ISSN 0041-6436

Food and Agriculture An international journal Vol. 57 Organization of forestry and forest 2006/2 224 of the United Nations industries

Editor: A. Perlis Contents Editorial Advisory Board: F. Castañeda, R. Czudek, T. Hofer, D. Kneeland, Editorial 2 J.P. Koyo, A. Perlis, L. Russo, T. Vahanen, M.L. Wilkie C.J.P. Colfer, D. Sheil, D. Kaimowitz and M. Kishi Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, C. Palmberg-Lerche Forests and human health in the tropics: some important connections 3 Regional Advisers: B.A. Wilcox and B. Ellis C. Carneiro, P. Durst, P. Koné, K. Prins Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans 11 Unasylva is published in English, French and Spanish. Starting in 2006, payment is no longer Forestry and malaria control in Italy 19 required. Free subscriptions can be obtained by C. Holding Anyonge, G. Rugalema, D. Kayambazinthu, A. Sitoe sending an e-mail to [email protected] Subscription requests from institutions (e.g. and M. Barany libraries, companies, organizations, universities) Fuelwood, food and medicine: the role of forests in the response rather than individuals are preferred to make the to HIV and AIDS in rural areas of southern Africa 20 journal accessible to more readers. All issues of Unasylva are available online free J. Muriuki of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva Forests as pharmacopoeia: identifying new plant-based Comments and queries are welcome: treatments for malaria 24 [email protected] E. Dounias and A. Froment Reproduction and dissemination of material in this publication for educational or other When forest-based hunter-gatherers become sedentary: non-commercial purposes are authorized consequences for diet and health 26 without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully T. Johns and P. Maundu acknowledged. Reproduction of material in Forest biodiversity, nutrition and population health this publication for resale or other commercial in market-oriented food systems 34 purposes is prohibited without written permission of the Chief, Electronic Publishing Policy and K.R. Smith Support Branch, Information Division, FAO. Health impacts of household fuelwood use in developing countries 41 Articles express the views of their authors, not necessarily those of FAO. Health guidelines for vegetation fire events 45 Designations employed and presentation of material do not imply the expression of any J. Křeček and Z. Hořická opinion on the part of FAO concerning the legal Forests, air pollution and water quality: influencing health or development status of any country, territory, in the headwaters of Central Europe’s "Black Triangle" 46 city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The protective role of coastal forests in human security: The FAO publications reviewed in Unasylva fact or illusion? 50 may be ordered from any of the FAO sales agents listed on the inside back cover. FAO B. Moore, G. Allard and M. Malagnoux will process orders from countries where there are no sales agents. Contact the Sales and Itching for the woods: forests, allergies and irritants 51 Marketing Group, Information Division, FAO, L. O’Brien Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy. “Strengthening heart and mind”: using woodlands to improve Tel.: (+39) 06 57051; mental and physical well-being 56 Fax: (+39) 06 5705 3360; Telex: 625852/625853/610181 FAO I; FAO Forestry 62 E-mail: [email protected] World of Forestry 65 Books 68 Cover photo: Women gathering medicinal plants (Combretum micranthum) from the forest, Guinea FAO/CFU000304/R. Faidutti

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Forests and human health potential, as well as implications for local populations and natural resource conservation. Next, E. Dounias and A. Froment show how the settlement of nomadic forest dwellers exposes them to unfamiliar dis- eases and dietary influences – but also to societal ills such as uman health is defined by the World Health Organiza- economic insecurity, social prejudice and denial of traditional tion (WHO) as “a state of complete physical, mental rights, which can have an equally profound impact on health. Hand social well-being and not merely the absence of Thus in addition to improved medical care, sociopolitical disease or infirmity”. This issue of Unasylva examines how support and access to education are key to the healthy future forests and health are intertwined. of these groups . For the compilation of this issue, FAO is greatly indebted Forest ecosystems not only contribute to the diets and subsist- to the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), ence of forest dwellers; they also provide a significant portion which has been investigating this topic for the past three of the food and medicines consumed by urban populations. years. CIFOR researchers – especially E. Dounias and T. Johns and P. Maundu examine the link between forest C.J.P. Colfer – helped plan the issue, contributed to it and biodiversity and contemporary market-oriented food systems enhanced its quality as guest reviewers. The first article, by – providing an argument for integrating conservation of for- Colfer and colleagues, reviews recent CIFOR research to pro- est biodiversity with objectives of poverty reduction, food vide an overview of the state of human health in forest areas security and disease reduction in development policies. (which are often remote from medical care) and a summary Fuelwood is essential to the livelihoods of millions of of the causal links between forests and human health. households in developing countries, but when it goes up in A recently explored link is that between forest area change smoke it can threaten respiratory health. K.R. Smith highlights (particularly deforestation and forest fragmentation) and the efforts to ameliorate the problem, such as promoting improved emergence of new infectious diseases (e.g. HIV, Ebola virus) stoves. Smoke from forest fires can also threaten the health which often originate in animals. B.A. Wilcox and B. Ellis of large populations – to the extent that in Southeast Asia, highlight the most prominent forest-associated diseases and countries have adopted an Agreement on Transboundary summarize factors contributing to their spread: expansion of Haze Pollution. human populations into forest areas, with increased human Forests also have a role in improving the human environ- exposure to wildlife; modified abundance or dispersal of ment for better health – for example, by absorbing airborne pathogen hosts and vectors as a result of forest alteration; pollution (a recognized role of urban forests, for example); and altered hydrological functions that may favour water- by taking up heavy metals, radionuclides and other pol- borne pathogens. lutants from soil; and by helping to ensure water quality. Forest resource management measures can thus help J. Křeček and Z. Hořická document the role of watershed for- mitigate disease. An example is the use of afforestation to ests in mediating acid rain caused by air pollution in Central reclaim swamplands, which helped control malaria in early Europe’s “Black Triangle”. A short contribution examines twentieth-century Italy. the degree to which mangroves and other coastal forests can AIDS is having a large impact on woodland communities, help protect human lives by defending against tsunamis and particularly in Africa. C. Holding Anyonge et al. document other coastal hazards. the increased dependence of HIV- and AIDS-affected com- B. Moore, G. Allard and M. Malagnoux look at a prickly munities on forest resources – particularly for medicines, problem for some forest workers and others who spend time energy and food – and explore the resource management in the forest: allergens and irritants from forest insects, plants implications, highlighting some interventions that might help and trees which can cause skin and respiratory troubles. lessen the impact. Finally, L. O’Brien notes that many European countries are Local knowledge of medicinal plants forms the basis for focusing on using trees and woodlands to improve people’s traditional health care and is also used to derive modern mental and physical health and well-being – as illustrated by pharmaceuticals. Protecting the rights of rural people to share varied initiatives in the United Kingdom. the benefits from the use of their knowledge and resources These articles, far more than merely pointing out health is a challenge addressed by the Convention on Biological problems related to forests, all underline the role that the forest Diversity (CBD). A short contribution by J. Muriuki sum- sector and national forestry departments can and often already marizes recent efforts in Africa to develop herbal antimalarial do play in ensuring human well-being through responsible drugs (many based on forest species) – noting their enormous forest management.

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Forests and human health in the tropics: some important connections

C.J.P. Colfer, D. Sheil, D. Kaimowitz and M. Kishi

An overview of the state of human hy should foresters concern provide families with nutritious meals health in and around forests, themselves with issues of and maintain standards of hygiene. and the causal links between Whuman health? There are In forested areas, women’s roles also forests and human health. at least two important answers to this involve interaction with forests and other question. First, and perhaps most funda- natural resources (for non-wood forest mental, forestry activities affect human products [NWFPs], clean and abundant health and human health affects forests. water, forest agriculture, etc.). As the Second, the United Nations Millennium primary caretakers when other family Development Goals (MDGs) (see Box), members fall ill, women in forested which the world’s countries have com- areas often treat their family members mitted to meet by 2015, reflect increas- with forest products. Finally, women are ing global concern about human health. central players in decisions about family Four of the MDGs (1, 4, 5 and 6) address size; large families can adversely affect health directly. It can also be argued that the health of both mother and offspring, improvements in human health (as part of and often adversely affect the health of human well-being) are a prerequisite for forests as well. accomplishing the seventh goal, which Even the realization of the eighth is the most pertinent for foresters. MDG, related to global partnerships, The second and third MDGs stress or could contribute to improved human imply gender equity. These goals also and forest health. have fairly direct implications for human As with many statistics pertaining to health, given the central role women forests, global and regional statistics typically play in family health mainte- about the health of people living in nance. In most places it is women who forests are subject to some question. But a sense of the magnitude of both Millennium Development health problems for people and the Goals links between forests and health can be grasped from the following sprinkling of statistics. 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and • Smoke from fuelwood and forest hunger fires causes significant human respi- 2. Achieve universal primary ratory problems. Smoke from simple education biomass fuels may account for 1 mil- Carol J. Pierce Colfer and Douglas Sheil 3. Promote gender equality and lion to 2 million premature deaths are researchers specialized in anthropology empower women and ecology, respectively, at the Center for annually, mainly women and small 4. Reduce child mortality International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, children in developing countries Indonesia. 5. Improve maternal health (see Smith, this issue of Unasylva). David Kaimowitz, an economist, was CIFOR 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and Director-General until August 2006 and is Smoke plumes from forest fires can other diseases currently Program Officer for Environment and travel hundreds of kilometres, posing Development for the Ford Foundation, Mexico. 7. Ensure environmental sustainability a great health risk; the extensive 1997 Misa Kishi, a public health specialist, is a CIFOR 8. Develop a global partnership for Visiting Scientist and Senior Environmental Indonesian forest fires caused an esti- development Health Specialist at JSI Research and Training mated 16 400 infant and foetal deaths Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, United States.

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Remote forested fies four central links between forests areas may have and human health, focusing on two cen- difficulty attracting doctors, nurses tral questions: and health system • What are the human health condi- administrators (a tions in and around forests? clinic in Mexico) • What are the causal links between forests and human health? Finally, the article provides some pol- icy recommendations targeted to specific actors such as health professionals or foresters. The article draws heavily on recent research of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) (see Box). Much of this research concerns topics covered in depth in the other contribu- tions in this issue; this article focuses FAO/18640/G. BIZZARRI FAO/18640/G. on those topics that are less fully devel- (Jayachandran, 2005) (see page 45 disregarded in formal health care systems oped elsewhere in the issue. Most of the regarding health guidelines for fire and research. They are often difficult to findings concern humid tropical forests, events). reach, and remote forested areas may with lesser attention to dry forests, forest • Anyinam (1995) reports that in have difficulty attracting doctors, nurses margins and previously forested areas. India alone, some 2 500 plants are and health system administrators. used medicinally, and Shankar and There are both ethical and practical HUMAN HEALTH–FOREST LINKS Majumdar (1997) add that for 400 reasons for reversing this trend. Justice Forests do not have the same importance million to 500 million Indians, tradi- demands greater attention to those with in the daily life of all people living in tional medicine is the only option. inequitable access to good health, by and near the forest; their importance • Seventy to 80 percent of Africans whatever means; and forest dwellers varies along a continuum from hunter- consult traditional medical practi- have knowledge and capabilities that gatherers to swidden farmers, to recent tioners who often rely on medici- can meaningfully contribute to improved in-migrants, to agriculturists, to urban nal plants. The United Republic of forest management. This article identi- dwellers (see Figure). Tanzania, for instance, was reported to have 30 000 to 40 000 traditional practitioners compared with only CIFOR and human health research 600 western doctors (Cunningham, 1993). The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) recognized the importance of • US$75 billion of pharmaceuticals human health in forest management in the mid-1990s. Some 20 interdisciplinary teams of of natural origin are sold each year researchers, working in ten countries in the developed and developing world, looking at (Kate and Laird, 1999). forests managed for timber, plantations, and community use, all concluded that human The ubiquity of serious health prob- health was an important element in sustainable forest management. Health professionals lems, such as human immunodeficiency have also identified important links between the environment and health (e.g. Engelman, virus and acquired immunodeficiency 1998; Gardner-Outlaw and Engelman, 1999; Walsh, Molyneux and Birley, 1993; Patz et syndrome (HIV and AIDS), Ebola and al., 2000; Patz and Wolfe, 2002). malaria, is counterbalanced by the (some- In 2003, CIFOR initiated a review of the literature on human health and forests which times) recognized value of traditional included specialist workshops, interviews with experts, continuing field observations and knowledge and use of medicinal plants the collection of over 600 studies and analyses. The full results are reported in Colfer, as alternatives to modern medicine. Sheil and Kishi (2006). Because forests, almost by definition, More information on CIFOR’s work on human health is available at: have lower population densities than www.cifor.cgiar.org/Research/Livelihoods/MainActivities/ForestHealth urban areas or agricultural landscapes, people living in forest areas tend to be

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Hunter-gatherers and swidden farmers depend on forests most fundamentally in terms of subsistence, health, income and culture; their total way of life may depend on the forest. They are likely to have useful stores of indigenous knowledge that can be tapped to improve forest management. Recent in-migrants may be just as dependent on forests for subsistence, but may have neither in- depth knowledge of local species, habi-

tats and behaviour nor the associated FAO/CFU000146/R. FAIDUTTI symbolic and cultural ties and values that still enrich the lives of many for- est dwellers. Settled farmers and urban dwellers may want to buy forest products or may depend on the forest for fuel or medicine, but are far less enmeshed in its People residing in and near forests sustainability or cultural significance. recent years with diseases emerging from typically obtain a considerable, To improve human health and forest forests such as severe acute respiratory although variable, amount of nutritious foods from forests – with sustainability, it is necessary to con- syndrome (SARS). poor people generally more dependent sider which categories local populations on such food (children eating fruits of belong to and to assess how forest dwell- Food and nutrition Borassus aethiopium, Senegal) ers can contribute to improving forest Although the potential of forests for management. It is also necessary to take improving livelihoods may be small, for- note of variations in forest knowledge ests serve as important safety nets. Peo- and use within forest communities (by ple residing in and near forests typically age, gender, caste, etc.). As the articles in obtain a considerable, although variable, on such food. The adequacy of hunter- this issue show, interventions in forests, amount of nutritious foods from forests gatherers’ access to nutrients from the both harmful and benign, have implica- (see Dounias and Froment, this issue; forest and the nutritional value of many tions for other populations, as has been Johns and Maundu, this issue). Poor forest foods are still under investiga- dramatically and negatively shown in people are disproportionately dependent tion. It appears that no people on the planet are now wholly dependent on Importance of wild gathered forest products for their forests for different food; all cultivate, barter or trade to groups of people Urban dwellers living in or near some degree. Nonetheless, wild foods them continue to provide the major portion of t field manen farmer Per s the animal fats, proteins and minerals in st in-migran Fore ts the diets of millions of people. n fa Bennett and Robinson (2000) report widde rmers S that in 62 developing countries, people obtain more than 20 percent of their Hunter-gatherers protein from wild meat and fish. People in the Congo Basin alone consume more than 1 million tonnes of wild meat yearly (equivalent to 4 million cattle) (Wilkie, 2001), while people in the Amazon Basin consume 67 000 to 164 000 tonnes per year (Bennett, Robinson and Eves, 2002). Wild forest-dwelling animals represent a mixed blessing, however,

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with raids on crops counterbalancing monly used for cooking in forested areas HIV and AIDS, conflict, nutrition and ease of hunting. and presents serious respiratory health women’s low status are intertwined in Remaining forest habitats tend to be hazards, particularly for women and East and Central African forests. Glo- characterized by poor soils and plants children (see Smith, this issue). bally, households affected by HIV and whose defences make them unsuit- AIDS tend to enter a downward spiral able as food. However, forests are also Diseases of gender inequities, poor nutrition, cul- important reservoirs of genetic resources Deforestation, population growth, tural breakdown and more poverty and which provide some foods at present and human movement, economics, power disease (see Holding et al., this issue). hold the potential to nourish a wider and disease are intimately intercon- Social inequities in access to resources, public in the future. The wild relatives nected, but predicting the impact of spe- seasonal labour and separation of fami- of many common crops represent an cific landcover changes on human health lies all increase vulnerability to AIDS important global heritage. Forests also will require analysis of local conditions. in (and outside) forested areas. Practical supply numerous goods (and services) Emerging viral diseases pose significant steps that could improve the situation that indirectly support food provision, threats to human and wildlife popula- include acknowledgement of the role such as poles, beehives and fodder. tions (see Wilcox and Ellis, this issue). of medicinal plants and forest foods in Commercialization often adversely Vector-borne diseases are particularly patient care, increased access to fuel- affects the sustainability of plant and likely to be implicated in forested areas. wood (reducing labour requirements), wildlife populations, spurred by the These ailments have varying relation- development of woodland-based income- growth of markets in cities, entrance ships with deforestation, but in most generating activities, and sharing of for- of loggers and others into forest areas, cases deforestation appears to increase est revenues to support local community and improved weapons and transport (see the disease load of local people. initiatives to deal with HIV and AIDS Johns and Maundu, this issue). Sale of Handling and consumption of bush- (Anyonge, 2004). Indigenous knowledge wildlife and other NWFPs represents a meat increase exposure to many viruses has an important role in such efforts source of income for local families but and may underlie the emergence of vari- (Lengkeek, 2005). sometimes takes food away from the ous diseases including HIV and Ebola. Malaria is another major killer and fac- kitchen. Seasonality results in serious Forest animals and insects serve as hosts tor in the burden of disease in and near hunger in some areas. and vectors to a number of important forested areas, particularly in Africa. Landscape modification is often diseases such as yellow fever, leishma- The causal links between deforestation motivated by the need for food. Some niasis and Chagas disease, among others. and incidence of malaria are difficult to manipulations maintain forest cover and Land use changes affect various hosts distinguish. Some logging processes can increase food production at the same and vectors differently, thus affecting lead to standing water and increases in time. Changes in forest composition human disease incidence. The threat of mosquito breeding sites. In a few places, caused by logging, hunting and inva- emergent diseases such as Lyme disease such as Panama and the Terai region of sive species have diverse effects on food in the United States or Ebola in Central availability. Different stages of forest Africa is worsened by their capacity to regrowth vary in food productivity. spread beyond forests (see Wilcox and The distribution of food within for- Ellis, this issue). est households can be inequitable, with women and girls particularly at risk. Forest (and other) diseases can adversely ECOPORT (WWW.ECOPORT.ORG)/3169/A.B. CUNNINGHAM affect people’s access to foods. Illness and death from HIV and AIDS, as well as care-giving responsibilities, reduce the effective working adult population – and thus family food supply (see Holding et al., this issue). Food-related health prob- lems that affect people living in forested areas include vitamin A and iodine defi- Many western pharmaceutical ciencies, mycotoxins and other toxins in products derive from tropical foods, and viral diseases spread through forest species; shown, bark of contact with wildlife. Fuelwood is com- Prunus africana destined for the European market

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Traditional health medicinal plants. There is also growing care systems are scientific evidence of the efficacy of based on significant local knowledge of some of these widely used traditional medicinal plants; remedies. shown, a herbalist At the same time, medicinal plants preparing medicine from the fruit of are threatened globally, via some of the Kigelia africana, same mechanisms outlined for forest Uganda foods (see Johns and Maundu, this issue). Some of the threats include slow growth patterns of desirable species, loss of tra- ditional mechanisms that contributed to sustainable use, and competing uses of the same species, in tandem with growing commercialization and global markets. FAO/CFU000270/R. FAIDUTTI FAO/CFU000270/R. Certification of medicinal plants and bet- Nepal, forest clearing has allowed popu- these have medicinal uses. Compounds ter forest management techniques offer lations to enter areas that malaria had that have common medicinal uses such two possible partial solutions. previously rendered uninhabitable. (In as cola nuts, caffeine, chocolate, chili Pharmaceutical companies have some- contrast, see page 19 for an example of peppers and cocaine are also found in times been charged with reaping unac- how afforestation was used to help con- forest areas. Many western pharma- ceptably large benefits from forest peo- trol malaria in Italy in the early twentieth ceutical products derive from tropi- ples’ knowledge given the widespread century.) However, in other areas the cal forest species, e.g. quinine from poverty in forested areas. Issues relating movement of non-immune peoples into Cinchona spp.; cancer-treating drugs to intellectual property rights, implica- malarial areas where local people have from rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus tions for cultural integrity, and amounts some immunity has been connected with roseus); treatments for enlarged prostate and recipients of benefits are complex. increased prevalence of the disease. The gland from Prunus africana; forskolin, The Convention on Biological Diversity enormous variability and adaptability of which has a variety of medicinal uses, (CBD) aims to protect benefit-sharing mosquitoes contributes significantly to from the root of Coleus forskohlii; medi- rights, but adequate mechanisms for the difficulty in distinguishing causal cine for treating diabetes from Dioscorea doing so are not in place, especially in factors and in developing effective dumetorum and Harungana vismia; and many developing countries. Attempts to health maintenance strategies. several medicines based on leaves of the establish collaboration between the phar- Mercury poisoning from consumption succulents of the Mesembryanthemaceae maceutical industry and local communi- of contaminated fish is common in some family. Some of these products are now ties in bioprospecting have had mixed forested areas. In the Amazon, gold min- synthesized, but others are still collected results (Kate and Laird, 1999). ing and erosion (exacerbated by forest from the wild. The economic value of clearing) of soils containing naturally traditional medicines is considerable; Cultural change and consequences high levels of mercury have resulted in Achieng (1999), for instance, reported of development high levels of mercury in downstream that the bark of Prunus africana alone A sense of identity and community is waters. Exposure to mercury can lead to was worth US$220 million annually to central to the quality of all human life. lowered resistance to disease, insanity, the pharmaceutical industry. It is increasingly recognized that cul- mental retardation and a number of less Traditional health care systems are ture greatly influences people’s quality dramatic problems. Researchers and com- based on significant local knowledge of life, sense of well-being and health. munity members have worked together of medicinal plants in all major tropi- Among hunter-gatherers and many swid- in some places to reduce exposure to cal areas. These health care systems den farmers, the forest–health links are mercury by altering local diets. are important, particularly where for- central. Important issues for those con- mal health care services are absent (see cerned with the health of forest people Medicinal products from forests Dounias and Froment, this issue). The include the degree to which health beliefs Many forest plants and animals pro- market for traditional medicines is large and practices are integrated with other duce poisons, fungicides, antibiotics and expanding, and much of it is in parts of cultural systems; differing phi- and other biologically active compounds the hands of women, particularly that losophies about health and health care; as defence mechanisms, and many of involving less commercially valuable and the variety of approaches to health

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and illness that exist in the world’s for- disorders (e.g. Natshara and Ohsuka, Although technical understanding of ests. A concern to maintain human health 1999; Gracey, 2000). pathology, nutrition, pharmacology and requires attention to the interconnected- epidemiology is crucial to making the ness of forest peoples, their cultures CONCLUSIONS AND WAYS links more positive and must be encour- and the forests. When people’s food, FORWARD aged, it is not enough. There is a pressing rituals, health care, shelter and economic The CIFOR review produced many spe- need to fashion innovative solutions to and political systems have always been cific recommendations for those on the the health care needs of forest people. intertwined with the forest, the loss of ground: health professionals, foresters, Experience with adaptive collaborative the forest has negative implications not development personnel, natural resource management with communities (e.g. only for their socio-economic status, but managers, administrators, industry Colfer, 2005) suggests that the most also for their mental health. (especially logging, pharmaceuticals, direct and cost-effective way to do this On a more global scale, protection of mining) and civil society (Colfer, Sheil is to use participatory, interdisciplinary cultural diversity can serve as insur- and Kishi, 2006). Broader conclusions approaches. In communities around the ance against overdominance of west- are given here. world, people have been ready and will- ern cultural models – which have often What specifically has been learned ing to work with CIFOR on health issues been characterized as stress-ridden and about the two issues addressed – the – for example, on medicinal plants in unhealthy, both physically and mentally state of people’s health in and around the Philippines (Hartanto et al., 2003), (see O’Brien, this issue). Indigenous forests, and the causal links between Indonesia and Brazil (Shanley and knowledge about foods and medicines forests and human health? Looking at Luz, 2003) and on monitoring of health can be assessed for its possible value to the condition of people’s health in and status in various contexts (Dounias other cultures. It can also contribute to around forests, there are some notable et al., 2004); but so far funding has been the self-confidence of forest peoples, examples of increased health threats such insufficient to implement these ideas with positive implications for mental as Ebola from forests. But tropical forests fully. health. also provide essential foods, medicines, Participatory approaches make it possi- Development projects have often had health care and mental health benefits to ble to build on the biological and cultural adverse as well as beneficial effects on people all over the world. The amount of diversity of forests and forest peoples. people’s health, for example by reducing these benefits generally increases with They allow the world to make benign and subsistence access to forest lands and proximity to the forest. However, for- appropriately compensated use of local foods and bringing indigenous people into est communities, and those adjacent to people’s indigenous knowledge and nat- contact with new diseases and cultures. forests, are not high on the agenda of ural resources and take into account the For example, increases in leishmaniasis most governmental health care insti- logistical problems of formal health care have been linked with deforestation, tutions, often because the populations delivery systems, which cannot supply migration and agricultural development involved are small and the logistics of trained medical doctors and public health in the regions of the Amazon and the Nile serving them are formidable. Although personnel to every village. The wider (Patz et al., 2000); a dramatic increase in there is some evidence that some of the underlying goal must be a more equitable schistosomiasis was observed in Ghana most forest-dependent people (hunter- global system in which forest dwellers immediately following the construction gatherers) may have better health than do not pay the costs of supporting the of 164 dams (Hunter, 2003); HIV and other rural peoples (e.g. Melnyk, 1995; lifestyles of the better off. AIDS exposure increased along the Santos and Coimbra, 1996; Koppert Regarding the impacts of these links, Nigerian highway system (Orubuloye, et al., 1993), many people in and around effects of forest loss on the health of Caldwell and Caldwell, 1993); and wor- forests suffer from a variety of debili- people living in and around forests vary rying levels of mercury were reported in tating and fatal ailments, including but are often negative. Nutritional sta- children living near a gold mining area many of the same ones that beset non- tus has often declined with the arrival in the Philippines (Akagi et al., 2000). forest dwellers in developing countries. of “development”; new diseases have Nutritional status in East Kalimantan, There is also significant evidence that, arrived and old ones have become more Indonesia has repeatedly declined when in many cases, activities intended to virulent; exposure to alien cultures has “development” has arrived (Colfer, 1981; promote economic development, such as sometimes brought social problems such Dounias and Froment, this issue). Expo- construction of dams, roads and mines as alcoholism and stress. Diseases origi- sure to alien cultures has sometimes and other activities which may lead to nating in forests can spread to neigh- brought social problems such as pros- deforestation, have worsened the health bouring habitats and even around the titution, alcoholism, stress and dietary of those living near forests. world. The diversity of forest types,

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wildlife, disease vectors, human popu- together better. Foresters, health profes- at the Society for Conservation Biology lations and cultures, and interactions sionals and communities need to work Symposium on Mitigating Unsustainable among these factors, all affect human together in identifying opportunities and Hunting and the Bushmeat Trade in Tropical health. It has been projected that as the addressing problems; but they also need Forest Countries: Using Science to Change climate changes, disease incidence in for- the help of government agencies whose Practices, Canterbury, UK, 18 July. ested areas and elsewhere may increase policies and procedures have an impact Chivian, E. 1997. Global environmental (Chivian, 1997; Patz and Wolfe, 2002). on forest peoples’ lives. One impedi- degradation and biodiversity loss: There has been little explicit analysis ment to progress has been the general implications for human health. In F. Grifo & of the effects of human health or ill view that the concerns expressed in this J. Rosenthal, eds. Biodiversity and human health on forests, beyond an occasional review were someone else’s problem. All health, pp. 7–38. Washington, DC, USA, reference to the spread of human disease groups with activities, responsibilities Island Press. to forest animals. AIDS has caused a and resources in forested areas are urged Colfer, C.J.P. 1981. Home gardening... not reduction in trained forest managers in to take on the difficult but important so easy. Agenda, 4(8): 8–11. parts of Africa, with probable negative challenges of promoting good health in Colfer, C.J.P. 2005. The complex forest: consequences for forests. And forest forest areas. ◆ community, uncertainty and adaptive degradation can in some cases be traced collaborative management. Washington, back to high population growth, which DC, USA, Resources for the Future/CIFOR. is part of a complex set of interrelated Colfer, C.J.P., Sheil, D. & Kishi, M. 2006. factors that are likely to include women’s Forests and human health: assessing the low status, social inequity, high infant evidence. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. and child mortality, low nutritional Bibliography 45. Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR. Available status, high disease loads and general at: www.cifor.cgiar.org/scripts/newscripts/ poor health. Achieng, J. 1999. African medicinal tree publications/detail.asp?pid=2037 The CIFOR review showed that there threatened with extinction. Third World Cunningham, A.B. 1993. African medicinal is a significant, if dispersed, body of Network. Internet document. Available at: plants: setting priorities at the interface knowledge on this topic for use by for- www.twnside.org.sg/title/1903-cn.htm between conservation and primary esters and others. However, communi- Akagi, H., Castillo, E.S., Cortes-Maramba, healthcare. People and Plants Working cation of this knowledge needs to be N., Francisco-Rivera, A.T. & Timbang, Paper No. 1. Paris, France, United Nations strengthened: T.D. 2000. Health assessment for mercury Educational, Scientific and Cultural • between researchers, practitioners exposure among schoolchildren residing Organization (UNESCO). and policy-makers on the one hand near a gold processing and refining plant Dounias, E., Kishi, M., Selzner, A., and local communities (or segments in Apokon, Tagum, Davao del Norte, Kuniawan, I. & Levang, P. 2004. No longer thereof) on the other, since the com- Philippines. The Science of the Total nomadic: changing Punan Tubu lifestyle plexity of health/forest interactions Environment, 259(1–3): 31–43. requires new health strategies. Cultural means that no single external party is Anyinam, C. 1995. Ecology and ethno- Survival Quarterly, 28(2): 1–6. Available likely to be able to make appropriate medicine: exploring links between current at: www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_ plans for any given locale without environmental crisis and indigenous files/research/forests_health/21.pdf the direct involvement of the people medical practices. Social Science and Engelman, R. 1998. Plan and conserve: a who live there; Medicine, 40(3): 321–329. source book on linking population and • among disciplines, since forests, Anyonge, C.H. 2004. HIV/AIDS and national environmental services in communities. cultures and diseases all represent forest programmes. ETFRN News, 41/42: Washington, DC, USA, Population complex systems requiring diverse 40–42. Available at: www.etfrn.org/ Action International. Available at: expertise; ETFRN/newsletter/news4142/index.html www.populationaction.org/resources/ • between researchers and policy- Bennett, E.L. & Robinson, J.G. 2000. publications/archive.htm makers, so that research findings Hunting of wildlife in tropical forests: Gardner-Outlaw, T. & Engelman, R. 1999. can be more quickly available and implications for biodiversity and forest Forest futures: population, consumption more effectively used. peoples. Washington, DC, USA, World and wood resources. Washington, DC, The most fundamental conclusion, Bank. USA, Population Action International. for those concerned with improving Bennett, E.L., Robinson, E.S. & Eves, H. Available at: www.populationaction.org/ human health and forest management, 2002. The scale of hunting and wild meat resources/publications/archive.htm is the need for various groups to work trade in tropical forests today. Presented Gracey, M. 2000. Historical, cultural,

