Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , and 5 , J. J. Delannoy 4 , A. R. Farrant 3 3242 3241 , S. R. Noble 1,2 , S. Verheyden 1,2 2 This discussion paper is/has beenPlease under refer review to for the the corresponding journal final Climate paper of in the CP Past (CP). if available. Department of Earth and History of Life, Royal Institute ofAnalytical, Natural Environmental & Sciences Geo-Chemistry, (RBINS), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12NERC 5GG, Isotope UK Geochemistry Laboratory, Keyworth,Laboratoire Nottingham, EDYTEM NG12 UMR 5GG, 5204 UK CNRS, Université de Savoie Mont-Blanc, Pôle Montagne, Received: 17 June 2015 – Accepted: 25Correspondence June to: 2015 C. – Nehme Published: ([email protected]) 17 July 2015 Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. Paleoclimate reconstruction in the Levant region from the petrography andgeochemistry the of a MIS 5the stalagmite Kanaan from Cave, Lebanon C. Nehme Clim. Past Discuss., 11, 3241–3275, 2015 www.clim-past-discuss.net/11/3241/2015/ doi:10.5194/cpd-11-3241-2015 © Author(s) 2015. CC Attribution 3.0 License. P. Claeys 1 Brussels, Belgium 2 Vrije Universiteit Brussel,3 Belgium 4 5 Bourget-du-Lac, France Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ected ff 122 ka, ∼ ect of the Eastern Mediterranean ff 3244 3243 O source e 18 δ 84 ka indicate a transition to drier conditions during ∼ 125 ka. A gradual shift in speleothem isotopic composition ∼ erent continental records reflect changes in atmospheric circu- ff erent continental archives, limits our understanding of the regional ff erent palaeoclimate archives exist, particularly between speleothem and lacustrine Whereas these di 129 ka that lasted until ff is generally considered toalthough be this a is warm still period,Ayalon under et comparable considerable al., to debate 2011, the 2013; (Vaksdi Bar-Mathews present-day et et climate, al., al., 2003; 2014). However, Lisker discrepancies et between al., 2010; suggest the interglacial optimumare was indicative wet, of drier but conditions low during lake the levels same in period. lation, the regional Dead topographic Sea patterns basin tors, and/or the site-specific lack climatic of and detailed,especially accurately hydrological dated from fac- long-term di records from the northern Levant, chemical cave deposits, which provideconstruction high-resolution (Genty proxy et tools al., for 2001;the paleoclimate Drysdale significance re- et of al., speleothem 2007, records,of in 2009). particular continental Recent for studies climate achieving highlight changes precise2003, (Wang chronologies et 2006; al., Cheng 2001; ethistory Fairchild al., et and al., 2009). stable 2006; In isotopeclose Genty this geochemistry to et paper, the al., of we Mediterranean a coastLebanon. examine This stalagmite on the speleothem the from provides petrography, western a growth Kanaan precise flank U–Th cave, of dated situated continental Mount record Lebanon of near climate Beirut, archives. In particular, inconsistencies between records2003, from Negev 2006), desert central (Vaks et Israel/Palestine al., 2000) (Bar-Mathews and et Lebanon al., (Develle 2000, eteastern 2003; al., Mediterranean Frumkin coastline 2011; et (Ayalon Gasse et al., etBasin) al., al., 2013) (Kolodny 2011, and et inner 2015); basins and al.,particular, (e.g. between 2005; Dead speleothem the Sea Enzel isotopic et records of al., Soreq, 2008; Peqiin Lisker and at West al., Jerusalem 2010) caves are evident. In response to climatic conditionsnities during to MIS resolve 5. theThis This inconsistencies study between lack attempts paleoclimate of to records data resolvefrom across restricts this a the by the speleothem region. providing opportu- a from new a high-resolution cave record in obtained the northern Levant. Speleothems are secondary Abstract Lying at the transitiondeserts, between the the temperate Levant Mediterranean isinterglacial domain a cycles. and This key subtropical paper arealagmite presents to a (129–84 ka) study precisely from the datedisotopic last palaeoclimatic the interglacial records response Kanaan (MIS indicate over Cave, 5)∼ a glacial- Lebanon. sta- warm Variations in humid growth phase rate at and the onst of the last interglacial at (125–122 ka) is driven mainly by the surface waters during Sapropel S5. The onset of glacial inception began after interrupted by a shortoxygen wet and pulse carbon during values until SapropelNorthern S4. Hemisphere glaciation. Low growth rates and enriched 1 Introduction Located at the interfaceby between both mid the North and Atlantic high Oscillationregion latitude and (East the climate Mediterranean monsoonal Basin) systems, system has and over theclimatic Africa, a unique changes the potential in Levant both to systems. record Known thements, for occurrence the its Levant of long straddles the record transition of zoneclimate prehistoric between human in the settle- more the humid Mediterranean northThis and transition zone the is arid characterisedOver Saharo-Arabian by the desert steep past decade, precipitation climate several and studies regimeof temperature have in gradients. attempted this to the critical understand south. region theet palaeoclimate (Fig. al., 1a) 1999; using Emeis both2000; et marine al., Bar-Mathews (Kallel 2003) et et andet al., al., continental al., 1997; paleoclimate 2003; 2013; Rossignol-Strick records Vaks Kolodny (Frumkin etclimate et et al., system 2013; al., in al., Gasse the 2005; Levant et is al., Develle the 2015). last et A interglacial; key al., Marine period Isotope 2011; for Stage understanding (MIS) Ayalon 5. the This 5 5 15 25 10 20 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | N 0 41 ◦ 5 ‰) and 130–120 ka, ∼ − ∼ N and 34 0 34 ◦ 125–117 ka) as shown in ∼ 140–130 ka). After Termination II, 0 ‰) approaching those of the host ∼ ∼ ey and Marshall, 2000). The warmest C warmer than present (Otto-Bliesner ff ◦ 3246 3245 C records ( O values mainly attributed to higher rainfall, sug- 13 18 δ δ C in the West Jerusalem cave suggest extremely dry and unstable con- 13 δ in Soreq cave (Bar-Mathews et al., 2003). However, relatively high ( ff Onshore, the climate in the Levant region during MIS 5 has been reconstructed from In the eastern Mediterranean basin, periods of anoxic conditions associated with the Conditions during the Last