sign in sign up
<<
Home , Anthodite, Biospeleology, Boxwork, Castleguard Cave, Cave, Cave diving

Office of Research and EPA/600/R-02/003 Environmental Protection Development February 2002 Agency , D.C. 20460 www.epa.gov/ncea

Research and Development A Lexicon of and Terminology with Special Reference to Environmental Karst Hydrology

(Supercedes EPA/600/R-99/006, 1/’99) EPA/600/R-02/003 February 2002

A LEXICON OF CAVE AND KARST TERMINOLOGY

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO ENVIRONMENTAL KARST HYDROLOGY

(Supercedes EPA/600/R-99/006, 1/’99)

National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC 20460 DISCLAIMER

This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

ii CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ...... iv

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ...... v

AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS ...... vi

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

GLOSSARY ...... 3 A ...... 4 B ...... 15 C ...... 26 D ...... 54 E ...... 67 F ...... 73 G ...... 81 H ...... 90 I ...... 98 J ...... 105 K ...... 106 L ...... 112 M ...... 118 N ...... 127 O ...... 131 P ...... 134 Q ...... 151 R ...... 152 S ...... 162 T ...... 190 U ...... 200 V ...... 203 W ...... 206 Y ...... 211 Z ...... 212

REFERENCES ...... 213

iii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

Release of the first edition of this lexicon was received and resulted in two printings. The first edition is again in short supply, but rather than going through a third printing, an updated edition was deemed appropriate. Since the release of the first edition, additional definitions related to , courtesy of Dr. William R. Elliott of the Natural History Division of the Department of Conservation, have been added. Additional definitions obtained from the Australian Speleological Federation also have been added. Researchers and the general public alike will find these additions useful as they work their way through the published literature. For this second edition, the literature search is to 2002. To be sure, this updated lexicon is far from complete and will more than likely be updated in a few years.

iv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

The National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office (NCEA–W) has prepared this document for the benefit of the regional offices and public in general due to the need to understand the terminology common to the field of karst. It is a glossary of most terms that have some relationship to the field of environmental karst as well as specific karst terms. It includes many foreign terms because much of the karst research is conducted in foreign countries and published using local terminology. In many instances, common environmental terms are defined in such a way as to specifically reference karstic phenomena. The purpose of this document is to serve as a technical guide to regional offices and the public in general who must read the karst literature or who must hold discussions with karst researchers. It is intended that this document remove much of the confusion surrounding many of the karst terms. The literature search supporting this lexicon is current to 1998.

v AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS

The National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office within the Office of Research and Development was responsible for the preparation of this document and provided overall direction and coordination during the production effort.

AUTHOR/COMPILER

Malcolm S. Field, Ph.D. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Center for Environmental Assessment–Washington Office Washington, DC

REVIEWERS

Stephen R. Kraemer, Ph.D. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Exposure Research Laboratory Ecosystems Research Division Athens, GA

Arthur N. Palmer, Ph.D. Department of Sciences State University of Oneonta, NY

vi INTRODUCTION

Several attempts to classify karst terminology in an organized manner have been attempted in the past. The last few glossaries of karst terminology were organized in the late 1960s and published in the early 1970s. Since that time, many new terms related to karst in general have come into use throughout the world while other older karst terms are seldom used nowadays. In the mid 1990s the British Cave Research Association (BCRA) published and updated a dictionary that covers the general area of karst and , but did not focus on environmental issues. Many of the more recent karst terms are related to the upsurge in environmentalism and the recognition among karst cognoscenti that karst terranes are much more sensitive to man-induced effects on the environment than are other types of landscapes. In an attempt to be as broad as possible in this glossary, terms related to general hydrology and , common karst rock and types, and many of the descriptive terms used in even where they relate to specific localities, have been included. No attempt was made to exclude foreign karst terms although many are no doubt, missing. This has led to a much larger manuscript than was originally intended when this project was initiated, but it has provided for a more comprehensive document. Because many non-karst professionals, whether working on basic research or on environmental problems, need to have a general working knowledge of karst terminology, this glossary was developed to provide an up-to-date reference for more modern definitions of karst terms both currently in usage and now defunct. As with any undertaking of this sort, numerous omissions will be shown to be evident. In other instances, disagreements regarding definitions will arise. In the event that readers of this glossary find various omissions or incorrect definitions, it would be greatly appreciated if the necessary corrections be forwarded to the author so that the glossary may be updated in the future. As a final note, it should be pointed out that a list of references for the definitions are included at the back of this glossary and citations are provided when appropriate. In many instances, duplication of definitions from previous glossaries were employed to avoid changing the original definitions. However, efforts were not always attempted to cite the exact source for each definition as this would have greatly lengthened this already excessively long manuscript; secondary citations have

1 been provided. Exact citations would also have resulted in confusion where several definitions were utilized in the writing of a single clear definition for any particular term. In no instance was it intended that the work of others be appropriated, only that this glossary be as comprehensive and clear as possible while avoiding excessive clutter. Also, where definitions were deemed to be incorrect or poorly worded, alternatives have been written.

2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

3 A accidental An animal accidentally living in a cave[25]. abîme. (French.) 1. An abyss. 2. A wide, deep shaft, in , the walls of which acclivity. Ascending a slope[16]. are vertical or overhanging[10]. accretion. Land addition by . The wearing away of or snow deposition of a [16]. through the process of evaporation[16]. accumulation. Building of new land by abney level. Type of clinometer with a addition of sedimentary deposits[16]. bubble tube used in to determine vertical angles[25]. acetylene. An inflammable hydrocarbon gas, C2H2, produced by reacting abris sous roche. (French.) See rock with calcium carbide. When burned, shelter. yields as well as light[25]. abseil. 1. (n.) A controlled descent of a acid. Any chemical compound containing using friction obtained by either hydrogen capable of being replaced by wrapping the rope around the body in a positive elements or radicals to form salts. particular way or passing the rope through In terms of dissociation theory, it is a a or passing the rope through a compound which, on dissociation in descender[25]. 2. (v.) To do an abseil[25]. , yields excess hydrogen ions. Synonym: rappel. Acids lower the pH. Examples of acids or acidic substances are hydrochloric acid, absorption. The process by which tannic acid, and sodium acid [6] substances in gaseous, liquid or solid pyrophosphate . form dissolve or mix with other substances[22]. acidity. The property of water having a pH below 4.5 that is caused by the presence abyss. Extremely great depth[16]. of mineral acids. Usually expressed in equivalent amounts of calcium [16] accelerated corrosion. A localized carbonate . See also alkalinity; pH. of solution intensity, produced by factors favoring greater acid mine drainage. Acid aggressivity of the water in certain parts originating from surface or underground [16] of the karstland creating differential mine workings . solution rates and thereby a marked unevenness in the overall of the acoustic log. Geophysical log karstland[19]. See also corrosion; alluvial measuring the speed of sound in rocks to corrosion. determine [16].

accessory mineral. Mineral constituents of acoustic resistance. The product of wave a rock occurring in very small amounts[16]. velocity and rock density indicating the

4 reflective power of a boundary between two adsorption isotherm. A graphical strata[16]. representation of the relationship between the bulk activity of adsorbate and the activated charcoal, activated carbon. A amount adsorbed at constant granular material usually produced by the [22]. roasting of cellulose base substances, such as wood or coconut shells, in the advection. 1. The process whereby solutes absence of air. It has an extremely porous are transported by the bulk mass of structure and is used in water flowing [6]. 2. Phenomenon of cool conditioning as an adsorbent for organic air mass intruding and interrupting matter and certain dissolved gases[6]. It is evaporation and causing condensation due especially useful for adsorbing tracer to heat loss[16]. See also convective dyes. transport.

active cave. 1. Cave containing a running aeolianite. See eolian calcarenite. stream. 2. Cave in which are growing. (Less common and less aeration. The process of bringing air into desirable usage.) Compare live cave[10]. intimate contact with water, usually by bubbling air through the water to remove active . Glacier in the stage of dissolved gases like carbon dioxide and actively enlarging and moving as a result or to oxidize dissolved of accumulation of precipitation that materials like iron compounds[6]. exceeds the rate of ablation. aeration, zone of. See zone of aeration. active water. Water with corrosive properties[16]. aerial photograph. Photograph of the landscape taken from an airplane. adaptation. An inherited structural, Synonym air photo. See also stereo aerial functional, or behavioral characteristic photographs. that improves an organism's chances for survival in a particular habitat[23]. See aerobic. A property of aquatic life forms also mutation. that can exist only in the presence of . See also anaerobic. adiabatic. The property of thermodynamic process with no heat exchange[16]. age of caves. The ages of individual caves may vary enormously. In most regions adjusted stream. Stream flowing parallel the youngest cave passages have reached to the strike of underlying beds[16]. their present dimensions during the last 10,000 years, or since the last adsorption. Adherence of gas molecules, glacial retreat. In higher latitudes most ions, or molecules in solution to the caves can be related to erosion during the surface of solids[22]. later Pleistocene climatic variations of the last million years, and older caves have

5 largely been removed by continuing surface carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid or, lowering. In tropical regions less interrupted rarely, other acids. 2. Quality of waters erosion conditions have encouraged survival that attack metals and concrete chemically of older caves; the Mulu caves of by dissolution[10]. include large passages at least two million years old. Relict caves hundreds of millions aggressiveness. A measure of the relative of years old may survive in some buried capacity of water to dissolve rock , but are commonly filled with material. In the context of karstification younger (see neptunian deposits), and this usually concerns or, very rarely, igneous rocks. the dissolution of limestone or These fill materials may themselves be by the action of dissolved carbon dioxide dateable, either on the basis of contained (carbonic acid), though other acids may material (including pollen), by also be involved[9]. comparison with similar rock types that occur at the surface or by isotopic age aguada. (Spanish for watering place.) In determination methods identical to those Yucatán, shallow generally applied to suitable surface rock materials. covering several hectares used for water See also dating of cave sediments[9]. supply[10].