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political, and social influences on dietary Orubuloye, I.O., Caldwell, J.C. & patterns and nutrition in Australian Caldwell, P. 1993. The role of high-risk Aboriginal children. American Journal of occupation in the spread of AIDS: truck Clinical Nutrition, 72(5): 1361S–1367S. drivers and itinerant market women in Hartanto, H., Lorenzo, C., Valmores, C., Nigeria. International Family Planning Arda-Minas, L. & Burton, E.M. 2003. Perspectives, 19(2): 43–48, 71. Adaptive collaborative management: Patz, J.A., Graczyk, T.K., Geller, N. & enhancing community forestry in the Vittor, A.Y. 2000. Effects of environmental Philippines. Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR. change on emerging parasitic diseases. Hunter, J.M. 2003. Inherited burden of International Journal for Parasitology, disease: agricultural dams and the 30: 1395–1405. persistence of bloody urine (Schisto- Patz, J.A. & Wolfe, N.D. 2002. Global somiasis hematobium [sic]) in the Upper ecological change and human health. In A. East Region of Ghana, 1959–1997. Social A. Aguirre, R. S. Ostfeld, G. M. Tabor, C. Science and Medicine, 56(2): 219–234. House & M. C. Pearl, eds. Conservation Jayachandran, S. 2005. Air quality and Medicine, pp. 167–181. Oxford, UK, infant mortality during Indonesia’s massive Oxford University Press. wildfires in 1997. Bureau for Research Santos, R.V. & Coimbra, C.E.A. 1996. in Economic Analysis of Development Socioeconomic differentiation and body (BREAD) Working Paper No. 95. morphology in the Surui of southwestern Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, BREAD. Amazon. Current Anthropology, 37(5): Available at: www.cid.harvard.edu/bread/ 851–856. papers/working/095.pdf Shankar, D. & Majumdar, B. 1997. Beyond Kate, K.T. & Laird, S.A. 1999. The the biodiversity convention: the challenges commercial use of biodiversity: access facing the bio-cultural heritage of India’s to genetic resources and benefit sharing. medicinal plants. In G. Bodeker, K.S.S. London, Earthscan. Bhat, J. Burley & P. Vantomme, eds. Koppert, G.J.A., Dounias, E., Froment, A. Medicinal plants for forest conservation & Pasquet, P. 1993. Food consumption and health care, pp. 87–99. Rome, FAO. in three forest populations of the southern Shanley, P. & Luz, L. 2003. The impacts of coastal area of Cameroon: Yassa, Mvae, forest degradation on medicinal plant use Bakola. In C.M. Hladik, A. Hladik, O.F. and implications for health care in eastern Linares & H. Pagezy, eds. Tropical forests, Amazonia. BioScience, 53(6): 573–584. people and food: biocultural interactions Walsh, J.F., Molyneux, D.H. & Birley, and applications to development, pp. 295– M.H. 1993. Deforestation: effects on 310. Paris, France, UNESCO/Parthenon vector-borne disease. Parasitology, 106: Publishing Group. S55–S75. Lengkeek, A. 2005. Trees on farm to mitigate Wilkie, D.S. 2001. Bushmeat hunting in the the effects of HIV/AIDS in SSA. The Congo Basin – a brief review. In M. I. Bakarr, Overstory, 152: 1–7. G.A.B. da Fonseca, R.A. Mittermeier, Melnyk, M.A. 1995. The contributions A.B. Rylands & K.W. Painemilla, eds. of forest foods to the livelihoods of the Hunting and bushmeat utilization in the Huottuja (Piaroa) people of southern African rain forest. Washington, DC, USA, Venezuela. London, UK, University Conservation International. ◆ of London, Centre for Environmental Technology. Natsuhara, K. & Ohtsuka, R. 1999. Nutritional ecology of a modernizing rural community in Papua New Guinea: an assessment from urinalysis. Man and Culture in Oceania, 15: 91–111.

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Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans

B.A. Wilcox and B. Ellis

With the interweaving of forests, nfectious diseases have always been human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogens and the development of an important part of human life. They and Ebola virus; the evolution of more human civilization, deforestation I have significantly influenced human virulent or drug-resistant pathogenic and other land use changes have biology and society, even determining variants of known microbes; and the an important part in the emergence the course of major historical events. geographic expansion and increasing of disease. Infectious diseases can be viewed eco- epidemic outbreaks of the diseases logically as an extension of host–parasite caused by these pathogens as well as relationships. They are as much a part older diseases such as malaria and of any ecosystem as predator–prey or dengue. More recently, the concept was plant–herbivore relationships. In fact, reinforced by the dramatic outbreak disease-causing viruses, bacteria and of severe acute respiratory syndrome protozoans are commonly and collec- (SARS) virus. tively referred to as “microparasites” in The recent upsurge in infectious dis- infectious disease epidemiology. More- eases, which began to attract the atten- over, infection by a microparasite is not tion of the World Health Organization inevitably a disease-causing event. Most (WHO) and leading national health agen- often, host and microparasite coexist cies in the 1980s, is often attributed to the peacefully, because highly pathogenic dramatic increase in human population genotypes that eliminate the host are size and mobility, as well as social and selected against, as are susceptible hosts environmental changes since the Second lacking acquired or native immunity World War. Actually, such transitions (inherited resistance). Thus disease have caused major upsurges in infectious emergence is a transient phenomenon diseases at the regional level since antiq- in a human population, and in its most uity. The most notable difference today severe form is typically a consequence is the speed, scale and global dimension of rapid social and environmental change of the transition, and its occurrence in the or instability. era of modern biomedicine and public The first plague-causing pathogens health programmes. Overconfidence in such as smallpox are believed to have the former and inadequate deployment originated in tropical Asia early in the of the latter are major contributors to the history of animal husbandry and large- EID problem, especially in the tropical scale forest clearing for permanent developing regions. cropland and human settlements (McNeil, An increasing number of studies on 1976). Crowding and the mixing of peo- EIDs point to changes in land cover and ple, domestic animals and wildlife, along land use, including forest cover change with a warm humid climate, were as (particularly deforestation and forest ideal for pathogen evolution, survival fragmentation) along with urbaniza- and transmission several millennia ago tion and agricultural intensification, as as they are now. major factors contributing to the surge Bruce A. Wilcox and Brett Ellis are with the Center for Infectious Disease Ecology in the The concept of emerging infectious in infectious diseases. Indeed the cur- Asia-Pacific Institute for Tropical Medicine and diseases (EIDs) was prompted by the rent increase coincides with accelerating Infectious Diseases, University of Hawaii at appearance of novel pathogens such as rates of tropical deforestation in the past Manoa, United States.

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Expansion into the forest, involving more ASSOCIATION OF EMERGING sexually transmitted diseases, oppor- frequent contact with INFECTIOUS DISEASES WITH tunistic infections of individuals who wildlife, exposes humans to pathogens FORESTS are immunocompromised (as a result that are foreign to them In all, about three-fourths of recog- of HIV, for example), and a growing and is a frequent cause nized EIDs either once were, or cur- number of infections caused by bacte- of disease outbreaks – for example yellow rently are, zoonotic, i.e. transmitted ria resistant to antimicrobial drugs are fever in the case of between animals and humans (Taylor, mainly attributable to dramatic social this forest-adjacent Latham and Woolhouse, 2001). Not and ecological changes associated with settlement in Kenya surprisingly, the ancestry of the patho- the explosive rates of urban growth in gens causing these diseases can usu- recent decades. ally be traced to wildlife. Pathogens For those EIDs currently associated whose current emergence patterns show with forests, the proximate causal factors several decades. Today, both deforesta- a direct association with forests (see in their emergence include a combina- tion and emerging infectious diseases Table for examples) represent about 15 tion of deforestation and other land use remain largely associated with tropical percent of the approximately 250 EIDs changes, increased human contact with regions but have impacts that extend (Despommier, Ellis and Wilcox, 2006). forest pathogens among populations globally. Both are similarly intertwined Some EIDs not currently associated with lacking previous exposure, and patho- with issues of economic development, forests originated from a sylvatic cycle gen adaptation. Many may be transmit- land use and governance, requiring but have since “escaped” and are now ted among non-human primate hosts or cross-sectoral solutions. solely maintained by human–human insect vectors, and involve a variety of This article provides an overview of the transmission or a human–vector–human potential intermediate hosts including role of forests and deforestation in EIDs. cycle independent of forests. The two domestic animals. Of most concern, fol- It highlights the most prominent forest- most prominent EIDs in this category lowing initial local emergence a number associated diseases and briefly describes are HIV and dengue, which broke free of these diseases have demonstrated the the current state of understanding of the from their primate transmission cycles potential to spread regionally or glo- mechanisms by which forest conver- in African forests and eventually spread bally and become a significant threat to sion and alteration contribute to EIDs. globally, two decades ago in the case humans, domestic animals and wildlife Finally, it identifies forest resource man- of HIV and several centuries ago for populations. agement measures required to mitigate dengue. Still other EIDs such as tuber- Although relatively few plant para- the EID problem. culosis, hepatitis A/B/C/E/G, most sites or pathogens are known to infect

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Examples of forest-associated emerging infectious diseases Agent/disease Distribution Hosts and/or Exposure Possible emergence mechanisms reservoirs

Viruses Yellow fever Africa Non-human primates Vector Deforestation and expansion of settlements along forest edges South America Hunting Water and wood collection Domestication of vectors and pathogen Dengue Pantropical Non-human primates Vector Mosquito vector and pathogen adaptation Urbanization and ineffective vector control programmes Chikungunya Africa Non-human primates Vector Pathogen and vector Indian Ocean Southeast Asia Oropouche South America Non-human primates Vector Forest travel Others Vector composition changes SIV Pantropical Non-human primates Direct Deforestation and human expansion into forest Hunting and butchering of forest wildlife Pathogen adaptation

Ebola Africa Non-human primates Direct Hunting and butchering Bats Logging Outbreaks along forest fringes Agriculture Alteration of natural fauna Nipah virus South Asia Bats Direct Pig and fruit production on forest border Pigs SARS Southeast Asia Bats Direct Harvesting, marketing and mixing of bats and civet cats Civets Wildlife trade for human consumption Rabies Worldwide Canines Direct Human expansion into forest Bats Other wildlife Rocky Mountain North America Invertebrate ticks Vector Human expansion into forest spotted fever Forest recreation

Protozoa Malaria Africa Non-human primates Vector Deforestation, habitat alteration beneficial for mosquito breeding Southeast Asia Human expansion into forest, non-human primate malaria among South America humans Leishmaniasis South America Numerous mammals Vector Human expansion into forest Domestication of zoophilic vectors Habitat alteration, habitation building near forest edge Deforestation Domestication of zoonotic cycles by non-immune workers Sleeping sickness West and Central Humans Vector Human expansion into forest, disease incidence associated with Africa forest edge

Bacteria Babesiosis North America Humans Vector Disease often found among ticks in forested areas Europe Wildlife Lyme disease Worldwide Humans Vector Possible association with deforestation and habitat fragmentation Deer Forest workers at increased risk of disease Mice Leptospirosis Worldwide Rodents Indirect Watershed alteration and flooding

Helminth Eccinococcus Northern Foxes Direct Deforestation multiocularis Hemisphere Rodents Increase in rodent and fox hosts Small mammals Pathogen spillover to dogs Human expansion into forest, exposure of susceptible population

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animals, including humans, the impact EIDs are caused by viruses, although also have contributed to spreading the of emerging plant diseases on plant others are caused by bacteria, protozoans, disease. The evolutionary capacity for populations is also an increasing con- helminths (worms) and fungi. These rapid adaptation enables viruses to be cern. The problem of EIDs includes diseases are frequently not research transmitted efficiently in domestic or not only the impacts of diseases from priorities until they have become a threat peri-domestic cycles. forests, but also the impacts of disease to affluent populations, so knowledge Dengue haemorrhagic fever, caused by on forests, including forest wildlife as about their distribution and biology is a type of dengue virus, is very similar well as vegetation (Ostfeld, Keesing and very limited in most cases. The his- to yellow fever in its ecology, at least Eviner, 2006). torical orientation of tropical medicine historically (Monath, 1994). Originating Forests or deforestation per se towards understanding disease natural as a sylvatic disease with a similar set are not the cause of either forest- history and ecology was, unfortunately, of primate hosts, mosquito vectors and associated infectious disease emergence abandoned with the advent of modern niche, it acquired a domestic cycle at or the globally increasing EID trend over- biomedicine and the mistaken belief that least several centuries ago. It has recently all; EID causality is more complex than infectious diseases had been conquered developed into one of the world’s most this. The main driver is the exponential by science (Gubler, 2001). Today’s big- rapidly emerging diseases, infecting growth in population, consumption and gest research challenge is posed by the as many as 50 million to 100 million waste generation of the past several dec- disciplinary gaps between infectious people annually (Holmes and Twiddy, ades, which has driven the combination disease researchers, wildlife experts, 2003). The key to dengue’s success as a of urbanization, agricultural expansion ecologists and social scientists. The pathogen is believed to be its adaptation and intensification, and forest habitat problems are of course compounded by to the domestic mosquito Aedes aegypti, alteration that results in regional envi- the increasing numbers and densities of which has allowed it to become endemic ronmental change (see Box). The disease poor people living without potable water, in an increasing number of cities and sur- emergence process typically appears to sanitation and adequate public health rounding peri-urban areas, particularly be associated with a combination of these infrastructure in developing countries. in Asia and Latin America (Moncayo environmental factors. But the common et al., 2004). factor is change – relatively abrupt or Forest zoonotic and vector- Malaria, a much older disease which episodic social and ecological change. transmitted diseases contributes by far to the greatest number Most often this is reflected in changes Yellow fever is the most well-studied of deaths and disability of any infectious in land cover and land use (unplanned disease from the standpoint of its asso- disease (300 million to 500 million cases urbanization and land use conversion), ciation with forests (Monath, 1994). The annually, with a death toll as high as 2.7 agricultural intensification (dams, irri- virus that causes yellow fever is main- million), has less definitive zoonotic gation projects, factory farms, etc.) and tained in a transmission cycle of arbo- origins (Mu et al., 2005). It is nonethe- displacement and migration of people. real monkeys and sylvatic mosquitoes. less transmitted in many areas by forest- Episodic population migration and Expansion into the forest by human set- associated mosquitoes. Recent research resettlement, associated with road build- tlements is a frequent cause of outbreaks. suggests that increased disease incidence ing and the opening up of new transpor- For example, the first outbreak of yellow in some areas of Africa, South America tation routes along with forest clearing fever in Kenya (1992 to 1993) involved and Southeast Asia is linked to deforesta- and fragmentation, can be described a settlement where cases were limited to tion (Vittor et al., 2006; Walsh, Molyneux as local or regional drivers of disease people collecting fuelwood and water, and Birley, 1993). Road building, tree emergence. Such changes, particularly or possibly hunting in the forest. Much felling, reduced shade and increased when unplanned and a result of political larger outbreaks occur when the trans- pooling of water have been shown to or economic instability or even military mission cycle leaves the forest canopy promote breeding and more rapid devel- conflict in some cases, can have cata- and extends to peri-urban and urban opment of mosquito larvae (Afrane strophic consequences. The prime exam- areas where the much higher density of et al., 2005; de Castro et al., 2006). Of ple is AIDS, which originated in tropical humans and mosquitoes can fuel large additional concern, a form of malaria forest (Sharp et al., 2001) and expanded epidemics (Sang and Dunster, 2001). previously found in non-human primates throughout a region that was undergoing This occurred in the Sudan in 2005, prob- has recently been found in humans in such changes and lacked public health ably exacerbated by people fleeing areas Southeast Asia (Jongwutiwes et al., infrastructure, including systems of dis- of armed conflict and soldiers returning 2004; Singh et al., 2004). ease surveillance and control. from forested areas. Environmental fac- A number of other noteworthy for- Like AIDS, most forest-originating tors including abnormal rainfall may est-associated zoonotic EIDs do not

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Causal schema of infectious disease ecology

Population growth, technology and consumption

Regional environmental change

Urbanization Forest habitat alteration Agricultural • Increasing city or peri-urban • Biotic collapse and intensification settlement population size hyperabundance of potential (including food production) • Suburban and peri-urban and actual vector and • Water diversion and irrigation encroachment into wildlands reservoir species vector and reservoir expansion

level • Settlement coalescence • Decline of natural pathogen • Concentration/mixing, • Rapid long distance transport regulation capacity wild/domestic species Landscape • Habitat expansion/creation for • Human settlement, • Bushmeat trade domestic or peri-domestic hosts encroachment, increasing • Agrochemical accumulation and vectors human–wildlife contact

Species’ ecological–evolutionary dynamics Opportunistic habitat expansion/ecological release Vector/reservoir (domestication Feral reservoir species Wildlife transport) Human encroachment Natural Human–natural environment Human continuum Natural

community level ecosystem ecosystem

Host–pathogen dynamics Emergence processes of host–parasite biology • Host switching (host novelty)

level • Breaching of pathogen persistence thresholds • Transmission amplification and genetic Population exchange (pathogen novelty)

Disease emergence

The combination of increasing population tunistic wildlife such as some rodents and opportunity for more rapid evolution and resource consumption, along with waste blood-sucking arthropods (mosquitoes, is increased with multiple, interacting generation, drives the regional environmen- ticks, midges and others); and invasion of transmission cycles; tal change typically indicated by trends in the natural habitat by feral species such • pathogens’ rate of infection exceeds land use and land cover change. Although as domestic pigs, goats, rats, mice, dogs the threshold required to produce an the pattern of change varies from region and cats. These species become pathogen epidemic or an endemic disease owing to region, three characteristic processes reservoirs particularly in disturbed and to unprecedented population densities of occur in relation to land use: urbanization, fragmented forest adjacent to settlements. the vector, the reservoir and susceptible agricultural intensification (including food The convergence of human and animal hosts human populations; production and distribution) and alteration and reservoir and vector species within • pathogens evolve increased patho- of forest habitat. ecosystems, and the movement, shifting genicity, infectivity and ability to avoid The three categories of land use – urban, and mixing across the ecosystem continuum immune system detection, owing to agricultural and natural habitat – represent affects host–pathogen dynamics in a man- increased opportunities for interaction an ecosystem continuum along a gradient ner that facilitates disease emergence, as of endemic infection cycles and pathogen from domestic to natural (left to right in the follows: strains, and greater density and genetic diagram). Three ecological trends are associ- • pathogens have increased opportu- variability of pathogen populations. ated with these changes: vector and reservoir nities for host switching (including domestication (or peri-domestication); adaptation to a new host); Sources: Wilcox and Colwell, 2005; Wilcox and invasion of domestic habitat by oppor- • transmission is amplified and the Gubler, 2005.

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appear to involve mosquitoes as vectors and the bacteria Campylobacter spp. influencing host and vector abun- although their transmission cycles are and Vibrio cholerae, which collectively dance and distribution; not yet entirely certain. These include cause millions of deaths annually, par- • alteration of ecohydrological func- chikungunya, Oropouche virus, Ebola ticularly among infants. Vibrio cholerae, tions such as infiltration, peak dis- and simian immunodeficiency virus which lives symbiotically (in mutually charge and runoff which facilitate (SIV). The dramatic consequences of beneficial relationship) with marine and the survival and transport of water- Ebola and SIV emergence have been estuarine crustaceans, is responsible borne pathogens in watersheds and evidenced over recent decades. HIV for an estimated 1 to 2 million cholera catchment basins. is a zoonotic SIV. SIVs have recently cases annually (WHO, 2006). All these These changes are often linked to for- been found to be common in Old World pathogens are found in inland as well as est clearing and increased edge habitat, monkeys (Galat and Galat-Luong, 1997). coastal surface waters, especially (but not with fragmentation of the forest land- The hunting, butchering or illegal pro- only) water contaminated with human scape and disturbance of the vertical curement of these animals not only is a or animal excrement. Other widespread structure and diversity within the forest major concern for conservation but also water-borne EIDs include protozoans of stands. The increase in the density of increases the risk of disease emergence the genera Cryptosporidium and Giardia, some pathogens’ hosts and vectors effec- (Wolfe et al., 2005). which along with Campylobacter spp. are tively expands the pathogens’ habitat and Many of the Ebola outbreaks have maintained by wild and feral ungulates. increases their infection prevalence in occurred in forest fringe areas, where These pathogens, along with leptospiro- hosts. The increased number of hosts or expansion of human populations is bring- sis, one of the world’s most widespread vectors or both and their increased rate of ing them into contact with pathogens that zoonotic EIDs for which virtually all infection not only increase the frequency are foreign to them, particularly through mammal species are natural or accidental of their contact with humans, but also more frequent contact with wildlife. This hosts, are often associated with ecologi- the likelihood of the host or vector being has led to a hypothesis that mechanisms cally disturbed forested watersheds sup- infectious. Most importantly, it allows associated with agricultural land use porting high densities of pigs and rats. the pathogen to persist indefinitely and changes bordering forests and changes Epidemics of leptospirosis have been the disease to become endemic. in the natural fauna may be involved in occurring with increased frequency glo- One of the best documented cases of emergence (Morvan et al., 2000; Patz bally in flood-prone rural and urban areas this process concerns Lyme disease, an et al., 2004). Recently, it has also been with poor drainage and sanitation, condi- EID caused by a pan-temperate tick- suggested that bats may serve as the tions commonly found in impoverished borne spirochete bacteria of the genus reservoir for Ebola and that monkeys urban, peri-urban and rural environments Borrellia. The ecology of its emergence may contract the disease much as humans throughout the developed and developing in the northeastern United States, studied do (Leroy et al., 2005). Fruit bats are world (Vinetz et al., 2005; Wilcox and in great detail, has implications regard- also important hosts of additional EIDs Colwell, 2005). ing the role of forest management in including Nipah and SARS viruses (Field disease generally (Allan, Keesing and et al., 2001; Lau et al., 2005). MECHANISMS OF HUMAN Ostfeld, 2003). Lyme disease involves a PATHOGEN EMERGENCE complex sylvatic cycle in which the vec- Water-borne diseases The role of forests and forest manage- tor prefers different animal host species Another category of infectious diseases ment in the emergence of infectious dis- during different stages of its life cycle. – indirectly associated with forests or eases of humans appears to involve three The most important factor determin- forest land management – is water-borne. separate but interacting dynamics: ing pathogen abundance appears to be Their natural cycles may or may not • land use change and expansion of the abundance of two animal species involve forest wildlife, but their trans- human populations into forest areas, that proliferate in fragmented forest mission (both among their animal hosts resulting in exposure of immuno- landscapes: white-footed mice, which and to humans) is facilitated by altered logically naïve human and domestic act as pathogen “superspreaders”, and surface water quality and regimes, which animal populations (i.e. those lack- white-tailed deer, the optimal adult tick may be influenced by upland deforesta- ing previous experience with the host. These species are adapted to forest tion and poor watershed management microparasite fauna) to pathogens edges, and they have fewer predators in (including overgrazing, removal of ripar- occurring naturally in wildlife; these landscapes than in unfragmented ian vegetation and stream channelliza- • forest clearing and alteration pro- forest blocks. Moreover, the less diverse tion). Water-borne pathogens include the ducing an increase in the abun- community of vertebrates in fragmented enteric viruses rotavirus and norovirus dance or dispersal of pathogens by forests results in higher overall pathogen

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Forest fragmentation affects disease dynamics by influencing host and vector abundance and distribution and thus the abundance or dispersal of pathogens WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/4166001/J.D. WARD/USDA FOREST SERVICE

transmission rates, since white-footed mice are among the most successful ver- tebrate hosts for this microparasite. The finding that intact forest vertebrate communities provide a pathogen dilution effect, together with the well-known role of predators in regulating rodents and ungulate populations in healthy ecosys- tems, has prompted some ecologists to categorize regulation of pathogen emer- gence as a forest ecosystem service. The ecohydrological functions of healthy upland forests and watersheds can be said to have a similar role, regulating The role of and potential effects on for- grated with forest resource management water-borne pathogen emergence by ests and implications for forest resource and planning. Greater emphasis is needed “capturing” and filtering pathogen-laden management are significant. Forest land on integrating research and practice, for runoff and modulating the amplitude of use changes and practices, particularly example through the development of for- peak flows during seasonal storms. The when unregulated and unplanned, fre- est management guidelines that can con- loss of these functions facilitates patho- quently lead to increased prevalence of tribute to the control and prevention of gen transmission and maintenance in zoonotic and vector-borne diseases, and EIDs. This will require increased inter- host populations, increasing the amount occasionally boost the prevalence of dis- disciplinary and collaborative research of human pathogens contained in ani- eases capable of producing catastrophic among foresters, forest ecologists, and mal excreta. Epidemics of cholera and pandemics. This should be a considera- wildlife and human infectious disease leptospirosis frequently occur following tion in forest land use and forest resource experts for better understanding of the exposure of large numbers of people to planning and management. role and impact of forests and forest land the pathogens mobilized from soil and In view of the enormous impact EIDs use and management on EIDs. ◆ sediments and suspended in the flood have on humans and economic develop- waters (Wilcox and Colwell, 2005). ment, including the economic impacts of diseases on agriculture and forestry, col- CONCLUSION laboration between the agricultural, for- Emerging infectious diseases are con- est and public health sectors is required sidered to be among today’s major to develop policies and practices for the Bibliography challenges to science, global health prevention and control of EIDs. This and human development. Rapid changes will require substantial increases in the Afrane, Y.A., Lawson, B.W., Githeko, A.K. associated with globalization, especially regulation, surveillance and screening of & Yan, G. 2005. Effects of microclimatic the rapidly increasing ease of transport, pathogens in transportation systems. changes caused by land use and land cov- are mixing people, domestic animals, Research on EIDs, particularly that er on duration of gonotrophic cycles of wildlife and plants, along with their para- involving the ecological epidemiology Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) sites and pathogens, at a frequency and in of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases in western Kenya highlands. Journal of combinations that are unprecedented. associated with forests, needs to be inte- Medical Entomology, 42(6): 974–980.