Interglacial Period (LIG) are thought to have been similar (Fig. 1). The westernwith side an of the annual country precipitation(World is varying Bank, characterized between 2003). by a 880 Theand Mediterranean and February) climate climate 1100 and is mm dry, seasonal;influenced along hot by with the the summers Atlantic wet coastline (from Westerlies, winterstropical which May bring (between cyclones. to in These November moist October). winds originateranean The associated Sea, in with present forming extra- a the climate series of Atlantic is of subsynoptic and low cold pressure air track systems. In plunging east winter,esis, south outbreaks across creating over the the the Mediter- relatively Cyprusonshore warm generating Low Mediterranean intense (Fig. enhance orographic cyclogen- 1).Levant. The rainfall These duration, across intensity low the and pressureamount track mountains of of systems of rainfall these drive in storm the this moist systems northern region. strongly air influence the to that of today. Marine Isotopevolume between Stage 130 5 to is 75 generally kadefined known (Emiliani, as as 1955). a being The period equivalent Last of to Interglaciala minimum MIS Period global ice (LIG), 5e often mean (Shackleton et surfaceet al., temperature al., 2002), 2006), at was caused least characterized bymean by 2 the sea-level stood orbital 4 forcing to of 6 insolation mcontribution higher (Berger from than and present the Loutre, (Kopp Greenland et 1991).interval, al., The ice 2009), MIS with sheet 5e, an was (Cu important followed byalternating two with cold two episodes warmer in periods the (MIS ocean 5c (MIS and 5d MIS and 5a). MIS 5b), fluctuating ditions during which a2000). C4 Gasse vegetation et type al. was (2011, introduced in 2015) this suggest area wet (Frumkin conditions et ( al., carbonate were interpreted asruno a consequence of soil denudation due to high surface 2003; Ayalon et al., 2013; Vakswas et al., generally 2006, wet 2013). and These cold archives suggest during that Termination climate II ( lacustrine records from interior(Kolodny lake et basins al., such 2005;tral as Gasse and the southern et Dead Israel al., (Frumkin Sea 2011, et and 2015) al., Yammouneh and 1999, speleothem 2000; Bar-Mathews records et from al., cen- 1999, 2000; northeastern Mediterranean basin (Cheddadi and Rossignol-Strick, 1995). the region experiencedSapropel an 5 intense (S5) warm inEmeis period the et coinciding Eastern al., with Mediterranean the 2003; (Rossignol-Strick development Rohling and of et Paterne, al., 1999; 2002; Ziegler et al., 2010). From formation of sapropelshorizons during are MIS considered 5 tothe are have River formed generally Nile during related (Rohling periodslow-latitude to et of hydrological wet al., increased activity conditions. 2002, dischargesponds These in down 2004; closely Scrivner the with et Nile high al.,and summer headwaters. 2004), with insolation This minima linked (Rohling in peak to etMediterranean the enhanced al., in precession region 2002; rainfall cycle Moller also corre- (Lourens etRossignol-Strick, experienced et al., 1995; al., enhanced 2012) Rossignol-Strick 1996). pluvial and Atconditions conditions that Paterne, are (Cheddadi time, demonstrated 1999; by the Kallel and pollen East et assemblages found al., within 2000). sapropel S5 Wet from the gesting conditions were wetter than2000, during 2003). Early Corresponding Holocene high period (Bar-Mathews et al., speleothem records from theof Peqiin, rapid Soreq growth and and West decrease Jerusalem in caves show periods history from the northern Levantof spanning this the region. last interglacial and the glacial inception 2 Climate and paleoclimatic setting Lebanon is located in the northern Levant between latitudes 32 5 5 25 15 10 20 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | O in 85 ka, O val- 18 18 ∼ δ δ 100 and ∼ erent climatic trends ff 118–120 ka (Bar-Mathews ∼ rayim caves (Vaks et al., 2003, 2006), O values. However, the continued and ff 18 δ E. The cave has developed in the Middle 00 3248 3247 ected the northern Levant (Yammouneh, West- 25 0 ff 36 ◦ N; 35 00 O values suggest a moderate wet period at this time in agree- 25 0 18 δ 54 ◦ 100 ka, a moderate wet period is suggested by depleted 75 ka, the last wet and warm phase of MIS 5 occurred in the Lev- ∼ ∼ 85 to 110 to ∼ ∼ C in speleothems from these caves (Fig. 1) evidence a reintroduction of a C3 vege- It is clear that there are significant discrepancies between the climatic records be- From The return to slightly drier conditions, as suggested by an increase in From 13 Jurassic Kesrouane Formation, asequence thick predominantly with micritic an limestone averageonly and stratigraphic 2.5 dolomite thickness km of from 1000 theinfluenced m by Mediterranean (Fig. the coast maritime 2a). and Mediterranean Being climate. at located just 98 m a.s.l., the cave is strongly Kanaan Cave is located oneast the of western Beirut flank of at central 33 Mount Lebanon, 15 km north- (wet/dry) especially during MIS5 5e. period In (Gasse the et northernrecords al., Levant, are 2011, few needed 2015; records Develle from spanare et this the al., well area MIS 2011). recorded to New decipher inCaves well-dated on if the speleothem the and southern Judean when Levant plateau)ern the (Dead also Mount-Lebanon). climatic a Sea What changes is basin, that the still North Soreq Atlantic/Mediterranean unclear Cave system is vs. andsoon the how Peqiin southern system the (Arz influences entire linked et to al., regionspeleothem the 2003; has mon- from Waldmann Kanaan et responded Cave, al., to Lebanon 2009;age partly Vaks in et fills the al., the Levant, 2013). and disparity Thethe may in K1-2010 help paleoclimatic spatial understand patterns. data the cover- spatial climate heterogeneity, if any, of 3 Location of Kanaan Cave tween northern (Lebanon, northerndan, Israel/Palestine), Syria possibly and driven by SEthat a Turkey) varied strong and dramatically north–south southern in palaeoclimatic amplitude Levant gradient over (Jor- short distances and di (Develle et al., 2011).creased However, significantly the (Waldmann et level al., 2009) ofin and Lake caves little speleothem Samra situated deposition in in occurred both the the suggesting Negev Dead a desert drier Sea climate (Fig. Basin during 1) de- MIS after 5a MIS in 5c the south (Vaks of et the al., region. 