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State of the English Cities State of the Social Cohesion State of the English Cities Social Cohesion State of the English Cities – Social Cohesion State of the nment website.) report published by the then ODPM in March 2006. ee reports above are only available via the Communities and comparison of Public Attitudes in Urban and Non-urban Gover A Regions Areas Across Different The State of American Cities Liveability in English Cities Social Cohesion The Competitive Economic Performance of English Cities The Changing Urban Scene: Demographics and the Big Picture • (the thr Local • • • • (the three reports above are available in print and on the Communities and Local Government website.) • ISBN-10 1 85112 871 9 ISBN-13 978 1 85112 871 6 Cover Price: £25 The six thematic reports are: English Cities www.communities.gov.uk This is one of a series of six thematic reports providing the detailed evidence which supported the findings presented in State of the English Cities Social Cohesion Professor Ivan Turok, Department of Urban Studies, University of Glasgow Professor Ade Kearns, University of Glasgow Dave Fitch, Communities Scotland John Flint, Sheffield Hallam University Carol McKenzie, Heriot Watt University Joanne Abbotts, University of Glasgow November 2006 Department for Communities and Local Government The findings and recommendations in this report are those of the consultant authors and do not necessarily represent the views or proposed policies of Communities and Local Government On 5th May 2006 the responsibilities of the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) transferred to the Department for Communities and Local Government Department for Communities and Local Government Eland House Bressenden Place London SW1E 5DU Telephone: 020 7944 4400 Website: www.communities.gov.uk © Crown Copyright, 2006 Copyright in the typographical arrangement rests with the Crown. This publication, excluding logos, may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium for research, private study or for internal circulation within an organisation. This is subject to it being reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. The material must be acknowledged as Crown copyright and the title of the publication specified. Any other use of the contents of this publication would require a copyright licence. Please apply for a Click-Use Licence for core material at www.opsi.gov.uk/click-use/system/online/pLogin.asp, or by writing to the Office of Public Sector Information, Information Policy Team, St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich, NR3 1BQ. Fax: 01603 723000 or email: [email protected] If you require this publication in an alternative format please email [email protected] Communities and Local Government Publications PO Box 236 Wetherby West Yorkshire LS23 7NB Tel: 08701 226 236 Fax: 08701 226 237 Textphone: 08701 207 405 Email: [email protected] or online via the Communities and Local Government website: www.communities.gov.uk Printed in the UK on material containing no less than 75% post-consumer waste. November 2006 Product Code: 06HC04137/3 ISBN-10 1 85112 871 9 ISBN-13 978 1 85112 871 6 State of the English Cities Report – Social Cohesion CONTENTS Acknowledgements 4 Preface 5 Summary 6 Introduction 20 Part 1: The Meaning of Social Cohesion in Cities 21 Part 2: Patterns and Trends in Social Cohesion 27 Introduction 27 Income and deprivation 30 Employment 48 Education and Skills 62 Health 77 Housing and Residential Segregation 89 Crime 117 Part 3: Integrative Case Studies 125 Medway 126 Leicester 150 Burnley 185 Leeds 219 Sunderland 248 Part 4: Conclusions and Policy Implications 271 References 283 Appendix 287 3 State of the English Cities – Social Cohesion Acknowledgements The authors of the report are very grateful for the information and practical assistance provided by more than a hundred representatives of public, private, voluntary and community organisations in the five case study cities who gave freely of their time to participate in sometimes lengthy and demanding interviews. 4 State of the English Cities Report – Social Cohesion Preface – State of the English Cities thematic reports This report is one of a series of six thematic reports associated with the State of the English Cities1 report (SOCR). These reports together provide the detailed evidence on which the main findings presented in the State of the English Cities report are based. The six thematic reports are: • The Changing Urban Scene: Demographics and the Big Picture • Social Cohesion • The Competitive Economic Performance of English Cities • The State of American Cities • Liveability in English Cities • A comparison of public attitudes in urban and non-urban areas across different regions Readers should note that the research on which these thematic reports are based was undertaken in 2005. The findings and recommendations therefore relate to the position at the time of writing in 2005. The Department for Communities and Local Government would like to take this opportunity to thank all those who participated in the research. 1 State of the English Cities, ODPM, March 2006. 5 State of the English Cities – Social Cohesion Summary Aims and objectives This report provides an assessment of the state of social cohesion in English cities in 2005. It focuses on four broad themes: (i) patterns: the significance of cities to society – or why cities matter; (ii) trends: recent social changes in cities – whether things have been getting better or worse; (iii) processes: the determinants of social change – what lies behind recent trends; (iv) policies: the role of government policies and the issues still to be addressed. The report draws upon a wide range of evidence including official statistical sources, the State of the English Cities database (SOCD) and detailed case studies of five cities in different regional circumstances. The drivers and dimensions of social cohesion Social cohesion is a multi-faceted notion covering many different kinds of social phenomena. It is sometimes used as a euphemism for the state of race relations, but we define the term more broadly here. The different dimensions of cohesion have an important bearing upon each other but they are not synonymous. Figure 1 conveys the essential features in a simple summary framework. Figure 1: Different dimensions of social cohesion EQUALITY INCLUSION (social integration ACTIVE RELATIONSHIPS (positive social interaction PASSIVE RELATIONSHIPS (tolerance, order, peace, low crime) BASIC EMPLOYMENT INCOME HEALTHEDUCATION HOUSING 6 State of the English Cities Report – Social Cohesion: Summary The report shows that material conditions are fundamental to social cohesion, particularly employment, income, health, education and housing. Relations between and within communities suffer when people lack work and endure hardship, debt, anxiety, low self- esteem, ill-health, poor skills and bad living conditions. These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress. The second basic tenet of cohesion is social order, safety and freedom from fear, or passive social relationships. Tolerance and respect for other people, along with peace and security, are hallmarks of a stable and harmonious urban society. The opposite is lack of acceptance of social and cultural differences, along with conflict and crime, hence stress, insecurity and instability. The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or active social relationships. Such contacts and connections are potential resources for places since they offer people and organisations mutual support, information, trust and credit of various kinds. The opposite is misunderstanding, suspicion, mistrust and resentment, which undermine social well-being. The fourth dimension is about the extent of social inclusion or integration of people into the mainstream institutions of civil society. It also includes people’s sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds – do they have a genuine stake in local society and pull together? The opposite is social or residential segregation, social exclusion, disaffection and isolation. Lastly, social equality refers to the level of fairness or disparity in access to opportunities or material circumstances, such as income, health or quality of life, or in future life chances. The opposite is a high level of inequality in living standards or very unequal prospects for upward social mobility. This may be associated with frustration, envy and resentment experienced by those lower down the scale, which can damage overall social welfare in a variety of ways. One of the complications associated with the concept is that the state of social cohesion differs depending on whether one is referring to cities, neighbourhoods or particular social groups. Tight-knit communities may exist within a fractured city if they involve self-centred behaviour and discrimination against other groups. In other words, one group’s coherence may come at the expense of another’s exclusion. Conversely, tolerance and trust between different communities can obscure conflicts within them (eg between young and old, or rich and poor). Clearly, groups and communities can be defined on different bases – socio-economic, religious, ethnic, age, disability, gender and so on – and it is important to be specific about what one is referring to when considering
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