female members of the Movimiento de la Liberación Nacional (MLN-T) who guarded his cell. For the very traditional Jackson, beyond merely guarding his cell, the Tupamaras’ extensive training in guns and other weaponry deviated from proper notions of feminine behavior. The relatively high number of women involved in the Tupamaros as well as their participation in violent acts such as kidnapping and bank robberies gives the impression that the group consistently supported gender equality. However, day to
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