aggradation. Land addition through A-horizon. The topmost eluviated horizon sediment deposition[16]. of a profile[16].

aggrading . River that is actively aîle. See aisle. elevating its bed by deposition of sediments[16]. air pocket, air bell. 1. An enclosed air space between the water surface and the aggregate. Grain mixture loosely held roof of a cave[10]. 2. Part of a flooded together[16]. passage where the ceiling rises above the water level to create an air pocket isolated aggregation. The formation of aggregates. from the rest of the cave[9]. In drilling , aggregation results in the stacking of the clay platelets face to air separating tank. A tank in which face; as a result, viscosity and gel strength desorbed gases are separated from a decrease[6]. liquid and evacuated by pumping[16].

aggressive. Referring to water which is still air-space ratio. The ratio of (a) the volume capable of dissolving more limestone, of water that can be drained from a other karst rock, or speleothems[25]. saturated soil or rock under the action of of to (b) the total volume of aggressive water. 1. Water having the voids[22]. ability to dissolve rocks. In the context of limestone and dolomite, this term refers aisle. An elongated high narrow traversable especially to water containing dissolved passage in a cave[10]. See also crawl,

6 crawlway; corridor; passage. Synonyms: (Greek.) allothigenes ryax, or potamos; (French.) aisle, aîle; (German.) Kluft; (Italian.) corso d’acqua allogeno; (Greek.) farangothes ipoyios thiavasis; (Spanish.) río alóctono; (Turkish.) karst (Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) laminador disi kökenli akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) vertical; (Turkish.) dar geçit; alogena rijeka, alogena reka. (Yugoslavian.) nisa. allogenic. Formed or generated elsewhere, albedo. The ratio of reflected radiation to usually at a distant place[1]. See also total radiation on a natural surface[16]. autogenic; recharge, allogenic; recharge, autogenic. algal limestone. Type of limestone formed by calcium secreting [16]. allogenic drainage. Underground karst drainage that is derived entirely from alkali flat. A salt covered or heavily saline surface run-off that originates on adjacent depression in an arid environment[16]. non-karstic, generally impermeable, rocks. Also allochthonous drainage. See alkaline. Any of various soluble mineral also autogenic drainage[9]. salts found in natural water and arid having a pH greater than 7. In water allogenic . A karst valley incised by a analysis, it represents the carbonates, watercourse originating on impervious bicarbonates, hydroxides, and rock with a volume sufficient for it to occasionally the borates, silicates, and traverse a limestone area on the surface. phosphates in the water[6]. The valley is incised from the limestone contact and with the passage of time the alkalinity. The property of water to river is increasingly likely to pass neutralize acids. Usually expressed in underground as the waters enlarge joints. terms of equivalents[16]. Occasionally such a valley may represent See also acidity; pH. the large-scale collapse of the cavern system along a subterranean stream or the allochthonous. Said of material originating enlarging of a series of karst windows[19]. from a different locality than the one in which it has been deposited[16]. See also alluvial. Pertaining to or composed of autochthonous. alluvium or deposited by a stream or running water[6]. Also applies to material allochthonous drainage. Less common lining the floor of a cave and deposits at synonym for allogenic drainage[9]. the mouth of a .

allogene stream. A surface-water course alluvial apron. A fan-like plain from the flowing over a karst terrane, but fed by a deposition of glacial outwash[16]. spring (or springs) issuing from a non- karst terrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.) alluvial channel. River or stream channel rivière allogène (cours d’eau); (German.) bed composed of unconsolidated alluvial allochthoner Fluss (all. Waßerlauf); material[16].

7 alluvial corrosion. Greater intensity of alveolization. (From the word solution, caused by the passage of water ‘alveolatus,’ meaning hollowed out.) through unconsolidated deposits rich in Pitting of a rock surface produced by carbon dioxide, thus increasing wind loaded with , by water charged aggressivity[19]. See also corrosion, with carbonic acid, or by plant roots[10]. accelerated corrosion. See also alveolar. Synonyms: (French.) alvéolisation; (German.) Aeolisation ? alluvial fan. A fan-like deposit of detrital Wabenverwitterung; (Greek.) kypselothis material from steep slopes[16]. epiphania; (Italian.) alveolizzazione; (Spanish.) alveolizacion; (Turkish.) alluvial plain. A plain formed by the çukurla·ma; (Yugoslavian.) alveolizacija. deposition of water borne sediments[16]. ammeter. A meter used to measure the alluvial veneer. A very thin cover of water flow of water in a stream channel. borne sediments[16]. Synonym: current meter[16]. alluvium. A general term for clay, silt, amorphous silica. Silica with no definite sand, gravel, or similar unconsolidated crystalline structure[16]. material deposited during comparatively recent geologic time by a stream or other analysis, chemical. Laboratory procedure body of running water as a sorted or semi- in water quality determination to identify sorted sediment in the bed of the stream chemical constituents[16]. or on its floodplain or delta or as a cone or fan at the base of a mountain slope[6]. analysis, complete chemical analysis. Chemical analysis of a water sample for alpine karst. 1. Karst formed at high physical, chemical, and bacteriological latitude, or in polar regions regardless of constituents[16]. altitude. 2. Almost synonymous with glaciokarst but restricted to areas of high analysis, core. Petrophysical analysis of a altitude and relief[9]. Synonyms: rock core acquired through the process of glaciokarst; nival karst. boring a hole in rock with the intention of producing a core of rock as opposed to alternative. Adjective used to designate an chips[16]. intake or resurgence operating only during rainy seasons; in some areas analysis, morphometric. A geodetic and reversible; equivalent to intermittent. geometric description of basin, stream Also used as a noun[10]. network, or plain, the purpose of which is to determine the frequency and alveolar. 1. Consisting of a honeycomb hierarchy of occurrences[16]. shape[16]. 2. A specific erosional pattern resulting in a cellular structure[16]. See analysis, sieve. Mechanical grain size also alveolization. analysis by sieving an unconsolidated material through a series of sieves[16].

8 anastomosis. 1. The development of a anchor ice, ground ice. Ice that is network of branching, intersecting, and temporarily attached to the bottom of a rejoining channels in a two dimensional river[16]. system. Anastomosing tubes, or cave anastomoses, which are generally formed anemolite. A in which the due to dissolution by slow, poorly eccentricity is ascribed to the action of air directed, phreatic flow along a bedding- currents[10]. The word is derived from plane parting or fracture in limestone, wind-control theory of helictite represent an important element in the formation[9]. early stages of cave development. Individual anastomoses most commonly anemometer. A device used to measure have a diameter of approximately 100 wind speeds[16]. mm and networks may contain hundreds of tubes. Most anastomoses are angle of contact, wetting angle. The angle abandoned when one channel offers between the liquid phase and solid preferential flow conditions so that it boundary measured through the liquid increases in size at the expense of others. phase[16]. Such abandoned or relict anastomoses are commonly only exposed by subsequent angle of repose. The natural slope of wall or roof collapse[32]. 2. A network of unsupported granular material[16]. tubular passages or holes in a cave or in a [11] cave or solution-sculptured rock. A anglesite. A cave mineral — PbSO4 . complex of many irregular and repeatedly connected passages[9, 21]. Synonym: angular. The property of unconsolidated labyrinth; (French.) anastomose; grains with sharp edges[16]. (German.) Labyrinth; (Greek.) anastomosis; (Italian.) anastomosi; angular unconformity. A geological (Russian.) labirint; (Spanish.) unconformity with marked difference in anastomosís; (Turkish.) geçit ·ebekesi; dip of the superimposed series[16]. (Yugoslavian.) splet kanala. anhydride. Anhydrous calcium sulfate, [16] anastomotic cave pattern. A type of maze CaSO4 . cave consisting of tubular passages or holes in a cave or in a solution-sculptured anion. A negatively charged ion that rock. A complex of many irregular and migrates to an anode, as in electrolysis[6]. repeatedly connected passages. Synonym: labyrinth. anion exchange. Ion exchange process in which anions in solution are exchanged anchor. A fixed object used to secure a for other anions from an ion exchanger[6]. man whilst operating a safety rope or for attaching equipment such as ladders or anisotropic. The property of [25]. systems displaying different hydrological

9 properties in different directions[16]. See antecedent stream. A stream having also anisotropy; anisotropic mass. established its course before occurrence of orogenic events that would later alter anisotropic mass. A mass having different the general drainage pattern[16]. properties in different directions at any given point[22]. antenna (plural antennae). A feeler; an appendage, sensory in function, that anisotropic steering. Anisotropic occurs in pairs on the heads of structures (anisotropies) in the rock like crustaceans, insects, and certain other schistosity, inclusions and fractures which animals[23]. can deviate or ‘steer’ the direction of fractures subsequently developed. . 1. Radiating crystals of aragonite, mostly sharp needles 1–20 mm anisotropy. The condition of having long. They occur sporadically in some different properties in different caves but they may also be spectacularly directions[22]. abundant, with clean white crystals growing all over the rock and annual frost zone. The top layer of ground surfaces. Carlsbad Caverns (USA) and subject to annual freezing and thawing[16]. Grotte de Moulis () have fine anthodite displays[9]. 2. A cave formation annual mean. The mean value taken over composed of feathery or radiating masses all events that have occurred during a year of long needlelike crystals of or such as precipitation, river stages, water- aragonite, which radiate outward from a table levels[16]. common base[10]. See also cave flower. annulus. The annular space between drill anthropocentric definitions. Definitions of pipe and casing or between casing and the caves or parts of caves that include borehole wall[16]. accessibility by explorers as one of their limiting conditions. Most well anomaly. The deviation from normally known among these is the definition expected findings, especially in published by the International exploration geophysics indicating a Speleological Union, that ‘A cave is a change in subsurface environmental natural underground opening in rock that conditions[16]. is large enough for human entry’ (see proto-caves)[9]. antecedent precipitation index. A precipitation index that is based on the anticlinal valley. A valley that is amount of previous precipitations[16]. established along the axis of an eroded anticline[16]. antecedent-soil moisture. The degree of water saturation in the soil prior to a anticline. Upfolded stratum[16]. precipitation event[16].

