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Computers and Composition 15, 347—371

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Computers and Composition 15, 347—371 Computers and Composition 15, 347-371(1998) ISSN 8765-4615 © 1998 Ablex Publishing Corporation All rights of reproduction reserved The Mysterious Disappearance of Word Processing BERNARD SUSSER Doshisha Women’s Junior College As an instructional technology, word processing has almost disappeared from accounts of writing with computers, but this article argues that most student writers have never used word processing in a meaningful sense, so that far from “disappearing/’ word processing has not yet appeared. Experimental research reports and published practitioner accounts are examined to show that in hardly any cases can the subjects or students be said to be using a word-processing package at anywhere near its full potential; this is true even in reports of so-called “experienced” users. To overcome this problem, the author used a heuristic device to encourage Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students to use word processing more fully, but the results showed little improvement in the students reported use of the functions of word processing. The conclusion draws on studies of computer use in the workplace to evaluate the results and discusses the need for fuller exploitation of word processing in writing instruction. computers and efficiency computers and writing disappearance EFL heuristic device word processing In the twentieth century, it takes a special kind of courage to continue to use a particular technology once it is considered to be outmoded, even if that technology is more than adequate for the task at hand. Michael Levy (1997, p.2) The trope of disappearance has been powerful in modem composition and literary studies. Barthes and Foucault postulated the disappearance of the author; text itself became pixeled and desubstantiated (e.g., Balestri, 1988, pp. 16 ff.; Dorner, 1991, p. 15; Lanham, 1993, pp. 5, 75, 130). Familiar tools like pencils and pens became invisible (Chandler, 1995, pp. 27—28); then computers (Tornow, 1997, p. 15), word processing (Hawisher, LeBlanc, Moran, & Selfe, 1996, pp. 186, 239), and technology itself (Bruce & Hogan, 1988, pp. 269 ff.) disappeared. 0. B. Hardison (1989), going one step further, claimed that “the idea of humanity is changing so rapidly that it, too, can legitimately and without any exaggeration be said to be disappearing” (1989, p. 347). Many Direct all correspondence to: Bernard Susser, English Department, Doshisha Women’s Junior College. Kado, Kyotanabe City, Kyoto Prefecture 610-0395, Japan. E-mail: <[email protected]>. 347 340 SUSSER have pointed to computers and word processing as the culprits because they destroy our interior, alphabetized mental space” (Sanders, 1994, pp. 136, 146), or they create prose that “displays a charge with less central focus and less mental integrity,” so “the pristine power of original language is especially in danger of total oblivion” (Heim, 1987, p. 210).1 Gore Vidal (1984) claimed that “the idea of literature is being erased by the word processor” (p. 20) while William Gass saw the computer and word processing as responsible for the “disappearance of human beings” (as cited in Sanders, 1994, p. 148).2 Even without the hyperbole, there is general agreement that from about 1989 the computers and writing (C&W) field moved its focus of attention from word processing to computer-mediated communication (CMC), hypertext, and other innovative forms of writing technology (Gerrard, 1995, pp. 283-284; Hawisher et al., 1996, pp. 86-187. 239; see also Hilligoss & Sclfe 1994, p. 340; Tuman, 1992, p. 57). This is confirmed by the rapid fall in the number of articles and presentations devoted to word processing3 Given the tremendous enthusiasm for writing with computers in the 1980s, this is surprising; two explanations have been offered. First, in Trent Batson’s words, the field had reached a “dead end” (as cited in Hawisher et al., 1996, p. 11) and was looking for something new. Driven by the rapid development of new technologies and supported by an increasing emphasis on the social aspects of writing, the C&W field launched itself into groupware, hypertext, and cyberspace, abandoning the “old-fashioned” (Davidson, 1996, p. 98) word processor. The inevitable result, as Marianne Phinney (1996) pointed out, was that “in classes where groupware is employed, word processing and the development of word processing skills take a back seat to the purposes for communication in interactions mediated within a computer environment” (p. 142). The second explanation is that by 1990 computer technology (including word-processing packages) had become ‘transparent’4 so 1For similar pronouncements see, for example, Sven Birkerts, 1994, pp. 122, 156 ff.; Daniel Chandler, 1987, 1995; Michael Heim, 1993, pp. 3 ff., 55 ff.; Stephen Talbott, 1995, pp. 186 ff. 2Barry Sanders (1996, p. 148) claimed that Gass said this in 1991 but his reference is for a book review Gass published in 1988; the words Sanders cited do not appear in this review (Gass, 1988). Further, the title of the review is “The Polemical Philosopher,” not “Human, All Too Human” (Sanders, 1995, p. 248). Where (If?) Gass said this is not important, because Sanders, who has thought long and hard (if not well) about computers and literacy, clearly believes it. 3To confirm this, I searched the ERIC on CD-ROM database (Nisc Disc) covering the period 1985 to December 1997. I used only the keyword word processing, which yielded many items on keyboarding instruction. CAI, etc., as well as works on computers and writing. Even so, the results were instructive: 1985, 258 items; 1986, 267; 1987, 251; 1988, 210; 1989, 245; 1990, 181; 1991, 161; 1992, 136; 1993, 103; 1994, 84; 1995, 74; 1996, 73; and 1997, 25. 