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Allan, B.F., Keesing, F. & Ostfeld, R.S. Monath, T.P. 1994. Yellow fever and dengue Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human 2003. Effect of forest fragmentation on – the interactions of virus, vector and host beings. Lancet, 363(9414): 1017–1024. Lyme disease risk. Conservation Biology, in the re-emergence of epidemic disease. Taylor, L.H., Latham, S.M. & Woolhouse, 17(1): 267–272. Seminars in Virology, 5(2): 133–145. M.E. 2001. Risk factors for human disease de Castro, M.C., Monte-Mor, R.L., Sawyer, Moncayo, A.C., Fernandez, Z., Ortiz, emergence. Philosophical Transactions of D.O. & Singer, B.H. 2006. Malaria risk D., Diallo, M., Sall, A., Hartman, S., the Royal Society of London, Series B, Bio- on the Amazon frontier. Proceedings of the Davis, C.T., Coffey, L., Mathiot, C.C., logical Sciences, 356(1411): 983–989. National Academy of Sciences of the United Tesh, R.B. & Weaver, S.C. 2004. Dengue Vinetz, J.M., Wilcox, B.A., Aguirre, A., States of America, 103(7): 2452–2457. emergence and adaptation to peridomestic Gollin, L.X., Katz, A.R., Fujioka, R., Despommier, D., Ellis, B. & Wilcox, B.A. mosquitoes. Emerging Infectious Diseases, Maly, K., Horwitz, P. & Chang, H. 2006. The role of ecotones in emerging 10(10): 1790–1796. 2005. Beyond disciplinary boundaries: infectious diseases. EcoHealth, 3 (In Morvan, J.M., Nakoune, E., Deubel, V. leptospirosis as a model of incorporating press). & Colyn, M. 2000. Ebola virus and for- transdisciplinary approaches to under- Field, H., Young, P., Yob, J.M., Mills, J., est ecosystems. Bulletin de la Societé standing infectious disease emergence. Hall, L. & Mackenzie, J. 2001. The natu- Pathologique Exotique, 93(3): 172–175. Ecohealth, 2: 291–306. ral history of Hendra and Nipah viruses. Mu, J., Joy, D.A., Duan, J., Huang, Y., Vittor, A.Y., Gilman, R.H., Tielsch, J., Microbes and Infection, 3(4): 307–314. Carlton, J., Walker, J., Barnwell, J., Glass, G., Shields, T., Lozano, W.S., Galat, G. & Galat-Luong, A. 1997. Virus Beerli, P., Charleston, M.A., Pybus, O.G. Pinedo-Cancino, V. & Patz, J.A. 2006. transmission in the tropical environment, & Su, X.Z. 2005. Host switch leads to The effect of deforestation on the human- the socio-ecology of primates and the bal- emergence of Plasmodium vivax malaria biting rate of Anopheles darlingi, the pri- ance of ecosystems. Santé, 7(2): 81–87. in humans. Molecular Biology and Evolu- mary vector of falciparum malaria in the Gubler, D.J. 2001. Prevention and control of tion, 22(8): 1686–1693. Peruvian Amazon. American Journal of tropical diseases in the 21st century: back Ostfeld, R.S., Keesing, F. & Eviner, V., Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 74(1): to the field. American Journal of Tropical eds. 2006. Ecology of infectious disease: 3–11. Medicine and Hygiene, 65(1): v–xi. effects of ecosystems on disease and of Walsh, J.F., Molyneux, D.H. & Birley, M.H. Holmes, E.C. & Twiddy, S.S. 2003. The ori- disease on ecosystems. Princeton, New 1993. Deforestation: effects on vector- gin, emergence and evolutionary genetics Jersey, USA, Princeton University Press. borne disease. Parasitology, 106(Suppl.): of dengue virus. Infection, Genetics and (In press). S55–S75. Evolution, 3(1): 19–28. Patz, J.A., Daszak, P., Tabor, G.M., Aguirre, Wilcox, B.A. & Colwell, R.R. 2005. Emerg- Jongwutiwes, S., Putaporntip, C., Iwasaki, A.A., Pearl, M., Epstein, J., Wolfe, ing and reemerging infectious diseases: T., Sata, T. & Kanbara, H. 2004. Natural- N.D., Kilpatrick, A.M., Foufopoulos, biocomplexity as an interdisciplinary para- ly acquired Plasmodium knowlesi malaria J., Molyneux, D. & Bradley, D.J. 2004. digm. EcoHealth, 2(4): 244–257. in human, Thailand. Emerging Infectious Unhealthy landscapes: policy recommen- Wilcox, B.A. & Gubler, D.J. 2005. Dis- Diseases, 10(12): 2211–2213. dations on land use change and infectious ease ecology and the global emergence Lau, S.K, Woo, P.C., Li, K.S., Huang, Y., disease emergence. Environmental Health of zoonotic pathogens. Environmental Tsoi, H.W., Wong, B.H., Wong, S.S., Perspectives, 112(10): 1092–1098. Health and Preventive Medicine, 10(5): Leung, S.Y., Chan, K.H. & Yuen, K.Y. Sang, R.C. & Dunster, L.M. 2001. The grow- 263–272. 2005. Severe acute respiratory syndrome ing threat of arbovirus transmission and Wolfe, N.D., Daszak, P., Kilpatrick, A.M. coronavirus-like virus in Chinese horse- outbreaks in Kenya: a review. East African & Burke, D.S. 2005. Bushmeat hunting, shoe bats. Proceedings of the National Medical Journal, 78(12): 655–661. deforestation, and prediction of zoonoses Academy of Sciences of the United States Sharp, P.M., Bailes, E., Chaudhuri, R.R., emergence. Emerging Infectious Diseases, of America, 102(39): 14040–14045. Rodenburg, C.M., Santiago, M.O. & 11(12): 1822–1827. Leroy, E.M., Kumulungui, B., Pourrut, Hahn, B.H. 2001. The origins of acquired World Health Organization (WHO). 2006. X., Rouquet, P., Hassanin, A., Yaba, P., immune deficiency syndrome viruses: Cholera surveillance and number of cases. Délicat, A., Paweska, J.T., Gonzalez, J.P. where and when? Philosophical Transac- Available at: www.who.int/topics/cholera/ & Swanepoel, R. 2005. Fruit bats as res- tions of the Royal Society of London, Series surveillance/en/index.html ◆ ervoirs of Ebola virus. Nature, 438(7068): B, Biological Sciences, 356: 867–876. 575–576. Singh, B., Kim Sung, L., Matusop, A., McNeill, W.H. 1976. Plagues and peoples. Radhakrishnan, A., Shamsul, S.S., Cox- Garden City, New York, USA, Anchor Singh, J., Thomas, A. & Conway, D.J. Press/Doubleday. 2004. A large focus of naturally acquired

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published in 1897, stated that 21 000 people One of the best known examples of Forestry and died every year because of the disease. such integrated intervention in Italy is the malaria control Although malaria was definitively eradicated Feniglia dune on the Tuscan coast. Begin- from Italy in the 1950s with the introduction ning in the early 1800s, the area’s dense in Italy of DDT, this represented only the final stage Mediterranean maquis had become severely in a long series of antimalarial interventions degraded by human activities and grazing. In the early twentieth century, reforestation that had been undertaken since the end of the The disappearance of the vegetation from the was among the weapons used in the battle nineteenth century. These included not only coastal land favoured the movement of sand to eliminate malaria from Italy. public health interventions, but also socio- towards the interior. This created a marsh Malaria was already diffuse in the Medi- economic and environmental measures, that was extremely dangerous for the spread terranean region by the fifth century BC. In including direct intervention in land settle- of malaria. ancient Rome, the severity of the problem ment, water management, soil conservation, The reforestation process initiated by the worsened towards the end of the Republican reforestation and dune stabilization. government in the early twentieth century era with the arrival of Plasmodium falciparum Between 1920 and 1940, the first laws on involved the construction of a dam towards the (which causes the most severe form of the dis- “integrated reclamation” (bonifica integrale) sea, the placement of several rows of wattle ease), probably from Africa. Climatic changes were introduced to encourage cultivation of fences to arrest the movement of the sand, together with landscape degradation, defor- the swamp areas to reduce the foci of mos- and the planting of Pinus pinaster along the estation and the abandonment of agricultural quito reproduction. The concept of integrated sea line and Pinus pinea on the inner part of lands, provoked by war, led to the expansion reclamation as presented in the Forestry Law the dune. The seedlings were protected by of swamplands – favouring the diffusion of of 1923 involved land restoration, conservation the planting of herbaceous species (Arundo efficient vectors such as Anopheles labran- and protection through hydrological manage- arenacea, Ulix europaeus, Medicago marina, chiae and the spread of the disease. Towards ment (including water supply and drainage Euphorbia parialis and Cakile maritima). the end of the nineteenth century, more than systems), road construction, and reforestation Today these woodlands are a forest reserve, one-third of the Italian population was affected of degraded lands, unstable slopes, grass- important for amenity, recreation and nature by malaria. The first Italian medical bulletin, lands and grazing lands. conservation.

The Feniglia forest reserve, originally planted to reclaim malarial swampland WWW.ANSEDONIAONLINE.IT/P. TARANTELLI

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Fuelwood, food and medicine: the role of forests in the response to HIV and AIDS in rural areas of southern Africa

C. Holding Anyonge, G. Rugalema, D. Kayambazinthu, A. Sitoe and M. Barany

The HIV pandemic has increased The miombo woodlands in the dependence of woodland Mozambique are a communities on forest resources, primary source of with natural resource management energy (fuelwood and charcoal) and implications that merit attention in a crucial source forest policies and programmes. of essential subsistence and commercial goods for rural communities – but the HIV epidemic is putting these

resources under C. HOLDING ANYONGE increased pressure

he HIV pandemic is deeply lessen the impact of the pandemic on entrenched in the countries of natural resources and the role the for- Tsouthern Africa and has had est sector can play in the multisectoral dramatic effects on rural livelihoods. response to HIV and AIDS. This article examines the role of for- est resources in the response to HIV KEY FINDINGS and AIDS, particularly in terms of While it is not easy to pin down a causal herbal medicines, energy and food. relationship between HIV and forest It is based on the findings of studies degradation, it is clear that in times of commissioned by FAO and carried out livelihood crisis, poor rural communi- in 2003 to examine the impact of the ties tend to increase their dependence pandemic on the utilization of wood- on forest resources as a key part of their land resources in the miombo wood- coping strategies. The HIV pandemic land zones of Malawi (Kayambazinthu has intensified the crisis of livelihoods et al., 2005) and Mozambique (Sitoe, (Bryceson, 2006), placing an excessive Christine Holding Anyonge is Senior Fellow, Trees and Markets Programme, World 2005). Data collection methods included burden on woodland resources. Thus Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Rome, Italy. a household questionnaire survey, focus it is not surprising that in the studies Gabriel Rugalema is Senior Officer, HIV/AIDS group discussions, transect walks, and in Malawi and Mozambique, woodland and Food Security, Gender and Population Division, FAO, Rome. key informant interviews. The results degradation, as evidenced by decreasing Dennis Kayambazinthu is Deputy Director of show that HIV and AIDS increase the resource availability (e.g. scarcity of the Forest Research Institute of Malawi, Zomba, dependence of communities in woodland both fuelwood and medicinal plants), Malawi. Almeida Sitoe is Head of the Department of zones on forest resources and that the was observed in communities where HIV Forestry, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, pandemic has environmental and natural prevalence is high. Maputo, Mozambique. resource management implications. The The combination of the high incidence Marc Barany is a consultant and Director, Harmonized Wood Products, New Orleans, article highlights some forest policy and of HIV-related illnesses and the scarcity Louisiana, United States. programme interventions that might help of health services near the communities

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In Mozambique, labour spent collecting forest products Aloe spp. (left) or spend an inordinate amount of cash and Hypoxis spp. collected from to buy them. the woodlands The relationships between HIV and are sold in the household woodland activities (specifi- market and used in the treatment cally collection of fuelwood, medici- of HIV for about nal plants and other non-wood forest one-sixth the price products) appears to correspond closely of antiretroviral therapy with the stage of the disease. Labour constraints brought on by illness and care-giving may prohibit household participation in collection of wood- land products during the symptomatic A. SITOE stages of the disease. However, as studied has led to a greater dependence ence on forest food products (fruits, roots the epidemic advances and mortality on medicinal plants to alleviate some of and tubers, vegetables). rates increase, the collection of wood- the symptoms and conditions associated Taken together, these findings show land products in affected communities with HIV (see Box). At current prices, that HIV is contributing to deforestation appears to increase, as the immediate the treatment of HIV using antiretroviral and forest degradation. This process has economic impact of adult illness (e.g. therapy can be as high as US$200 per negative implications for communities health expenses) makes some house- person per year. In poor rural commu- in general and for HIV-affected house- holds more dependent on commercial nities only a few people have access to holds in particular, as such households woodland activities to provide income. this therapy because of the high price, are likely to experience greater distress The extent to which HIV affects wood- poor health infrastructure and distance from loss of woodland resources. They land livelihood activities also depends on from the nearest health centre. Medicinal have to increase the time and amount of other factors such as gender, household plants, however, are easily accessible products for most people. Thus it is no wonder that their collection and use has Opportunistic infections, traditional medicine increased, as has their price. and woodland resources This dependence on herbal remedies has led to overharvesting of medicinal Weak health infrastructure and pervasive poverty continue to pose problems for the trees and shrubs. Respondents indicated unprecedented challenge of providing and administering antiretroviral therapy in southern that, in comparison with the years before African countries. In such resource-constrained settings, local communities are obliged HIV and AIDS, they could now find few to rely on traditional remedies for the management of HIV and AIDS, and traditional such trees within reasonable walking medicine is being institutionalized in the response to the pandemic. The World Health distance. Thus medicinal plant resources Organization (WHO) has advocated the inclusion of traditional healers in national AIDS are becoming scarce at a time when their programmes since 1991, and national ministries of health are recruiting traditional heal- use is increasing, in urban as well as ers in collaborative efforts to combat the disease. rural areas. Herbal remedies have been observed to improve the quality of life for people living with The survey found that the higher mor- HIV. They slow the progression of the disease by helping to control infections such as tality rate of adults has increased the candidiasis (thrush), herpes simplex (which was also recently recognized as a key factor demand for fuelwood, in part to prepare in transmission of HIV in Africa) and herpes zoster (shingles), and they provide relief food for increasingly frequent funerals. of appetite loss, nausea, fever, diarrhoea and cough. Recent research suggests, however, People now have to trek long distances to that some herbal remedies may inhibit antiretroviral therapy if used in combination with collect enough wood for fuel. Similarly, it, and further research is needed on their efficacy. HIV has complicated existing livelihood Herbal treatments are frequently derived from woodland resources; they typically include crises resulting primarily from droughts, roots, barks and leaves of plants. In some areas, mushrooms are heavily used. Honey and lack of fertilizer and poor marketing beeswax are commonly used in the application of traditional treatments. Local uses of services. Communities surveyed indi- these remedies and current institutional efforts to scale up support for their use need to cated that the impact of HIV and AIDS on be managed to avoid compromising the sustainability of the woodland resources. household labour has intensified depend-

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composition, household wealth, social The HIV safety nets, labour requirements, access epidemic has a disproportionate to markets and of course access to forest impact on women, resources (FAO, 2005). partly because When a crisis such as an illness or death of their reduced participation in occurs, affected households are more income-generating likely to obtain quick cash for medical activities and expenses by selling domestic animals their traditional roles in woodland such as chickens and goats or by working activities (e.g. within the community for wages than collection of fuelwood) by collecting non-wood forest products C. HOLDING ANYONGE such as mushrooms or honey. However, these products provide food supplements for households and/or an opportunity to increase income, which can also be used to cover unexpected expenses in times of crisis. Woodland activities are interactions between management and increase productivity and accessibility important in diversifying livelihoods use of forest resources and social crises of forest resources is in itself a mitiga- and provide a buffer against shock for including contemporary epidemics. tion strategy (FAO, 2004). Within com- households in general, not only those munities, there is a need to improve affected by HIV. WAY FORWARD: HOW SHOULD the management of natural woodlands Female-headed households are the most THE FOREST SECTOR RESPOND TO for multiple purposes. However, it is vulnerable because of their reduced par- HIV/AIDS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA? also necessary to lighten excessive pres- ticipation in income-generating activi- The forest sector undoubtedly has a sure on forest resources, either through ties and often enter a spiral of deepening role to play in the prevention, care and an increase in the supply of wood and poverty (Bryceson and Fonseca, 2006). treatment of HIV and AIDS and the non-wood forest products (through Given the disproportionate impact of the mitigation of their impact. Forestry forest planting, cultivation of medici- epidemic on women (in terms of HIV institutions and their human resources, nal plants and transport of wood from infection and socio-economic impacts) particularly forest managers working greater distances) or a decrease in the and their traditional roles in woodland at the local level, can and should play demand (through the use of more effi- activities (e.g. collection of fuelwood), an active role in the response to HIV. cient wood stoves, possibly the switch to enhanced understanding of gender issues Forest products can play a part not only other fuel types and alternative income- needs to be a priority in future efforts. in the care and treatment of HIV-related generating activities that may not be The studies reported here were explora- illness, but also in income generation woodland based). tory. Their findings regarding the impact and other livelihood activities that can Increasingly, ministries responsible of HIV on woodland resources are help alleviate the impact of the disease for forestry and natural resources are instructive; however, they tell only a on households. showing an inclination to formulate sec- part of the story. Questions remain, nota- To mitigate the impact of HIV and toral strategies to address AIDS-related bly about how HIV is affecting forest AIDS, one component of interventions issues. The Government of Malawi has management as a result of the death of in the forest and natural resources sector recently embarked on such an exercise. forest rangers and extension officers. should be directed towards supporting This is a step in the right direction given Furthermore, in an environment already the sustainability of those forest benefits that it allows the entire sector to assess characterized by severe livelihood inse- on which households and communities its vulnerability to HIV and AIDS and curities, it is difficult to distinguish to affected by HIV rely. Such interven- to plan and implement mitigating activi- what extent the impact of HIV is pecu- tions should also aim to alleviate those ties based on the sector’s comparative liar to the disease and to what extent it interactions that aggravate the impacts advantages. is part of the wider context of societal of HIV and AIDS on households (e.g. crises including other epidemics such as household labour reductions and scarcity CONCLUSION tuberculosis and malaria. In short, it is of forest products to meet subsistence HIV and AIDS have dramatically impossible to overemphasize the need needs, in particular fuelwood). changed rural life in sub-Saharan Africa, for further research into the linkages and More intensive forest management to where close to 70 percent of the popula-

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tion is rural. Most households remain affected communities in southern Africa. poor, with limited resources to fight the Proceedings of an FAO regional workshop, pandemic. Rural areas are also absorb- Harare, Zimbabwe, 1 April 2004. Forest ing a significant part of the burden of Policy and Institutions Working Paper No. urban AIDS cases as those who fall ill 1. Available at: www.fao.org/docrep/008/ in urban areas return to rural areas to j4827e/j4827e00.htm seek family care. FAO. 2005. HIV/AIDS and the miombo Persistent shocks such as HIV and woodlands of Malawi and Mozambique. AIDS have long-term structural impacts Rome. for key facets of the livelihood system Kayambazinthu, D., Barany, M., Mumba, – availability of labour and expertise, R. & Holding Anyonge, C. 2005. Miombo accumulation and distribution of capital, woodlands and HIV/AIDS interactions: flow of remittances, people’s sense of Malawi country report. Available at: www. long-term security and outlook for the fao.org/docrep/008/j6038e/j6038e00. future, use of natural resources (e.g. HTM forest products for medicinal purposes) Sitoe, A. 2005. Miombo woodlands and HIV/ – with negative system-wide conse- AIDS interactions: Mozambique country quences that resonate far beyond the report. Forest Policy and Institutions period of the shock. Working Paper No. 2. Rome, FAO. The advent of HIV and AIDS found Available at: www.fao.org/docrep/008/ rural southern Africa already in a pre- j5251e/j5251e00.HTM ◆ carious state of declining small-scale agriculture and increasing utilization of natural resources, particularly for- ests and woodlands. The pandemic has intensified these pressures. It is clear that affected communities cannot overcome this conundrum without clear strategies and support from their governments. The studies discussed here have high- lighted some policy proposals for addressing the impact of HIV and AIDS and helping households to diversify their livelihood base. ◆

Bibliography

Bryceson, D.F. 2006. Ganyu casual labour, famine and HIV/AIDS in rural Malawi: causality and casualty. Journal of Modern African Studies, 44(2): 173–202. Bryceson, D.F. & Fonseca, J. 2006. Risking death for survival: peasant responses to hunger and HIV/AIDS in Malawi. World Development, 34(8): 1654–1666. FAO. 2004. Understanding the interface between natural woodlands and HIV/AIDS

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Malaria remains one of the most prevalent throughout the tropics, little effort has been Forests as diseases in the tropical world. With 200 million devoted to testing them as cheaper alterna- pharmacopoeia: to 450 million infections annually worldwide, it tives to conventional pharmaceuticals. causes up to 2.7 million deaths. The disease To coordinate research and investment identifying new remains endemic in more than 100 developing efforts with a view to creating a steady supply tropical countries, and its control is a major of safe, appropriate and cost-effective forms plant-based goal for improved worldwide health. In view of treatment for those affected by malaria, of the widespread emergence of resistant the Centre for Development of Enterprise (an treatments for strains of Plasmodium spp., the pathogen institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific responsible for the disease, enormous efforts Group of States and the European Union) malaria are being made to find alternatives to the usual and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) treatments – quinine derivatives and synthetic organized the Africa Herbal Antimalaria Meet- J. Muriuki antimalarials – which are still insufficient to ing from 20 to 22 March 2006. Botany and meet the needs. agronomy experts, farmers, pharmaceutical Control of malaria has been based on herbal manufacturers and marketers, researchers, drugs – and more specifically on forest prod- herbal medicine practitioners, quality assur- A meeting on herbal antimalarials ucts – for centuries. Wormwood (Artemisia ance and regulatory specialists, public health in Africa suggested that drug annua) infusions have been used in China administrators and government representa- development based on traditional for 2 000 years; bark of Cinchona ledgeriana tives discussed prospects for new solutions knowledge of indigenous plants was used long before its active ingredient, and progress made in the wake of commit- may hold more promise for quinine, was isolated in 1820. Many other ments made by African governments to control developing-country medicine than plants such as Warburgia ugandensis and the disease, particularly through the Roll Back for markets in developed countries. Azadirachta indica have been used either to Malaria initiative, which especially promotes treat the disease or as insecticides to control the use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets the vector (mosquitoes). as a preventive measure. Herbal remedies have most often been used A research report by the Kenya Medi- in traditional or natural medicine, although cal Research Institute (KEMRI) (Rukunga some have found their way into conventional and Simons, 2006), launched as a working pharmacies. Today, however, many medical document for the meeting, shows that many authorities, including the World Health Organi- chemicals with antimalarial potential can be zation (WHO), have come to recognize herbal derived by researching traditional antimalarial medicine as a viable treatment for various formulations. From more than 300 species ailments. WHO has recently devoted much screened in over a decade of research, 84 attention, for example, to Artemisia annua species in 34 families were found to have high and other new herbal antimalarials. The active antimalarial activity. A further 138 species ingredient of Artemisia annua, artemisinin, in 50 families were found to have moderate has recently been identified. Ethnobotanical activity. The Research Initiative on Traditional research has reported over 1 200 species as Antimalarial Methods (RITAM) has launched having antimalarial effects, some of which activities to test the potential of traditional might hold enormous potential to control this methods for vector control and repellents, devastating disease if researched further. prevention and treatment. Candidate species Malaria may not be a neglected disease, for further research such as Azadirachta indica given the WHO interest in its control, but and Phytolacca dodecandra were presented since it mainly afflicts poor populations in in the meeting. the tropics it attracts scant rewards for bio- Forest trees and shrubs such as Entan- prospecting by big pharmaceutical companies drophragma angolense, Picralima nitida, for active molecules that could lead to new Schumanniophyton magnificum and Thom- drugs – although developed-country interest andersia hensii (Bickii et al., 2007), Mam- could rise with speculation that global warm- mea africana (Okokon,Okokon, Udokpoh and Essiet, Jonathan Muriuki is Associate Scientist in ing might extend the range of the disease. 2006),), Annona senegalensis (Ajaiyeoba et the Trees and Markets Theme of the World While traditional methods of treatment exist al., 2006) and others (see Willcox, Bodeker Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya.

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Artemisia developed, however, potential profits accruing annua plant to collecting groups may lead to the extinc- 10 weeks after field planting; tion of useful species. Research to prioritize the leaves are antimalarial species should therefore be in a source of tandem with efforts to spur their cultivation, artemisinin, a powerful while guaranteeing rights to forest-adjacent antimalarial communities to gain benefits from sustainable collection of medicinal products. The full proceedings of the meeting are available at: www.worldagroforestry.org/ treesandmarkets/antimalariameeting/ proceedings

Bibliography

Ajaiyeoba E., Falade, M., Ogbole, O., Okpako, L. & Akinboye, D. 2006. In vivo antimalarial and cytotoxic properties of Anna senegalensis extract. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 3(1): 137–141. Bickii, J., Feuya Tchouya, G.R., Tchouankeu, J.C. & Tsamo, E. 2007. Antimalarial activity in crude extracts of some Cameroonian medicinal plants. African ECOPORT (WWW.ECOPORT.ORG)/47713/P. GRIFFEE (WWW.ECOPORT.ORG)/47713/P. ECOPORT Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Rasoanaivo, 2004) have already shown Initiatives addressing issues related to drug and Alternative Medicines, 4(1): 107–111. potential, but obstacles remain in the product safety, efficacy, testing and approval include (In press.) development path through to approval. Given the Association for African Medicinal Plant Okokon, J., Udokpoh, A. & Essiet, G. the current death rate, participants at the Standards (AAMPS), formed in 2005 to set 2006. Antimalarial activity in Mammea meeting expressed dissatisfaction with the quality standards and compile profiles of major africana. African Journal of Traditional, slowness of the process for conventional drug medicinal plants, and a centre to coordinate Complementary and Alternative Medicines, development based on isolating pure chemical research into traditional medicine established 3(4): 43–49. compounds or derivatives of such compounds by WHO and based in the Congo. Rukunga, G. & Simons, A.J. 2006. from medicinal plants. An alternative is to What does the enormous potential of anti- The potential of plants as a source of verify ethnobotanical information from tradi- malaria therapies from forests portend for their antimalarial agents – a review. Berlin, tional medical practitioners through scientific conservation? Interest in Artemisia annua has Germany, PlantaPhile Publications. toxicity and clinical confirmatory tests. Many spurred cultivation efforts in China, India, Viet Willcox, M., Bodeker, G. & Rasoanaivo, countries in Africa now have products formu- Nam and East Africa, creating opportuni- P., eds. 2004. Traditional medicinal plants lated in this way. Examples presented at the ties for farmers to raise their income and for and malaria. Boca Raton, Florida, USA, meeting include Manalaria and Sansiphos jobs in the extraction industry. There is great CRC Press. (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Malarial potential for cultivation of other medicinal (Mali) and Phyto-Laria (Ghana). plants in the tropics if appropriate germplasm Concerns about the possible toxicity of and propagation technology is available. Esti- drugs developed from herbal remedies and mates show that at least 60 percent of cur- the potential that Plasmodium spp. could rent medicinal plant products are from wild develop resistance to them were raised. harvesting. Indigenous knowledge used in Because of such concerns, only one of the traditional therapies often incorporates con- many products derived from Artemisia annua servation practices used by communities. had obtained WHO approval by March 2006. If more commercial antimalarial products are

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When forest-based hunter-gatherers become sedentary: consequences for diet and health

E. Dounias and A. Froment

Diet and health are sensitive he future of forest ecosystems rapid land use conversion occurs in indicators of human adaptive is inseparable from the future forest regions. responses to change. Tof people living in these forests. Changes in diets and exposure to Accordingly, challenges to the health emerging diseases are sensitive indica- of both the forest and humans should tors of the ecological and cultural costs be investigated jointly. Unfortunately, that former hunter-gatherers are paying research devoted to the consequences to get their share of modernity. Such indi- of biodiversity loss on human health cators illuminate sensitive sociopolitical has long focused on the ecological and problems that necessitate concerted and global systems and persists in neglecting urgent interventions that will respond sociological and psychological factors. to both development and conservation Environmentalists, ecologists, anthro- interests. Recent hunter-gatherers pro- pologists and medical scientists need vide insight into how humans lived when to sit around the same table to inves- their lifestyles and genetic endowment tigate the threats that simultaneously were more compatible. The cumulative compromise the health of people and experience of hunter-gatherer socie- the sustainability of their ecosystems. ties can be viewed as a benchmark for Forest managers and policy-makers need present-day efforts to promote health solutions that combine ecosystem man- and prevent disease, even in the world’s agement and health-sector interventions industrialized countries. to improve human health and well-being This article examines the changes in diet while maintaining a healthy ecosys- and health that occur when nomadic for- tem. The dramatic situation of the few est dwellers settle. Examples are drawn remaining hunter-gatherer groups that from African Pygmy groups such as the still greatly depend on forest resources Kola, Medjan and Baka of Cameroon, is emblematic of what is at stake when the Aka of the Central African Republic

A changing way of life: a work team of Kola Pygmies employed on the Chad-Cameroon pipeline project which crosses over their forest land in coastal southern Cameroon

Edmond Dounias and Alain Froment are

scientists at the French Institut de Recherche pour F. NKOUMBELE le Développment (IRD, formerly ORSTOM). Edmond Dounias is also seconded to the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.

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and the Efe and Mbuti of the Democratic Republic of the Congo; and in Asia, the Punan, formerly nomadic forest dwell- ers of Borneo, in particular the Tubu Punan from the Tubu watershed of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. These formerly nomadic groups were all pushed to set- tle in permanent villages in the course of the twentieth century, but they still depend on hunting and gathering for their livelihoods and continue to migrate seasonally into the forest in search of forest resources.