2006, 2013), ues in speleothems from Soreq andtaxa Peqiin in Caves and northern by Lebanon an(S4) increase (Develle in et in arboreal al., the pollen 2011). eastern This Mediterranean coincides (Emeis with et anoxic conditions al., 2003). Between ant, corresponding with Sapropel(Bar-Mathews (S3) et in al., the 1999, 2003) eastern and Mediterranean. Ma’aele In E Soreq, Peqiin more stable C3 vegetationthe cover minor (Frumkin lake level et increase al., inably the wetter 2000) Dead in in Sea the Basin West suggest Deadhigh Jerusalem that Sea altitude the cave basin Yammouneh climate and paleolake (Waldmann was et prob- recordsvegetation cover al., suggest similar 2009). seasonal to In variations the northern MIS with 5d Lebanon, steppe period. the depleted speleothem ment with the increase in arboreal pollen taxa in the Yammouneh lacustrine record a return to aSoreq slightly and drier Peqiin caves climate with is an suggested increase by in speleothem deposition in both the the pollen assemblages and oxygen isotopesern from the Lebanon. Yammouneh paleolake, In in contrast, north- dry the during Dead this Sea period Basin (Kolodnycursors located et of al., southwards the 2005). (Fig. Dead The Sea, 1),a Samra, showed remained slight Amora, lower rise stands and than occurred Lisan during during lakes, pre- the the Holocene, last even Interglacial though Maximum (Waldmann et al., 2009). speleothems from the Soreq andet Peqiin caves al., is 2000, dated 2003). at δ Lower rainfall amounts prevailed untiltation cover, 110 indicative ka. of But wet conditions theYammouneh (Frumkin paleolake decrease et records al., in (Develle 2000). et In al., northernseasonal 2011) Lebanon located changes the at with higher altitudecover. wet suggest winters, dry summers and expanded steppe vegetation 5 5 25 10 15 20 15 25 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Th– 230 Th– 229 erent locations along the level, typically of between ff σ 0.2 mm) lamination in places. The < C. ◦ and then recommenced growing. 1 angle (clockwise) relative to upper segment. ◦ ± 3250 3249 ◦ O measurements were drilled along the speleothem cen- 18 δ O measurements in hermetically sealed glass bottles. Measure- U, and ages include a ca. 0.2 % uncertainty calculated from the 18 C and Th tracer calibration uncertainty and measurement reproducibility of δ 238 ) were less than 0.10 ‰. 13 U/ σ 229 δ U/ 234 236 Th reference solution calibrated against CRM 112a. Quoted uncertainties for activity Three seepage water samples and three water pool samples from Kanaan Cave Samples for Kanaan Cave is a 162 m long relict conduit discovered during quarrying in 1997. U series dating was carried out at the NERC Isotope Geosciences Laboratory The lower segment (Segment 1) is 8.2 cm long and 8.5 cm wide (Fig. 3) and dis- ments were performed atusing the the Vrije cavity-ring Universiteit down Brussel spectroscopyper (CRDS) on mill technique. a (‰) All Picarro values relative L2130-iuncertainties are to (2 analyzer reported Vienna in Standard Mean Ocean Water (V-SMOW2). Analytical dark brown to light yellow with a regular thin ( plays a general growth axis tilted at a 45 were collected for 5 Results 5.1 Petrography The speleothem collected(Fig. from 2). Kanaan In Cave section is it 23 cm displays regular long layers and of up dense to calcite 10 ranging cm in wide colour from and also in years before 1950 with an uncertainty at the 2 speleothem axis by drillingsevere samples out-of-equilibrium along deposition an was individual detectedmite, growth along where layer. the the No growth samples evidence axis for for isotope of analysis the are stalag- taken. speleothem has two clearly definedwhere growth the phases, stalagmite characterized was tilted by around an 45 abrupt hiatus The regular deposition of translucent columnar crystals is interrupted by clayey lay- ratios, initial tral axis usingface a and 1 drill mm bit dentalsamples prior drill. were to taken Ethanol sampling. along Sample waswith the resolution used longitudinal Hendy was axis to 1 tests of to clean was the 1.2 mm. carried the stalagmite. A Isotopic out speleothem total equilibrium (Hendy, sur- of 1971) 206 at five di 232 combined 500 and 1000 years (see Table 1). reference materials (HU-1, CRM 112a,measured in-house isotope Th ratio reference uncertainty. solution) Ages as are well calculated as from the time of analysis (2014) ples were collected withspeleothem, a taking dental care drill to frompurification eleven sample of levels along uranium along growth and thewards horizons. et growth thorium al. Chemical axis were (1988) separation of performed withmulticollector the and modifications. following inductively Data the were coupled obtained procedures plasmaprocedures on of mass a modified Ed- Thermo spectrometer from Neptune (MC-ICP-MS) Anderson Plus and following et SEM al. gain (2008) for and Th Hiess measurements were et corrected al. using (2012). an Mass in-house bias A 23 cm long stalagmite,stone sample block K1-2010 in was the collected center(formerly part from closed) the of cave entrance top the (Fig. Collapse ofthickness 2b I of a and sediment. chamber, fallen c). approximately The lime- The 20 passage50 m fallen m height from block at of the rests this on limestone locationalthough an is overburden. some unknown 2.4 Presently, m drip the with water approximately stalagmiteter occurs and in receives spring other no seasons. parts dripping Thetemperature of in cave the water, is Collapse Collapse I generally I chamber dry chamber is during during 20 the win- summer months. The air The stalagmite (samplethe K1-2010) cave, was and cut polishedobservations along using were its performed 120–4000 µm with growth silicon an axis optical carbide binocular after (SiC) microscope paper. NEOC. retrieval(NIGL), Petrographic from British Geological Survey, Keyworth, UK. Powdered 100 to 400 mg calcite sam- 4 Methods 5 5 15 20 10 25 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . 10.0 and O values ◦ − 18 δ O values de- 84 ka, except C enrichment C curve show 18 ∼ 13 13 δ 84 ka exhibit the δ δ ∼ O values (generally 12 ‰) are observed 18 7.8 ‰, with an overall − (counter clockwise) to δ − ◦ O should not show any , the present temperature 18 1 − δ 3.5 to C) ◦ 0.8 ka. The major discontinuity − ± 122 ka and a third segment, from ∼ C V-PDB diagram (Fig. 6) with the 11 ‰ between 120 and 110 ka. Af- 13 − 0.7 ka. An extrapolated age of 84.1 ka δ C values before 129 ka. A rapid shift to- ± 4.6 ‰ (20 13 − δ C V-PDB values range between O) sampled from the cave shows an average D seepage water values in Kanaan Cave falls 3252 3251 125.4 and δ 13 18 1.1 and 126.0 4.5 ‰ at 122.7 ka. High O. From 103.4 to 100.2 ka, the δ ∼ δ ± 18 O and ) to 85.3 7.5 ‰) are observed at the basal part of the sta- 11.3 ‰ as shown in Fig. 5. The 1.5 ka. At 94 ka, a rapid decrease of δ σ ∼ − 18 − O V-PDB vs. ∼ δ O and ∼ − 18 18 δ δ C values prevail with a surprising stable period between 0.8 (2 C should occur. As indicated by several of these so-called 13 ± δ 13 3.5 ‰. The 93 to 90 ka, a 1.1 ‰ enrichment of carbon isotopic values lead δ − O values around ca. 6.18 ‰ in ∼ 0.06 ‰. 18 − 5.5 ‰ at 92.7 ka. The top of the stalagmite at 4 ‰) are observed until the top of the stalagmite at δ ± − − O and 18 5.43 δ 4.6 to − C values of the time series. Consequently, the stalagmite shows a tripar- − 13 O values of 5.1 ‰. Lower values ( 4.7 and δ O values from K1-2010 (Fig. 5) ranged from 18 − − 18 δ δ 1 ‰ from 124 to 120 ka and stays around 132.1 ka was estimated by extrapolating the speleothem age model downwards O value of ∼ ∼ The 100 and 93 ka. From 12.4 ‰ with an overall mean of 18 at the base of the speleothem, before 130 ka, followed by a minor of ter 110 ka generally lower ∼ to highest tite partition as shown in the processes occur in the epikarst beforeO’Neil precipitating (1997) the equilibrium speleothem. Using equation, thetheoretically calcite Kim display and precipitated under these conditions should base featuring the most depleted wards higher isotopic values between in the cave. 5.4 Oxygen and Carbon isotope series If precipitation occurs atsignificant enrichment isotopic along equilibrium, a single theation lamina between calcite away from theHendy growth tests axis (Hendy, 1971) and performed no alongprocesses covari- growth layers, during no precipitation severe of out-of-equilibrium the calcite seem to have occurredmean (see of Supplement). lagmite. Values increase rapidly to relatively minor variations. However, the most depleted values ( crease from between leads to a peakhighest of − ers (discontinuities) mostly at12.2 17 and cm, 14.2 cm, from theuous 15.6 lamina clear to in and 15.2 the cm translucent centralthe and layering, axial outer at part but edge 14.2 of which cm. of4–6 the becomes cm Between the speleothem wide. increasingly sample. At show clayey The the contin- towards base, higher the segment general (Segment growth axis 2) is is tilted at 12.3 cm 16 long and using the growth rate between 124.5 for the top ofplotting the an stalagmite age was vs. calculated depthtaining from an profile the automated on age age grapher. model model StalAge dueThe program in to measured discontinuities was Fig. on not uncertainties 4 the suitable obtained stalagmitedetrital are for growth layers by ob- profile. highest prevail. The in datesple the are KA-stm-6. in lower Several stratigraphical part discontinuities order were withleading of noted the to the exception in uncertainties of speleothem the sam- in middleof where determining and towards a the basal base, age for thein speleothem. the A middle part basal of age to the speleothem 103.5 ka as (intrapolated) shown during in Fig. which 4 the lasted growth from axis 108.85.3 was (intrapolated) tilted by about Modern 45 cave water and calciteRecent isotopic cave compositions water (a proxy for rainfall for two periods with relatively lower the azimuth axis, gradually becomingture more vertical of towards the this top. sectioninterrupted The general by is struc- marked characterized opaque yellow by layers, uniform respectively at yellow 9,5.2 translucent 8, 5.6, columnar 3.2 crystals and Uranium 2.8 series cm. (U–Th) dating Ten uranium series dates, shownfrom in approximately Table 1 129.72 indicate that the stalagmite K1-2010 grew δ on the local meteoric waterline (Saad et al., 2005) indicating that no severe evaporation 5 5 20 25 10 15 15 20 10 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | C 13 δ 129.5 103 to 99.8 to ∼ ∼ ∼ 119 ka, corre- concentration, cient rainfall to ∼ 2 ffi ) from 1 C in the K1-2010 − 13 δ productivity (Gascoyne, 1992; (Genty et al., 2001). The 2 2 O values except for the 103–101 18 C) of speleothems in the Levant are δ 13 δ C and ective precipitation and CO ) and speleothem diameter from ff 3253 3254 13 1 δ − , most probably due to sediment washing out and causing the ◦ before the speleothem tilted seems to start at 1 content via root respiration, photosynthetic and microbial activity. − 2 103 ka by extrapolating the growth rates of each segment towards the C value (Frumkin et al., 2000). The low values for ∼ 84 ka, shows rather stable 13 129 ka are indicative of a 100 % C3 vegetation profile with relatively high soil δ ∼ ∼ 126 ka, after a period of growth associated with the start of the Last Interglacial ∼ Other discontinuities are observed in the first segment of the speleothem but do not The middle part shows a higher growth rate (0.09 cm (100 yr) 109 and 99.8 ka during the ensuing interstadial (MIS 5c), followed by a decrease in both 85.3 ka during MIS 5b. The carbon isotope signal shifts slightly to more positive val- 122 to Hellstrom et al., 1998;regulates Genty soil et CO al.,The 2006) changes associated in with carbon vegetation isotopic density, composition which ( is thus most likely to be controlled by biogenic soil CO thus linked to changes inetation precipitation and with a periods of lowerin low contribution higher rainfall of inducing sparse “light” veg- organic carbon in the speleothem resulting around productivity suggestive of rather mild and humid conditions. seem to be related toin long the hiatuses, with middle the∼ part fact that of the high segment growthdiscontinuity 1. rate D2. is A This observed second discontinuity,ated hiatus marked with was by a a major estimated change relativelywas to in tilted thick occur speleothem by clay around orientation. between layer, 45 During is this associ- hiatus, the stalagmite during the humid conditions in first(Drysdale part et of al., the 2005; LIG. Zanchetta Previouset studies et in al., al., Southern 2003; 2007) Europe and Frumkin in etcarbon the al., in Eastern 2000; Levant speleothem Verheyden (Bar-Mathews