10 aphthitalite. A cave mineral — synonymous with some inception [11] [18] (K,Na)3Na(SO4)2 . horizons .

apparent ground-water velocity. See aquifer, artesian. A confined aquifer specific discharge. where the potentiometric surface rises above the top of the aquifer bed[16]. appendage. An arm or other limb that branches from an animal's body[23]. aquifer, coastal. An aquifer in a coastal region open to salt-water intrusions[16]. approach segment. That part of a hydrograph curve before onset of aquifer, flowing artesian. An artesian precipitation[16]. See also hydrograph. aquifer in which the water, under hydrostatic rises above the land apron. A smooth bulging mass of surface. covering sloping projections from walls of caves or limestone cliffs[10]. aquifer, karst. An aquifer in which the flow of water is or can be appreciable aquatic. Living in water. Aquatic cave through one or more of the following: animals include amphipods, isopods, joints, faults, bedding-plane partings, and crayfish, planarians, fish, and blind cavities — any or all of which have been salamanders[23]. See also terrestrial; enlarged by dissolution[18]. marine. aquifer, leaky. An aquifer overlain or aqueduct. A conduit to convey water, underlain by semipermeable strata from usually above ground[16]. or into which water will flow[16].

aquiclude. A formation which, although aquifer stimulation. A type of porous and capable of storing water, does development that is done in not transmit it at rates sufficient to furnish semiconsolidated and completely an appreciable supply for a well or spring. consolidated formations to alter the See also confining unit[22]. formation physically to improve its hydraulic properties[6]. aquifer. 1. A formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that aquifer storage. Gas storage in an contains sufficient saturated permeable aquifer[16]. material to yield significant quantities of water to and springs[6]. 2. A aquifer system. A body of permeable and ground-water . 3. Pervious rock poorly permeable material that functions that is completely saturated and will yield regionally as a water-yielding unit; it water to a well or spring. Historically the comprises two or more permeable beds term has been applied to beds favoring separated at least locally by confining early cave development, probably beds that impede ground-water movement but do not greatly affect the regional

11 hydraulic continuity of the system; includes mineral composed of calcium carbonate, both saturated and unsaturated parts of CaCO3, like calcite but differing in crystal permeable material[22]. form[10]. 3. An unstable orthorhombic [16] carbonate mineral, CaCO3 . aquifer test. A test to determine hydrologic properties of the aquifer involving the ardealite. A cave mineral — [11] withdrawal of measured quantities of Ca2(SO4)(HPO4)4H2O . water from or addition of water to a well and the measurement of resulting changes area of influence of a well. The area in head in the aquifer both during and surrounding a pumping or recharging well after the period of discharge or within which the potentiometric surface additions[6]. has been changed[22].

aquifere epikarstique. See epikarst zone. and pinnacle karst. A landscape of naked reticulated raw-topped ridges aquifuge. A formation which has no having almost vertical slopes and a relief interconnected openings or interstices and of as much as 120 meters. The ridges rise therefore neither stores nor transmits above forest- covered corridors and water[22]. See also confining unit. depressions. Found in New Guinea at elevations of 2,000 meters and more[10]. aquitard. A confining bed that retards but Both pinnacle karst and arête karst are does not prevent the flow of water to or varieties of limestone landscape formed from an adjacent aquifer; a leaky under equatorial rain forest cover. They confining bed. It does not readily yield are characterized by vertical sided blades water to wells or springs, but may serve of bare rock fretted by dissolution[9]. as a storage unit for ground water[22]. See also confining unit. argillaceous. The property of rocks containing clay in non-negligible aragonite. 1. A relatively rare form of proportions[16].

calcium carbonate (CaCO3), chemically identical to the more common calcite but argillaceous limestone. Limestone of orthorhombic crystal form. Its pure containing considerable amounts of form is metastable in the cave clay[16]. environment, where calcite forms preferentially. It is relatively abundant in arid. The property of dry climates and some caves due to the presence of regions with a net deficiency of impurities, notably strontium, that distort moisture[16]. the carbonate lattice and favor aragonite growth. The commonest form seen in arrival time. 1. The time of arrival in caves as small radiating crystals subsurface flow tracing for the first tracer () that develop in humid caves, pulse to arrive at a discharge location. 2. where surfaces are covered by a moisture The time of arrival in geophysics for the film but not by flowing water. 2. A

12 first seismic wave to arrive at a artificial recharge. Recharge at a rate geophone[16]. greater than natural, resulting from deliberate or incidental human artefact. A product of human manufacture activities[6]. or art, e.g. of bone, stone, etc., paintings, engravings. In caves, tools are . A mechanical device used by often buried in sediment. (Scientific cavers who are either ascending or are attention should be drawn to the finding descending through a vertical opening in of artefacts in caves[25].) a cave (e.g. vadose shaft) that uses a cam to grip a rope while downward pressure is artesian. Synonymous with confined. being applied to the device[13]. See also mechanical ascender; prusiking; prusik artesian aquifer. Synonymous with . confined aquifer. See aquifer, artesian. association. A relatively stable community artesian flow. Flow through a confined of different species living in a aquifer where the elevation of the characteristic habitat[25]. overlying aquiclude is locally depressed so that the entire aquifer is saturated and atmometer. An instrument used to measure the flow is under hydrostatic pressure. evaporation intensities[16]. Some maze cave development in cavernous limestones may be due to atmosphere. A gaseous envelope of the artesian flow, which is commonly related earth that contains and transports air and to synclinal fold structures[9]. water in vapor and condensed form[16].

artesian spring. See spring, artesian. attapulgite clay. A colloidal, viscosity- building clay consisting of hydrous artesian well. A well deriving its water magnesium aluminum silicates and used from a confined aquifer in which the principally in salt-water drilling fluids[6]. water level stands above the ground surface[6]. Synonym: flowing artesian attrition. The wearing away of rocks by well. friction[16]. arthropods. Animals with jointed legs and auger. A rotary drilling device where the bard external skeletons (exoskeletons). dry cuttings are removed continuously by The group includes insects, crustaceans, helical on the drill pipe[16]. spiders, millipedes, and several other types of animals commonly found in aurichalcite. A cave mineral — [23] caves . (Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6. artificial discharge. The discharge of autochthonous. Property pertaining to ground water by pumping wells[16]. sedimentary material originating and

13 deposited at about the same location[16]. passage or chamber roof that tapers See also allochthonous. upward rather like a very elongate cone[10]. Compare dome pit. autochthonous drainage. Less common synonym for autogenic drainage[9]. average interstitial velocity. See velocity, average interstitial. autogenic, authigenic. Formed or generated in place[1]. See also allogenic; recharge, autogenic; recharge, allogenic. azimuth. The true bearing of a survey line, determined by measurement from an autogenic drainage. Underground karst accurate survey or by observations of sun drainage that is derived entirely by or stars[25]. absorption of meteoric water into the karst rock surface[9]. Synonym: azonal soil. Soils without distinct layering autochthonous drainage. See also in horizons[16]. allogenic drainage. azurite. A cave mineral — [11] available water. The water available to Cu(CO3)2(OH)2 . plants in the soil zone as defined by the interval between field capacity and wilting point[16]. aven. 1. A hole in the roof of a cave passage that may be either a rather large blind roof pocket or a tributary inlet shaft into the cave system. A described as an aven when seen from below may equally be described as shaft when seen from above, and the naming of such a feature commonly depends purely upon the direction of exploration. Many avens close upwards to impenetrable fissures but may still be important hydrological routes; few caves are without them. In parts of France, aven is equivalent to the British term, pothole[9]. 2. (French.) A vertical or highly inclined shaft in limestone, extending upward from a cave passage, generally to the surface; smaller than an abîme. Commonly related to enlarged vertical joints. Compare ; natural well; pothole. 3. (British.) A vertical extension from a shaft in a

14 B bactericide. A substance used to destroy bacteria (e.g. iron bacteria)[6]. backflooding. 1. Temporarily rising water level in a cave caused by downstream bailer. 1. A cylindrical container used to passage being too small to pass an withdraw a sample of water from a well. abnormally high discharge. The 2. A cylindrical container with a bottom excavation and reexcavation of some valve for the clearing of drill cuttings caves is ascribed to the enlargement of a from the bottom of a borehole[16]. passage at or near the water table by gravity flow alternating with periods of bailing line. Cable operating a bailer[16]. calcite precipitation[10]. 2. Flooding due Synonym: sand line. to backup of excess flow behind a constriction in a major conduit. Water balcony. Any projection on the wall of a that is ponded in tributary passages and cave large enough to support one or more proto-caves upstream of the constriction persons[10]. may contribute to the enlargement of maze caves[9]. bank. Ascending slope bordering a river[16]. background noise. The level of intensity of bank erosion. Erosion of a river bank[16]. signals due to normal activities other than the specific signal emission[16]. bank storage. 1. Subsurface conduit water that has been driven back up into older, backwater. The accumulated water above higher karst levels and into the the normal level of a water course due to surrounding rock matrix during a high impoundment at a point downstream[16]. flow period. 2. River water that has infiltrated river banks during a high flow backwater curve. Water surface profile in period and being retained in temporary a stream or channel above a constriction storage[16]. or impoundment[16]. barbels. Fleshy threadlike sensory bacon. Thin, elongated, translucent structures hanging like whiskers near the flowstone having parallel colored bands mouths of certain fish, such as catfish[23]. on or projecting from roofs and walls of some caves[10]. See also blanket; curtain; bare karst. A type of karst landscape drapery. lacking soil cover and where dissolution of carbonate rocks to form karst bacteria. Simple, colorless one-cell plants, landforms occurs primarily on the most of which are unable to manufacture exposed bedrock surface[9]. See naked their own food using sunlight Bacteria karst. are possibly important in caves as synthesizers of food materials from barite. 1. A cave mineral — BaSO4. 2. A minerals. They are also important as natural finely ground barium sulfate used decomposers[23].