4Here transparent means too familiar to be noticed, “simply presupposed” (Pennington. 1996, p. 40); it is in this sense that Johndan Johnson-Eilola (1997, p. 49) cited Jacques Ellul: “The ability to forget the machine is the ideal of technical perfection” (1964, p. 413). Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores (1986/1987, p. 164) used word processing in their discussion of transparency (see also Levy, 1997, pp. 184-185). Joan Tornow (1997) argued that “when a stand alone computer becomes networked, it’s as if it suddenly shifts from being opaque to being transparent” (p. 15). Haas (1996) uses transparent in this sense (e.g., p. xi) even though her main argument is that technology is not transparent because it affects writing (e.g., p. 34; see also Haas & Neuwirth, 1994, pp. 321-323). See also Turkel’s (1995) discussion of the “cultural shift in the meaning of transparency” (p. 42). Disappearance of Word Processing 349 it was no longer an issue; it had, to borrow Hardison’s (1989) trope, “disappeared.”5 This came about, Myron Tuman (1993) argued, just because word processing “triumphed completely” (p. 49); its very success as an “effortless, transparent support for both the theory and practice of writing as process” meant that word processing “did not raise important pedagogical and methodological issues” (p. 49). Here, I argue that word processing did not disappear or become transparent but rather never appeared in any meaningful sense. There are many definitions of word processing (see, e.g., Winograd & Flores, 1986/1987, pp. 5-6); Martha Pennington’s (1996) will do: Word processing “allows many different kinds of modifications to written text before or after saving, such as deletion, insertion, and movement of pieces of text as long as several paragraphs” (p. 31). Word processing cannot be defined more rigorously because of the great variety of word-processing packages with different features and structures (Bridwell-Bowles, 1989, p. 83; Haas, 1996, p. 51; Hawisher, 1989, p.57; Pennington, 1996, pp. 43 ff.). Robert Lucky (1989) even argued that because technology develops so rapidly, it is hard to say anything meaningful about word processing (pp. 164-165). Terminology problems are compounded when some researchers (e.g., Van Haalen, 1990) seem to think that any software that allows users to input text is a “word processor,” (see pp. 11-12); Lillian Bridwell, Geoffrey Sire, and Robert Brooke (1985) and others even “use computer composing’ to mean whatever [participants] did while they were working with the word-processing systems, even though several of them continued to use paper for planning and some drafting” (p. 179). Further, computers are used for writing in a range from the experienced users’ full employment of the software’s functions for planning, revising, editing, and formatting to basic typing, in which the word-processing package functions as a “slick typewriter” (Kellogg, 1994, p. 162): even the same software may be used in quite different ways by different users (see Benesch, 1987; Bridwell et al., 1985, pp. 190 ff.). Christina Haas (1996) argued that word processing is the “most generic of computer writing tools” (p. 77) because the functions of a word-processing package are built into most CMC software, but when people write e-mail online, participate in MOOs, or use CACD (computer-assisted class discussion) software, they make comparatively little use of word processing functions.6 Even in formal writing, “truly written composition” (Ong, 1982, p. 95) that requires “planning, care, and organization” (Elbow, 1996, p. 688), many writers make minimal use of word-processing package functions (see, e.g., Thiesmeyer, 1989, pp. 85-86). 5James Kalmbach (1996) documented many remarkable parallels between the experimental introduction of typewriters into schools in the 1930s and the adoption of computers today; research on typewriters in classrooms “disappeared” along with the typewriters themselves (p. 64; see also Kalmbach, 1997, pp. 104 ff.). 6This claim is based on my reading of the literature and personal observation; it has not been established experimentally one way or the other as far as I know. Margaret Riel (1990) found that sixth graders wrote better compositions to peers on a computer network than for teachers on an exam (p.
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