et calcite al., is 2008) derived have shown from that soil most CO of the block on which theto stalagmite 0.013 cm (100 grew yr) to move. A striking decrease in the growth rate sponding to the onsetbetter of constrain the the age last of the glacial. change Additional in U-series growth rate. dates are necessary to ∼ growth rate (0.03 to 0.06 cm (100 yr) and 93–90 ka characterized by avalues change for to carbon. lower isotopic values for oxygen and higher 6 Discussion 6.1 Integrated climatic interpretation of theSpeleothem speleothem proxies growth iscontrolled conditioned mainly by by e the(Baker bio-activity and of Smart, the 1995;growth Dreybrodt, soil is 1988; and typically Genty associated consequently et with bymaintain al., warm drip-water the and 2006). flow, humid temperature Therefore whereas conditions speleothem lowdicate with speleothem cold su growth or rates dry or conditionstuses hiatuses (Bar-Matthews are et tend identified al., to in 2003), in- the orand K1-2010 possibly stalagmite. flooding. The Two hia- first hiatusPeriod. occurs The between speleothem stopset growing al., 2002). shortly Given the after expectation the thatgrowth MIS5e at onset would this be of warm time MIS and isat wet, 5e unexpected. the this cessation However, (Shackleton time the of contains lower part severalperiods clayey of during layers the which that stalagmite the may deposited indicate speleothemthat apart either was from covered long these with dry muddy mud periods,tal layers or or aspect the muddy speleothem or water. does change The not inby fact show porosity, sudden any suggests change events that in perturbing these crys- hiatuses speleothemin may deposition aridity be rather or better than explained drop acollected significant in from increase temperature a leading rockIt to is situated cessation plausible in of that themay growth. a have center small The covered of the muddy stalagmite fallen a poolexplain was block the may small and sudden have speleothem depression cessation been growing of in on formed speleothem the it. in deposition This cave the after scenario the floor. depression would initial and onset of growth ∼ ∼ 5 5 10 15 20 25 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 1 O − 18 2 ‰ O or, δ ∼ 18 120 ka. O signal δ 120 ka is O due to ∼ O enrich- O, leading 18 ∼ 18 18 δ 18 δ O may how- δ δ 18 after O is driven by ) except for the δ 92 ka, indicating 1 18 1 − − δ ∼ C, particularly the dif- 13 δ O signal increase during 4.3 ‰, suggesting less de- O-enriched sea surface of 18 O variations through time is δ O values suggests an impor- 18 ect” can lead to a higher sea 18 ∼ − 18 O change. Another mechanism ff δ δ 18 δ 84 ka. This long-term ∼ 124 and 120 ka, and from 120 to 84 ka. O decrease during sapropel S4, marks erent from the 1.1 ka, decreasing to 0.03 mm (100 a) ∼ ff O values. Global sea-levels reached 6 to 18 ± δ 18 O signal in a speleothem can be more com- δ 0.7 ka which has a moderate growth rate of 18 3256 3255 ± δ O (Lachniet, 2009). The general consensus in re- 121 ka (Grant et al., 2012), with a commensurate 1.5 ka, and to 0.013 mm (100 a) 18 C (Frumkin et al., 1999; Bar-Mathews et al., 2003; O during the onset of the Sapropel 5 event of ∼ ± ◦ δ 18 8 δ O water vapor reaching the cave. In Southern Levant, ∼ 0.8 and 124.5 18 ± δ O increased to an average of 0.9 and 99.87 103.5 ka is probably linked to increased rainfall during this pe- 18 ± ∼ δ O (McDermott, 2004), which are forced by: (i) condensation tem- O of the EM water. Hence, a more 18 O is controlled by both the calcite precipitation temperature (Kim and . This wet pulse coincides with the S4 event. The discontinuity D2, 18 δ 1.1 and 119.84 1 124 ka, the abrupt 2.8 ‰ increase in 18 δ O was generally ascribed to drier periods with lower rainfall amounts − ± δ ∼ 124–121 ka and has the most positive values after 18 δ ∼ O is related to changes in wind direction, with more continental trajectories 108.8 and 18 122 ka, the O by 1.1 ‰ during glacial periods together with an increase in ∼ δ 125 to ∼ 18 erent air–mass trajectories (Rozanski et al., 1993). Until now, low speleothem δ ∼ ff O values in the Levant region were associated with wetter conditions while high Unraveling the factors controlling the Speleothem After 2 ‰ at the end of the sapropel event would cause an increase in vapor 18 changes in K1-2010 stalagmite are slightly di between 124.5 tant change to driera conditions. high The rate growth between rate of 126.0 the stalagmite gradually falls from speleothem (Bar-Mathews, 2014; Verheyden et al., 2008). Important changes in a gradual degradation of the soil coverage at the beginningplex of (McDermott, MIS 5d. 2004; Fairchild et al., 2006; Lachniet, 2009). The pattern of (iv) di δ ever also been linkedin to storm-tracks changes (Frumkin inFrom et the al., source 1999; of Kolodny the et water al., vapor 2005; and/or changes McGarry et al., 2004). is a change in thethe composition Eastern and (EM), source Central of anddence water of Western vapor reduced Mediterranean reaching sea-surface the marine site. core Studies records of show evi- 9 m above present sea-level duringpeak that the could LIG not (Dutton be and responsible Lambeck, for 2012), the observed an elevation ference in the amplitude of changes between O’Neil, 1997) and seepage water cent years is thatchange in the rainfall principal driver of speleothem This gradual drop in growthditions rate in most agreement probably with indicates the a increase change in towards drier con- (e.g. Kallel et al., 1997, 2000; Emeis et al., 2003; Rohling et al., 2002; Scrivner et al., peratures, (ii) rainfall amount (Dansgaard, 1964), (iii) shifts in vapor source 2004; Ziegler et al.,the 2010; end Grant of et S5 al.,increase deposition 2012) in around and the a recovery of the same amount at ∼ ues around to enrichment in the isotopicthe composition Levant, of moisture the source recharge was waters interpreted reaching as the cave. one In of the drivers for the pleted precipitation was reachingment, the interrupted cave by until a short and moderate in speleothems from Soreq(128–121 ka; Cave Grant (Bar-Mathews et al., et 2012). al., 2003) related to sapropel S5 the onset ofseveral a mechanisms. Northern Once Hemisphere cause, glaciation. the This “ice increase volume in e glacial periods to apressure zone southward over migration the of Northernries