15 for increasing the density of drilling base level. Lowest level of erosion by a fluids[6]. stream[16].

barograph. A pressure recorder[16]. base level of erosion. The lowest theoretical level of surface to be achieved . An indicator of barometric by erosion[16]. pressure[16]. base level, karst. See karst base level. barometric efficiency. The ratio of water level change to base line. 1. An arbitrary line from which change in a well[16]. deflections of self potential are read[16]. 2. Shale line[16]. barrier. A geological formation or part of a formation having become impervious to baseline monitoring. The establishment ground-water flow due to a facies and operation of a designed surveillance change[16]. system for continuous or periodic measurements and recording of existing barrier, freshwater. Barrier of freshwater and changing conditions that will be injected into an aquifer to stop the inflow compared with future observations[22]. of seawater into a coastal aquifer[16]. base of karstification. Level below which barrier, hydrologic. Lithologic formation karstification has not occurred. See also preventing horizontal movement of karst base level. ground water[16]. base width. The width of the hydrograph as barrier, permeability. A geologic or determined by a line parallel to the time petrographic feature in a bed obstructing axis cutting through the points where the free flow[16]. rising limb starts and where the recession curve ends[16]. barrier spring. See spring, barrier. basin. Hydrogeographic unit receiving base exchange. The displacement of a precipitation and discharging runoff in cation bound to a site on the surface of a one point[16]. solid, as in silica-alumina clay-mineral packets, by a cation solution[6]. basin characteristics. The physiographic, geologic, and ecologic characteristics of a base flow. 1. That part of the stream basin[16]. discharge that is not attributable to direct runoff from precipitation or melting basin, closed. with no snow; it is usually sustained by surface flow outlet[16]. ground-water discharge[22]. 2. Sustained fair weather runoff[16].

16 basin, drainage. The area contributing to bathybenthic. Of the bottom of the truly runoff which sustains streamflow[16]. See deep areas of the sea, where the "rain" of also drainage basin. organic material produces a deposit of food[23]. basin, experimental. A basin chosen for the thorough study of hydrological bathypelagic. Of the deep sea. Refers to phenomena[16]. the depths between roughly 3000 feet below the surface and the bottom of the basin, ground-water. The area throughout sea. No food accumulates in these which ground water drains towards the waters[23]. same point. It can be larger than the associated drainage basin if permeable bathyphreatic. Referring to water moving layers extend outside of the topographical with some speed through downward divide[16]. In karst terranes, the ground- looping passages in the phreatic zone[25]. water basin often does not resemble the See bathyphreatic zone, ground water, drainage basin. phreas.

basin, . Basin in which water is bathyphreatic zone. See bathyphreatic, spread for recharge[16]. ground water, phreas.

basin, intermontane. A basin lying bathometer. An instrument for measuring between two mountain ranges[16]. water depths in wells[16].

basin method. A recharge method in which beach. A shore consisting of sand or gravel water is spread in shallow basins[16]. deposits[16].

basin mouth. The point at which runoff beachrock. 1. Rock composed of sand leaves a basin[16]. grains and/or sand-sized shell fragments cemented by calcium carbonate, basin perimeter. The circumference of a commonly formed very rapidly on some basin following the divide[16]. beaches in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Beachrock generally occurs as thin beds basin relief, maximum. The elevation between bedding planes that dip seawards difference between basin mouth and the at angles similar to those of the beach highest point within a basin perimeter[16]. slope[9]. 2. A friable to indurated rock consisting of sand grains of various basin, settling. A basin used for the settling minerals cemented by calcium carbonate; out of solids from suspension[16]. occurs in thin beds dipping seaward at less than 15N. Also known as beach . A member of the order Chiroptera, the [10]. only mammals capable of true flight as they have membranes between the toes of bearing. The angle measured clockwise their forefeet[25]. that a line makes with the north line.

17 True, magnetic and grid bearings are bedding grike. Term used to describe the measured respectively from true, occurrence of the dissolution and magnetic and grid north[25]. widening (similar to that which occurs in joints) of nearly vertical bedding in karst bed. 1. A layer in sedimentary rocks; a terranes[8]. Synonym: (German.) stratum[10]. 2. A sedimentary deposit of Schichtfugenkarren. relatively small thickness and great areal extent, separated by bedding planes from bedding . A joint in rocks that runs over- and underlying deposits[16]. parallel to or on a bedding plane[16]. bed load. See bedload. bedding plane. 1. A primary depositional lamination in sedimentary rocks that may bed, lower confining. An impermeable bed be preserved, though possibly with underlying an aquifer[16]. different properties, in metamorphic rocks. These laminations may be clearly bed, marker. Bed with characteristic visible where change or where features that can be followed over large depositional cycles were areas for identification purposes[16]. completed/initiated, or they may be effectively invisible to the naked eye, bed, mortar. Secondary calcium carbonate marking subtle changes in depositional cementations in the lower part of a soil conditions. Most bedding planes were profile[16]. Synonym: hardpan. originally horizontal or very slightly inclined, but more steeply inclined bed, river. The channel of a river covered bedding planes developed in rocks by water[16]. deposited in deltaic or sand dune environments or in marine reefs. When bed roughness. The roughness of a channel rocks are folded the bedding planes or river bed[16]. provide an indication of the degree of deformation. Bedding planes play a bed, stream. The bottom of a stream crucial role in the inception and ongoing covered by water[16]. development of most caves and many surface karst features[3]. 2. A plane that bed, upper confining. Impermeable bed separates two strata of differing overlying an aquifer[16]. characteristics[10]. See also parting. bedding. Applies to rocks resulting from bedding-plane cave. 1. Bedding planes are consolidation of sediments and exhibiting widespread and very significant features surfaces of separation (bedding planes) within most carbonate rocks, and cave between layers of the same or different passages are commonly guided by them. materials (e.g., shale, sandstone, Their structure, their distribution and the limestone, etc.). chemical contrasts that some bedding planes provide may be the major bedding cave. See bedding-plane cave. influence during the earliest phases of

18 development of a cave system. The term point at a known elevation in relation to bedding-plane cave is strictly applied to a an adopted datum[16]. Bench marks, or passage that has not enlarged by growth marked points, connected by precise into a major tube or , but has leveling, constitute the control of land- remained almost entirely on the bedding surface settlement in plane. A famous example is Hensler’s studies[21]. Passage, in Gaping Gill, Yorkshire, which is over 400 m long, nearly over 5 m wide bend. Curve in a water course[16]. and nowhere higher than 1 m[9]. 2. A passage formed along a bedding plane, bentonite. A colloidal clay, largely made up especially when there is a difference in of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, a susceptibility to corrosion in the two hydrated aluminum silicate[6]. beds[10]. 3. A cave whose location is controlled by the bedding of the enclosing B-horizon. Illuvial horizon in which formation or formations[20]. Synonyms: soluble material from the overlying A- (French.) grotte de stratification; horizon has been deposited[16]. (German.) schichtgebundene Höhle; (Greek.) strosigenes speleon; (Italian.) belay. A safety rope tied around a caver that grotta di interstrato; (Russian.) pescera v is played out or taken in by a second ploakosti naplastovanija; (Spanish.) cueva person as the caver moves. The purpose adaptada a planos de estratificación; of the belay is to prevent the caver from (Turkish.) tabakalanma ma{aras; falling more than a few feet[13]. (Yugoslavian.) slojna peeina. beudantite. A cave mineral — [11] bedding-plane parting. See bedding plane PbFe3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6 . and parting. bicarbonate. A salt containing the radical –1 [10] bedeckter karst. See covered karst. HCO3 , such as Ca(HCO3)2 . bedload. The part of the total stream load bifurcation. The forklike separation of a that is moved on or immediately above water course into two arms[16]. the stream bed, such as the larger or heavier particles (boulders, pebbles, bifurcation ratio. The ratio of the number gravel) transported by traction or saltation of stream segments of a given order to the along the bottom; the part of the load that number of segments of next higher is not continuously in suspension or order[16]. solution[6]. biological clock. An inherited time- bedrock. Solid rock underlying measuring process within a living thing, unconsolidated material[16]. which governs its responses to certain external events[23]. bench mark. A relatively permanent mark, natural or artificial, furnishing a survey