HIGH FOREST BIODIVERSITY ALSO MEANS RICHNESS IN PATHOGENS E. DOUNIAS The number of plant and animal spe- cies declines with distance from the equator. This pattern has also recently Delousing is common social behaviour been documented for parasitic and infec- Nevertheless, the economically, among the Baka Pygmies of southern tious species. Climatic factors are of environmentally and politically driven Cameroon, who temporarily abandon their permanent villages for seasonal primary importance in explaining the relocation of nomadic people jeopard- camps in the forest; excessive link between latitude and richness of izes their health conditions by exert- parasites in the camp often provide human pathogens (Guernier, Hochberg ing enormous pressure on their natural motivation to move to another place and Guégan, 2004). The high correlation environment and their cultural systems. between the diversity of parasitic and Once these groups become sedentary infectious diseases and the distribution and spend time in larger aggregations, of tropical humid forests has nourished a reservoir that encourages the prolif- the persistent belief that forests are eration and maintenance of a heavy their settlements significantly reduced inhospitable environments for humans. pathogen load is established. In addi- their exposure to transmissible diseases, This perception overlooks, however, the tion, environmental changes in local airborne and food-borne parasites and numerous services provided by natural land use after settlement may combine faecal pollution. More than the scarcity ecosystems to control the emergence with global climate alterations to disrupt of food, excessive parasites (fleas, lice and spread of infectious diseases. The the natural ecosystem, producing new and ticks) in the camp provided a strong protective function of biodiversity, for favourable habitats for vectors and caus- motivation to move to another place. instance, includes maintaining the bal- ing an increased risk of transmission of The death of a member of the commu- ance among predators and prey and viral and parasitic infections to humans nity also prodded the community to split among vectors and parasites in plants, (Patz et al., 2000). and shift to new settlements, reducing animals and humans (Chivian, 2001). at the same time the risk of any lethal In the developed world, the image of FORMER HUNTER-GATHERERS factor contaminating other members of Rousseau’s noble savage living in har- HAVE LOST THE ECOLOGICAL the group. mony with his environment has persisted ADVANTAGES OF NOMADISM High mobility was facilitated by light through the centuries, but excessive Nomadism and maintenance of small burdens and a limited number of sur- romanticism has perversely reinforced communities were efficient adaptive viving children. Groups migrated along the conviction among many forest man- responses to high diversity in para- extended and linear territorial trails. agement practitioners and conservation- sitic and infectious diseases. Formerly Regular migrations along these trails ists that the forest is insalubrious for nomadic hunter-gatherers lived in small not only reduced obstacles to obtaining humans. Governing officials may use and scattered residential groups within food – as the hunter-gatherers owned this view to justify decisions to push vast and sparsely inhabited forest lands and managed the forest resources within forest dwellers outside the forest, sup- (typically less than one inhabitant per these linear territories, influencing their posedly for their own sake. square kilometre). The impermanence of spatial distribution and density (Dounias

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Kola Pygmies, Cameroon Punan, East Kalimantan (all communities) n=2878 in 2004 n=8956 in 2002

80–90 80–90

70–80 70–80

60–70 60–70

50–60 50–60

40–50 40–50

30–40 30–40

20–30 20–30

10–20 10–20

0–10 0–10

-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500

Peri-urban Tubu Punan n=951 in 2002

85–90 80–84 75–79 Women Men 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 The large bases of the two charts above reveal a high birth rate 45–49 40–44 that counterbalances the high child mortality. By contrast, the 35–39 tighter base of the age pyramid for peri-urban Tubu Punan 30–34 expresses a lower birth rate subsequent to decreasing 25–29 20–24 child mortality owing to facilitated access to medical care. 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80

Recent pyramids of age for 2001) – but also ensured good aerobic falls from honey and fruit trees, snake- sedentary Kola Pygmies and Punan fitness, which resulted in low body fat, bites and human conflict. The life span of and for peri-urban Punan low blood pressure, low cholesterol lev- remaining hunter-gatherers is relatively els and prevention of cancer and car- short: among both the Punan and the diovascular complications (Eaton and Kola Pygmies, people over 65 years NEW SEDENTARY WAY OF Eaton, 1999). of age represent less than 2 percent of LIFEEXPOSES PEOPLE TO NEW Although still a matter of controversy, the population (Figure). Today’s child DISEASES … the “Palaeo diet” hypothesis (Wiss, mortality is comparable to that reported Although a few authors argue that per- 2006) argues that hunter-gatherers had in Europe a few centuries ago. Short life manent settlement may lead to improved a healthy food regime that was rich in span and high child mortality are neces- health conditions, there is strong evi- protein and fibre while low in salt, milk sary regulating factors in a Darwinian dence that the shift from nomadic to sed- and sugar. selection process which has ensured a entary lifestyle generally compromises Relatively good fitness was however stable demography and the related sus- health and well-being. Today, forest counterbalanced by relatively high mor- tainability of the lifestyle in relation to populations are mostly farmers. Popu- tality resulting from hunting accidents, resource availability (Froment, 2001). lations of hunter-gatherers who chose

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TABLE 1. Comparison of parasitic load among different formerly forest-based hunter-gatherers who are currently settled (percentage of infested population)

Sedentary Country Hookworms Whipworms Roundworms Amoeba hunter-gatherers (Ankylostoma (Trichuris (Ascaris spp.) spp. and Necator spp.) Pathogen Non-pathogen spp.)

Southeast Asian groups Tubu Punan Indonesia 35 9 60 5 6 Semang Malaysia 93 56 12 9 30 Temiar Malaysia 78 23 2 3 18 Jahut Malaysia 52 29 20 8 28 Semai Malaysia 74 12 13 10 39 Jakun Malaysia 64 62 65 3 31 Semelai Malaysia 70 72 71 6 17 Temuan Malaysia 79 91 59 12 37

African Pygmies Mbuti Democratic Republic 85 70 57 36 – of the Congo

Aka Central African Republic 71 – – – –

Kola Cameroon – 85 51 – – Medjan Cameroon – 83 90 – –

Amerindians Yanomami Brazil 59 80 86 49 85 Ticuna Colombia 83 77 76 69 55 Palikur French Guyana90 19 76 31 16 Campa Peru 45 20 28 21 37 Xingu Brazil 81 – 18 61 87

Note: – = no data

not to shift to agriculture are currently damper nights with warmer, drier days causes of malnutrition, infectious diar- undergoing a sociological transition. favours pulmonary pathologies. rhoea and child mortality. They are confronted with demographic Poor sanitation and increased promis- The wearing of European clothes is expansions that test the carrying capacity cuity bring more frequent contact with strongly encouraged by missionaries of wild edible resources (i.e. the ability human and animal wastes, thus encour- and local authorities. In the absence of of the resource to supply the needs of aging faecal pollution and increasing soap, however, the same clothes are worn the consumer group without detrimental parasitic load. Rates of intestinal worms dirty until they become dilapidated and effect on the survival of the resource) – which cause anaemia and possibly thus form a propitious ground for skin and force hunter-gatherers to become delayed growth, with potentially dra- diseases. more sedentary. matic consequences for the psychic The risk of contracting zoonotic dis- Even more threatening than food inse- development of children – have gener- eases (diseases transmitted between curity to the survival of forest people ally risen with a sedentary way of life. animals and humans) is elevated in is the burden of transmissible diseases, However, the sedentary Punan suffer human-inhabited or domesticated for- which are particularly diverse in moist lower rates of parasitic loads than, for est by the proliferation of rodent-borne and hot ecosystems. instance, many African Pygmy groups, disease vectors, as rodents are attracted The following are some direct detri- because they have settled along river by domestic garbage and food storage. mental effects on health of the transition banks and use rivers for sanitary pur- Frequent contact with a broader range to a sedentary way of life. poses (Table 1). The rich aquatic fauna of domesticated animals also raises the Cleared lands in which permanent vil- ensures a quick and efficient recycling probability of pathogen transfer between lages are established have a greater range of human waste. Faecal pollution is also species. In addition, standing water near of daily fluctuations in temperature and a source of bacterial as well as viral the habitat attracts disease-carrying humidity. The alternation of colder, infections of the gut, which are major insects.

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By living in permanent and more crowded villages, former hunter-gatherers who continue to depend on bushmeat contribute to the diffusion of wild zoonotic diseases, such as new hantaviruses spread by ticks hosted by wild boars in Borneo E. DOUNIAS

The emergence of novel zoonotic dis- small, isolated group of people, these gatherers, tuberculosis is the greatest eases also becomes more acute with set- pathogens cannot last for long: they contributor to human mortality (Barrett tlement. It is probable that new zoonoses race through the group and every per- et al., 1998). have historically emerged from wildlife son is infected; subjects either perish or Low population density and scattered many times but failed to spread from the develop an enduring immunity, and the settlements related to the nomadic life focus of emergence because infected pathogen dies out once there is no one left effectively protected against vector- victims living in scattered small hamlets to infect. But wherever humans gather to borne diseases as human potential hosts either died or recovered before coming form a large, concentrated population, were diluted in the environment and thus into contact with larger human popula- these diseases have a sufficient critical less visible to vectors. Nomadic Punan tions. In modern times, the exponential mass of inhabitants to permit propa- and Pygmies were free of malaria since rise in volume and speed of trade and gation. The pathogen can persist even they constantly moved outside the flight travel has transformed the epidemiology after an epidemic, because births and range of the mosquito vectors before of emerging infectious diseases, giving immigration continually provide enough the malaria-causing parasites (Plas- them global rather than local impor- new hosts. The pathogen can prosper modium spp.) were able to reproduce. tance. By living in permanent and more indefinitely, and another epidemic may Landscape alterations and developments crowded villages, the former hunter- ensue when the number of new hosts that accompany the resettlement of gatherers who continue to depend on has grown sufficiently. In Kalimantan, nomadic societies, such as the building bushmeat – for their own diet and for smallpox caused severe damage among of roads, timber extraction, mining and trade – are more exposed to zoonotic Dayak farmers, but the nomadic Punan agro-industrial plantations, lead to out- diseases and more likely to contribute to had little trouble with it because they breaks of malaria. Temporary workers their diffusion. They have higher levels practised silent barter to avoid direct in areas of high and endemic malaria of immunoglobulins in their blood than physical contact during epidemics: they (e.g. logging camps, agro-industrial vil- do agriculturists, which indicate a higher marked a site where outside traders could lages) sometimes bring back acute forms propensity for infection. Infection often deposit their goods, and after the traders of Plasmodium spp. which may set off leads to malnutrition, which in turn leads were gone they took the goods and left an epidemic. In 2002, this happened in to low resistance and thus to further their payment in forest products in the two remote Punan villages of the Tubu infection, in a vicious circle. same place (Knapen, 1998). However, watershed when workers returning from Increased exposure to transmissi- today it is no longer possible to resort Malaysia brought back a severe form of ble diseases (e.g. smallpox, measles, to protective silent barter or simply to malaria, which killed 28 children (half mumps, cholera, rubella, diphtheria and find refuge further inland. Among the the population under five years of age) influenza) is associated with dense con- various re-emerging infectious diseases within just a few months. centrations of human settlements. In a occurring today among former hunter- Industrialization and urbanization,

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which generally follow economic growth TABLE 2. Body mass index (BMI) of some former hunter-gatherer societies in tropical forests, bring in their wake compared with that of some of their fishing and farming neighbours changes to a population’s diet and nutri- tional status. The shift to a sedentary Population Men Women Source way of life affects food availability Coastal Kola, Cameroon and distribution and particularly influ- Pygmies 20.2 19.7 Froment et al., 1993 Yasa fishers 22.3 21.9 Froment et al., 1993 ences children’s nutritional status and Mvae farmers 22.0 22.5 Froment et al., 1993 health. Resettled peri-urban Punan and sedentary Kola and Baka Pygmies, for Continental Kola, Cameroon Pygmies 20.0 19.8 Kesteloot et al., 1996 example, tend towards an excess intake Bulu and Ngumba farmers 20.7 21.0 Kesteloot et al., 1996 of energy-dense foods that are rich in Efe, Democratic Republic fat and free sugars but low in complex of the Congo carbohydrates. Evidence from epide- Pygmies 20.2 20.2 Bailey et al., 1993 miological studies has confirmed a link Lese farmers 21.6 21.7 Bailey et al., 1993 between such a diet and risks of degen- Borneo, Indonesia erative chronic diseases of middle and Tubu Punan (remote) 20.6 19.9 Dounias et al., 2004 later adult life, particularly cardiovas- Tubu Punan (peri-urban) 19.9 19.6 Dounias et al., 2004 cular diseases and certain types of can- Iban farmers 20.9 22.2 Strickland and Duffield, 1998 cer. Other nutritional disorders such as anaemia, obesity, hypertension, elevated The body mass index (BMI) – an esti- practical reasons these advantages are cholesterol levels and diabetes are also mate of the relative percentages of fat seldom achieved. Permanent settlements appearing among these former hunter- and muscle mass in the human body are generally distant from cities, and gatherers. Their legendary good fitness based on an equation relating weight remoteness from services remains a is compromised and is currently inferior and height – is widely used to assess constraint. For instance, the sedentary to that of their farming neighbours. the nutritional condition of a given Baka Pygmies are much more affected population. The indexes of sedentary by yaws, a non-venereal form of syphi- hunter-gatherers are significantly lower lis, than their farming neighbours (80 than those of their farming neighbours. percent versus 37 percent, respectively) However, the BMI of the Tubu Punan as a direct consequence of their unequal Alcoholism is a new rampant who have chosen to stay in the forest access to health facilities. Civil servants, social pathology among sedentary Baka villagers (referred to as “remote” in Table 2) is many of whom still perceive the forest much better than that of their relatives dwellers as primitive, often refuse to be who were encouraged by the Indonesian posted to remote settlements or leave authorities to settle down near the city after a few months. For the forest dwell- of Malinau in the early 1970s (referred ers, the illusion of development gives to as “peri-urban” in the Table). way to frustration and the feeling of being left behind. Social support such … AND CAUSES NEW SOCIAL as mutual aid, collective activities and DISORDERS food sharing is in constant decline and Modernization – often hastened by is being replaced by more individualistic government incentives – is generally attitudes. associated with increased poverty. It Stress and depression are fairly com- contributes to a series of social disor- mon mental diseases, which may lead to ders that indirectly affect the health of conjugal violence and various types of forest dwellers (Levang, Dounias and addiction. Heavy alcoholism and smok- Sitorus, 2004). ing are sources of direct intoxication and Facilitated access to education, mar- can be indirect causes of pathologies kets and trade, job opportunities and such as tuberculosis. The conversion of local health services is the usual argu- the Punan to Christianity has limited the ment for imposing resettlement of impact of alcoholism, but emphysema hunter-gatherers. However, for several and cancer have increased, probably A. FROMENT

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The younger generation of Punan growing up near the city enjoy electricity and television but suffer discrimination in the job market, and nutritional disorders and increasing social pathologies are symptoms of their ecological and sociocultural maladaptations

maladaptations that former hunter- gatherer societies are undergoing. More acute than malnutrition and diseases are the insecurity and discrimination caused by social prejudice. The healthy future of these groups depends on socio- P. LEVANG P. economic and sociopolitical factors such as a consequence of heavy cigarette CONCLUSION as access to education and the acknow- smoking (Strickland and Duffield, 1998). If forest ecosystems are dynamic, so are ledgement of traditional rights. Medical The fast-rising prevalence of sexually the human societies that depend on the assistance to cope with the malnutrition transmitted diseases such as acquired forest. Forest dwellers have had to adapt and diseases of these people would calm immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) to permanent changes in forest ecosys- the symptoms, but should not preclude is another sad example of the “fatal tems. However, the changes that they other more wide-ranging interventions, attraction of development” (Froment, face today are much more brutal and radi- considering the ecological, social, poli- 2004). cal than those they have experienced in tical and economic drivers of change Traditional healing is inefficient the past. With increasingly rapid defor- that indirectly affect the health of forest in treating diseases that the hunter- estation, drastic modification of resource people. Improving their health is not in gatherers did not meet when they availability and the invasive influence of the hands of medical doctors alone. ◆ were still nomadic. For instance, com- a cash economy, these groups have an pared with their Dayak farming neigh- increasingly difficult time adapting their bours, the Punan know little about social, cultural, economic and political plants with antimalarial properties systems. The choices made today by (Leaman et al., 1995). Healers and former hunter-gatherer societies are no wise elders are consequently losing longer validated by experience, and the Bibliography their political influence, and social shift from a nomadic to a sedentary life conflict between generations is becom- style is revealed to be costly in terms of Bailey, R.C., Jenike, M.R., Ellison, P.T., ing more common. A lack of social ecological success. Bentley, G.R., Harrigan, A.M. & controls results in dramatic misuse of Social change is not necessarily accom- Peacock, N.R. 1993. Seasonality of food manufactured medications, such as panied by biological balance. It may production, nutritional status, ovarian analgesic pills which are sold without sometimes invalidate defence mecha- function and fertility in Central Africa. restriction in local retail shops and wide- nisms and jeopardize nutritional status. In C.M. Hladik, A. Hladik, O.F. Linares, spectrum antibiotics which are often Such biological imbalance may in turn H. Pagezy, A. Semple & M. Hadley, taken without regard for directions compromise the social and cultural integ- eds. Tropical forests, people and food. for use. Self-medication and related rity of the society. Biocultural interactions and applications addictions have become a major health However, declining diets and increas- to development, pp. 387–402. Paris, France, problem among formerly nomadic ing illnesses are only symptomatic warn- United Nations Educational, Scientific and societies. ings of the ecological and sociocultural Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

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Barrett, R., Kuzawa, C.W., McDade, T. Guernier, V., Hochberg, M.E. & & Armelagos, G.J. 1998. Emerging and Guégan, J.-F. 2004. Ecology re-emerging infectious diseases: the third drives the worldwide distribution of epidemiologic transition. Annual Review human diseases. PLoS Biology, 2(6): of Anthropology, 27: 247–271. 740–746. Available at: biology. Chivian, E. 2001. Environment and health: 7. plosjournals.org/perlserv?request=get- Species loss and ecosystem disruption – the document&doi=10.1371/journal. implications for human health. Canadian pbio.0020141 Medical Association Journal, 164(1): Kesteloot, H., Ndam, N., Sasaki S., Kowo 66–69. Available at: chge.med.harvard. M. & Seghers, V. 1996. A survey of blood edu/publications/journals/documents/ pressure distribution in Pygmy and Bantu chiviancan.pdf populations in Cameroon. Hypertension, Dounias, E. 2001. The management of 27(1): 108–113. Available at: hyper. wild yam tubers by the Baka Pygmies ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/1/108 in Southern Cameroon. African Study Knapen, H. 1998. Lethal diseases in the Monographs, 26: 135–156. history of Borneo mortality and the Dounias, E., Kishi, M., Selzner, A., interplay between disease environment Kurniawan, I. & Levang, P. 2004. No and human geography. In V.T. King, ed. longer nomadic: changing Punan Tubu Environmental challenges in South-East lifestyle requires new health strategies. Asia, pp. 69–94. Richmond, Surrey, UK, Cultural Survival Quarterly, 28(2): 15–20. Curzon Press. Available at: 209.200.101.189/publications/ Leaman, D.J., Arnason, J.T., Yusuf, R., csq/csq-article.cfm?id=1761 Sangat-Roemantyo, H., Soedjito, H., Eaton, S.B. & Eaton, S.B. III. 1999. Hunter- Angerhofer, C.K. & Pezzuto, J.M. 1995. gatherers and human health. In R.B. Lee & Malaria remedies of the Kenyah of the R. Daly, eds. The Cambridge encyclopedia Apo Kayan, East Kalimantan, Indonesian of hunters and gatherers, pp. 449–455. Borneo: a quantitative assessment of local Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University consensus as an indicator of biological Press. efficacy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Froment, A. 2001. Evolutionary biology 49(1): 1–16. and health of hunter-gatherer populations. Levang, P., Dounias, E. & Sitorus, S. 2004. In C. Panter-Brick, R.H. Layton & P. Out of forest, out of poverty? Forests, Trees, Rowley-Conwy, eds. Hunter-gatherers: an and Livelihoods, 15(2): 211–235. Available interdisciplinary perspective, pp. 239–266. at: www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_ Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University files/articles/ALevang0501.pdf Press. Patz, J.A., Graczyk, T.K., Geller, N. & Froment, A. 2004. Do people belong in the Vittor, A.Y. 2000. Effects of environmental forest? Cultural Survival Quarterly, 28(2): change on emerging parasitic diseases. 36–40. Available at: 209.200.101.189/ International Journal of Parasitology, publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=424 30(12–13): 1395–1405. Froment, A., Koppert, G.J.A. & Loung, Strickland, S.S. & Duffield, A.E. 1998. J.-F. 1993. “Eat well, live well”: nutritional Nutrition and ecosystems in Sarawak: the status and health of forest populations in role of the areca nut. Asia Pacific Journal southern Cameroon. In C.M. Hladik, A. of Clinical Nutrition, 7(3/4): 300–306. Hladik, O.F. Linares, H. Pagezy, A. Semple Available at: www.healthyeatingclub.com/ & M. Hadley, eds. Tropical forests, people APJCN/Volume7/vol7.34/Strickland.pdf and food. Biocultural interactions and Wiss, D. 2006. The Paleolithic diet page applications to development, pp. 357–364. – what the hunter/gatherers ate. Internet Paris, France, United Nations Educational, document. Available at: PaleoDiet.com ◆ Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

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Forest biodiversity, nutrition and population health in market-oriented food systems

T. Johns and P. Maundu

Diversity in production systems orest ecosystems contribute to forests. It also demonstrates the richness and natural ecosystems the diets and subsistence of for- of the traditional knowledge of indig- strengthens the opportunities for Fest dwellers, and in increasingly enous and local communities related to diversity in diets and the prospect market-oriented economies they provide the gathering and hunting of plant and of a sustainable future. a significant portion of the food and animal foods and the medicinal value medicines consumed by urban popula- of forest species. From a wide range of tions. Recognition that the sustainable ecosystems, some 7 000 of the earth’s use of forest resources is essential for plant species have been documented as local livelihoods and the well-being of gathered or grown for food (Wood et al., national populations provides a founda- 2005), and thousands more have medici- tion for investment in conservation of nal properties (Napralert, 2006). forest biodiversity and its integration From a nutritional perspective, forest with objectives of poverty reduction, environments offer ample sources of ani- food security and disease reduction in mal (vertebrate and invertebrate) protein development policies. However, it is first and fat, complemented by plant-derived necessary to demonstrate more fully that carbohydrates from fruits and tubers biodiversity is indispensable for combat- and diverse options for obtaining a bal- ing malnutrition and diseases of vulner- ance of essential vitamins and minerals able populations in a global context of from leafy vegetables, fruits, nuts and unprecedented population growth and other plant parts. Although many forest resource demand. This article outlines types have scant wild sources of carbohy- key components of the link between drate, this lack can be overcome through forest biodiversity and the viability of forest-based agricultural production of contemporary food systems. cereals (e.g. maize), roots and tubers (e.g. cassava and yams) or bananas. BIODIVERSITY AND THE DIETS Similarly, traditional cultivation AND HEALTH OF FOREST systems drawing on agrobiodiversity DWELLERS can make adequate food available Most societies recognize that food, in spite of potential intermittent and medicine and health are interrelated. seasonal shortages of many forest Food is typically associated with cultural foods. Thus forest food resources can identity and social well-being. Indig- provide a valuable safety net in case of enous peoples’ foods form part of rich shortage of food crops. Undoubtedly, knowledge systems. Traditional food then, forest biodiversity is the basis for systems typically draw on local biodi- nutritional sufficiency for some popu- versity and are based on local production lations. Some forest products, such as Timothy Johns is in the School of Dietetics and and management of land and specific the fruits of Mauritia vinifera and other Human Nutrition, Macdonald Campus, McGill environments (Johns, 2006). Brazilian palms that are rich in provi- University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Ethnobiological literature documents tamin A (beta-carotene and other caro- Canada, and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) Regional Office for the historical and current importance of tenoids), are recognized as exceptional Sub-Saharan Africa, Nairobi, Kenya. an array of resources consumed by com- nutrient sources (Rodriguez-Amaya, Patrick Maundu is also with the IPGRI Regional munities living in and around the world’s 1996, 1999) (see Table). However, the Office for Sub-Saharan Africa in Nairobi.

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Some neotropical fruits in Brazil that are excellent sources of provitamin A

Fruit Portion α-carotene β-carotene β-cryptoxanthin Other carotenoid Vitamin A activity in analysed (μg/g) (μg/g) (μg/g) (μg/g) mixed foods (Retinol activity equivalents/100 g)

Mauritia vinifera Pulp 80.5 360 γ-carotene, 37 3 050 Astrocaryum vulgare Pulp 107 3.6 930 Eugenia uniflora Pulp 9.5 β-zeacarotene, 5.9 830 Acrocomia makayayba Pulp 55 490 Bactris gasipaes Boiled pulp 3.2 22 γ-carotene, 18 270 Malpighia glabra 26 3.6 230 Mammea americana Pulp 14 β-apo-10’-carotenal, 5 195 β-apo-8’-carotenol,11 Spondias lutea Pulp and peel 1.4 17.0 93 Cariocar villosum Pulp 1.2 4.4 30 Source: Adapted from Rodriguez-Amaya, 1996. Note: By comparison, mango (Mangifera spp.) and papaya (Carica papaya) provide 38–257 and 25–150 retinol activity equivalents per 100 g, respectively (USDA-ARS, 2004).

nutrient composition of most wild disease. Guava, for example, is rich in (Leakey, 1999). Leaves of many forest species and minor crops has been the antioxidant lycopene, which has rec- species are rich sources of xanthophylls poorly studied (Burlingame, 2000). ognized anti-cancer properties. Many which contribute to optimal eye func- Links between food and health are nuts have a high content of specific oils tion. Examples include leaves of Gnetum increasingly understood in terms of the such as omega-3 fatty acids (walnut) and spp. and Adansonia digitata (baobab), functional benefits provided by phyto- mono-unsaturated fatty acids (almond, which are widely eaten in sub-Saharan chemicals, including numerous carote- macadamia, pistachio, hazelnut) which Africa, and Cnidoscolus acontifolius, noids and phenolics, apart from their reduce the risk of cardiovascular and which is locally important as a vegetable value as essential nutrients (Johns and other diseases. Argan nuts (Argania in Central America (Serrano, Goñi and Sthapit, 2004). Stimulants of immunity spinosa) from the southwestern part Saura-Calixto, 2005). and antioxidant, glycaemic and lipidae- of Morocco offer similar benefits, but While these kinds of functional prop- mic agents can moderate communicable many forest species with commercial erties of foods are seldom recognized and non-communicable diseases such potential have not been characterized by local communities without the ben- as diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular for their specific fatty acid composition efit of scientific analyses, people often attribute to particular foods value in treating or preventing disease. Indeed the distinction between food and medicine which characterizes scientific perspec- tives stands in contrast with traditional concepts of health which recognize the therapeutic and sustaining values of food more holistically. The widespread use of roots, barks and other forest plant parts as

Leaves of Cnidoscolus acontifolius, an excellent source of beta-carotene (provitamin A) and lutein, make important contributions to diets of forest dwellers in southern Mexico, Guatemala and

T. JOHNS T. neighbouring countries

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medicine appears to offer public health amounts of animal-source foods includ- produced by others outside cities. Simply benefits, but these are difficult to validate ing birds, fish, insects and molluscs, meeting present and future food security scientifically. Ethnobotanical studies in as well as sauces, condiments, snacks needs necessitates intensification of pro- tropical forest areas typically document and beverages obtained from plants. duction systems of cereals, sugar, oilseeds, knowledge of hundreds of species within other staple crops and animal-source foods. local communities and widespread use of FOREST BIODIVERSITY IN Production increases will draw heavily plants in primary health care. Much of CHANGING FOOD SYSTEMS on technology and greater exploitation of the recorded data on the use of medicinal Changes in developing-country food land and natural ecosystems, including plants is anecdotal and idiosyncratic, and systems affect both human health and the forests. their specific contribution to the health of health of ecosystems. When rural popu- Three crops alone – rice, wheat and individuals cannot be effectively evalu- lations lose access to important natural maize – already provide over 50 percent ated without controlled investigations. resources because of environmental of the global human food supply (Wood Ethnopharmacological research, includ- degradation, economic changes (includ- et al., 2005). Along with rice and wheat, ing clinical studies, demonstrates the ing changes in land use), cultural erosion a couple of other products of high-input, efficacy of many traditional remedies or poverty, their reduced diet results high-yield agriculture, sugar and edible while failing to substantiate the pharma- in food insecurity, malnutrition and oil (soy and other), are important com- cological value of many others. Long- disease. Similarly, when people move modities in global trade. Together these term epidemiological studies would be to cities they lose ready access to the staples form the bulk of the diet of urban needed to confirm the contribution of beneficial products of local biodiversity dwellers in Africa, Latin America and specific remedies, phytomedicines or because these are either unavailable or Asia. Large-scale commercial agricul- foods to the health of populations. Even unaffordable. ture responds to the demand for these these remain inadequate to measure the Urbanization, in conjunction with the crops for export and local markets. On efficacy and contributions of traditional commercialization of the food supply and the other hand, the food supply of urban healing practices to physical and mental other subsistence items, results in consider- dwellers in many developing countries health. able changes in patterns of consumption increasingly depends on food imports. Nonetheless, for forest-based socie- and resource use. In Latin America 78 per- The availability of calorie-rich food ties that draw on traditional knowledge cent of people live in cities. Forty percent of at affordable prices contributes to food for most of their subsistence needs, Asians and Africans are urban, and in both security and has reduced the number the use of a diversity of resources can regions this figure is expected to rise to 50 of undernourished people. However, be expected to contribute to health. percent by 2025 (United Nations, 2004). for poor people whose food choices Although many traditional subsistence With the global population expected to are determined foremost by economic systems depend on one or more staples grow to 8.3 billion by 2030, this elevated means, dietary options are limited. At such as cassava, sago, rice or maize, urbanization rate represents a tremendous the same time local producers, particu- such diets are kept diverse and bal- increase in the number of humans who larly small-scale farmers, have difficulty anced through small but complementary depend on foods that are purchased and competing with inexpensive (often sub- sidized) imports. Deficiencies in infra- Even small amounts structure and support for small-scale of animal-source production contribute to keeping local foods, including insects, complement forest products unavailable or expen- staple foods and sive in local markets. As supermarkets keep traditional diets take a larger market share in developing diverse and balanced (roasted termites on countries, opportunities for local produc- sale in Limbe market, ers to sell diverse products, particularly Malawi) wild foods from forests, may be reduced (Reardon et al., 2003). However, although it is difficult to compete, local producers need not be excluded, especially if they can highlight the unique nature of their products and fill speciality niches. In many areas, as use of local biodi- versity decreases, a diet that is reduced P. MAUNDU P.