the further European Westerlies south ice over associated sheet Norththe and with Africa. lowest thus The the of pushing growth high- the rate wind of trajecto- entire the profile stalagmite (between after 0.0130.09 mm and (100 a) 0.06 mm (100 a) between Kolodny et al., 2005;speleothem is McGarry not et in al.,suggesting agreement a 2004). with stronger the However, influence the gradual ofcreased change other abrupt mechanisms. of change A the in secondleading global possible the IG-G to driver K1 changes for more in- enriched Frumkin et al. (1999) and Kolodny et al. (2005) related period between 102.5 drop in temperature of up to water 5 5 20 15 25 10 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | C 13 1 ka δ ± erences ff 125.4 ka, the ∼ 129–126 ka (discon- 128–121 ka). The time ∼ ∼ 126 ka, using the S5 timing of Grant cient humidity to enable forests to de- ∼ ffi 0.8 and 122 ka (interpolated). ± 3257 3258 129 ka – the beginning of the LIG – which ex- ∼ enrichment onset in LC21 core (Grant et al., 2012) 125.4 ka demonstrates a major source-driven change dur- g.ruber ∼ O 122 ka along with an unstable depletion pattern of the 18 δ ∼ O profile in MD-74 core (Emeis et al., 2003). Despite di O profile undergoes a dramatic change around O profile indicates this major change occurred earlier than other C profiles lasted 4000 years along with a gradual pattern and stops O depletion from sample K1-2010 records a remarkable change 18 18 18 13 δ 18 δ δ δ δ cient moisture retention together with developed forest landscapes and 125.4 ka. The lack of any speleothem growth from ffi ∼ O. However, the poor chronological resolution of this part of the K1-2010 125.4 to 18 ∼ O and O values around δ 18 18 δ δ 125.4 ka) and the The K1-2010 The K1-2010 ∼ timing of whichsource is in the very eastern Mediterranean close Sea during to the S5 the event ( onset of the isotopic enrichment of the water speleothem record precludes the identificationthe of LIG, any seasonality as pattern seenet at in al., the 2011; end the Gasse of Yammouneh et lacustrine al., record 2015). in northern Lebanon (Develle and the phasing is calculated for( a 1000 years time lag between the K1-2010 isotopic change and in ODP 967compared site to (Emeis the et al., 2003). The time lag is reduced to only 500 years between tended until tinuity D1) is most probablyof related a to local extreme pool wetthe in conditions timing the leading of cave, to Eastern submerging the Mediterraneanet the formation Sea stalagmite. al., Sapropel This 2012) 5 early with eventrope, humid high (Ziegler an LIG at summer matches al., early insolation 2010; (Berger commencementin Grant and of Corchia Loutre, full Cave 1991). speleothems interglacialrecords In (Drysdale conditions in southern Yammouneh et was paleolake Eu- demonstrate dated al., thethe 2005). at presence early LIG of In 129 (Develle temperate northern et oaks al.,velop. during Levant, More 2011) the indicating e su pollen intense groundwater circulation inwarm northern and Lebanon wet prevailed conditions duringVan are the lacustrine in LIG. sequence agreement These (Litt withTurkey and et similar with al., periods speleothem 2014; proxies identified fromBar-Mathews Stockhecke in Soreq et et the and al., al., Lake Peqiin 2003) caves 2014) in (Ayalon southwestern in et Israel. al., North-Eastern 2002; 6.2.2 The 125 ka change The pattern of riod. Increased drip-water flux throughthe the stalagmite cave flushed block, causing out the the sediment speleothem floor to beneath subside and6.2 tilt. Paleoclimate variability of MIS 5 6.2.1 An “early humid LIG” Speleothem oxygen, carbon and growth proxies fromrelatively sample warm K1-2010 indicate and an humid initial period at in dating resolution between2010 marine core records and speleothems, the shift in K1- driven monsoon maximumsapropel for S5. a Schmiedl millennial-scale et al.gional episode climate (2003) during deterioration argue following the that the thiscase, last peak this episode (early regional interglacial marked climate S5) deterioration the of began onsetet the at al. of last (2012) a interglacial. and re- In with the that 2002b). assumed The linear KI-2010 sedimentation rate isotopic throughof profile S5 the (Rohling confirms change, et taking this al., place and between provides 126.0 a precise chronology ing the eastern MediterraneanSchmiedl S5 et event. al., Several studies 2003;and (Rohling Scrivner enhanced et aridity et al., around al., the 2002, 2004) Mediterranean, 2004; and suggest the a interruption coincidence of the between insolation- cooling continental records in2010 the Levant region suggest. The timing of the change in K1- at 122 ka (interpolated).demonstrated A in similar the gradual Yammouneh paleovegetationto variation be signal, but more where over progressive the than aant, in transition larger the other seems oxygen Eastern time and Mediterranean carbon scale records. isotopic was record In in Southern Peqiin Lev- and Soreq cave suggest an abrupt 5 5 25 10 20 15 20 10 15 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | O 18 δ 126 ka ∼ C and 13 δ C signals, but while 13 δ C shows a more gradual evo- O and 13 18 δ δ erent climatic regime from the Northern ff 3260 3259 118 ka (Bar-Mathews et al., 2003). This change 122 ka in both O profile indicates the end of warm and wet con- ∼ ∼ 18 δ O Mediterranean Sea surface water composition and 18 δ C signal reflect the time required for the soil and biopedo- 13 δ 0.8 to 122 ka (intrapolated). The change seems to be driven by a ± O composition of the EM surface waters. The onset of glacial condi- 122 ka (Grant et al., 2012) using a more refined U–Th chronology. 