19 biomass. The total of living matter, . In a cave, a thin sharp projection whether in an entire community, at a jutting out from roof, wall, or floor, of particular trophic level, or of a particular which it is an integral part; generally the kind of organism in the community. Thus remains of a partition or bridge[10]. we may refer to the biomass of a community, of herbivores in the pond, or blanket. A thick layer of dripstone, not of copepods in the pond[23]. translucent[10]. See also bacon; curtain; drapery. biomicrite. A microscopic-textured limestone composed of skeletal grains in blind chimney. See chimney. a matrix of micrite; micrite is a finely crystalline carbonate sediment with the blind shaft. A vertical extension upwards upper crystalline diameter being 4 from part of a cave, but not reaching the microns[20]. Synonyms: (French.) surface; small in area in relation to its biomicrite; (German.) Biomicrite; (Greek.) height[25]. micrite; (Italian.) biomicrite; (Spanish.) biomicrita; (Turkish.) biyomikrit; blind valley. 1. A karst valley abruptly (Yugoslavian.) biomikrit. See also terminated by the passage underground of micrite; peloid. the watercourse which has hitherto resisted the karst processes and remained biospeleology. 1. The study of subterranean at the surface. An intermediate type, the living organisms, particularly in karst half-blind valley, exists in which the caves and other openings in rock valley form continues downstream from formations[9, 21]. 2. The scientific study of the sinkhole used under conditions of cave animal life, or the biology of caves, normal river flow. The watercourse only karst, and . A biologist who flows here intermittently and the valley specializes in this study is called a may (except for its use as a conduit) biospeleologist[23]. Synonyms: (French.) be fossil in that it represents the section biospéléologie, biospéologie; (German.) abandoned by the river as it sought Biospeläologie; (Greek.) biospeleology; progressively higher swallow holes[19]. 2. (Italian.) biospeleogia; (Russian.) A karst valley with no evident biospeleologija; (Spanish.) downstream continuation, and one in biospeleología; (Turkish.) biyospeleoloji, which the water drains and disappears ma{ara canllar bilimi; (Yugoslavian.) underground into one or more [20]. biospeleologija. 3. A valley that terminates abruptly at a point where its stream sinks, or once biphosphammite. A cave mineral — sank, underground. As sinks develop [11] NH4H2PO4 . higher up the blind valley, the original valley termination may be dry under most birnessite. A cave mineral — flow conditions[9]. Related to marginal [11] (Na,Ca)Mn7O143H2O . . Synonyms: (French.) vallée aveugle; (German.) Blindtal, (Kesseltal); (Greek.) kliste karstike kilas; (Italian.)

20 valle cieca, valle chiusa; (Russian.) (Russian.) duju³cij kolokec; (Spanish.) slepaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle ciego; sondeo soplador; (Turkish.) üfleç kuyu. (Turkish.) kör vadi; (Yugoslavian.) slijepa See also steam hole. dolina, sepa dolina. See also half-blind valley; marginal polje. blowout. An uncontrolled escape of drilling fluid, gas, oil, or water from a well caused bloedite. A cave mineral — by the formation pressure being greater [11] Na2Mg(SO4)24H2) . than the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the hole[6]. blowhole. 1. Opening in the roof of a cave or cavern through which air is expelled . 1. Deep resurgence pool, notably vigorously. In coastal areas the in Jamaica and , that may have a phenomenon is usually due to blue color due to the presence of algae. compression of air within the cave by Also a deep submarine cave of the incoming or waves[20]. 2. Cliff top Bahamas. The latter type are large entrance to a , also known as a flooded shafts cut into the limestones of geo, gloop, or gloup[9]. 3. (Australian.) A the shallow reefs and lagoon floors. small hole in the surface of the Nullarbor Many are 100 m in diameter and some are Plain through which air blows in and out 100 m deep. Opening from the shafts are with observable force, sometimes flooded cave passages at various depths, audibly[10]. Related to hole. some of which have been explored Synonyms: (French.) trou souffleur; subhorizontally for more than 1 km. (German.) Windhöhle; (Greek.) ope Their origins are complex. Extensive ekphysosa; (Italian.) bocca soffiante; deposits show that large old (Spanish.) soplador; (Turkish.) üflenme caves were drained when sea-levels were a{z; (Yugoslavian.) vjetrenica, veternica, low during the Pleistocene (when water puhaljka, pihalnik, dihalnik. See also was held in the ice sheets). They are now steam hole. being modified by marine dissolution, notably at the interface between fresh and blowing cave. A cave out of which or into salt waters (sea littoral zone) and by which a current of air flows powerful tidal flows between connected intermittently[10]. holes[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A major emer• gence where water (artesian spring) rises blowing well. A well or borehole into from below without great turbulence. 3. which air is sucked and from which air is (Bahamas.) A drowned solution blown (often with considerable velocity) sinkhole[10]. 4. Caribbean expression for a due to changes in barometric pressure or major quiet up-welling inland in water level. The phenomenon or along the coast. The blue color is due indicates that the well or borehole is in to the scattering of sunlight by water communication with an underground air- molecules, although in some cases it may filled cavity. Synonyms: (French.) puits be attributed to the presence of calcareous souffleur; (German.) Windkamin; (Greek.) algae[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source ekphysosa ope; (Italian.) pozzo soffiante; bleue (), bleu-fon (South of France);

21 (German.) Blaue ; (Greek.) galapo bolt. A high tensile steel bolt used as an speleo. See also boiling spring. anchor; either a conical bolt screwed into a metal holder in a hole drilled in rock, bobbin. A decender that opens to enclose causing expansion for grip, or a bolt with the rope around two fixed pulleys. May partially filed thread hammered into a have a handle ("STOP") which must be slightly smaller hole[25]. squeezed to allow descent[25]. bone-. 1. Cave breccia including Bodenbedeckter karst. See subsoil karst. much bone[10]. 2. A breccia containing many bone fragments. (Scientific bog. Swamp[16]. attention should be drawn to the finding of such in caves[25].) bogaz. 1. (Slavic.) An elongated depression in limestone or karst terrain; thus it bone cave. A cave recognized particularly embraces a defile, a blind valley or a for its contained deposits of animal bones. ravine leading to a . It can be The bones may be the remains of animals considered as a giant grike. This meaning that fell into the cave, as in the Joint is based on the Serbian use[20]. 2. A Mitnor Cave, Devon, or in many other variable-discharge artesian spring in pitfall or fissure sites. Alternatively the which hydrostatic pressure is great bones may be of animals that originally enough to cause a turbulent or even lived in the cave — and these may -like discharge. 3. A long narrow include man, as at Niah Cave, Sarawak, chasm enlarged by solution of the or at Russell Cave, USA. A third, and limestone[10]. 4. Large linear fissure or most important, type of bone cave is the box valley through a karst block. ancient animal den, into which scavengers Effectively a giant grike, perhaps 50 m such as hyaenas dragged the remains of deep and 1 km long, formed by many other animals, as for example at dissolution on a fault or joint in very Kirkdale Cave in North Yorkshire[3]. massive limestone[9]. Synonyms: (French.) défilé, bogaz; (German.) Doline, borehole. 1. Boring into unconsolidated Karstgaße, Blindtal, Zangön; (Greek.) and consolidated materials for the faragothis doline; (Spanish.) zanjón; purpose of subsurface hydrogeological (Turkish.) bogaz; (Yugoslavia.) bogaz. investigations. 2. Synonym for a well See also canyon; gorge; grike; corridor; developed phreatic tube passage[9]. struga; zanjón. botryoid, botryoidal . 1. boiling spring. See spring, boiling. Generally sub-spherical or globular calcium carbonate deposits ranging in bollard. A projection of rock over which size between tiny beads and masses up to rope, tape or wire can be placed to create 1 m across. Botryoidal describes a form an anchor[25]. resembling a bunch of grapes[9]. 2. A grape-like deposit of calcium carbonate generally found on walls of caves[10].

22 Synonyms: clusterite; grape formation. channel bars, resembling in plan the See coralloid speleothem. strands of a complex braid[6]. bottom hole. The lowest part of a drilled brake bar. A round bar approximately 2½ hole where the drilling bit cuts into the × ¾ inches that is placed on rappel racks rock[16]. or so that rope can be threaded through the rack or carabiners for bottomland. A lowland along an alluvial rappelling[13]. river plain[16]. branchwork cave pattern. 1. A cave boulder clay. See glacial till. system that has been formed by the intersection of tubular or canyon-like boundary spring. See spring, boundary. conduits as tributaries in the down-flow direction. 2. A dendritic cave system of bourne. (British.) 1. A stream that appears subterranean watercourses having many in a normally dry valley, particularly on incoming branches and no visible the outcrop in southern , outgoing ones[10]. during wet conditions[9]. 2. Intermittent stream in a normally dry valley in chalk breakdown. See cave breakdown. country[10]. breakthrough. A quantum jump in . 1. A three-dimensional network erosional activity that is associated with of thin sheets of mineral projecting from a the transition from dominantly laminar to cave wall. The boxwork is vein fillings dominantly turbulent flow conditions[9]. etched from the cave wall by dissolution See turbulent threshold. of the host limestone and consists mostly of calcite and . It is not common, breakthrough curve. 1. A plot of relative but spectacular displays occur in Ind concentration versus time, where relative Cave, , USA[9]. 2. Network concentration is defined as C/Co with C of thin blades of calcite or gypsum etched as the concentration at a point in the out in relief on the limestone walls and ground-water flow domain, and Co as the ceiling of a cave[10]. source concentration[22]. 2. A plot of tracer concentration, C, versus time, t, for brackish water. Water containing from a ground-water tracing study in karst 1000 to 10,000 ppm of total dissolved conduit for the purpose of quantitatively solids[16]. determining how much tracer mass was recovered, mean time of travel, mean braided stream. A stream that divides into tracer flow velocity, and related hydraulic or follows an interlacing or tangled flow and geometric parameters. network of several small branching and Synonyms: recovery curve; tracer- reuniting shallow channels separated breakthrough curve; tracer-recovery from each other by branch islands or curve.