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Traditional concepts patterns of traditional food consumption, of health tend to view the therapeutic and more important than economic status sustaining values of (Johns et al., 2005). In other regions, food more holistically; connections among sociocultural, health for example, the nutritious roots of and environmental factors take other Mondia whitei (white forms. In the Republic of Korea, social ginger), an African marketing draws on cultural traditions woody climber, lends flavour to foods and to link healthy cuisine with concern for tea while also serving rural producers and production systems a variety of medicinal (Kim, Moon and Popkin, 2000). Brazil purposes (street vendor in Kenya) has undertaken a multisectoral initia- tive to mobilize the biological resources of its Amazonian and other forests to address national health needs. The Slow Food Movement, with origins in Italy and growing influence in Europe, North America and elsewhere, aims to link P. MAUNDU P. producers and consumers of excellent in variation but high in calories contrib- diet has recognized health, cultural and quality foods, to protect traditional foods utes to increasing problems of obesity ecological roles are better able to avoid at risk of extinction and to conserve and non-communicable disease (Popkin, the concomitant increases in disease. biodiversity in the food supply, further 2002). The globalization of culture and Asian and Mediterranean diets provide illustrating the connection of sociocul- commerce fosters a westernization of the clearest examples (Kim, Moon tural values to human and ecosystem developing country food systems and and Popkin, 2000; Trichopoulou and health (Petrini, 2004). diets. Where high rates of infectious Vasilopoulou, 2000). Market and economic factors act as illness persist and undernutrition and Important lessons on linking traditional powerful determinants of the trans- overnutrition co-exist, communicable sources of food and dietary diversity formation of food systems. Consumer and non-communicable diseases create a to rural and urban health are emerg- demand for forest-derived foods and double burden. Chronic diseases pose a ing from research and promotional medicines ensures their continued staggering cost, particularly for develop- activities led by the International Plant presence in markets as long as supply ing countries and economies in transi- Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) in is affordable and sustainable. tion. A recent report by the World Health sub-Saharan Africa and other regions Organization (WHO, 2005) estimated (Frison et al., 2005). In East Africa, for that the loss in national income as a result example, the link between traditional of heart disease, stroke and diabetes over food culture and health is related to the next ten years for populous countries an attachment to rural and ethnic ori- such as China, India and the Russian gins coupled with social and spiritual Federation will be in the hundreds of values. In a recent cross-sectional survey billions of United States dollars each, in Nairobi, Kenya, ethnic identity was while other developing economies such as found to be the main determinant of Brazil, Nigeria, Pakistan and the United Republic of Tanzania will lose US$49.2

billion, $7.6 billion, $30.7 billion and Although the spread $2.5 billion, respectively. The challenge of supermarkets may is to address a problem whose causes and reduce opportunities for local producers, consequences span health, agriculture, consumer demand for culture, markets and environment. forest-derived foods and While the impacts of rapid sociocul- medicines ensures their continued presence in tural changes can be seen throughout

markets (sale of Uapaca P. MAUNDU the world, those countries that retain kirkiana fruits in Mutare strong traditional food systems in which town market, Eastern Zimbabwe)

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Population-level synergies linking biodiversity conservation Nutrition/health Status and human nutrition in (urban and rural consumers) developing countries

Self-sufficiency/ Increased independence Higher productivity Knowledge, purchasing values, cuisine power

Income Socio-cultural Diet quality generation traditions Enhanced rationale (farmers, (all stakeholders) processors, POPULATION-LEVEL SYNERGIES: marketers) LINKING MARKETS, HEALTH AND Knowledge, Improved HUMAN BEHAVIOUR values management

Most of the world’s poorest households Resilience/ Poverty are in countries harbouring the largest continuity reduction amounts of biodiversity, much of it in and associated with tropical forests. As Biodiversity conservation (small-scale rural and urban farmers) a consequence, conservation and pov-

erty cannot be addressed independently. Source: Johns and Sthapit, 2004. Since most of the world’s population today depends at least in part on pur- urban) consumers. Thus, linking biodi- tion in poverty has a crucial indirect chased foods, improving accessibility versity and health is both a response to impact on health. Greater diversity to a range of unprocessed and processed the consequences of economic growth within production systems and natural forest products offers nutritional benefits and a way to direct growth in a positive ecosystems strengthens the opportuni- to the rural and urban poor. This can be manner. ties for resource sustainability and for best achieved within a model linking Promotion of dietary diversity at the local, diversity in all diets. local producers and consumers in which national and regional levels is a priority In practice, contemporary food systems biodiversity contributes to poverty and can include the transfer and sharing of exist within an increasingly commer- reduction and viable economies within information and successful experiences in cial context. In developing countries, a supportive sociocultural context. The defending and enhancing the dietary use supermarkets and other commercial model draws on recognized and potential of plant and animal diversity. entities are desirable partners in any synergies among biodiversity conserva- Consumption of more diverse foods by effort to combine economic and social tion, income improvement, sociocul- urban dwellers depends on the afford- rationales in support of traditional use tural values and health outcomes (see ability and accessibility of a range of of biodiversity in food. For example, in Figure). For example, while direct use products from the wild. Nonetheless, Nairobi, Kenya, a local non-governmental of plant and animal resources coupled experience indicates that urban consum- organization called Family Concerns with income generation and integrity of ers will pay high prices for speciality successfully promoted African leafy sociocultural traditions can contribute foods if they consider them to be of high vegetables by linking small-scale pro- to better nutrition and health, a healthy quality and/or desirable from a cultural ducers with a supermarket chain (Johns population is conversely more likely to perspective. Viable markets depend on et al., 2005). have the incentive and resources to better demand from consumers which can be International policies and regulations manage its natural environment. Local driven through availability, education related to trade and to human rights, communities can manage and use gath- and promotion and by reinforcing tra- including cultural and food rights, must ered and cultivated species to improve ditional food culture (Kim, Moon and ensure the viability of food systems that their livelihoods by developing products Popkin, 2000). Demand translates into guarantee the sustainability of local that can be marketed to meet demands of opportunities for income generation and ecosystems and respect cultural tradi- local food cultures and offer nutritional improved livelihoods when rural farm- tions. The international voluntary guide- and cultural benefits to (increasingly ers are linked with consumers. Reduc- lines on the right to food (FAO, 2005),

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for example, explicitly recognize the miological methods to demonstrate mentalists with concerns for underly- importance of customs and traditions on contributions of biodiversity to the ing processes and health professionals matters related to food. The rationale for health of human populations; focused on providing essential health the Cross-Cutting Initiative on Biodiver- • development and testing of methods care. Food systems and nutrition offer sity for Food and Nutrition of the Con- for measuring the dietary diversity of a common ground. vention on Biological Diversity (CBD, rural producers and urban consum- At the national level, ministries respon- 2006) acknowledges that “traditional ers, and its association with nutri- sible for environment, health and nutri- food systems provide positive synergies tional and health status; tion, agriculture, forestry, economic between human and ecosystem health, • analysis of production, marketing development, culture and education and culture offers an essential context for and other factors that contribute to could promote forest products within mediating positive dietary choices”. the availability of a diverse diet. collaborative initiatives for human and Developing-country scientists with ecosystem health, in conjunction with RESEARCH AND ACTION knowledge of local resources, customs infrastructure and programme support PRIORITIES and cultural values should have a fun- for producers and marketers of priority While a good case can be made for the damental role in identifying sustain- foods. While international policy instru- importance of biodiversity for provid- able approaches to improving diets ments such as CBD can offer direction to ing nutrients and medicinal agents that and health. A growing body of reliable national initiatives, they also underline can improve health, a strategy involving data collected in developing countries the need for coherent policies that unite research, improved marketing, consumer addresses the health properties of indig- environmental, health, agricultural and education, policy and the strengthening enous foods and medicines. Although a economic development priorities within of partnerships will reinforce the useful- few developing countries can support the framework of the Millennium Devel- ness of biodiversity. The contributions extensive research and development opment Goals. ◆ of traditional foods and medicines to programmes, in general progress will health and well-being are sufficiently depend on improvements in the scientific understood to warrant a new prioritiza- resources, opportunities and infrastruc- tion of the marketing of forest foods ture available. within the context of strategies to support forest-based livelihoods and food-based CONCLUSIONS Bibliography approaches to health. Successful interventions to support the Basic research that can support these use of forest biodiversity for health Burlingame, B. 2000. Wild nutrition. Journal activities should include: objectives are likely to be multisectoral, of Food Composition and Analysis, 13: • laboratory analyses and compilation multidisciplinary and problem focused. 99–100. of data on the nutrient and phyto- They will recognize dietary diversity Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). chemical composition of underused as a fundamental, cost-effective and 2006. Decision VIII/23: Agricultural forest products, including considera- sustainable way of resolving health biodiversity. Eighth Conference of the tion of seasonal variability; problems related to malnutrition, but Parties (COP-8), Curitiba, Brazil, 20–31 • documentation of links between for- also that diversity-based approaches to March 2006. Available at: www.biodiv. est biodiversity and dietary diversity improving nutrition and health depend org/decisions/default.aspx?m=COP- within traditional food systems; on the conservation and sustainable use 08&id=11037&lg=0 • survey on the state of traditional of forest and other wild species and bio- FAO. 2005. Voluntary guidelines to support knowledge of food diversity and its diversity. the progressive realization of the right to uses among population subgroups; Formulation and implementation of adequate food in the context of national • study of factors, including seasonal- effective strategies involves the partici- food security. Rome. Available at: www. ity, that contribute to food choices of pation and integration of the expertise of fao.org/docrep/009/y7937e/Y7937E00. rural and urban dwellers, specifically multiple stakeholders from the scientific, HTM those involving foods coming from health, government and private sectors. Frison, E., Smith, I.F., Johns, T., Cherfas, J. forests; While few would dispute the importance & Eyzaguirre, P. 2005. Using biodiversity • testing of hypotheses on the rela- of health and of environmental sustain- for food, dietary diversity, better nutrition tionship of forest and agricultural ability, different development sectors and health. South African Journal of biodiversity to dietary diversity and have different priorities. Dialogue is Clinical Nutrition, 18: 112–114. health, including the use of epide- needed, for example, between environ- Johns, T. 2006. Agrobiodiversity, diet and

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human health. In D.I. Jarvis, C. Padoch & Trichopoulou, A. &Vasilopoulou. E. 2000. D. Cooper, eds. Managing biodiversity in Mediterranean diet and longevity. British agricultural ecosystems. New York, USA, Journal of Nutrition, 84: S205–209. Columbia University Press. United Nations. 2004. World urbanization Johns, T., Kimiywe, J., Waudo, J., Mutemi, prospects – the 2003 revision. New York, E. & Maundu, P. 2005. Traditional dietary USA. Available at: esa.un.org/unup diversity against the nutrition transition: an United States Department of Agriculture, East African case study. In H.H. Vorster, ed. Agricultural Research Service (USDA- Proceedings, 18th International Congress ARS). 2004. USDA National Nutrient of Nutrition, Durban, South Africa, 20–23 Database for Standard Reference, Release September 2005. 16-1. Available at: www.nal.usda.gov/ Johns, T. & Sthapit, B.R. 2004. Biocultural fnic/foodcomp diversity in the sustainability of developing Wood, S., Ehui, S., Alder, J., Benin, S., country food systems. Food and Nutrition Cassman, K.G., Cooper, H.D., Johns, Bulletin, 25: 143–155. T., Gaskell, J., Grainger, R., Kadungure, Kim, S., Moon, S. & Popkin, B.M. 2000. S., Otte, J., Rola, A., Watson, R., The nutrition transition in South Korea. Wijkstrom, U. & Devendra, C. 2005. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Food. In Ecosystems and human well-being, 71: 44–53. Vol. 1, Current state and trends, pp. 209– Leakey, R.R.B. 1999. Potential for novel food 241. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. products from agroforestry trees: a review. Washington, DC, USA, Island Press. Food Chemistry, 66: 1–14. Available at: www.millenniumassessment. Napralert. 2006. Natural products alert org/en/products.aspx database. Available at: www.napralert.org World Health Organization (WHO). Petrini, C. 2004. Slow Food: the case for taste. 2005. Preventing chronic disease: a vital New York, USA, Columbia University investment. Geneva, Switzerland. ◆ Press. Popkin, B.M. 2002. An overview of the nutrition transition and its health implications: the Bellagio meeting. Public Health and Nutrition, 5: 93–103. Reardon, T., Timmer, C.P., Barrett, C.B. & Berdegué, J. 2003. The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 85: 1140–1146. Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B. 1996. Assessment of the provitamin A contents of foods – the Brazilian experience. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 9: 196–230. Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B. 1999. Latin American food sources of carotenoids. Archivos Latinamericanos de Nutrición, 49: 74S–84S. Serrano, J., Goñi, I. & Saura-Calixto, F. 2005. Determination of β-carotene and lutein available from green leafy vegetables by an in vitro digestion and colonic fermentation method. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53: 2936–2940.

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Health impacts of household fuelwood use in developing countries

K.R. Smith

Incomplete combustion of large part of the world’s popula- efficiency and venting the smoke away household woodfuel releases tion uses fuelwood for house- from the home. smoke that is damaging to human Ahold cooking and space heating, health; efficient stoves and mostly in developing countries. Energy AIR POLLUTION FROM WOOD adequate ventilation are essential. from traditional biomass fuel is thought BURNING to account for nearly one-tenth of all With proper stoves and good fuel burn- human energy demand today (more than ing practices, fuelwood and charcoal hydro and nuclear power together), and as well as other biomass can be burned wood-based fuels probably make up cleanly, producing mostly carbon some two-thirds of household use. dioxide and water. Such conditions are In poor developing-country house- difficult to achieve in poor rural and holds, wood, charcoal and other solid urban areas where small-scale inex- fuels (mainly agricultural residues and pensive wood-burning stoves are used, coal) are often burned in open fires or however. Woodfuel that is not properly poorly functioning stoves. Incomplete burned to carbon dioxide is diverted combustion leads to the release of small into products of incomplete combus- particles and other constituents that have tion – primarily carbon monoxide, but been shown to be damaging to human also benzene, butadiene, formaldehyde, health in the household environment. polyaromatic hydrocarbons and many Too little is known, however, to distin- other compounds posing health hazards. guish any differences in health effects The best single indicator of the health of smoke from different kinds of bio- hazard of combustion smoke is thought mass. to be small particles, which contain many Given that levels of household solid chemicals. fuel use are expected to remain high, Figure 1 shows the emissions of major efforts to improve household air qual- toxic pollutants from fuelwood per meal ity are concentrated on improving stove in typical cookstoves in India, relative

1 The energy ladder: 200.0 pollutant emissions per meal by cooking 124 115 fuel, relative to LPG 100.0 (1.0 on the scale) 60 64 63 26 30 32 (measured in India; 19 17 22 18 note log scale) 10.0 2.5 3.1 4.2 1.3 1.0 0.1 1.0 1.0 1.0

0.3 0.1 Biogas LPG Kerosene Wood Roots Crop Dung residues

Kirk R. Smith is Professor of Environmental Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons Particulate matter Health Sciences at the University of California, Berkeley, United States. Source: Smith, Rogers and Cowlin, 2005.

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to the most common clean fuel avail- tions of small particles – typically 10 to published epidemiological studies have able, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). 100 times the long-term levels recom- examined a range of health effects from The two wood species measured (Aca- mended by the World Health Organiza- indoor air pollution due to solid fuel. cia spp. and Eucalyptus spp.) produced tion in its recently revised global air Because of the difficulty and expense some 25 times more small particles than quality guidelines for protecting health of assessing exposure in households, LPG, with other biomass fuels producing (WHO, 2005). Even stoves with working however, most have used a surrogate even more. Studies comparing emis- chimneys, however, do not completely for true exposure – often simply whether sions from hardwood and softwood spe- eliminate indoor pollution, as there is the household was using biomass fuels cies are not available from developing often substantial leakage into the room or not. Moreover, most studies do not countries, although anecdotal accounts and some smoke returns into the house distinguish fuelwood from charcoal or suggest some differences. Studies in from outside. from other biomass fuels or sometimes the United States and other developed The significant emissions of health- even coal. Although it is not possible to countries (e.g. Fine, Cass and Simoneit, damaging pollutants per unit activity, distinguish the health effects of different 2002; Environment Australia, 2002), combined with daily use in close proxim- biomass fuels with current information, however, have suggested that hardwood ity to large human populations, means emission studies show wood to be gener- species generally have somewhat lower that household biomass fuel use produces ally somewhat cleaner than crop residues emissions than softwood species for substantial total population exposure to and animal dung, the other major biomass combustion in fireplaces, which may important pollutants – probably more fuel types (Figure 1). provide the closest comparison with exposure, in fact, than is caused by global Despite the imprecision of the typical stoves in developing countries. fossil fuel use (Smith, 1993). Exposure measure, health effects of several sorts Differences by species, however, are is highest among poor women and young have repeatedly been found for house- unlikely to be significant compared to children in developing countries, both holds that use biomass fuels, which in those resulting from other parameters rural and urban, as these are the groups most cases include or consist entirely of affecting human exposure, such as fuel most often present during cooking. woodfuel. The effects include: moisture, burning rate, ventilation and • acute infections of the lower respi- cooking behaviour. OBSERVATIONAL HEALTH ratory tract (pneumonia) in young It should be noted that use of wood STUDIES – SOLID FUEL AS A children, the chief killer of children charcoal, a relatively clean-burning fuel, ROUGH MEASURE worldwide and the disease respon- may be increasing in some developing Since the mid-1980s and more frequently sible for the most lost life years in countries, especially in urban Africa, since the mid-1990s, many dozens of the world; while the use of household fuelwood and other solid biomass is slowly decreas-

ing. Charcoal fuel, however, can pose Underweight other kinds of health risks as well as Unsafe sex forest impacts. Blood pressure Tobacco HOUSEHOLD LEVELS AND FAMILY Alcohol EXPOSURE Unsafe water/sanitation Many developing-country households Child cluster vaccination use woodfuel stoves that lack working Cholesterol chimneys or hoods for venting the smoke Lack of malaria control outdoors. Although there have been Indoor smoke from solid fuels Overweight no large-scale statistically representa- Occupational hazards (5 kinds) tive surveys, hundreds of small stud- Road traffic accidents ies around the world in typical local Physical inactivity situations have shown that such stoves Lead (Pb) pollution produce substantial indoor concentra- Urban outdoor air pollution Climate change

2 0246810 Estimated burden of disease for major risk % factors, measures as percentage of total healthy life years lost in the world in 2000 Source: WHO data as presented in Smith, Rogers and Cowlin, 2005.

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specifically to fuelwood and charcoal as a significant drop in blood pressure is not known. among women (McCracken et al., 2005). Biomass fuel use has been found to be Blood pressure is highly predictive of associated with tuberculosis, cataracts, heart disease in all populations where low birth weight in babies of exposed it has been studied. expectant mothers, and other health con- ditions in a number of other studies. IMPROVED STOVES: PROGRESS The evidence is not yet considered as AND CHALLENGES definitive as that for the diseases above, Although the risk estimates will continue however. to be refined and new health effects will

FAO/18373/P. CENINI FAO/18373/P. In 2006 the International Agency probably be recognized, the challenge for Research on Cancer reviewed the in a development context is to find a global evidence and classified house- viable intervention that can be relied on hold biomass fuel smoke as a probable to reduce exposure and improve health human carcinogen, while coal smoke cost effectively. Alternative fuels, such was classified as a proven human as LPG, are easier to use, produce fewer carcinogen (Straif and IARC Monograph emissions and cause less exposure to Working Group, 2006). This could be pollutants. However they are expensive, interpreted to mean that biomass smoke not accessible everywhere and culturally is only weakly carcinogenic. Most of the unfamiliar, and they may not be feasi- biomass fuel evidence was from wood ble in developing countries, especially FAO/18403/P. CENINI FAO/18403/P. Women cooking on a traditional smoke. in poor rural areas (Smith, Rogers and stove (three large stones) with high Given what has been seen in studies Cowlin, 2005). fuel consumption and uncontrolled of outdoor air pollution and active and Properly cut and dried fuelwood and fire (above) and on an improved smokeless stove (below), Ghana passive tobacco smoking, heart disease well-designed, well-built and well-used could also be expected from biomass improved stoves with chimneys and smoke indoors, but no studies seem to hoods reduce kitchen pollution sub- • chronic obstructive pulmonary dis- have been done in developing-country stantially. Successful dissemination of ease, such as chronic bronchitis and households. Similarly, asthma might well-operating and durable stoves in emphysema, in adult women who also be expected as an outcome, and large populations, however, has not been have cooked over unvented solid this premise is currently being inves- easy. In some areas, cultural constraints fuel stoves for many years. tigated. to the adoption of improved stoves are WHO, in a risk assessment that com- important. Cooking traditions are deeply bined the results of many published stud- AN INTERVENTION STUDY rooted, and in many cultures the fire is ies (Ezzati et al., 2002), compared the It is one thing to determine that ill health the centre of the home and has much burden of illness and premature death is associated with a particular risk factor, cultural and spiritual significance. from solid fuel use with other major but sometimes quite another to show that Some improved stove designs fail to risk factors, including outdoor air pol- reduction in the risk factor will actu- give adequate attention to the cultural lution, tobacco smoking and hyperten- ally produce an improvement in health. and social significance of how fire is sion. The results indicate that solid fuel One study of this type is currently under used in households. That such stoves use may be responsible for 800 000 to way, a randomized trial of improved may also have social (e.g. time-saving), 2.4 million premature deaths each year wood-burning stoves in highland ecological (e.g. tree-conserving) and (Smith, Mehta and Maeusezahl-Feuz, Guatemala. The study focuses on child- economic (e.g. fuel-saving) benefits, 2004). A comparison of the central hood pneumonia but is also examin- however, encourages further work to (“best”) estimates for the risk factors ing heart and lung effects in women. find ways to disseminate them widely. examined (Figure 2) places solid fuel Preliminary results have already been A national programme for disseminat- use approximately tenth among major reported indicating a reduction in seri- ing improved stoves is currently under health risks in the world in terms of ous pneumonia among infants when way in Nepal, but no air pollution or potentially preventable lost life years. households switch from an open wood health assessments of the results have Biomass fuel is responsible for about 95 fire to an improved stove with chimney been done as yet. Since better standard percent of this total – but the risk due (Smith, Bruce and Arana, 2006), as well methods and new equipment for assess-

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ing the pollution and health implications indeed of all fuels – to energy has nega- Fine, P.M., Cass, G.R. & Simoneit, B.R.T. of improved stove programmes are now tive economic, health and environmental 2002. Chemical characterization of fine being developed and field tested, there impacts. Household use of woodfuel in particle emissions from the fireplace should be reliable information soon devices that do not burn the fuel com- combustion of woods grown in the southern about the actual changes produced by pletely is not compatible with a long- United States. Environmental Science and this and other improved stove and fuel term strategy of sustainable develop- Technology, 36: 1442–1451. programmes around the world. ment. Cooking and heating processes are McCracken, J.P., Díaz, A., Arana, B., Smith, A national competition is under way in also important for the correct use of fuels K.R. & Schwartz, J. 2005. Improved China to find the best of a new genera- and stoves, to ensure that less energy is biomass stove intervention reduces blood tion of biomass “gasifier” stoves which used and less fuel consumed. pressure among rural Guatemalan women. are now starting to be sold in the coun- Wood and other biomass fuels can be Presented at the 17th Annual Conference of try. These stoves, which can be used to burned cleanly with the right technology the International Society for Environmental burn fuelwood as well as other types and thus can have a long-term role in Epidemiology, Johannesburg, South Africa, of biomass, promote internal second- sustainable development where they are 13–16 September. ary combustion of partially combusted renewably harvested. Thus programmes Smith, K.R. 1993. Fuel combustion, air smoke and also have chimneys; they for the modernization of woodfuel use pollution exposure, and health: the situation are designed to produce extremely low for household and cottage industries in in developing countries. Annual Review of emissions. Laboratory tests indicate that the poorest areas of developing coun- Energy and Environment, 18: 529–566. when such stoves are operating well they tries should be part of the development Smith, K.R., Bruce, N. & Arana, B. 2006. have emission levels rivalling those of agenda. The Guatemala air pollution intervention LPG. Designing them to be reliable in If any population in developed coun- trial (RESPIRE). Presented at the Annual household use as well as inexpensive is tries experienced the high pollution lev- Conference of the International Society a challenge, but this second generation els found in hundreds of millions of poor for Environmental Epidemiology, Paris, of improved stoves shows promise not village households from biomass fuel, France, 2–6 September. only for high energy efficiency but also no additional evidence would be needed Smith, K.R., Mehta, S. & Maeusezahl-Feuz, for the potential to reduce air pollu- to trigger massive intervention efforts M. 2004. Indoor smoke from household tion exposure substantially. This would – another sign of the extreme disparities solid fuels. In M. Ezzati, A. Lopez, A. imply substantial reduction in global in the world. In poor countries, however, Rodgers, S. Vander Hoorn & C. Murray, warming impact as well. Measurements reliable evidence and careful assess- eds. Comparative quantification of health in households over time will be needed ments are required to determine the most risks: global and regional burden of disease to verify these benefits. cost-effective means and priorities for due to selected major risk factors, pp. addressing the wide range of health and 1435–1493. Geneva, Switzerland, WHO. CONCLUSION other problems due to poverty. ◆ Smith, K.R., Rogers, J. & Cowlin, S.C. 2005. It could be said that the smell of wood Household fuels and ill-health in developing smoke from the hearth is as old as human- countries: what improvements can be ity itself, since many anthropologists brought by LP gas (LPG)? Paris, France, define the beginning of humanity as the World LP Gas Association & Intermediate moment when our ancestors learned to Technology Development Group. control fire. With such a long association, Bibliography Straif, K. & IARC Monograph Working the risks from wood smoke may be dif- Group. 2006. Carcinogenicity of some ficult to recognize. And wood, of course, Environment Australia. 2002. Emissions indoor pollutants: emissions from household dominated human fuel demand for hun- from domestic solid fuel burning appliances. combustion of coal, household combustion dreds of thousands of years in most parts of Technical Report No. 5. Parkes, Australia. of biomass fuel, and high-temperature the world. Even today, it is probably true Available at: www.deh.gov.au/atmosphere/ frying. Lancet Oncology (In press). to say that biomass fuels provide most of airquality/publications/report5 World Health Organization (WHO). 2005. the energy for most of humanity. Ezzati, M., Lopez, A.D., Rodgers, A., Vander WHO air quality guidelines global update Nostalgia triggered by the sight and Hoorn, S., Murray C.J.L & Comparative 2005. Copenhagen, Denmark, WHO smell of a fire in the hearth has fostered Risk Assessment Collaborative Group. Regional Office for Europe. Available at: complacency about the risk of an open 2002. Selected major risk factors and global www.euro.who.int/Document/E87950.pdf ◆ wood fire and continues to do so today. and regional burden of disease. Lancet, 360: Inefficient conversion of woodfuel – and 1347–1360.