18 ∼ δ ect, reflecting the ff 122 ka, enriched oxygen and carbon profiles in K1-2010 document the end ∼ 122 ka, a more enriched 120 ka (Develle et al., 2011). In southern Levant, a gradual O decreases rapidly along with a shift to a moderate growth rate, especially in ∼ ∼ 18 δ O signal is rapidly transmitted to K1-2010 speleothem, whereas the inertia and The K1-2010 speleothem record indicate a very wet early LIG and during the LIG After 18 change from 126.0 “source” e during the S5 event.following This the change peak sets (early thethe S5) onset climatic of of change the the as lastthe regional recorded interglacial changes climate in identified over deterioration in the the the K1-2010 Levant Soreq isotopic region. and record However, Peqiin speleothem is records. of more the gradual early than LIGduction humid in phase. rainfall The originatingchange change in from in the the isotopic Mediterranean compositiontions, as is Sea, indicated driven coupled in by several with continental a records a re- in long-term the Levant, is signified by a gradual optimum at thedemonstrated global in scale, and otherThe is speleothem K1-2010 in isotope and record agreement lacustrine and with growth records warm rate from curves and clearly the humid demonstrate Mediterranean. an conditions important et al., 2009). Theis climate related picture probably to of2006, local the 2013) factors Dead influenced and Sea together byvariations the basin with driven Judean other during by rain continental the the shadow records glacial monsoonBar-Mathews (Vaks further et et inception system south, al., al., and invoke 2014). its climatic boundary shifts (Parton et al., 2015; 7 Conclusions A dated MIS 5strates the stalagmite potential of record stalagmite records (129–84ern ka) for Levant. palaeoclimate from The reconstruction in K1-2010 Kanaan the modelvide north- Cave, age a Lebanon more coupled demon- precise with recordglacial growth and of rates on the and into climatic isotopic the changes data glacial that pro- inception occurred period. during the last inter- remarkably follows, both in time and amplitude, the EM isotopic increase at after enrichment, except for thethe wet MIS pulses 5 during indicatefall the derived a from S4 the general and Mediterranean climate S3et moisture al., source degradation events, 2003) (Ayalon until that or et to al., the could changes2010). 2002; end in be Further Bar-Mathews wind of south related circulation in pattern to the (KolodnyLevant Negev et is less region, al., recorded 2005; rain- a from Lisker di speleothems et anddecreased al., lacustrine after records. MIS Speleothem growth 5cranean rates (Vaks sea et reaching al., the 2006,showed Negev, 2013), a while with wet the less Mudawwara pulseIndian rainfall paleolake monsoon during from in (Petit-Maire the the et southern Mediter- MIS al.,Sea Jordan 2010). 5a, basin Moreover, related Lake are Samra more notlevels records in to during in phase MIS rainfall the Dead 5c with originating and Levantine from 5a records the and further minor north high and levels during show MIS low 5d lake- and 5b (Waldmann logical activity above thethe cave Yammouneh to paleovegetation respond signal on indicates a expanded long-term steppic scale. vegetation On cover a regional scale, but later enrichment signalwas around shifted to ditions of the LIG.records The in onset the of Easternfull glacial Mediterranean glacial conditions conditions shows as of a indicated MIStion gradual 4. in is climate The several recorded deterioration isotopic continental synchronously response into at of the K1-2010 to the glacial incep- lution. This is probablyδ explained by the factgradual that change a of rainfall- the and mostly source-driven 6.2.3 The glacial inception After the response to the wet pulses during the S4 event, the 5 5 20 25 15 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent hydrologic (local) or climatic ff 3262 3261 This study was funded by the mobility fellowship program of the Belgian ey, K. M. and Marshall, S. J.: Substantial contribution to sea-level rise during the last inter- 103–100 ka) at the end of the S4 event is indicated by increased water ingress into ff glacial from the Greenland ice sheet, Nature, 404, 591–594,and 2000. Thouveny, N.: ALevant (Yammoûneh, 250 Lebanon): ka paleoclimatic implications, sedimentary Palaeogeogr. 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S.: Climatic and environmental controlsLisker, S., on Vaks, speleothem A., oxygen and isotope Bar-Matthews, values, M.: Late Pleistocene palaeoclimatic andLitt, palaeoenvi- T., Pickarski, N., Heumann, G., Stockhecke, M., and Tzedakis, P. C.: ALourens, 600 L. 000 year J., long Antonarakou, A., Hilgren, F. J., Van Hoof, A. A. M.,McDermott, Vergnaud-Grazzini, F.: Paleo-climate C., reconstruction and from stable isotope variations in speleothems: a re- Moller, T., Schultz, H., Hamann, Y., Dellwig, O., andOtto-Bliesner, Kucera, B. M.: L., Sedimentology Marshall, and S. geo- J., Overpeck, J. T.,Parton, Miller, A., G. White, H., T. Hu, S., Parker, A., A. and G., CAPE Breeze, P. Last S.,Petit-Maire, Jennings, N., Carbonel, R., P., Reyss, Groucutt, J. L., H. Sanlaville, S., P., Abed, and A., Bourrouilh, Pe- R., Fontugne, M., 5 5 10 15 20 25 30 10 30 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | initial 0.26 0.26 0.93 0.50 0.87 0.24 0.25 0.48 0.25 0.50 U] ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 238 / U 0.8085 0.8014 0.7588 0.7570 0.7515 0.7950 0.8092 0.8367 0.8116 0.8284 234 [ U decay U of 3.8. 238 238 0.80 0.83 1.63 1.08 1.53 0.74 0.96 1950 0.69 0.51 0.78 Th/ ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 232 0.800.83 129.72 125.96 1.63 133.93 1.08 124.51 1.53 119.84 0.74 111.81 0.96 102.50 0.69 99.88 0.51 94.10 0.78 85.30 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 99.94 94.16 85.36 129.79 126.02 133.99 124.57 119.91 111.88 102.57 50 % and a bulk earth ± 0.80 0.77 0.97 0.89 0.82 0.68 0.90 0.61 0.50 0.70 6 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± − ± ± Age Age Age BP 10 × 4.4 = 48 − 08 U decay constants are from Cheng et al. (2013); the ρ 234 Th atomic ratio Th and 232 U] 0.130.18 0.07 0.47 129.92 126.47 0.56 0.85 135.85 0.31 0.67 125.46 0.59 0.82 121.74 0.190.13 0.42 0.06 112.31 94.27 0.310.210.33 0.26 0.44 0.27 103.03 100.41 85.83 238 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 230 Th/ / U 3268 3267 230 234 U] [ 1.0 0.8298 1.1 0.8640 0.270.37 0.8328 0.8297 0.59 0.8558 0.40 0.8809 0.30 0.8532 0.510.45 0.8716 0.8579 0.56 0.8439 238 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± / Th (ka), respectively. 