23 breakthrough time. The time required to re-cemented, forming a fault breccia[9]. 2. develop a conduit large enough (usually Rock composed of angular fragments[16]. 5–10 mm in diameter) to support turbulent flow[9]. bridge. 1. May be a natural bridge of bedrock normally formed outside a cave breathing cave. Air movement through a entrance by partial collapse leaving an cave is described as breathing when it isolated roof segment, as in the famous reverses more frequently than the examples of Rakov Škocjan, . seasonal reversal of a through-draught in Rock bridges may also occur inside caves a cave with higher and lower entrances. due either surrounding phreatic Slow breathing occurs in response to dissolution or collapse between barometric pressure changes, when the superimposed passages. Another volume of cave air is forced to change. It common type inside a cave is a span of is notoriously strong in large caves of the false floor where sediment is washed Australian . More rapid from below, as at The Bridge in GB wind reversals or oscillations, as in Cavern in the [9]. 2. In a Breathing Cave, , are a resonance cave, a residual rock span across a phenomenon, similar to the effect passage[10]. 3. In water wells, an produced by air passing over the neck of a obstruction in the drill hole or annulus. A bottle. In the cave environment the bridge is usually formed by of the resonant frequency is relatively low and wall of the well bore, by the intrusion of a periodic air flow reversals occur, rather large boulder, or by filter pack materials than the sound waves observed at the during well completion. Bridging can higher frequencies met in the bottle neck also occur in the formation during well example[9]. development[16]. See also natural bridge.

breathing hole. Opening in the roof of a bridging effect. The forming of arches in a cave, cavern or other underground void packing of materials[16]. through which air is sucked in and expelled in a rhythmic manner similar to brine. Water containing more than 100,000 inhalation and exhalation of breath[20]. ppm of total dissolved solids[16]. Related to blow hole and steam hole. Synonyms: (French.) trou souffleur; brittle deformation. The sudden failure of (German.) Luftloch, (Greek.) anapnéousa a rock with complete loss of cohesion opí spiléou; (Spanish.) respirador; across a plane. (Turkish.) esintili delik. brochantite. A cave mineral — [11] breccia. 1. Angular fragments of rock, Cu4(SO4)(OH)6 . commonly, but not inevitably, cemented by finer-grained materials including brushite. A cave mineral — [11] silica, iron minerals, and calcite to form a CaHPO42H2O . new rock. Many fault planes are marked by zones of broken rock, either loose or

24 bubble gage. A stage recorder based on the principle of equating a gas pressure to water level[16].

bucket. A measuring reservoir in liquid gaging instruments[16].

buffered solution. A solution that resists changes in the pH value upon addition of acids or bases[16].

buildup. The vertical distance the water table or potentiometric surface is raised, or the increase of the due to the addition of water[22].

buried karst. Karst topography entirely buried by relatively younger post-rock or sediments and not part of the contemporary landscape[17]. Synonyms: fossil karst; (French.) karst couvert, karst fossile, paleokarst; (German.) bedeckter Karst, Urkarst; (Greek.) kaymeno paleokarst; (Italian.) carso sepolto; (Spanish.) karst soterrado; (Turkish.) gömülü karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krs. See also covered karst; paleokarst; subsoil karst.

buried valley. An ancient valley buried by recent, often glacial deposits[16].

burst. 1. Periods of heavy rainfall[16]. 2. An explosive breaking of brittle rock material (e.g., rock burst in a deep mine ).

25 C calcareous. 1. Containing calcium carbonate[10]. 2. Descriptive of a rock that [9] caballing. The mixing of two water masses contains calcium carbonate . to produce a blend that sinks because of it is denser than its original components. calcareous . See sinter. This occurs when two water masses have the same density but different calcification. Replacement of the original and salinities. hard parts of an animal or plant by calcium carbonate[10]. cable ladder. A ladder used in vertical caving that is made of two parallel cables calcilutite. 1. Clastic limestone or dolomite with metal rungs held in place on the in which the grains have an average cables with metal tubes crimped to the diameter of less than 1/16 millimeter; cables[13]. calcareous mudstone[10]. 2. A that consists predominantly (>50%) cable way. A cable stretched across a river of silt and/or clay size calcite (or from which a cable car is suspended to dolomite) particles[9]. allow for stream discharge measurements[16]. calcirudite. A fragmental limestone in which the particles are generally larger caisson. A protective chamber for the than 2 millimeters[10]. excavation of water submerged unconsolidated sediments[16]. calcite. 1. The commoner, more stable, mineral form of calcium carbonate,

. (French.) 1. Cove or small bay. CaCO3. It is the dominant component of 2. A valley excavated in limestone or all limestones and, due to its dissolution formed by collapse of the roof of a cave and reprecipitation by natural waters at and subsequently submerged by a rise in normal temperatures, it is also the sea level[10]. dominant mineral of chemical cave deposits including and calc-. Prefix meaning limy; containing . It is white or colorless when calcium carbonate[10]. pure but may be stained, most commonly to yellows and browns, by included calcarenite. 1. Limestone or dolomite impurities such as iron oxides. Its composed of or shell sand or of uninterrupted growth in a pool may allow grains derived from the disintegration and development of good crystals, shaped as erosion of older limestones. Size of elongate scalenohedral of particles ranges from 1/16 to 2 trigonal habit. Growth in stalactites and millimeters[10]. 2. A carbonate rock that stalagmites is either in masses of fine consists predominantly (>50%) of sand- parallel or radiating needles, or in a sized calcite (or dolomite) particles. mosaic of larger rhombic crystals, easily Many of the particles are the angular or identified by their well developed degraded fragments of fossil shells[9]. cleavage surfaces. Calcite is also the

26 dominant vein mineral in limestones[9]. 2. ( and Southwestern United A mineral composed of calcium States.) Indurated calcium carbonate and

carbonate (CaCO3) like aragonite but other salts found in the soil at the surface differing in crystal form; the principal in arid and semiarid regions, generally constituent of limestone and other formed by evaporation of lime-bearing speleothems[10]. waters drawn to the surface by . 3. In some areas, refers to hardpan calcite bubble. A hollow sphere formed by resulting from concentration of carbonate the deposition of calcite around a gas in the soil by downward leaching and bubble; the interior is smooth, and the reprecipitation[10]. 4. A deposit of exterior consists of small jagged precipitated minerals, mainly calcite or crystals[10]. gypsum or both, formed in the soil or near-surface layers in arid and semi-arid calcite flottante. (French.) See floe calcite. zones at the horizon where ascendant capillary water evaporates and salts held calcite raft. A veneer of reprecipitated in solution are deposited. 5. A similar calcite forming a sheet over all or part of deposit, formed by precipitation of salts the surface of a static cave pool in leached from near-surface material and conditions favoring the release of carbon reprecipitated at shallow depths from dioxide[19]. downward moving waters[20]. Synonyms: (French.) croûte; (German.) Kalkkruste, calc-sinter. See sinter. Ca-Horizont; (Greek.) apóthema oriktón aláton; (Italian.) caliche; (Spanish.) calcium carbonate. Naturally occurring caliche; (Turkish.) kaliçi. See also compound with the chemical formula hardpan; havara; kafkalla; kankar;

CaCO3. It occurs commonly as the kunkar; nari; calcrete. mineral calcite and less commonly as aragonite, and is the major component of callow. (English.) Top or rubble bed of a carbonate rocks including limestone and . marble. It also forms the matrix or cement that holds together many seepage loss. Water lost to the and other sedimentary rocks[9]. subsurface by seepage through the See also dolomite. channel bottom or walls[16].

calcrete. (South African.) See caliche. canale. (Italian.) Long drowned valley on the Dalmatian coast. Some canali may be calibration. The experimental evaluation of drowned [10]. the scale readings of an instrument against an absolute standard[16]. cáno. (Spanish.) Stream. See also stream.

caliche. 1. (Chilean and Peruvian.) A canopy. 1. Overhanging flowstone that natural deposit of nitrates and other salts projects from a cave wall. It may be a precipitated at the soil surface. 2. remnant of a once continuous false floor

27 or a mass of flowstone that has built width at any particular level is determined steadily outwards to create its own by the flow of the formative stream, the overhang[9]. 2. A compound cave rate of its downcutting and the effects of formation consisting of flowstone any subsequent collapse. Canyon height hanging from a sloping wall projection reflects the stream’s downcutting history. and forming a fringe of shawls or It depends upon the vertical distance stalactites on the outer edge[10]. available for erosional descent to the local base level and the time that erosional canyon. 1. A steep-walled chasm, gorge, or downcutting has been active, as well as ravine cut by running water. 2. A chasm upon the more obvious but less important that has been formed by a cave stream. 3. influences of flow rate and erosional A valley formed by collapse of the roof of capacity. Vadose commonly a long fairly straight cave; a karst twist and meander sharply, while valley[10]. Related to corridor. maintaining roughly parallel vertical Synonyms: (French.) canyon, gorge, sides. In contrast to some meanders in canon ; (German.) Schlucht, Canyon; surface , underground meanders (Greek.) pharangi; (Italian.) forra, gola, must generally be imprinted on a bedding orrido, canyon; (Russian.) kanjon; plane before entrenchment of the canyon (Spanish.) cañón;, garganta; (Turkish.) begins. Narrow canyon passages, bo{az; (Yugoslavian.) klanac, sutjeska, commonly less than 1 m wide and more soteska, vintgar. See also bogaz; chasm; than 20 m high, are a particular feature of gorge; ravine. deep alpine caves. Perhaps the largest canyon passage in the world is that in canyon passage. 1. A tubular passage Škocjanske Jama, Slovenia, which is over (cave) that is formed by underground 100 m high and 50 m wide[9]. See streams following gently tilted bedding- paragenetic cave. See also keyhole plane partings or fractures and are eroding passage; passage; tubular passage; channels downward through the rock. vertical shafts. Their ceiling heights are greater than their widths. They are similar to surface capacity. The property to contain a certain canyons, but they possess roofs and are volume or mass[16]. generally the same distance apart at the top as they are at the bottom. In capacity, carrying. The capacity of a Mammoth Cave, most are narrow and watercourse to transport solids[16]. winding and may achieve dimensions of 50 feet wide by 100 feet high. If a canyon capacity curve. A graphic presentation of passage begins forming on an old tube the rate of discharge in a pipe or conduit passage, then a keyhole passage may or through porous material[16]. result[15]. 2. Also known as vadose canyons, these are cave passages, most capacity, entrance. The property of a soil commonly formed by continued floor to let water infiltrate[16]. entrenchment or incision, by a free flowing vadose stream. The passage