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(IEE) have issued comprehensive guidelines emergency shelters (e.g. schools or Health guidelines for governments and responsible authorities commercial buildings equipped with for vegetation fire on actions to be taken when their population is air conditioning and particle filtration exposed to smoke from fires. Health guidelines systems). events for vegetation fire events (1999) gives informa- The guidelines provide advice on effec- tion on vegetation fires at the global, regional tive public communications and mitigation Fires in forests and other vegetation release and national levels obtained by remote- measures, and guidance for assessing the polluting particulate matter, carbon monoxide sensing, including information on the extent health impacts of vegetation fires. They also and oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide and of the impact and the pollutants released. A describe measures on how to reduce the organic compounds. Fine airborne particles related teachers’ guide compiles educational burden of mortality and preventable disability (diameters smaller then 2.5 μm) have poten- material for use in training courses. These suffered particularly by the poor, and on the tially detrimental health effects because they publications are also available on CD-ROM. development and implementation of an early can penetrate deep into the human lungs. The guidelines examine acute and chronic warning system for air pollution, based on The World Health Organization (WHO) has health effects of air pollution from forest and monitoring and forecasting of ground and identified a link between exposure to fine and biomass fire. Mitigating measures that can weather conditions. ultrafine particles and hospital admissions, be taken during acute smoke emergencies visits to emergency and outpatient depart- include: ments and mortality due to respiratory and • remaining indoors; cardiovascular diseases. • reducing physical activity and In developing countries, vegetation fires refraining from smoking; increase the risk of acute respiratory infec- • using air cleaners; Source: WHO. 2000. Vegetation fires. tions, which are a major killer of young chil- • using gas masks and respirators; Available at: www.who.int/mediacentre/ dren. Severe forest fires arising from forest • evacuating susceptible people to factsheets/fs254/en/index.html clearing in Southeast Asia in 1997–1998, for example, affected some 200 million people in Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Massive movement of populations fleeing the fires and smoke and the proliferation of emergency visits to hospitals added to the crisis. The number of cases of pneumonia increased from 1.5 to 25 times in Southeast Kalimantan, Indonesia, while in Malaysia the number of outpatient visits with respiratory diseases increased two- to threefold. Partly as a result of this severe fire occurrence, in 2002 the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) adopted the ASEAN Agree- ment on Transboundary Haze Pollution to control activities related to land and/or forest wildfires that may lead to transboundary haze pollution. Signatory countries agreed on activi- ties for monitoring, assessment, prevention and preparedness, as well as subregional cooperation and coordination in managing the impact of such fires, which continue to occur almost annually. Smoke from forest The United Nations Environment Pro- fire causes

gramme (UNEP), WHO, the World Meteoro- significant P. VUORINEN logical Organization (WMO) and the Institute human respiratory of Environmental Epidemiology, Singapore problems

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Forests, air pollution and water quality: influencing health in the headwaters of Central Europe’s “Black Triangle”

J. Křeček and Z. Hořická Forests and forestry practices in mountain watersheds can moderate the effects of acid rain on water quality – essential for human health.

ater is essential for human mental pollution levels in the east and Jizera Mountains health and development. in the west. Access to safe water is a In addition to causing or exacerbating Poland W Germany basic human right and a component respiratory diseases, the air pollution in Prague of effective policy for health protec- the Black Triangle, especially sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, resulted in Czech Republic tion. Water resource management is an integral aspect of the management of acid rain – meaning any wet deposition water quality. Prevention of microbial (rain, sleet, snow or fog drip) that has

Austria Slovakia and chemical contamination of source become more acidic than normal rain water is the first hurdle in preventing (i.e. pH <5.5). Acid rain is harmful to

1 water contamination of public health both forest and aquatic ecosystems. Acid Jizera concern. Pollution in the catchment will rain that seeps into the ground can dis- Mountains influence water quality downstream. solve nutrients such as magnesium and region Therefore, the influence of land use calcium and can cause aluminium to on water quality should be assessed be released into the soil. Forest stands as part of water resource management located at higher elevations are at greater (WHO, 2004). risk because they are exposed to acidic On a global scale, headwaters – the clouds and fog, which contain greater small streams that are the sources of a amounts of acid than rain or snow and river in its highest reaches – are strongly strip nutrients from leaves or needles. related to environmental security and The loss of nutrients makes it easier for human opportunities to live in a healthy diseases, insects and cold weather to dam- environment. In the water cycle, the age forests. The reduced quality of water headwater environment is the recharge and soil also affects human health. area. Adverse changes in headwater sys- This article, based on research carried tems can have an impact over a large area out by the authors since 1982, describes which may include distant downstream the effects of acid atmospheric deposi- regions (Křeček and Haigh, 2006). tion, and the role of forestry practices The water protection role of forests is in moderating these effects, in the central in the “Black Triangle” area on Jizera Mountains of the Czech Republic. the borders of the Czech Republic, the Acidification in this area, which began in former German Democratic Republic and the early 1950s and peaked in the mid- Poland (Figure 1). This area acquired its 1980s, resulted in large-scale dieback name because of its extreme air pollution (40 to 80 percent) of spruce stands, a caused by rapid industrialization after decrease in pH of surface waters and the Second World War. Many air pollut- decline of life in streams and reservoirs. ants (sulphur dioxide, particulates, car- Since 1990, however, some recovery has bon monoxide) have been more closely been observed. Josef Křeček is Associate Professor in the controlled over the past two decades and The headwaters of the Jizera Moun- Department of Hydrology, Czech Technical University, Prague, Czech Republic. their impact has been reduced (Grennfelt tains in the Czech Republic have 83 Zuzana Hořická is Lecturer in the Department et al., 1995). However, in Europe there percent forest cover. The region’s bed- of Hydrobiology, Charles University, Prague, is a striking contrast between environ- rock (granite) and shallow podzolic soils Czech Republic.

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Semi-natural beech in the area in the 1980s was 1 to 2 mg per stands at the north litre. The established limit of aluminium rim of the Jizera Mountains in drinking-water is 0.1 mg per litre for large treatment facilities, and 0.2 mg per litre for small facilities (WHO, 2004). Although aluminium is widespread in foods, drinking-water and many antacid medications, there is some indication that when ingested orally in concentrations exceeding hygienic limits (i.e. 30 mg of aluminium per kilogram of fish meat, or 0.2 mg of aluminium per litre of drinking- water) it is toxic to humans. It has been hypothesized that aluminium exposure is a risk factor for the development or J. KŘEČEK acceleration of Alzheimer’s disease in are extremely sensitive to acidification. magnesium in water. Low hardness (up humans (WHO, 2004). Direct runoff (particularly fast subsur- to 10 mg of calcium and magnesium The elevated acidity and aluminium face flow) is the dominant source of per litre), related to the low pH, was levels not only posed risks to human water; groundwater bodies occur only also observed in the area. Soft water health, but were also deadly to aquatic in shallow subsurface layers. with less than about 100 mg per litre wildlife, including phytoplankton, may- has a low buffering capacity and may flies, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON WATER be more corrosive to water pipes. Epi- frogs, spotted salamanders, crayfish and QUALITY demiological studies have shown a sta- other creatures that are part of the food In the reservoirs of the Jizera Moun- tistically significant inverse relationship web. This problem was observed to be tains, low pH, low hardness and high between hardness of drinking-water and much worse during events of episodic aluminium content were observed in cardiovascular disease (WHO, 2004) – in acidification from heavy downpours of the 1980s. other words, low calcium and magne- rain or initial snowmelt (Křeček and No health-based guideline value has sium content in drinking-water is related Hořická, 2001). been proposed for the pH of water. How- to higher rates of heart disease. There ever, pH is one of the most important is some indication that very soft water INFLUENCE OF STAND TYPE ON operational water quality parameters. may have an adverse effect on human ACID DEPOSITION National guidelines for drinking water mineral balance. The native tree species in the Jizera quality often suggest that optimum pH Aluminium released into the soil even- Mountains are common beech (Fagus is in the range 6.5 to 8.5 (WHO, 2004). tually ends up in lakes and streams. The sylvatica), Norway spruce (Picea abies) Thus, not only acidification, but also aluminium content of the surface waters and common silver fir (Abies alba). How- high alkalinization (which is related to extreme mineralization) affects 3 drinking-water quality. Very low or very SO 2 ( μg/m )

high pH may also affect recreational 90 1987 users, with negative impacts on the skin 80 1997 and eyes (WHO, 2003). Without pollu- 70 60 tion and subsequent acid rain, most lakes Ecological limit and streams would have a pH level close 50 given in Czech to 6.5 (Nordic Council of Ministers, 40 national air pollution 30 1988). Acid rain in the Jizera Moun- guidelines tains, however, caused many lakes and 2 20 (critical value Mean monthly 10 for existing streams to have much lower pH levels concentration of ecosystems) 0 in the 1980s, around 4 to 5. sulphur dioxide Hardness refers to concentrations of at the Jizerka 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 reservoir, 1987 Month dissolved calcium and, to a lesser extent, and 1997

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3 of soil, which was 0.01 mm between pH Gradual recovery 1981 and 1984, intensified to 1.34 mm 7 of mean annual pH in three between 1984 and 1990. Sediment runoff reservoirs in the Lower limit for increased from 8 to 30 percent of the 6 drinking-water Jizera Mountains eroded soil volume. (Bedrichov, Sous given in the From field observation, negligible Czech national and Josefuv Dul) 5 drinking-water sheet erosion occurred in both forest guidelines plots (mature spruce stands) and clear- 4 cut plots (invasive grass). However, the significant loss of soil was related to

3 the length of erosion rills produced by the harvest of timber. Forest harvesting 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 can be prevented from causing soil ero- sion, sedimentation and contamination ever, following the introduction of clear- at a beech stand was found to be twice of surface waters through the use of cutting in the upper mountain plateaus in as hard (i.e. its calcium and magnesium environmentally safe forest harvesting the seventeenth century (provoked by the content was twice as high) as that at a practices such as skidding timber by development of glass manufacturing), spruce site. horses or cables and respecting riparian the forests were severely reduced in the Thus the commercial support for con- buffer zones. eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In verting native mixed stands into spruce the second half of the nineteenth century plantations over the past two centuries SIGNS OF RECOVERY Norway spruce was planted for commer- contributed to the degradation of forest In the Jizerka catchment a recent recov- cial reasons, and by the twentieth century health and water quality. ery in water quality has been observed, spruce plantations made up 90 percent of including an increase in mean annual pH the forests in the Jizera Mountains. Nurs- INFLUENCE OF HARVESTING values to 5 to 6 (Figure 3) and a drop ery practices were established with seeds PRACTICES in aluminium concentrations to 0.2 to imported from regions of Europe with a From 1984 to 1990, forest harvesting 0.5 mg per litre. The improvement can different climate, so the pure spruce plan- at Jizerka (clear-cut of mature spruce be explained in large part by decreased tations had poor ecological stability. stands and skidding timber by wheeled sulphur dioxide pollution in the air Within a forest stand, the atmospheric tractors) also contributed to soil ero- (following the Sulphur Protocol of Euro- deposition of sulphur rises with canopy sion and sedimentation, as well as to pean countries, and observed in the field density (leaf area), height and roughness contamination of water by humic acids since 1990), and also by the annual lim- (the turbulence of the air mass above the from related drainage of peat soils. On ing of selected reservoirs after snowmelt canopy). Thus, the effects of acidifica- the catchment scale, the annual erosion to improve the drinking-water treatment. tion were found to be worse in spruce stands. % Beech stands have a lower canopy area, 3 μg/m particularly in the dormant season when pH 7 100 the concentration of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere is highest (Figure 2). Furthermore, native beech stands are 6 75 more resistant to acidification problems. 4 5 50 Their annual shedding of leaves helps Mean pH in stream them to suffer less than coniferous spe- water at two cies which keep their needles for many reservoirs, Jizerka 4 25 (influenced by years and thus accumulate more toxic clear-cutting substances. of spruce 3 0 plantations) and Soils in beech stands have higher 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Oldrichov (semi- capacity to buffer acidification because natural beech 3 ( pH at Jizerka Air pollution (μg/mSO2 of deeper root systems and higher nutri- stands), in relation pH at Oldrichov Clear-cut at Jizerka (%) ent content. Therefore, the stream water to air pollution by sulphur dioxide

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Introducing practices (clear-cutting limits, skidding deciduous trees of timber by horses or cables, seasonal into spruce stands in the Jizera skidding and respect for riparian buffer Mountains zones) to avoid soil erosion, sedimenta- tion and contamination of water. These recommendations might be generalized to other forested mountain regions affected by acid atmospheric deposition, particularly in regions of Central Europe with a similar history of forestry development. ◆

J. KŘEČEK However, it has also been attributed to by extreme acidification which brought significantly reduced leaf area index parameters of pH, hardness and alu- Bibliography (from 18 to 3.5) resulting from clear- minium to levels incompatible with cutting of spruce stands between 1984 good health. The recent improvement Grennfelt, P., Rodhe, H., Thornelof, E. & and 1990 (Figure 4) and decreased atmos- in surface water quality seems to be Wisniewski, J., eds. 1995. Acid Reign ‘95? pheric deposition at cleared stands. a consequence of a combination of Proceedings from the 5th International With the recovery of some physical and decreased air pollution, liming and Conference on Acidic Deposition, chemical parameters in surface waters, reduced canopy density (leaf area and Göteborg, Sweden, 26–30 June 1995. it has been possible to reintroduce fish, roughness) caused by clear-cutting of Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic which had been extinct since the 1980s. spruce stands. Although the recovery is Publishers. Brook char (Salvelinus fontinalis, an reflected in the successful reintroduction Křeček, J. & Haigh, M.J., eds. 2006. acid-tolerant species) and brown trout of brook char in headwater reservoirs, Environmental role of wetlands in (Salmo trutta morpha fario) were reintro- the high content of pollutants in the fish headwaters. Dordrecht, Netherlands, duced in reservoir inlets in the 1990s. (exceeding health standards) and ben- Springer. The char survived and reproduced, while thic organisms reflects a still degraded Křeček, J. & Hořická, J. 2001. Degradation the individuals of brown trout evidently environment. and recovery of mountain watersheds: starved and did not reproduce. However, The higher water quality observed in the Jizera Mountains, Czech Republic. because the char feed primarily on ben- semi-natural beech forests results par- Unasylva, 52(207): 43–49. thic Ephemeroptera (mayflies) and Tri- ticularly from the limited acid deposition Nordic Council of Ministers. 1988. Surface choptera (caddisflies, Hydropsyche spp. in the dormant season and the higher water acidification in the ECE region. dominating) containing extremely high buffer capacity of beech stands. Copenhagen, Denmark. values of aluminium, mercury, cadmium Thus, in a long-term perspective, water World Health Organization (WHO). 2003. and lead, the concentration of aluminium quality might be improved by planting Guidelines for safe recreational water and heavy metals in the fish tissues still deciduous or mixed stands with lower environments: coastal and fresh waters. exceeds national health limits. leaf area and surface roughness, which Geneva, Switzerland. can decrease the atmospheric deposition WHO. 2004. Guidelines for drinking CONCLUSION and increase buffering capacity in com- water quality (third edition). Geneva, The forests of the Jizera Mountains are parison with spruce plantations. Such Switzerland. ◆ among the most sensitive ecosystems planting is now being carried out, par- in Europe. Slow-weathering bedrock ticularly in the upper mountain plateau, and shallow podzolic soils with a very but it is too early to judge what influence shallow pool of basic cations have a it may have on water quality. small buffering capacity with respect to In addition, the management of moun- the actual acid deposition. In the 1980s, tain watersheds should include tradi- watersheds in this area were stressed tional environment-friendly forestry

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technical workshop entitled “Coastal Protec- type, force, frequency), the features of the site The protective role tion in the Aftermath of the Indian Ocean and the characteristics of the bioshield (type of coastal forests Tsunami: What Role for Forests and Trees?”. of forest or trees, density, height, etc.). Care The workshop, held in Khao Lak, Thailand from must be taken not to generalize and to avoid in human security 28 to 31 August 2006, aimed at contributing creating a false sense of security. In cases to improved coastal area planning, coastal where bioshields are not a feasible option or – fact or illusion? forest management and disaster mitigation by sufficiently effective, provision must be made increasing the knowledge and understanding for other forms of protection, including hard After the 26 December 2004 Indian Ocean of the role of trees and forests in protecting engineering solutions and a hybrid of “hard” tsunami, the protective role of mangroves populations and assets from the most com- and “soft” solutions. In extreme events, evacu- and other coastal forests and trees in sav- mon and destructive natural hazards affecting ation may be necessary. ing lives and property received considerable coastal areas of Asia, namely cyclones, ero- In planning the development of bioshields, attention, both in the press and in academic sion, tsunamis, wind and salt spray. it is important to match the species with the circles. Many forest rehabilitation efforts were The workshop provided a rare opportunity site. Some forest types and tree species launched with coastal protection cited as one for multidisciplinary analysis of this issue. cannot survive or thrive in areas exposed of the rationales. However, controversy arose Coastal engineers and oceanographers, forest to specific coastal hazards. Furthermore, over the effectiveness of forests in coastal ecologists and managers, disaster manage- development of bioshields is not possible protection. Many eyewitnesses reported that ment specialists, coastal planners and social in all situations because of biological limita- coastal forests had saved lives and villages scientists brought together their combined tions, space constraints, incompatibility with from destruction, but some people claimed experience. The 63 participants included priority land uses, prohibitive costs, etc. It is that forests could not provide significant pro- government representatives from the eight important to recognize that many years are tection from hazards of a certain magnitude. tsunami-affected countries (Bangladesh, India, required to establish and grow bioshields to Others asserted that land elevation and dis- Indonesia, Malaysia, the Maldives, Myanmar, a size and density that could offer protection tance from the coast were more significant Sri Lanka and Thailand) and other experts against coastal hazards. determinants of protection than forest cover. from 15 different countries and from national, Additional attention is needed for further It became clear that a better understand- regional and international organizations. understanding of the protective potential ing of the degree to which forests and trees The workshop confirmed that forests and of coastal forests and trees, for example could provide protection from different types trees can act as bioshields for protection of research on non-mangrove coastal forests of coastal hazards was needed to provide people and other assets against tsunamis and data collection and development of mod- an improved basis for formulation of coastal and other coastal hazards, but they do not els on the interactions between physical and management plans and disaster mitigation provide effective protection against all hazards ecological parameters. strategies. (e.g.extremely large tsunami waves, flooding Detailed information on the workshop and With this need in mind, the FAO Forestry from cyclones, and certain types of coastal its conclusions and recommendations may Programme for Early Rehabilitation in Asian erosion). The degree of protection they offer be found at: www.fao.org/forestry/tsunami/ Tsunami Affected Countries, funded by the depends on a number of variables, including coastalprotection Government of Finland, sponsored a regional the characteristics of the hazard itself (e.g. Post-tsunami mangrove replanting at Ban Nam Khem, Phang Nga, Thailand S. FORTUNA

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Itching for the woods: forests, allergies and irritants

B. Moore, G. Allard and M. Malagnoux

People working in, living in or IRRITATING INSECTS venomous stings of Hymenoptera (bees, visiting forest areas may need to be Forest insects serve many valuable roles ants and wasps), involve similar symp- careful of flora and fauna that can within the forest ecosystem, for example toms but can also entail fever, lymph provoke allergic (immunologic) as pollinators, as decomposers of organic node enlargement and anaphylactic or irritant (non-immunologic) matter in the carbon recycling process, shock (Evans and Summers, 1986). reactions. or as biological control agents of other Certain insects secrete substances that insects and weedy plants. They are also can provoke irritant or allergic reactions important sources of food, medicines, through mere contact, sometimes even honey, wax, silk and other products for after the death of the insect. The secre- local communities. Some of these same tions of blister beetles, for example, insects, however, have evolved chemi- produce severe blistering on contact with cal defence systems involving poisons human skin (Burns, 1992). secreted or injected through bites or The larvae and sometimes adults of stings, which can cause simple local- many species of Lepidoptera (butter- ized reactions or more serious systemic flies and moths) have urticating (barbed) reactions in sensitive people (Burns, hairs or spines which help protect them 1992). from predators but which may also cause Bites from members of the orders skin irritation in humans after acci- Diptera (mosquitoes and flies), Sipho- dental contact (Burns, 1992; AFPMB, naptera (fleas) and Hemiptera (bugs) 2002) (see Box). Irritation is caused often elicit localized reactions which can involve swelling, redness, tissue hardening, itching, local hyperthermia, blisters, bleeding, urticaria (hives) and pain (Hoffman, 1986). Severe allergic Blister beetles (Epicauta reactions, most often associated with the spp.) secrete a substance that causes blistering on contact with human skin WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/2106087/D. CAPPAERT

Beverly Moore is a consultant based in Newfoundland, Canada. Gillian Allard is Forest Protection Officer, and Michel Malagnoux is Arid-Zone Forestry Officer, in the FAO Forestry Department, Rome.

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Hairy caterpillars: some examples of the problems they can cause

• Dermatitis and hives have been widely Urticating hairs

reported after contact with caterpillars of caterpillars of WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/1361064/J.H. GHENT the gypsy moth, of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), one Lymantria dispar, of the most destructive pests of hardwood cause dermatitis forests and shade, fruit and ornamental and hives trees throughout the northern hemi- sphere (Diaz, 2005). During a severe outbreak in Bulgaria in 1996–1997, it was necessary to close off some forest recreation areas to prevent people from coming into contact with the insects. • Processionary caterpillars, such as Thaumetopoea spp. and Ochrogaster spp., conditions are unfavourable. As a result, parts of the body. In the Democratic Peo- are not only important causes of forest moths from several generations can ple’s Republic of Korea, forest workers damage, but have also caused frequent emerge simultaneously when favourable have experienced severe dermatitis from outbreaks of dermatitis, ocular lesions conditions occur, causing severe out- periodic outbreaks of the same insect. and allergic reactions in Australia, breaks (Vega et al., 1999). Contact with • In Trinidad and Tobago, the hairy moth Europe, Japan and the United States dead larvae, cocoons, nests and debris (Hylesia metabus) is considered a major (Diaz, 2005; Vega et al., 1999). The pine from infested pine forests can also cause public health problem, causing severe processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea dermatitis throughout the year. During dermatitis as well as allergic reactions, pityocampa) can remain in the chrysalis outbreaks in France, media campaigns breathing problems, fever, headache, stage for several years if environmental have been conducted to warn the public nausea and conjunctivitis. Periodic away from affected areas. In Israel, heavy infestations of this caterpillar T. pityocampa occurs in pine plantations have resulted in the temporary closure and on urban trees and is considered a of schools and businesses as well as inter- serious pest of medical importance caus- ruptions in oil production and fishing Pine processionary ing eye problems and even temporary activities (GISP, 2006). caterpillar, Thaumetopoea blindness (Solt and Mendel, 2002). • Lonomia caterpillars (L. achelous and pityocampa, is a • Direct contact with living or dead pine L. obliqua) can affect the blood’s ability serious pest causing moth (Dendrolimus pini) caterpillars to clot and cause brain haemorrhage and dermatitis epidemics and eye problems or their cocoons results in a condition acute kidney failure. Because of the high known as dendrolimiasis, which is char- fatality rates, exposure to these South acterized by dermatitis, inflammatory American caterpillars is a serious public arthritis, cartilage inflammation, chronic health problem in Brazil and Venezuela. osteoarthritis and, rarely, acute scleritis Increased conversion of forest lands to (inflammation of the tough white outer agriculture is expected to bring people coat of the eyeball) (Diaz, 2005). In in closer contact with these caterpillars, Mongolia, the green belt surrounding which is likely to intensify the problem Ulan Bator is periodically infested with (Diaz, 2005). Siberian moth (Dendrolimus sibiricus), • In the United States, many forest workers and children living nearby have expe- in areas heavily infested with the tussock rienced allergic reactions to the hairy moth caterpillar (Orgyia pseudotsugata) caterpillars, which enter their homes have experienced itching of the skin and during epidemic outbreaks. Exposure eyes, nasal discharge, cough and respira- to larval hairs or secretions produces tory difficulty (Press et al., 1977). severe dermatitis as well as systemic

WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/1241018/J.H. GHENT/USDA FOREST SERVICE FOREST GHENT/USDA WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/1241018/J.H. reactions affecting the joints and other

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by a poison released when the hair tips TREE SUBSTANCE IRRITATIONS via clothing, shoes, tools, pets and even break in human skin. The severity of the AND ALLERGIES smoke from the burning plant may also irritation varies. Symptoms may begin Some tree substances can cause irri- elicit a similar reaction. immediately after contact or be delayed tant or allergic contact dermatitis (see The pollen from trees, shrubs, weeds for hours or even days; they are usually Table). Substances causing irritant der- and grasses is one of the main causes temporary, lasting about a week. They matitis can occur in the outer bark and of allergy. Susceptible individuals can include itching, typically followed by the sapwood, sap, gum, resin, or leaves, suffer from rhinitis, conjunctivitis, development of rash (hives); in severe depending on the species. Species that hay fever, asthma, dermatitis and even reactions there may be symptoms of can be problematic for forest workers anaphylactic shock upon exposure to malaise and mild fever. In the eye, cat- include teak (Tectona grandis), white pollen (Barral et al., 2004). In Italy, erpillar hairs can cause conjunctivitis, peroba (Paratectoma spp.), western red a pharmaceutical laboratory preparing ophthalmia nodosa (a round, grey swell- cedar (Thuja plicata) and iroko (Milicia allergens for desensitization therapy ing at the site of each hair embedded in regia and Milicia excelsa) (Wilkinson uses pollen from 23 tree genera (Acer, the eye) and even inflammation of the and Rycroft, 1992). In addition, the saw- Aesculus, Alnus, Betula, Corylus, Cryp- whole eye. dust from many important timber species tomeria, Cupressus, Fagus, Fraxinus, The hairs of some species retain their can be allergenic, including beech, fir, Juglans, Juniperus, Ligustrum, Morus, urticating properties long after being mahogany, maple, oak, obeche, ramin, Olea, Pinus, Platanus, Populus, Quer- shed. Airborne caterpillar hairs have walnut and teak (Lofarma, 2006). cus, Robinia, Salix, Sambucus, Tilia also been known to penetrate the human The most commonly known forest and Ulmus) (Lofarma, 2006). Pollen respiratory system, causing laboured plants causing allergic contact dermatitis from western red cedar (Thuja plicata) breathing and/or inhalant allergies. If are members of the genus Toxicoden- results in frequent occupational asthma ingested, caterpillar hairs can cause dron such as poison ivy (T. radicans), and rhinitis among sawmill workers in mouth irritation. Some forest visitors eastern poison oak (T. quercifolium), western United States and Canada (Frew have exhibited skin, eye and/or respi- western poison oak (T. diversiobum), et al., 1993). Other forest trees eliciting ratory symptoms without having had poison sumac (T. vernix) and the lac- pollen-related allergic responses include direct contact with caterpillars (Vega et quer tree (T. vernicifluum) (Wilkinson cedar (Cedrus spp.) and mesquite (Pro- al., 1999). In Australia, an outbreak of and Rycroft, 1992). Urushiol, the chief sopis juliflora). caterpillar dermatitis and conjunctivitis allergenic component, is widely distrib- was reported in indoor office workers uted throughout the plant, including the exposed to the airborne urticating hairs leaves, stems and roots. Allergic contact of mistletoe browntail moth (Euproc- dermatitis results from direct contact In North America, people who tis edwardsii) caterpillars feeding in a with the sap from a portion of a bruised or spend time in the woods learn to injured plant, although indirect contact identify the three leaves of poison nearby eucalyptus tree (Balit et al., ivy (Toxicodendron spp.) – and 2001). take care to avoid it As the examples in the Box show, to avoid problems with these insects it is

sometimes necessary to keep the public WWW.FORESTRYIMAGES.ORG/0008418/P. WRAY/IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY away from the forest during outbreaks. To avoid the loss of recreational value of forests from a high incidence of cat- erpillars, localized areas are sometimes treated with chemical or biological prod- ucts, but these in turn may cause prob- lems through spray drift and contamina- tion of ground water as well as through the possible loss of certain non-target species. Monitoring of early build-up of local pest populations and appropriate management options should make it pos- sible to prevent local populations of pests from reaching outbreak proportions.

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Principal commercial tree species that can cause dermatitis (a non-exhaustive list)

Scientific name Common name Origin

Afzelia spp. Afzelia, doussié, lingué Africa Alnus spp. Alder Temperate Andira inermis Cabbage tree, partridge wood South America Aspidosperma spp. Peroba rosa, paddlewood, quebracho Brazil, Argentina Aucomea klaineana Okoumé, gaboon West Africa Bassia latifolia Moah, mahwa Africa Brya ebenus American ebony, green ebony South America Cassia siamea Tagayasan China, Southeast Asia Chloroxylon swietenia East Indian satinwood East Indies Dalbergia cearensis Kingswood, violet wood South America Dalbergia latifolia East Indian rosewood, Bombay blackwood, sissoo India Dalbergia melanoxylon African blackwood West Africa Dalbergia nigra Brazilian rosewood South America Dalbergia retusa Cocobolo Central and South America Dalbergia stevensonii Honduras rosewood South America Distemonanthus benthanianus Ayan, Nigerian satinwood West Africa Fagara flava (=Zanthoxylum flavum) West Indian satinwood West Indies Fagara macrophilla Olon West Africa Gonostylus bancanus Ramin, melawis Southeast Asia Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum Agba, tola branca West and Central Africa Guarea thompsonii Guarea Africa Hernandia sonora Topolite Trinidad Khaya anthotheca African mahogany Africa Liriodendron tulipifera American whitewood, yellow wood, tulip tree United States Mansonia altissima Mansonia, African black walnut West Africa Milicia excelsa Iroko, African teak, Kambala East Africa Milicia regia Iroko, African teak, Kambala West Africa Mimusops heckelii Makoré, baku West Africa Nectandra rodiaei Greenheart West Indies Octoea spp. Louro, jigua, pisie South America Paratecoma peroba Peroba Brazil Pericopsis elata Afrormosia, Kokrodua, Asamela West Africa Phoebe porosa Brazilian walnut South America Picea spp. Spruce Temperate Pinus spp. Pine Temperate Prosopis juliflora Mesquite United States Tabebuia spp. Lapacho, suayacan, ipé, mayflower South America Taxus baccata Yew Temperate Tectona grandis Teak Myanmar, Southeast Asia Thuja plicata Western red cedar North America Ulmus spp. Elm Temperate

Source: Wilkinson and Rycroft, 1992.