230 σ 2 ± Th] [ 232 / (%) and Th σ 230 2 ± Th [ 232 0.15490.1425 0.5079 1.623 520.1 147.2 0.5602 0.5497 0.07508 3.488 37.5 0.5665 0.05155 1.207 74.1 0.5671 0.05426 2.676 35.1 0.5623 0.07067 0.8548 139.8 0.5541 0.07340 0.2089 516.7 0.4829 0.06580 0.8400 124.6 0.5208 0.05592 0.70530.05971 0.7545 121.9 108.5 0.5037 0.4486 ey et al. (1971). Detrital Th corrections assumed an initial 2.4 2.9 4.1 5.2 6.9 7.9 8.8 ff 13.5 11.6 19.5 (cm) U–Th results of K1-2010 dating. nary paleoclimate of northernspeleothems margins of Negev of Desert, the Israel, Saharan-Arabian Quaternary Desert: Sci. reconstruction Rev., 29, from reconstruction 2647–2662, in 2013. the Levant regionJeita from cave, the Lebanon, geochemistry Quaternary of a Res., Holocene 70, stalagmite 368–381, from 2008. the ments and level reconstructionQuaternary of Res., the 72, 1–15, last 2009. interglacial Lake Samra inA high-resolution the absolute-dated Dead Late SeaScience, Pleistocene basin, 294, monsoon 2345–2348, record 2001. from Hulu cave, China, 28766-LE. The World Bank, Washington DC, 2003. Pareschi, M. T.: Enhanced rainfallpel in the S1: Western Mediterranean stalagmite during279–286, evidence deposition 2007. from of sapro- Corchia cave (Central Italy),soon Quaternary as viewed Sci. from Rev.,1481–1490, the 2010. 26, eastern Mediterranean (ODP Site 968), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, Number from base (ppm) (ppb) (measured) (corrected) (corrected) uncorrected (ka) corrected (ka) corrected (ka) SampleKA Distance STM 1–4 KA STM 1–5 KA STM 1–6 U KA STM 1–7 KA STM 1–8 KA STM 1–9 KA STM 1–2 KA STM 1–11 KA STM 1–10 KA STM 1–3 constant is from Ja Uncertainties for activity ratios and ages are Table 1. Vaks, A., Bar-Matthews, M., Matthews, A., Ayalon, A., and Frumkin,Verheyden, S., A.: Nader, Middle-late F. quater- H., Cheng, H. J., Edwards, L.Waldmann, R., N., and Stein, Swennen, M., R.: Ariztegui, Paleoclimate D., and Starinsky, A.: Stratigraphy, depositionalWang, Y. environ- J., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., An, Z. S.,World Wu, Bank: J. Republic Y., Shen, of C. Lebanon: C., Policy and noteZanchetta, Dorale, on J. G., A.: irrigation Drysdale, sector R. sustainability, N., Report Hellstrom, No. J. C., Fallick, A. E., Isola, I.,Ziegler, M., Gaganf, Tuenter, E., M. and K., Lourens, and L. J.: The precession phase of the boreal summer mon- 5 10 15 20 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (a) Geomorphological section (c) 3270 3269 Location map of Kanaan cave and the continental records in the Levant. Photo of K1-2010 stalagmite in the Collapse Chamber The Eastern Mediterranean showing the location of palaeoclimate records including (b) Geological map of the1955). Antelias region (westernof Kanaan flank Cave showing of the central location Mount-Lebanon) of the (Dubertret, stalagmite K1-2010 (Nehme, 2013). Figure 2. (a) Figure 1. this study andWesterlies, the and major occasional wind incursionssouth from trajectories and the (Saaroni east–west Sharav et cyclone precipitationmm). and al., gradients CL: the Cyprus are 1998), Low. Sharqiya. indicated The including Thespanning location by the north– of the dashed Kanaan Mid-Latitude Cave dark MIS andmarine lines other 5 studies Levantine (isohyetes are period paleoclimatic in indicated records cited byand points, in lake speleothems level the reconstructions by and text,et stars. pollen al., data are (1) by 2012), numbered rectangles Core (3)et 1 Core MD al., ODP to 70-41 2004), site 14. (4) (Emeis 967(Bar-Mathews Core Records et (Emeis et ODP et al., derived al., site al., 2003), from 2003),Cave 968 (7) 2003; (Bar-Mathews (Ziegler (2) West Rohling et et Jerusalem et Core al., al., Cave 2000, al.,composite LC21 (Frumkin 2003) 2010), 2002, speleothems et (Grant (9) (5) 2004; from al., Tsavoa Kanaan Scrivner Cave 1999,2013), Ashalim, Cave, (Vaks 2000), (11) et (6) Hol-Zakh (8) Lakes al., Peqiin and of Soreq 2006, Cave et the Ma’ale-ha-Meyshar 2013), Dead (10) al., caves Sea Negev (Vaks 2010), basin et (12)Paleolake (Kolodny al., et Lake (Develle al., formation et 2005; at al., Waldmann2014; Mudawwara et 2011; Litt (Petit-Maire al., et Gasse et al., 2009; et 2014). Lisker al., al., 2010); 2011, (13) 2014), Yammouneh (14) Lake Van (Shtokhete et al., Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | osion of clay ff Th shows much / 3272 3271 Cut face of the K1-2010 speleothem and sketch showing the position of the Uranium Growth rate of the stalagmite with respect to distance (in mm) from the top, assuming deposits in thesubside. Collapse D1 Chamber and D2 that indicate caused discontinuities. the block on which the speleothem grew to series age data. In Segmentmore 1, uncertainties the than dashed line those1 indicates in is detrital the an layers Segment and outlier. 2. U Segment The 1 third is age tilted from from the its base initial of position the probably segment due to the su Figure 4. linear growth rates between twonuity consecutive (hiatus) dates is except identified. in the middle part where a disconti- Figure 3. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | C mean value 13 δ 3274 3273 C value was obtained from the Holocene 13 δ C profiles (values are in ‰ VPDB) of samples microdrilled along the 13 δ O value for the precipitated calcite was calculated using the Kim and O’Neil 18 O and δ 18 δ Oxygen vs. carbon stable isotopic composition (values are in ‰ V-PDB) of samples of Jeita cave (Verheyden et al.,climate, 2008). vegetation This cave, geology, located soil just type, 20 and km altitude to the (98 ma.s.l.) north has to very Kanaan similar Cave. microdrilled along the growthpresent-day axis of the(1997) K1-2010 equilibrium equation. stalagmite The (Kanaan cave, Lebanon). The Figure 6. growth axis of the K1-2010 stalagmite (Kanaan cave, Lebanon). Figure 5. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | in Peqiin G.ruber Summer O profile O (d) 18 lake Samra 18 δ (g) δ NGRIP-NEEM (f) (h) Soreq Cave, Eastern Mediterranean (i) (c) EMS Mediterranean (l) Mediterranean sapropel events (Ziegler et al., (j) Tzavoa Cave (Vaks et al., 2006), 3275 C profiles compared to continental records in the Yammouneh AP %, north Lebanon (Gasse et al., 13 (e) δ (a) O and 18 δ N and orbital eccentricity forcing (Berger and Loutre, 1991), ◦ in core LC21 (Grant et al., 2012), Kanaan carbon and oxygen isotopic profile (this study), A – Kanaan Cave (b) G.ruber O 18 compared to globalinsolation and at regional 30 recordsindicating in the the volume Eastern ofδ the Mediterranean arctic Basin: Ice sheet2010) (NGRIP and team, the 2004), Nile flooding event (Scrivner et al., 2004), Levant. From North to South Levant: 2015), Cave (Bar-Mathews et al.,paleolevels 2000, in 2003), the Dead Sea Basin (Waldmann et al., 2009). B – Kanaan Cave ODP site 967 and in MD 70-41 site resampled at 1 ka interval (Emeis et al., 2003). Figure 7.