28 capacity, field; field-carrying; capillary. capillary action. The movement of water in Soil moisture retained by capillarity and the interstices of a porous medium due to not removable by gravity drainage[16]. capillary [22]. Synonymous with Synonym: specific retention. capillarity, capillary flow, and capillary migration. capacity, ground-water. 1. The ability of soil or rock materials to hold water. The capillary attraction. The adhesive force yield of a , well, or reservoir. between a liquid and a solid in capillarity.

capacity, hydraulic. The ability of a capillary condensation. The formation of current of water or wind to transport rings of pendular water around point detritus, as shown by the amount contacts of grains, and, when the rings measured at a point per unit of time. around adjacent contacts become large enough to touch. capacity, infiltration. The maximum rate at which a soil can absorb precipitation capillary conductivity. 1. The property of for given conditions[16]. an unsaturated porous medium to transmit liquid[22]. 2. Coefficient which expresses capacity, self-cleaning. The capacity of a the extent to which an unsaturated river to clean its water from pollutants permeable medium allows flow of water over a given length of water course[16]. through its interstices, under a unit gradient of capillary potential[22]. capacity, specific. The ratio of well discharge to corresponding discharge[16]. capillary fringe. The lower subdivision of the unsaturated zone immediately above capacity, storage. 1. The ability of an the water table in which the interstices are aquifer to store water[16]. 2. The capacity filled with water under pressure less than of to store water in their own that of the atmosphere, being continuous channels[16]. with the water below the water table but held above it by capillary forces[22]. capacity, total. The maximum rate of yield of a well[16]. capillary fringe zone. The zone above the free water elevation in which water is capacity, transmission. The property of a held by capillary action. porous medium to conduct fluid[16]. capillary head. The potential, expressed in capacity, well. The rate at which a well will head of water, that causes the water to yield water[16]. flow by capillary action[22].

capillarity. The action by which a fluid, capillary interstice. An interstice small such as water, is drawn up (or depressed) enough to hold water by at in small interstices or tubes as a result of an appreciable height above a free water surface tension. surface, yet large enough to prevent

29 molecular attraction from extending hydroscopic moisture and below the field across the entire opening. capacity[22]. capillary migration. See capillary action. carabiner. An oval of steel or aluminum with a movable spring-loaded gate on one capillary movement. The rise of water in side. A locking carabiner is one where the subsoil above the water table by the gate is threaded and has a ring that can capillarity. be threaded over the gate opening to prevent it from opening[13]. Synonyms: capillary percolation. See imbibition. karabiner; krab. capillary potential. The scalar quantity that carbide, calcium carbide. A compound

represents the work required to move a (CaC2) of grayish color that reacts with unit mass of water from the soil to a water to produce acetylene gas and [13] chosen reference location and calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] . state[22]. Commonly used by cavers and miners earlier in this century as a means of capillary pressure. The difference in providing light in caves or mines. Some pressure across the interface between two cavers still prefer carbide lights over immiscible fluid phases jointly occupying electric lights. See also . the interstices of a porous medium caused by interfacial tension between the two carbide lamp. A carbide lamp, also known phases[22]. as a miners’ carbide lamp or acetylene lamp was introduced into mine use at capillary rise. The height above a free about 1897. It consists of two chambers, water surface to which water will rise by a water tank above and a removable capillary action[22]. Synonymous with carbide canister below with a connection height of capillary rise. valve to permit controlled seepage of water into the calcium carbide. The capillary stalagmite. Hollow stalagmite carbide and water react to generate

formed by saturated karst water pushed calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and up through capillaries and small cracks in acetylene gas. The gas is passed through a sinter crust covering permeable fluvial a filter into a tube and through a tiny deposits on the floor of a cave; first burner-tip orifice designed for the reported from , where such optimum mixture of air and acetylene. stalagmites are composed of aragonite[10]. Once ignited, it burns with a brilliant yellow-white flame produced by the capillary tension. See moisture tension. incandescence of tiny carbon particles. A reflector concentrates the light in a capillary water. 1. Water held in the soil particular direction[13]. above the phreatic surface by capillary forces[22]. 2. Soil water above carbonate. 1. A salt or ester of carbonic acid; a compound containing the radical

30 –2 CO3 , such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3. usually termed calcium bicarbonate, can lose 2. A rock consisting mainly of carbonate carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and minerals, such as limestone or precipitate calcium carbonate. This process dolomite[10]. is responsible for the development of speleothems underground and tufa or carbonate-fluorapatite. A cave mineral — at the surface[9]. [11] Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F . carnivore. An animal that lives by eating carbonate hardness. Hardness of water the flesh of other animals[23]. See also due to presence of dissolved bicarbonates herbivore; insectivore; omnivore. of calcium and magnesium which can be removed by boiling and hence the term cascading water. In reference to wells, ‘temporary hardness.’ Synonyms: ground water which trickles or pours (French.) dureté temporaire; (German.) down the casing or uncased borehole temporäre Härte, Carbonathärte; (Greek.) above the water level in the well through parothiki sklipotis anthrakiki sklirotis; cracks or perforations[22]. (Italian.) durezza temporanea; (Russian.) karbonatnaja zestkostj; (Spanish.) dureza casing. Permanent liner of a well[16]. temporal; (Turkish.) karbonat sertli{i; (Yugoslavian.) turdoóa, trdota. casing joint. Welded or threaded connection for tubular casing[16]. carbonate-hydroxylapatite. A cave [11] mineral — Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH) . casing, surface. That part of a well casing that extends above land surface[16]. carbonate rock. A rock that consists of one or more carbonate minerals. Carbonate catch basin. 1. A reservoir or basin into rock successions (or sequences) are those which surface water may drain. 2. A in which carbonate rock is dominant, but basin to collect and retain material from a which also contain rocks of other street gutter that would not readily pass [9]. through a sewer system.

carbonic acid dissolution. Dissolution of catchment. (Great Britain.) 1. An area into calcium carbonate by carbon dioxide in which surface water may drain. 2. A aqueous solution, loosely termed depression that collects rainwater (e.g., carbonic acid, is the dominant reaction in reservoir). karst processes, including speleogenesis. The reaction can be considered in several cation. An ion having a positive charge ways but it is most simply represented as: and, in electrolytes, characteristically moving towards a negative electrode[6].

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O œ Ca(HCO3)2 cation exchange. Ion exchange process in The reaction is reversible. The solution which cations in solution are exchanged containing the dissolved reaction product, for other cations from an ion exchanger[6].

31 cation exchange capacity. The sum total of tectonic caves also occur. Marginal exchangeable cations that a porous candidates for use of the name cave medium can absorb. Expressed in moles include riverbank undercuts and rock of ion charge per kilogram of soil (or of shelters of various origins. In some other exchanges such as clay)[22]. countries a cave is regarded as being a horizontal opening, as opposed to a causse. (French.) A limestone in the pothole, which is a vertical opening. This southeastern part of the central massif of usage is common in England but is not France characterized by closed ubiquitous[9]. 2. A natural opening depressions, caves, and avens (jamas); a formed in the rocks below the surface of number of such in and around the ground large enough for a man to the basin of the river constitute Les enter. It may consist of a single Grandes Causses. This region was connected opening or a series of small or considered by Cvijie to exemplify karst large chambers connected by galleries[20]. development intermediate between 3. A similar artificial opening[10]. Related holokarst and merokarst[10]. Synonym: to cavern. Synonyms: (French.) grotte, (French.) causse; (German.) (Kalkstein caverne; (German.) Höhle, Grotte; Plateau), Cauße; (Greek.) karstikón (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) caverna, oropédion; (Italian.) altopiano carsico; grotta; (Russian.) pescera; (Spanish.) (Russian.) izvestnjakovoje karstovoje cueva; (Turkish.) ma{ara; (Yugoslavian.) plato; (Spanish.) altiplano carstico; pecina. pec, pestera, spilja, zijjalka, jama. (Turkish.) kireçta·i düzlügü; See also active cave; bedding cave; cave (Yugoslavian.) krski plato, kraski plato. system; grotto; sea cave.

cave. 1. ‘A natural in the ground, cave balloon. See cave blister. large enough for human entry’ is probably the most useful definition. This covers cave blister. 1. A small pimplelike cave the enormous variety of caves that do formation, roughly oval in shape, gener• occur but eliminates the many artificial ally loose, and having a core of mud[10]. and galleries incorrectly named 2. A partly or completely hollow caves. The size criterion is arbitrary and hemispherical to nearly spherical subjective, but practical, as it eliminates speleothem, usually of gypsum or narrow openings irrelevant to explorers hydromagnesite, attached to a cave wall. but very significant hydrologically, that Synonym: cave balloon. may be better referred to as proto-caves, sub-conduits or fissures. A cave may be a cave breakdown. 1. Enlargement of parts single, short length of accessible passage, of a cave system by fall of rock masses or an extensive and complex network of from walls and ceiling. 2. Heaps of rock tunnels as long as the hundreds of that have collapsed from the walls and kilometers in the Mammoth Cave ceiling of a cave, generally called cave System. Most caves are formed by breccia[10]. 3. Synonym for the collapse of dissolution in limestone but sandstone caves, or, in American usage, for the caves, caves, glacier caves and debris produced by collapse[18].