In urban areas, some of the most com- in reducing the production of allergenic countries. Studies from Japan, for exam- monly planted trees are allergenic spe- pollen (Brunner et al., 1998). ple, have shown that the incidence of rhi- cies known to be great pollen producers. Studies have shown that allergic dis- noconjunctivitis in urban residents living Since these trees are situated in close eases such as asthma, rhinitis and eczema along heavily trafficked roads lined with proximity to humans, it is not surprising have increased fourfold over the past 30 old Japanese cedar trees (Cryptomeria) that allergies in urban populations are years, particularly in developed countries was almost three times higher than that increasing (Thompson and Thompson, (Davies, Rusznak and Devalia, 1998). in residents of the cedar forest where 2003). Clearly there is a need to evaluate Recently it has been suggested that there was less traffic, despite similar what is being planted and to identify non- urbanization, with its high levels of pol- cedar pollen counts in the two areas allergenic or low-allergenic plants and lutants and vehicle emissions, is linked (Davies, Rusznak and Devalia, 1998). ◆ trees. Genetic engineering of complete or to the rising incidence of pollen-induced male sterility may help offer a solution allergy observed in most industrialized

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H., Lam, S. & Chan-Yeung, M. 1993. Immunologic studies of the mechanisms of occupational asthma caused by western red cedar. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Bibliography Immunology, 92(3): 466–478. Global Invasive Species Programme Armed Forces Pest Management Board (GISP). 2006. Public health threat posed (AFPMB). 2002. Regional disease vector by ‘la palometa peluda’. GISP News, 6: 8. ecology profile – East Asia. Washington, Hoffman, D.R. 1986. Allergic reactions DC, USA. Available at: www.afpmb.org/ to biting insects. In M.I. Levine & R.F. pubs/dveps/dveps.htm Lockey, eds. Monograph on insect allergy, Balit, C.R, Ptolemy, H.C., Geary, M.J., pp. 85–92. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Russell, R.C. & Isbister, G.K. 2001. USA, American Academy of Allergy and Outbreak of caterpillar dermatitis caused Immunology. by airborne hairs of the mistletoe browntail Lofarma. 2006. Elenco allergeni disponibili. moth (Euproctis edwardsii). Medical [List of available allergens]. Internet Journal of Australia, 175: 641–643. document: www.lofarma.it/products/ Barral, P., Batanero, E., Palomares, O., allergeni.html Quiralte, J., Villalba, M. & Rodríguez, Press, E., Googins, J.A., Poareo, H. & R. 2004. A major allergen from pollen Jones, K. 1977. Health hazards to timber defines a novel family of plant proteins and forestry workers from the Douglas fir and shows intra- and interspecies cross- tussock moth. Archives of Environmental reactivity. Journal of Immunology, 172(6): Health, 32(5): 206–210. 3644–3651. Solt, I. & Mendel, Z. 2002. The pine Brunner, A.M., Mohamed, R., Meilan, processionary caterpillar, Thaumetopoea R., Sheppard, L.A., Rottman, W.H. & pityocampa. Harefuah, 141(9): 810–814, Strauss, S.H. 1998. Genetic engineering 857. of sexual sterility in shade trees. Journal Thompson, J.L. & Thompson, J.E. 2003. of Arboriculture, 24(5): 263–272. The urban jungle and allergy. Immunology Burns, D.A. 1992. Diseases caused by and Allergy Clinics of North America, arthropods and other noxious animals. 23(3): 371–387. In R.H. Champion, J.L. Burton & F.J.G. Vega, J.M., Moneo, I., Armentia, A., Ebling, eds. Textbook of dermatology, Vol. Fernández, A., Vega, J., de la Fuente, 2, pp. 1265–1324. London, UK, Blackwell R., Sánchez, P. & Sanchís, M.E. 1999. Scientific. Allergy to the pine processionary caterpillar Davies, R.J., Rusznak, C. & Devalia, (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). Clinical and J.L. 1998. Why is allergy increasing? Experimental Allergy, 29: 1418–1423. – environmental factors. Clinical and Wilkinson, J.D. & Rycroft, R.J.G. 1992. Experimental Allergy, 28(Suppl. 6): 8–14. Contact dermatitis. In R.H. Champion, J.L. Diaz, J.H. 2005. The evolving global Burton & F.J.G. Ebling, eds. Textbook of epidemiology, syndromic classification, dermatology, Vol. 1, pp. 611–715. London, management, and prevention of caterpillar UK, Blackwell Scientific. ◆ envenoming. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 72(3): 347–357. Evans, R.E. & Summers, R.J. 1986. Clinical aspects of Hymenoptera hypersensitivity. In M.I. Levine & R.F. Lockey, eds. Monograph on insect allergy, pp. 23–28. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, American Academy of Allergy and Immunology. Frew, A., Chan, H., Dryden, P., Salari,

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“Strengthening heart and mind”: using woodlands to improve mental and physical well-being

L. O’Brien

In the United Kingdom, a number ne of the British Government’s known to be more common in areas of of efforts to improve people’s major concerns is the health and social deprivation. health and well-being focus on the Owell-being of the population: According to the World Health Organi- value of trees and woodlands. “The government is absolutely commit- zation (WHO) stress and depression are ted to achieving better health for eve- increasing. WHO has estimated that by ryone” (Department of Health, 2004a). 2020 depression and depression-related Wanless (2004) defined public health in illnesses will be the greatest source of broad terms as “the science and art of ill health. In England the cost of mental preventing disease, prolonging life and health problems has been estimated at promoting health through the organised £32 billion (46.8 billion euros) with more efforts and informed choices of society, than a third of this attributed to loss of organisations, public and private, com- employment and productivity (Mental munities and individuals”. Health Foundation, 2006). Approxi- This article highlights some of the ways mately 9.2 percent of adults in Great in which woodlands and green spaces can Britain experience mixed anxiety and contribute to improving people’s health depression (British Heart Foundation, and well-being and provides examples of 2004). some current projects. While the focus Emotional well-being is a strong pre- is on Great Britain and the examples dictor of physical good health, as shown provided are primarily from England, by research in a range of countries (Good- similar work is being undertaken in many win, 2000; Seymour, 2003). The British other European countries. Heart Foundation suggests that physi- cal activity can improve mood and may PROMOTING PHYSICAL AND protect against the development of mild MENTAL HEALTH forms of depression. Young people’s self The recent white paper Choosing health esteem in particular is said to improve published in 2004 for England sets with regular physical activity. Berger out how the government will provide (1996) identified four psychological opportunities, information and support benefits linked to physical activity: to enable people to choose health and • higher quality of life, adopt healthier lifestyles (Department • enhanced mood, of Health, 2004a). Key issues of cur- • stress reduction, rent concern regarding the health of the • a more positive self-image. population cover coronary heart disease, WHO has rated physical inactivity as diabetes, physical inactivity, cancer and one of the major causes of death in the obesity. There is a strong focus on pre- developed world. The estimated cost of Liz O’Brien is a social scientist focusing on venting ill health rather than only treat- physical inactivity in England is thought health, education and the social and cultural ing illness. An important element of the to be £8.2 billion (12 billion euros) annu- values of woodlands at Forest Research, white paper is to tackle health inequali- ally (Department of Health, 2004a). This Farnham, Surrey, United Kingdom. More information about the projects described ties because health tends to be poorer at figure includes costs to the National in this article is available on the Web site of Forest the lower end of the social scale. Mental Health Service as well as costs related to Research: www.forestresearch.gov.uk/fr/INFD- as well as physical health problems are people’s absence from work. The number 5Z5ALT

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of clinically defined obese people has have shown that benefits can be gained restoring attention, as they are gently tripled between 1980 and 2002 and there not only by being active in nature (e.g. stimulating to the senses and offer a are concerns that life expectancy may fall walking or cycling), but also by viewing range of interest such as sights, smells as a result (Pretty et al., 2005). Accord- nature, for example from a window, or and sounds. Kaplan argues that “soft ing to the Department of Health, only 37 being near it in the course of everyday fascination – characteristic of certain percent of men and 24 percent of women activities. natural settings – has a special advantage are active enough to gain any health To enhance these benefits, in 2005 the in terms of providing an opportunity for benefit (Department of Health, 2005). Forestry Commission (the government reflection, which can further enhance The Chief Medical Officer for England department responsible for forestry in the benefits of recovering from directed (Department of Health, 2004b) recom- Great Britain) signed a health concordat attention fatigue” and that health and mends that adults should undertake at with a range of countryside agencies in well-being can be promoted by providing least 30 minutes of moderate intensity England. It outlined specific activities opportunities for people to gain access exercise five days a week, and young that these organizations will undertake easily and quickly to green spaces such people one hour a day. to promote the use of the outdoors for as woodlands that support restoration. The British Government has invoked health purposes. The Forestry Commis- Hartig, Mang and Evans (1991) suggest targets, activities, interventions and sion has also launched, early in 2005, that this may be particularly important in funding to try to bring about improve- an “Active woods – naturally good for urban areas; thus it would be especially ments in the mental and physical well- you” campaign which aims to establish relevant in Great Britain, where approxi- being of the British population, as WHO an association in people’s minds between mately 80 percent of the population is has done for the global population. These health and well-being and woodlands, now urban, a proportion that is above are being developed through a consulta- to promote physical activity among for- the global average. The United King- tive approach rather than the traditional est users and to help foster healthier dom ranks fifth among European Union top-down approach. As the white paper lifestyles. member countries in urban population noted, “the first and critical stage was Attention restoration theory (Kap- to listen to the views of the people in lan, 1995) suggests that people recover England, to get in touch with their real from directed attention (focusing on concerns and to ask what they wanted and specific tasks such as work) through Participants in COST Action E39 visit how they could be helped to realise their involuntary attention that requires no a “healing garden” in Alnarp, Sweden aims” (Department of Health, 2004a). effort. Kaplan (1995) notes that natural – helping researchers interested in The government recognizes that citizens environments are particularly helpful in forestry, health, environment and the social sciences learn from those in need help and advice from a range of other participating countries organizations if they are to choose and adopt healthier lifestyles.

CONTRIBUTION OF WOODLANDS AND NATURAL SPACES TO HEALTH AND WELL-BEING Many studies and literature reviews from countries such as Australia, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States have outlined the contributions of trees, woodlands and green spaces to people’s overall health and well-being (Ulrich et al., 1991; Kaplan, 1995; Henwood, 2001; de Vries et al., 2003; Tabbush and O’Brien, 2003; O’Brien, 2005; Pretty et al., 2005). The benefits have been categorized in a range of ways but L. O’BRIEN primarily include physical, psychologi- cal and social well-being. Such studies

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The Route to Health health) and the District Council in Staf- Project at Cannock fordshire, England. The project set out Chase Forest created a one-mile to develop a one-mile community arts community trail of trail in Cannock Chase Forest managed artworks inspired by the Forestry Commission. A range of by mental and physical health organizations, individuals and local art- topics ists worked together to create artworks inspired by mental and physical health topics of importance. The artworks are then placed along the arts trail and are enjoyed by the thousands of people who walk the trail every year. The aim of the project is to help tackle health inequalities. Artworks have been cre- ated by young people with emotional and behavioural difficulties (many from disadvantaged areas where health and access to health care services is often CANNOCK CHASE DISTRICT COUNCIL/L. SHEPHARD CANNOCK CHASE DISTRICT poorer), a day care centre that caters for rate (United Nations, 2002). Even with Action E39 focuses on forestry and adults with physical and mental health only 11.6 percent woodland cover (a human health and well-being. It started difficulties, young law offenders and proportion lower than in 16 of 20 major in 2004 and will run for four years. Its patients from the local hospital. Health European countries) (Forestry Commis- aim is to increase the body of evidence messages have included, for example, sion, 2003), the woodlands and trees are on the contribution of forests, trees and bicycling to combat stress and anger, culturally important to the population natural spaces to health and well-being. and being active as a family unit. The and are extensively used. Nineteen countries are participating. artworks are regularly changed along the Social well-being and the generation of Five working groups focus on: trail to maintain community engagement social capital (i.e. the social networks, • physical and mental health and well- and address more health issues. All of norms and trust that facilitate coopera- being; the participants, their families, friends tion among people for mutual benefit) • forest products, forest environment and the public are invited to an annual are also important (Putnam, 2000). Many and health; event to celebrate the project’s achieve- of the interventions to encourage people • therapeutic aspects including reha- ments. The event includes health checks, to relax, eliminate stress and be active bilitation and outdoor education; advice on health, relaxation classes and in woodlands and green spaces allow • evaluation in terms of best practice children’s activities. people the opportunity to meet others and economic contribution; An evaluation of the project has shown and extend their social networks. This • physical activity, well-being and that visitor numbers along the one-mile social factor often motivates people to prevention of illness. trail have substantially increased. All of keep up their involvement in outdoor One of the key aims of COST Action the partner organizations are using the activities in the long term. E39 is for participating countries to learn work to deliver their own objectives. A from each other about current Euro- more diverse range of visitors is using CURRENT EXAMPLES OF HEALTH pean projects, activities and research. the trail, and the enthusiasm of the com- AND WELL-BEING PROJECTS A network of researchers and research munity to get involved has been shown COST Action E39 institutions interested in forestry, health, by people’s willingness to participate The European Commission–funded environment and the social sciences is in the long term. COST (Co-operation in the field of Sci- being developed. entific and Technical Research) Action Chopwell Wood Health Project programme is an intergovernmental Route to Health Project Chopwell Wood is a 360 ha mixed framework that allows for coordina- The Route to Health Project involves a woodland managed by the Forestry Com- tion at the European level of nationally partnership between the Forestry Com- mission and situated near Gateshead in funded research. A range of themes is mission, the local Primary Care Trust northeastern England. The health project funded. Within the forestry theme, COST (which focuses on improving people’s was designed to use the public forest

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estate to contribute to the government’s therapy such as massage and stress- tribute to the health and well-being of health agenda. The aim of the project is to reduction techniques. people in the West Midlands region of improve health within local communities The project thus involves people from England. This area was chosen to pilot surrounding the wood. The project is run a wide range of socio-economic groups the programme because of the high rates by a steering group that includes health and from childhood to old age. of obesity in its population. Woodland promotion specialists from Gateshead A qualitative and quantitative evalu- owners or partnerships of organizations Primary Care Trust and Derwentside Pri- ation of the project, managed by Forest could bid for the grant. mary Care Trust along with the Forestry Research, showed that those who par- Seven projects received funding in Commission, the Friends of Chopwell ticipated in the project increased their the first year. The money was used to Wood (a voluntary organization) and overall activity rates. When general prac- improve infrastructure, install benches, Forest Research. The project has two titioners refer patients to leisure centres create new trails for users of all abili- distinct elements: or gyms, completion rates are often low. ties, set up walking schemes and pro- • A general practitioner–based re- In contrast, 91 percent of the people vide information and interpretation in ferral scheme. Doctors can recom- referred to Chopwell Wood finished the a number of different woodlands. One mend that their patients increase their 13-week programme of activities. The project produced 10 000 copies of a cal- physical activity levels if they are reason for the high completion rate was endar highlighting woodland trails in the overweight or mildly depressed, and explained in interviews and focus groups, local area, their length and the number of patients can then be referred to a during which participants described the calories that would be burned in walking leisure centre or to Chopwell Wood. benefits of being out in the beautiful them. The calendars were distributed to In the wood they can choose among woodland surroundings, relaxing and doctors’ surgeries, libraries and local activities such as walking, tai chi, being physically active. The title of this mental health teams. cycling and conservation work. Re- article comes from a survey undertaken An evaluation of the project indicated ferred patients agree to undertake a in the wood: when asked to name the that walk leaders played an important part 13-week programme of activities. benefits of using Chopwell Wood, one in encouraging people to get involved in • School visits in support of the respondent replied that it “strengthens healthy walks and to stay active. People Healthy Schools Standard. The heart and mind”. started walking for a variety of reasons, Healthy Schools Standard is a gov- including health concerns, encourage- ernment initiative to promote pupils’ HEALTH WOODLAND ment to get involved and the desire to health and emotional well-being. IMPROVEMENT GRANT meet new people. Four schools have each made four The Forestry Commission administers visits to the wood. Two visits focused a Woodland Improvement Grant which Wye Wood: the Wider Wood Project on physical activities such as orien- funds capital investment in woodlands The Wider Wood Project focuses on teering. The third visit focused on to increase public benefits. Since 2003, improving the health and well-being of nutrition and healthy eating, and the part of the grant scheme has been used people in rural areas of Herefordshire fourth visit explored complementary to deliver more public access and con- and Shropshire in England. A health

Creating artwork for the Route to Health Project is therapeutic for people whether they have health problems or not CANNOCK CHASE DISTRICT COUNCIL/L. SHEPHARD CANNOCK CHASE DISTRICT

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224english_book.indb 59 10/11/2006 11:27:36 60 M. PINDER In the Chopwell Wood Health project, patients societies undertakes less physical activ- • Many woodlands can host large referred by their ity, becomes more obese and suffers from numbers of people without seem- doctors participate in outdoor physical increasing levels of stress, changes in ing crowded. activities such as lifestyle are needed. The few projects • An attractive woodland may act as a cycling and tai chi outlined here provide a flavour of the motivating factor for taking up and wide range of activities currently taking continuing physical exercise. place. Monitoring and evaluating how • Woodlands can screen out noise, for these projects work, to whom they are example from nearby traffic. development worker has been employed targeted and their impact on different The following are some key consid- to work with doctors and other health groups of people is important. erations for future work to further the professionals in the area to develop A key issue is what can motivate people use of woodlands and natural spaces a range of options and opportunities to become more active. The projects as an option in enabling and encourag- to get people active. This new project outlined in this article, and past research, ing people to improve their mental and will include production of a young peo- have shown a relationship between access physical well-being. ple’s activity pack to motivate them to to nature and improvements in people’s Health improvement needs to be made undertake exercise. Health walks will health and well-being. Less work has fun. A social and cultural approach to be organized in specific woodlands and been done on the effects and impacts project development is needed to give targeted to those who are inactive and of different types of nature such as people skills and confidence as well socially isolated. Family arts activities woodlands, parks or other green spaces. as a positive attitude to maintaining a will be organized to familiarize fami- However, previous research highlights healthy, active lifestyle. People require lies with the accessibility of woodlands a number of particular advantages of opportunities and information so that and the fun projects in which they can woodlands: they have a range of options from which participate in their area. The Forestry • Woodlands and individual trees can to make an informed choice. Fun is a Commission is funding the project as a hold specific cultural meanings for big motivator, and enjoyment experi- national rural demonstration. people; they are seen as represent- enced through contact with woodlands ing nature, particularly in the urban and green spaces can help to change CONCLUSIONS environment. behaviour in the long term. There is a high level of interest in Great • The age of veteran trees provides a Reaching children and young people is Britain in using woodlands and green link between the past, present and critical. Research has shown that chil- spaces to improve people’s mental and future. dren are more likely to be active if their physical well-being in both urban and • Woodlands offer a range of options parents are active. They are also more rural areas. As the population in western for various types of activity. likely to use woodlands and green spaces

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as adults if they used these spaces as a week: evidence on the impact of physical Reports Number 533. Peterborough, UK, children. Yet opportunities for children activity and its relationship to health. English Nature. to connect with nature are increasingly London, UK. Tabbush, P. & O’Brien, L. 2003. Health being lost as children spend more time Department of Health. 2005. Choosing and well-being: trees, woodlands and indoors because of parents’ concerns activity: a physical activity action plan. natural spaces. Edinburgh, UK, Forestry about their safety outdoors and increased London, UK. Commission. computer and television use. De Vries, S., Verheij, R., Groenewegen, Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R.T., Losito, B.D., Finally, developing partnerships to P.P. & Spreeuwenberg, P. 2003. Natural Fiorito, E., Miles, M.A. & Zelson, M. include environmental and health sec- environments – healthy environments? 1991. Stress recovery during exposure to tor organizations and local authorities An exploratory analysis of the relationship natural and urban environments. Journal of is important and is often key to the suc- between green space and health. Environmental Psychology, 11: 201–230. cess of projects. The activities outlined Environment and Planning A, 35: 1717– United Nations. 2002. World urbanisation above have all involved partnerships 1731. prospects: the 2001 revision. New York, between a range of organizations. The Forestry Commission. 2003. Forestry USA. projects were designed to ensure that statistics 2003. Edinburgh, UK. Wanless, D. 2004. Securing good health for each organization could meet some of Goodwin, J.S. 2000. Glass half full attitude the whole population. London, UK, HM its own objectives. The work has often promotes health in old age. Journal of Treasury. ◆ been developed through key individuals the American Geriatrics Society, 48: with a specific interest and the enthusi- 473–478. asm and willingness to get projects off Hartig, T., Mang, M. & Evans, G.W. 1991. the ground. From the evaluations of the Restorative effects of natural environment projects outlined above, it is clear that experience. Environment and Behaviour, health professionals who focus on pre- 23: 3–26. venting as well as treating ill health can Henwood, K. 2001. Exploring the linkages readily engage with forestry organiza- between the environment and health: is there tions such as the Forestry Commission. a role for environmental and countryside Information about improving health and agencies in promoting benefits to health? well-being can be adapted to show people Report to the Forestry Commission, how they can make a difference to their Edinburgh, UK. own mental and physical health in their Kaplan, S. 1995. The restorative benefits of everyday lives. ◆ nature: toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15: 169–182. Mental Health Foundation. 2006. Statistics on mental health. London, UK. Available at: www.mentalhealth.org.uk/page. Bibliography cfm?pagecode=PMMHST O’Brien, L. 2005. Trees and woodlands: Berger, B.G. 1996. Psychological benefits of nature’s health service. Farnham, UK, an active lifestyle: what we know and what Forest Research. we need to know. Quest, 48: 330–353. Pretty, J., Griffin, M., Peacock, J., Hine, British Heart Foundation. 2004. Physical R., Sellens, M. & South, N. 2005. A activity and health. Loughborough, UK. countryside for health and wellbeing: the Available at: www.bhfactive.org.uk/areas_ physical and mental health benefits of of_interest/aoi_downloads/toolkit/ green exercise. Report for the Countryside convincers/Activity-Health_Relationship_ Recreation Network, Sheffield, UK. II.doc Putnam, R. 2000. Bowling alone: the collapse Department of Health. 2004a. Choosing and revival of American community. New health: making healthier choices easier. York, USA, Simon and Schuster. London, UK. Seymour, L. 2003. Nature and psychological Department of Health. 2004b. At least five well-being. English Nature Research

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European countries discuss how to reduce forests’ In response to presentations on best practices for planted forests vulnerability to natural disasters and for fire management currently being developed by FAO, Response to catastrophic events was one of the main issues the commission recommended that FAO consider elaborating a on the agenda when FAO’s European Forestry Commission specific code of practice for arid and semi-arid zone forestry. met at its thirty-third session in Zvolen, Slovakia from 23 to 26 Delegates recommended that member countries and FAO May 2006. Representatives of 22 member countries considered strengthen efforts to raise region-specific issues in the international case studies from France, Poland and Slovakia and discussed dialogue, building on the Tehran Process on Low Forest Cover how policy-makers could reduce forests’ vulnerability to extreme Countries. climatic events, insects, fire, climate change and other threats. Thirty-eight representatives from 12 member countries attended the They proposed that risk analysis should be a stronger component session, which was held in Larnaca, Cyprus from 5 to 8 June 2006. of future forest sector outlook studies. Several countries have compiled or are compiling information on their experiences in responding to disasters as a basis for future emergency action. Latin American and Caribbean Forestry Commission Noting the strong energy demand and higher prices for woodfuels, asserts its importance in international dialogue delegates considered opportunities and challenges for wood energy. Delegates from 22 countries met at the twenty-fourth session In keeping with their recommendation, this will be a key subject of the Latin American and Caribbean Forestry Commission in on the agenda of the eighteenth session of the FAO Committee Boca Chica, Dominican Republic from 26 to 30 June 2006. They on Forestry in March 2007. Delegates requested FAO to continue emphasized the commission’s role in supporting sustainable forest collecting data and information on wood energy together with the management and other global strategic forest objectives at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. regional level, and highlighted its potential to play a more active Climate change was also high on the agenda. Countries part in the collaboration and dialogue between the United Nations expressed concern about projected temperature and precipitation Forum on Forests and regional processes. changes in the region and noted that it is vital to address the The commission also proposed a more active involvement in challenges and opportunities offered by the Kyoto Protocol within decisions related to FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessment a cross-sectoral perspective. The commission urged member 2010, for example by involving a group of regional experts in countries to include strategies for mitigating and adapting to defining methodologies and criteria for the selection of case climate change in national forest plans. studies. FAO support was requested for identifying and mobilizing funds to strengthen the technical capacity of countries to participate in the assessment. Near East countries lament the low priority of The commission urged countries to strengthen the structures forestry in national policies and activities of their national forest programmes and to establish At the seventeenth session of the Near East Forestry Commission, mechanisms for fostering regional and subregional dialogue under countries underscored the lack of valuation of forest and tree those programmes. products and services and the low priority accorded to forestry in A special seminar organized in collaboration with the Tropical national policies despite forests’ vital contribution to combating Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE), the land degradation and desertification. The delegates noted that Central American Commission on Environment and Development in many countries the political status of forestry is declining and (CCAD) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) forestry administrations are being downsized. The commission addressed practical approaches for conserving biological diversity recommended that countries endeavour to undertake a proper in forests. In addition, FAO cosponsored two regional conferences evaluation of the goods and services offered by forests and trees prior to the commission meeting, one on national forest in order to raise the awareness of decision-makers about their programmes (the “Puembo II” process), organized jointly with socio-economic and environmental roles. CCAD, the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, Germany Delegates agreed that capacity building, including education, and the Netherlands; and one on regional cooperation on wildland research, training and extension, is urgently needed to enhance fire management, held with the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the ability of the sector to meet emerging societal needs. The Nature Conservancy and the Global Fire Monitoring Center. Furthermore, considering the strong linkages between forests, rangelands and agriculture, delegates underscored the importance of integrated approaches to resource management. Fifth Kotka meeting anticipates FRA 2010 The commission also recognized the deficiencies in country FAO, together with the United Nations Economic Commission data on forest and tree resources and the need to improve the for Europe (UNECE), periodically organizes international expert information base with support from FAO and donors. consultations to provide technical guidance for its Global Forest

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Resources Assessments (FRA). The first consultation was held in towards the 2010 biodiversity target of the Convention on 1987 and subsequent ones took place in 1993, 1996 and 2002. Biological Diversity (CBD). The most recent consultation, the fifth, was held from 12 to 16 The meeting recommended that collaboration with other forest- June 2006. Like the others, it was hosted by the Finnish Forest related organizations should be enhanced, with a view to pooling Research Institute (Metla) and held in Kotka, Finland, and is thus resources and expertise and reducing the reporting burden on referred to as Kotka V. A total of 87 specialists from 45 countries countries. Participating organizations confirmed their willingness and 17 international and regional organizations participated. to contribute information to future FRA work and to indicate their The primary objective of Kotka V was to provide guidance for specific needs in order to streamline reporting. the next assessment, FRA 2010, based on an in-depth evaluation It was further recommended that a longer-term strategy for FRA of FRA 2005. It also focused on enhancing collaboration with other be developed, including an analysis of the potential role of regional forest-related reporting processes and organizations, with a view reporting and regional networks, a long-term reporting schedule to pooling resources and streamlining reporting. and options for the further streamlining of reporting on forests at The participants noted that increased country involvement and the international level. The next session of the FAO Committee on the network of national correspondents were key factors in the Forestry, to be held in March 2007, is expected to provide further success of FRA 2005. National correspondents attending the guidance. meeting affirmed that the FRA reporting process offers countries an incentive to gather and analyse information that is valuable to national policy-making processes. Accordingly, Helping poor people to benefit more from forest participants recommended that country reporting should continue resources to form the basis for FRA, and that the system of national International experts assembled at the International Conference correspondents should be maintained and strengthened, including on Managing Forests for Poverty Reduction, held in Ho Chi Minh through regional networks. The experts proposed, however, that City, Viet Nam from 3 to 6 October 2006, called for forestry policy- country-provided data be supplemented by special studies on makers, forest-related development organizations, donors, the specific issues and by a remote-sensing component providing private sector and local communities to work together in ensuring complementary information on the spatial distribution of forests that forests are managed for the benefit of the poor. and on forest cover and land use change dynamics at the regional The conference emphasized timber harvesting and wood and global levels. processing, which were recognized as providing the greatest The experts felt that FRA 2010 should cover as a minimum income opportunities in most forest areas. Giving poor people the same topics as FRA 2005 and use the same basic reporting rights and access to valuable timber resources is thus a logical framework, based on the thematic elements of sustainable forest choice for poverty reduction in such areas. management. Building on FRA 2005, they suggested that FRA New and rediscovered technologies for timber harvesting, 2010 also cover the seventh thematic element (legal, policy and transport and processing are increasing the economic viability of institutional framework, which was not included in FRA 2005), and small-scale wood production. New trends in wood marketing and they proposed changes to some of the tables used for reporting. institutional development also offer opportunities for generating It was also recommended that FRA 2010 should provide income and livelihoods in rural areas. forest-related information needed for the assessment of progress In their conference statement, the participants called on policy-

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makers to improve access rights to forest resources and to simplify good governance. It will also train future forest operators in forest laws and regulations to make it easier for local people to good forest harvesting practices, together with the United States capture economic benefits from forests through sustainable small- Department of Agriculture Forest Service. FAO is also assisting scale operations. At the same time, they called on international in the development of a national forest harvesting code based development organizations and donors to help set up comprehensive on the FAO model code for Africa (Regional code of practice for support systems for wood-based enterprises in rural communities. reduced-impact forest harvesting in tropical moist forests of West They also urged the private sector to facilitate partnerships with local and Central Africa). communities, households and forest associations. FAO organized the conference jointly with the Netherlands Development Organization (SNV), the International Tropical Improving wildlife management in the Timber Organization (ITTO), the Department of Forestry of Viet Commonwealth of Independent States Nam, the Tropical Forest Trust (TFT), the Regional Community Wildlife is among the most valuable natural resources in the Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC) and the Asia-Pacific Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), with potential to Forestry Commission (APFC). generate income and improve the livelihoods of rural populations as well as to contribute to national economies. Many animal species of great interest can be valorized through activities FAO helps draft a new forest policy for Liberia such as sustainable trophy hunting and ecotourism and can be At the request of the Liberian Government, FAO, together with conserved if managed properly. the World Bank, helped to draft the first forest policy for Liberia, To promote sustainable wildlife management, FAO, the Czech which came into force with the signing of the new forestry law on Forest and Wildlife Management Research Institute and the 4 October 2006. The signature marks the beginning of a new era International Council for Game and Wildlife Conservation (CIC) in which forests will be used to benefit the country’s people and held a workshop for CIS countries of the Caucasus and Central alleviate poverty. Asia from 11 to 15 September 2006. Government officials and Between 1989 and 2003, forest revenue was used to fund armed representatives of non-governmental organizations gathered in conflict in Liberia, prompting the United Nations Security Council Prague, Czech Republic, to discuss the main problems and issues to impose three years of sanctions on Liberian timber exports to be addressed in the wildlife sector in their countries. Through starting in July 2003. During the years of civil war, indiscriminate facilitated workshop sessions, the participants identified three logging and widespread illegal trade of forest products, carried out main problem areas: under the protection of private armed militias, destroyed much of • weak sectoral management – including institutional the country’s forest resources. When international agencies began deficiencies, lack of inventory and monitoring, improper to provide support for better forest management in June 2004, quota establishment mechanisms, insufficient knowledge and the country’s leadership had no experience, weak understanding unsustainable hunting; of good governance and no ability to enforce rules and regulations. • weak wildlife policy and legislation and related issues The new forest policy attempts to bring the Liberian forest sector – including lack of strategy and action plan, corruption, tenure back in line with international commitments and standards. The problems, inappropriate allocation of revenues from hunting policy balances the social, conservation and commercial uses and weak control of international trade in hunting products; of Liberia’s forests to produce a range of goods and services • socio-economic problems – such as lack of local community for the benefit of all Liberians. It recognizes the importance of awareness and involvement in the sector, undeveloped benefit community involvement in forestry, which did not exist before. It sharing, lack of incentives for investing in wildlife, corruption at also emphasizes the importance of good governance. Its objective all levels, privileges, violation of rights and poverty. is to provide more equitable access to forest resources to reduce For these problems the participants worked out possible the potential of future conflict. The policy is expected to maximize solutions and activities needed to address them, as well as the forestry’s contribution to income, employment, trade and the stakeholders to be involved. national development of Liberia. At the conclusion of the workshop, the participants drew up a FAO is also working with numerous international partners, short outline of projects that could address the most urgent needs through the Liberia Forest Initiative, to equip the Liberian Forestry and raise awareness among national decision-makers and the Development Authority – the agency overseeing the management international community for possible support to the development of of the country’s forest resources – with the staff, skills and means wildlife conservation programmes and projects at the country and to regain control over forest resources. subregional levels. In this regard, FAO is supporting the collection, analysis and The workshop was funded by the Czech Government. More dissemination of information to assist with policy-making and information is available at: www.fao.org/forestry/site/35813/en

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Urban forestry and human health How do forests and trees in the urban environment influence human health and well-being? This was the subject of a symposium held by the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) which also served as a research conference for the European Commission– funded COST (Co-operation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research) action programme on urban forestry for human health and well-being (COST Action E39; for more information, see page 58 of this issue). The symposium, held in Copenhagen, Denmark from 28 to 30 June 2006, was jointly organized by Forest & Landscape Denmark (an independent centre at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Denmark), the Chinese Academy of Forestry, Turku University (Finland) and the Forest Research Institute Malaysia. The Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM), initiated in 1996, is an informal process of dialogue and cooperation that brings together the 25 member countries of the European Union with 13 Asian countries. Leaders of ASEM countries meet at biennial summits FAO/G. ALLARD intended to strengthen partnership between the two regions on political, economic and cultural issues. At the third ASEM summit in 2000, the leaders endorsed a proposal to cooperate on forest issues. The Copenhagen meeting focused on six topic areas: • Promoting physical activity and health through urban • Health and the experience of nature. Presentations planning and design. Several questions were examined, for concerned the physical and mental health costs and benefits example: To what extent do attractive and easily accessible of forests and trees for individuals and populations. Research natural settings encourage people to be more physically was presented on the physical, behavioural, psychological active? Does physical activity have a greater effect on human and social processes through which trees and forests affect health and well-being when undertaken in a wooded setting individuals and populations, and on how variations in trees than when undertaken indoors? and forests may influence these processes. • Urban forestry as a tool for sustainable development. • Forest products and environmental services. Participants A session of particular relevance for rapidly urbanizing examined the contributions of forest-derived products, such as Asian countries addressed experiences and challenges certain nuts and berries exhibiting pharmaceutical activity, to in incorporating the results of urban forestry research into human health, economic and social development, alternative policies and urban management and in transferring urban medicine and industry. Evidence was presented on the role forestry knowledge into practice. of forests in improving urban air quality. Forest substances At the end of the discussions, the participants issued the that can have negative or hazardous effects on human health, Copenhagen Declaration, which sets goals, priorities and such as polyamines in non-wood forest products, were also concrete follow-up actions for continued cooperation. A mission discussed. statement was adopted for the ASEM Urban Forestry initiative, • Therapeutic aspects and environmental education. and participants committed to establish, by 2007, the ASEM Presentations addressed the role of outdoor recreation in Urban Forestry Academy, an organizational and financial platform healthy living and as a remedy against the shortcomings of for promoting urban forestry cooperation among ASEM countries modern life in a world separated from nature. Research has through such activities as exchange of policy information, twinning explored the role of urban green spaces in rehabilitation of of European and Asian cities and research institutions, and disabled people, in alleviating stress and depression related education and training projects. to urban living, and in integration of marginalized sections of This was the second ASEM symposium on urban forestry; the society. first was held in China in 2004. Two ASEM symposia have also • Economic evaluation and health policies. With health-related been held on forest conservation and sustainable development expenses constituting some of the largest public expenditures in (China, 2001 and Thailand, 2002). A third ASEM Urban Forestry many countries today, this session addressed whether using the Symposium will be held in China in 2008. forest as a basis for rehabilitation is economically favourable.

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International colloquium on human health and the late August 2006, assuming the leadership of CIFOR’s global environment held in Mali activities in support of the sustainable use of forest resources to The first principle of the Rio Declaration, adopted at the United fight poverty and protect the environment in tropical Asia, Africa, Nations Conference on Environment in Development in 1992, and Latin America. She replaces David Kaimowitz, who stepped states that: “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for down after five years at the helm of the organization. Seymour sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and was appointed in June following an extensive international search productive life in harmony with nature”. A colloquium for French- which attracted 80 candidates from 36 countries. speaking countries provided an opportunity to consider measures Before joining CIFOR, Frances Seymour was the Director of for ensuring success in applying this principle. the Institutions and Governance Program of the World Resources “Development, Environment and Health” was the theme of the Institute. She previously worked for the World Wildlife Fund, the eleventh international colloquium organized by the Secrétariat Ford Foundation and the United States Agency for International international francophone pour l’évaluation environnementale Development, acquiring experience in several tropical countries. (SIFÉE). The event, held from 12 to 16 June 2006 in One of her central concerns is that research be made relevant to Bamako, Mali, was supported by the Institut de l’énergie et de policy-makers and practitioners. l’environnement de la francophonie (IEPF), the Mali Ministry of Environment and Sanitation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and several other partners. Reducing carbon emissions from deforestation in The meeting brought together specialists in environmental developing countries and public health and sustainable development, local technical Climate change negotiations have tended to overlook greenhouse consultants, representatives from industry and agriculture, policy- gas emissions in developing countries, where some 35 percent of makers, researchers and academics from 18 countries, mainly emissions – and fully 65 percent in the least developed countries in Africa. The main theme was how to manage ecosystems to – are caused by deforestation. improve human health. The colloquium addressed two angles About 200 experts, mostly from developing countries, in particular: the impact of human activities on the environment, simultaneously addressed two of the key environmental issues – and the impact of the environment on human health. Tools and deforestation and global warming – in the Workshop on Reducing means were proposed for monitoring and assessing these impacts Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries, organized under diverse conditions, including crisis situations (risk analysis, by the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on emergency plans, etc.). The meeting examined potential policy Climate Change (UNFCCC) at FAO headquarters in Rome from interventions at different levels, from local to global, for integrating 30 August to 1 September 2006. human health and ecosystems. Trees are 50 percent carbon. When they are felled or burned, Although the meeting emphasized issues related to agricultural the carbon dioxide they store escapes back into the air. According and urban environments, a subtheme on conservation and to FAO figures, some 13 million hectares of forests worldwide are valorization of natural resources covered such forest-related lost every year, with most of this area in the tropics. More than subjects as the role of plants in traditional medicine (including a three-quarters of the world’s deforestation is a result of increased case study on the gallery forest of the biosphere reserve of La farmland to feed growing populations. Part of the solution is to Mare aux Hippopotames in Burkina Faso), health concerns in the increase agricultural productivity so that there will be less demand economic evaluation of mangroves in southern Benin, the transfer to convert forests into farmland. of tapia (Uapaca bojeri) forest management responsibilities to The unusually high participation in the workshop was a clear local communities in Madagascar, and the relation between sign that developing countries are ready to begin reducing their climate change and health. emissions from land use changes and that international processes The final day began with a tree planting ceremony at the Parc addressing climate change are furthering their role in the global des hôtes. effort to reduce deforestation. Participants from 46 developing SIFÉE is an international non-governmental organization countries signalled their readiness to act on deforestation. But founded in 1996 and currently based in Montreal, Canada, which they also stressed financial help from the developed world is brings together practitioners and organizations concerned with needed to do the job. A major flow of capital from developed to environmental assessment from all French-speaking regions. developing countries, under new instruments yet to be negotiated, would be required to help the developing countries conserve their forests. Such financing could take the form of carbon New CIFOR Director General credits under the Kyoto Protocol, which governs greenhouse gas Frances Seymour took up her post as the new Director General emissions from industrial sources in developed countries. It could of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) in also come directly under UNFCCC or from bilateral agreements

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initiatives within Europe and the global forest policy community. New executive secretary at These relate to: the climate change secretariat • increasing recognition, including in international fora such as the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) and the Convention on Yvo de Boer took up duty as the new Executive Secretary of the United Biological Diversity (CBD), of the importance of traditional forest Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) on management practices to sustainable forest management and to 4 September 2006. A national of the Netherlands, de Boer was formerly maintenance of cultural landscapes; the Director for International Affairs at the Netherlands Ministry of • development and refinement of social and cultural criteria and Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment. He has been active indicators for sustainable forest management; in UNFCCC meetings since 1996. Before serving the Netherlands • ongoing research and activities focused on protecting and develop- Government, de Boer was Chief of the Information Office for North ing traditional ecological knowledge and applying it to sustainable America and the Caribbean of the United Nations Centre for Human natural resource management. Settlements (UN-Habitat) in Canada and its Human Settlements The meeting attracted 120 participants from 24 countries, Adviser in Nairobi, Kenya. including forest scientists, forest managers and planners, forest policy experts and representatives from numerous international organizations. Discussions addressed the history between donors and developing countries on country-wide and conservation of traditional forest knowledge and its relation to forest conservation projects. The workshop proposed several forest management, and the integration of traditional knowledge in new mechanisms for transfer of payments from developed to forestry education and research. developing countries. Negotiations will continue at a second The discussions will contribute to efforts to address the cultural workshop to be held in 2007. and social dimensions of sustainable forest management in The workshop was held at the request of the eleventh national forest programmes, as well as to the development of Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC and was hosted by the specific indicators concerning cultural values for MCPFE’s set of Italian Ministry for the Environment and Territory and FAO, with criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management. financial support from FAO and the Governments of Australia, Finland, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden. The report (available at unfccc.int/resource/docs/2006/sbsta/ An NGO in Armenia plants 1.3 million trees eng/10.pdf) will be presented at the twenty-fifth session of the In April and May 2006, the Armenia Tree Project planted about Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA). 340 000 trees in the Getik River Valley of Armenia, bringing the number of trees planted by this non-governmental organization since 2004 to 1.3 million. About 160 hectares of land, mainly Integrating traditional knowledge in forest degraded hillsides, have been reforested with indigenous tree management species including chestnut (Castanea spp.), maple (Acer spp.), ash Traditional knowledge has contributed much to sustainable (Fraxinus spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), walnut (Juglans spp.), wild forest management, but scientific practice has not benefited apple (Malus spp.) and wild pear (Pyrus spp.). from traditional practices as much as it could. The International The project provides work to villagers and outsources the raising Conference on Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Forest of seedlings to family backyard nurseries, thus contributing to Management: the Role of Traditional Knowledge, held from 8 to improving the livelihoods of the local population. What started as a 11 June 2006 in Florence, Italy, aimed to encourage improved pilot project in 2004 with a backyard nursery programme in a single information exchange among scientists, holders of traditional village has now expanded to many more villages and provides a knowledge, and forest and landscape planners, managers stable income for 330 families. Thus the campaign has not only and decision-makers. The conference was organized by the helped to reforest the degraded mountains around the villages, but International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) has also addressed the root cause of deforestation, poverty. Task Force on Traditional Forest Knowledge and was supported Founded in 1994, the Armenia Tree Project aims to assist the by the Italian Academy of Forestry Science, the University of country’s socio-economic development through mobilization of Florence, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) resources to fund reforestation, environmental education and rural Forest Service and the Liaison Unit of the Ministerial Conference development through job creation. on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE). The theme of the conference reflected the significant overlap of interests between the holders and users of traditional forest knowledge and a number of policy and planning issues and

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are expected to increase substantially, especially in Brazil and Chile, to satisfy the growing industrial demand, particularly for pulp and paper. The area of planted forests is likely to grow from 13.1 million hectares in 2005 to 17.3 million hectares in 2020. Accordingly, sustainable wood production from planted forests is expected to increase from 303 million to 480 million cubic metres. The report examines the implications of these changes, and the role that policies play in forest area change. It examines the prospects for management of natural forests and for sustainable production from planted forests. Despite the negative forecast for the extent of natural forests, a number of opportunities are identified for the sector. These include carbon markets, the destination of increasing forest areas for ecotourism and conservation, greater development of the non-wood forest product economy, greater opportunities for forest products from certified forests, and integration of forests with other land uses, for example in silvopastoral and agroforestry systems. The annexes provide statistics on subjects such as forest resources, protected areas, institutions and public administration, and direction of trade. This book provides food for thought for all who are concerned with the future of forests and forestry in Latin America and the Outlook for forestry in Latin America and the Caribbean. Taken together, the regional, national and subregional Caribbean reports represent an important reference and source of information Tendencias y perspectivas del sector forestal en América Latina y el Caribe. 2006. for strategic planning at all three levels, and will be of particular FAO Forestry Paper 148. Rome, FAO. ISBN 92-5-305498-0. relevance to national forest programmes. The reports are all For many years FAO, in collaboration with member countries, available at: www.fao.org/forestry/site/2404/en the private sector and international, governmental and non- governmental organizations, has carried out a series of forestry sector outlook studies in different regions of the world. These Using forests to reduce poverty studies aim to identify the possible influences that can affect the Better forestry, less poverty: a practitioner’s guide. 2006. FAO Forestry Paper 149. future of forestry and options that may assist countries in reaching Rome, FAO. ISBN 92-5-105550-5. their objectives in the sector. More than 25 percent of the world’s population – an estimated This publication, the final regional report of the Latin American 1.6 billion people – rely on forest resources for their livelihoods, Forestry Sector Outlook Study, builds on the national and and of these almost 1.2 billion live in extreme poverty, lacking subregional reports of 20 countries and three subregions. It the basic necessities to maintain a decent standard of living: describes and analyses the main trends in the region in recent sufficient and nutritious food, adequate shelter, access to health years, covering such areas as forest resources, industry, products services, energy sources, safe drinking-water, education and a and services as well as international trade agreements, tenure healthy environment. When governments signed the Millennium issues, social and institutional capacity and law compliance. Then Declaration in 2000, they agreed to halve the number of people it analyses the main driving forces for change in the sector, such living in extreme poverty by 2015. as evolving policies and institutions; demographic, technological, A significant number of people living in poverty depend on forests economic and environmental changes; and domestic and and trees outside forests for food, shelter, clothing and heating, as international markets. The study also considers the policies and well as to generate income through employment and through the strategies of other key sectors that can influence the forest sector. sale of goods and services. However, the extent to which forests The last section projects the likely situation of the forest sector can alleviate poverty and improve food security for vulnerable in 2020. With regard to the extent of forests, it projects a decline populations is not well documented. in forest area from 924 million hectares in 2005 to 881 million Policy-makers need to be made more aware of the role of forests hectares in 2020 (with 80 percent of the deforestation expected to in poverty alleviation. However, action is not only the responsibility take place in Brazil, Mexico, Peru and Venezuela). Planted forests, of governments. Foresters and others working with communities primarily of Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp. and Araucaria angustifolia, can assist poor people to increase their benefits from forest

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and administrators, and owners of small-scale enterprises and their employees. Better forestry, less poverty is available online at: www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0645e/a0645e00.htm

A new vision for watershed management The new generation of watershed management programmes and projects. A resource book for practitioners and local decision-makers. 2006. FAO Forestry Paper 150. Rome, FAO. ISBN 92-5-105551-3. Sustainable management of watershed resources to meet the demands of growing populations has been a high priority for many countries over the past several decades. Particularly during the 1990s, integrated watershed management through people’s participation became widely accepted as a promising approach for conserving water, land and biodiversity, enhancing local livelihoods, improving the economy of upland inhabitants and people living in downstream areas, and ensuring sound sustainable natural resources management overall. On the occasion of the International Year of Mountains – 2002, FAO and its partners undertook a large-scale global review of integrated and participatory watershed management projects resources by helping them to access markets, acquire processing carried out from 1990 to 2000, with a view to identifying a vision skills, obtain improved varieties of trees, combine trees and crops for a new generation of programmes and projects. Experts on their land, and form associations to manage resources jointly, from Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America contributed to strengthen negotiation power and market products. the assessment through a workshop for each region and an Better forestry, less poverty aims to increase awareness so that international conference. forestry and development practitioners can make poverty reduction This resource book – prepared in collaboration with the a focus of their work. It suggests ways to design and implement European Observatory of Mountain Forests (EOMF), the forest-based interventions that have the greatest potential to reduce poverty. The guide examines the ways in which changes in forest management can cause poverty or worsen it, and how forestry practices can better contribute to poverty reduction and better protect the livelihood functions of forests. The guide outlines key issues related to timber production in both natural and planted forests, non-wood forest products, woodfuel, bushmeat, agroforestry and payment for environmental services, summarizing successful case studies for each and identifying sources of additional information. The guide emphasizes helping forestry practitioners gain a better understanding of the forms of rural poverty and of how decisions made at the local level affect segments of poor rural communities in different ways – women, children and the elderly being the most vulnerable. It highlights the importance of using participatory approaches and of tailoring activities to local circumstances. It also discusses how to link national policies and programmes to local needs, and how to monitor and assess progress in reducing poverty through forestry interventions. This publication will be of interest not only to forestry and development practitioners, but also to the communities they serve, including district forestry officials, extension workers, local planners

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International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), the Red Latinoamericana de Cooperación Técnica en Manejo de Cuencas Hidrográficas (REDLACH) and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) – presents a critical summary of the FAO review’s findings and recommendations. The first chapter looks at the history of watershed management, emphasizing how a discipline initially based on water engineering and forestry has become a multidisciplinary approach rooted in ecology and linked to agriculture, rural development, environmental economics and social sciences. The second chapter summarizes the conceptual background, presenting new perspectives on watershed biophysical processes, human ecology and environmental economics. The third chapter describes some ongoing changes in programme design and implementation strategy, and outlines the profile of the new generation of programmes and projects. The fourth chapter links the new watershed management approaches to the policy environment of the new millennium. It also deals with critical factors for the successful implementation of new approaches, such as capacity building and financing. The annexes provide additional information on specific methods and resources for watershed management. To facilitate the retrieval and use of information, the resource book allows for different levels of reading and learning. Page-side parks and timber concessions, both publicly and privately owned. callouts and subheadings facilitate a rapid scan of the contents About 814 million hectares fall into this category, or roughly two- of each chapter. Core information is summarized in the main text. thirds of the world’s tropical forests. Boxes illustrate key topics, burning issues and expert opinions, or Using information submitted by the countries themselves, present real-life examples. Short fiction narratives (a prelude and supplemented by data from a wide range of other sources, ITTO two interludes) illustrate the link between the everyday professional addresses the policy and institutional settings in each country, the life of watershed managers and the subject addressed in the approaches taken to the allocation and management of resources, following chapter. and the status of management of those resources. Part I gives the The publication is intended primarily for field-level watershed overall picture: introduction, methodology, overview of the status of management practitioners and local decision-makers involved in forest management, analysis, conclusions and recommendations. watershed management at the district or municipal level, but it will Part II provides individual country profiles, by region. Each profile also be a useful source of information for other readers such as describes the country’s forest resources, institutional arrangements evaluators, policy-makers and watershed management students. and status of forest management. The publication is available online at: www.fao.org/docrep/009/ The report notes that there has been significant progress towards a0644e/a0644e00.htm sustainable forest management in the tropics since 1988. Countries have established and are starting to implement new forest policies that contain the basic elements of sustainable forest management. ITTO report on tropical forest management More forests have been given some security by commitment as Status of tropical forest management 2005. 2006. Yokohama, Japan, International permanent forest estate, or a similar concept, for production or Tropical Timber Organization. ISBN 4-902045-24-9. protection. The study found that 15 percent of the permanent forest A 1988 survey by the International Tropical Timber Organization estate has a management plan. Moreover, some of the permanent (ITTO) found that less than 1 million hectares of tropical forest forest estate is certified – a new development since 1988. More than were being managed in accordance with good forestry practices. 25 million hectares are sustainably managed for production, and Status of tropical forest management 2005 considers changes in more than 36 million hectares if the area managed for protection is the subsequent 17 years, providing a comprehensive analysis of the included. forest management situation in the permanent forest estate of the 33 Despite this significant improvement, the overall proportion of ITTO producer member countries. “Permanent forest estate” refers to the permanent forest estate known to be sustainably managed land that governments have formally set aside for forests and that is remains very low, at less than 5 percent of the total – about 7 percent subject to some form of regulation or protection. It includes national of production forests and only 2.4 percent of protection forests.

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This area is distributed unevenly across the tropics and within countries. Significant areas of tropical forest are still lost every year, and unsustainable (and often illegal) extraction of tropical forest resources remains widespread. However, with most countries now attempting widespread implementation of sustainable forest management, ITTO is optimistic that progress will increase in the coming years. The report makes three recommendations to help quicken the pace of progress: • the institution of regular reporting on the status of tropical forest management at the international level; • increased resources from the international community to improve country capacity to collect, analyse and make available compre- hensive data on the status of tropical forest management; • the development of means for ensuring that sustainable forest management is as financially remunerative as other land uses. This report adds considerably to the understanding and knowledge of the status of management in tropical forests and provides a basis for informed debate on how best to encourage further progress. It is available on ITTO’s Web site: www.itto.or.jp

Woodcarving: impact on livelihoods, economies and resources craft in African countries, describing, for example, the wooden Carving out a future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving trade. giraffes of Kenya, the drums of Uganda and the Makonde African A. Cunningham, B. Belcher & B. Campbell, eds. 2005. London, UK, Earthscan. ISBN blackwood carving movement of Mozambique, among others. 1-84407-045-X. Another chapter focuses on carvers, conservation and certification When international travellers buy handmade woodcarvings as in India, while yet another looks at the trade in Bali, Indonesia. souvenirs or gifts, few are aware of the social and environmental There is also a chapter on Aboriginal woodcarvers in Australia. reality behind such objects; the woodcarving trade exerts severe Two chapters examine the Mexican contribution to the world of pressures on both the producers and the natural environment woodcarving. from which the wood is sourced. The editors of Carving out a The final chapters explore the more institutional aspects of the future: forests, livelihoods and the international woodcarving trade. Chapter 13, for example, examines the role of woodcarving trade aim to tackle this unawareness by presenting a study of the in livelihoods, comparing and contrasting a number of case studies craft’s cultural and economic contributions to livelihoods around on woodcarving with cases of various non-wood forest products. the world, as well as the consequences on the environment of Chapter 14 delves into the ecological impacts of woodcarving, providing the material necessary for the trade. noting why carvers prefer certain species and examining The book is the first of its kind. Although a number of the responses to scarcity of materials. Chapter 15 examines organizations – including the World Wide Fund for Nature certification and its benefits, focusing on the Kenyan market. (WWF), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural The concluding chapter considers the future of woodcarving and Organization (UNESCO) and the Center for International Forestry the steps that need to be taken to ensure that skilled artisans in Research (CIFOR) – have supported studies on woodcarving for developing countries get a fair economic return from the trade, and over a decade, this is the first comprehensive book on the subject, that the craft lives on in an environmentally sound way. bringing together the work of nearly 50 contributors. The 16 Richly illustrated, this book will be as interesting for chapters cover a range of issues as well as diverse geographical anthropologists and general readers as for foresters. regions. Chapters 1 and 2 offer an introduction and overview of the history, culture and traditions of woodcarving. They examine Prospects for genetically modified trees wood supply and conservation as well as carvers’ preferences Landscapes, genomics and transgenic conifers. C.G. Williams, ed. 2006. Managing for different types of wood, regional differences and distinct Forest Ecosystems 9. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer. ISBN 1-4020-3868-2. characteristics. They also explore the changes and innovation Genetically modified organisms have been a source of controversy in the market and future trends. Several chapters tell about the since their initial appearance. Now that transgenic forests are a

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landscape, which is the main deterrent to commercial-scale use of transgenic forest trees. Finally, Section IV presents scenarios for the adoption of the technology from an economic point of view, and Section V considers the status of regulatory oversight of transgenic forest trees in Canada and the United States. Including a lexicon of scientific terms frequently used in reference to transgenic conifers, this book will prove to be a useful reference for those wishing to acquaint themselves with the field of transgenic forest trees, or to increase their knowledge on the subject.

possibility, debate has been sparked over pros and cons regarding such plantations. Many people have concerns about genetically modified vegetables, but in reality transgenic forest trees and food crops have more differences than similarities. The controversy surrounding the field may eclipse potential advantages of forest biotechnology. Landscapes, genomics and transgenic conifers aims to open a dialogue on the subject by presenting both benefits and risks of forest biotechnology. With five sections consisting of 14 chapters by 31 authors working in North and South America, Europe and Africa, it presents a cross-disciplinary approach designed for everyone from policy experts and life scientists to writers and social activists. The final product is an attempt to reverse the alienation of the general public from the subject as well as to provide content for science-based deliberations about it. The discussion is narrowed to conifers because of their profound economic impact on the wood supply in developed countries, where most of the research in this field is carried out. The first section presents an overview of transgenic conifer plantations, broaching subjects such as public policy, natural resources management and forest biology and history. This section also examines arguments as to whether the commercialization of transgenic conifers would do more harm or good, leading to the conclusion that the risks and benefits of such plantations have not yet been analysed enough. The next two sections expand on research in conifer genomics and ecology, examining the potential interface between transgenic conifer plantations and less managed ecosystems. Also highlighted is the movement of transgenic pollen and seeds in the

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