32 cave breathing. A resonance phenomenon (involving removal of carbonates and in which air currents throb back and forth mineral impurities by water and by strong through constricted passages in a cave acids), as well as by the carbonic acid with periodicity of a few seconds to a few dissolution that dominates later cave minutes. Synonyms: (French.) passage growth. Initial water movement can be respirant; (German.) Grotte mit Resonanz; along primary pores in the rock (in coarse (Greek.) anapneousa ope; (Italian.) grotta raffle limestones, oolites or chalk), along a soffio alterno; (Spanish.) gruta relatively thin non-carbonate beds within resonante; (Turkish.) ma{ara esintisi. See the succession, or along incipient or open also blowing cave. fissures (joints, faults and bedding planes). These potential water routes are cave breccia. Angular fragments of rock initially very narrow and water movement forming a fill in a cave, either cemented is severely restricted and laminar, together by dripstone or in a matrix of allowing only very slow dissolutional cave earth[10]. See also solution breccia. growth (see gestation), until enlargement beyond the turbulent threshold cave bubble. A nonattached hollow sphere, (breakthrough) permits faster flow and usually of calcite, that has formed around accelerated cave growth. After a gas bubble on the surface of a cave establishment of turbulent flow pool. conditions the effects of dissolution are augmented by mechanical abrasion and cave coral. A rough, knobby growth of cal• collapse, which expose new rock. During cite resembling coral in shape, generally the early development stages a network of small; found on floor, walls, or ceiling of narrow openings is formed. a cave[10]. Synonym: botryoid; coral for• Subsequently, geological factors guide the mation; . See also preferential expansion of favorable knobstone. routes, which capture more of the local flow and enlarge, at the expense of less cave cotton. Thin flexible filaments of favorable openings, to form caves. The gypsum or epsomite projecting from a less favorable fissures are relegated to a cave wall. Synonym: gypsum cotton. subordinate role in transmitting See also gypsum flower. percolation water or, more rarely, in carrying elements of overflow water cave development. The inception of cave during . Also during the early development in carbonate rocks begins if stages, all voids are water filled but as water can move through the bedrock and permeability increases and true hydraulic commence dissolution. The earliest flow conditions are established, the upper water movement may be due to voids drain freely, forming a water table. mechanisms (including ground-water Almost all caves therefore originate under pumping and ionic effects) phreatic conditions but the overall unrelated to those dominating later passage morphology is modified during development. Similarly, inception may later growth into vadose or phreatic caves, include physical and chemical dissolution enlarged from the original phreatic

33 imprint, above or below the water table. speleothem or the colloquial term Ultimately, cave development evolves ‘stall’[9]. See also sinter; speleothem. towards efficient drainage close to the water table. Passage enlargement then becomes cave group. A number of caves or cave regressive as collapse increases. The stage of systems, not interconnected but geo• a cavernous karst collapsing extensively is graphically associated in some relief relatively rarely achieved, being overtaken at feature or particular geological outcrop[10]. high latitudes and high altitudes by surface See also cave series. lowering, but such collapse can contribute to the chaotic land forms of tropical karst[9]. cave guano. Accumulations of dung in caves, generally from ; in some places cave earth, cave fill. Insoluble deposits of partially mineralized[10]. clay, silt, sand, or gravel flooring or fill• ing a cave passage. In a more restricted cave ice. Ice formed in a cave by natural sense, cave earth includes only the finer freezing of water. Loosely but incorrectly fractions: clay, silt, and fine sand applied to calcium carbonate dripstone deposits[10]. Synonym: cave soil. and flowstone[10].

cave ecology. The study of the interaction cave-in. 1. The collapse of the ceiling or between cave organisms and their side walls of a cave or of the land surface environment, e.g. energy input from into a subterranean passage as a result of surface, climatic influences[25]. undermining or of pressure from above[10]. 2. The partial or complete collapse of cave fill. Transported materials such as silt, earth material into a large underground clay, sand and gravel which cover the opening, such as an excavation or a mine. bedrock floor or partially or wholly block 3. The sudden slumping of wall material some part of a cave[25]. into a pit. 4. A place where material has collapsed or fallen in or down. cave flower. An elongate curved deposit of gypsum or epsomite on a cave wall in cave-in . A shallow body of water which growth occurs at the attached whose basin is produced by collapse of end[10]. Synonyms: gypsum flower; the ground following thawing of ground oulopholite. See also anthodite; cave ice in regions underlain by permafrost. cotton. Synonym: thermokarst lake.

cave formations. 1. Secondary mineral de- cave lake. Any . The posits formed by the accumulation, drip- water can be in a partially drained ping, or flowing of water in a cave[10]. 2. phreatic cave, and may then be the Unsatisfactory term used to include all entrance to a , or it can be open over varieties of calcite, gypsum and other, its entire surface. In vadose caves rarer, mineral cave deposits; therefore a are most commonly formed by ponding synonym for the equally unwieldly behind banks of sediment or, in rarer cases, behind very large gour barriers[9].

34 cave marble. Banded deposit of calcite or cave raft. A thin mineral film, usually of aragonite capable of taking a high calcite, floating on a cave pool. polish[10]. See also flowstone; marble. (CRF.) An organization of cavers united primarily cave of debouchure. Outflow cave. for scientific exploration and study of caves[13]. cave onyx. See onyx marble. cave spring. See spring, cave. . 1. Carbonate concretion, usually of calcite, that is spherical or caver. (American.) 1. A slang term for one irregular in shape, with an internal who engages in the hobby of cave structure of concentric banding round a exploration, or caving[9, 21]. 2. A person central grain. Pearls form in pools of who explores caves in a safe manner saturated water disturbed by dripping while showing respect for the cave (all water, so that they are commonly found aspects of the cave), other cavers, and the beneath high avens. Individual pearls land above the cave[13]. Synonym: may be lmm or many centimeters in spelunker; (British.) potholer. See also diameter. Movement of the larger ones speleologist. may become impossible and they can then become cemented to the pool floor. cavern. 1. Underground opening in soluble Some caves contain spectacular displays rock similar to a cave. When used as a of cave pearls; in Jackson’s Bay Cave, noun, it refers to large openings, but when Jamaica, they cover large areas of passage used as an adjective it tends to refer to floor behind low gour barriers[9]. 2. Small rock texture and so to small openings. concretion of calcite or aragonite formed However, in some countries (e.g., ) by concentric precipitation around a cavern refers to small openings in a nucleus[10]. Synonyms: pisolite; pisolith; rock[20]. 2. A synonym of cave with the (French.) perle des cavernes; (German.) implication of large size. 3. A system or Höhlenperlen; (Greek.) speleomargarites; series of caves or cave chambers. 4. A (Italian.) perle di grotta; (Russian.) cave, often used poetically or to connote pescernij zemcug; (Spanish.) perla de larger-than-average size[10]. Synonyms: caverna; (Turkish.) ma{ara incisi; (French.) caverne; (German.) Höhle, (Yugoslavian.) peeinski biseri, jamski Kaverne; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) biseri. caverna, grotta; (Russian.) kaverna; (Spanish.) caverna, cueva; (Turkish.) cave pisolite. See cave pearl. kovuk; (Yugoslavian.) kaverna. See also cave. cave popcorn. See cave coral. cavern breakdown. The process of cave cave postule. A white, hemispherical wall enlargement which depends upon the and roof deposit of calcite[25]. mechanical failure and eventual collapse

35 of sections of the cavern walls and cavern porosity. A pore system having ceiling[22]. large, cavernous openings. The lower size limit, for field analysis, is practically cavern flow. Movement, often turbulent, of set at approximately the smallest opening ground-water flow through caves, coarse that an adult person may enter. sorted gravel, or large open conduits, either by gravity or under pressure. cavern system. See cave system. cavernicole. An animal which normally cave series. A group of caves of similar lives in caves for the whole or part of its morphology in a particular district[10]. See life cycle[25]. also cave group.

cavernous. Adjective used to describe a cave shield. A semicircular plate of rock texture in which the rock contains reprecipitated calcite located beneath openings generally of a small size[20]. joints in a cavern ceiling and believed to Synonyms: (French.) caverneux; be formed by the seepage of hydrostatic (German.) kavernös; (Greek.) speleothes; water along the joint. Two shields form (Italian.) con grotte; (Russian.) beneath one joint, descending from each kavernoznij; (Spanish.) cavernoso; side of the opening[22]. (Turkish.) kovuklu; (Yugoslavian.) kavernozan. See also cavern. cave soil. See cave earth.

cavernous karren. Pitted, rubbly limestone cave spring. See spring, cave. most commonly found in relatively recent and limestones of the humid cave system. 1. An underground network of tropics[3]. See also covered karren; passages, chambers, or other cavities. 2. karren. The caves in a given area related to each other hydrologically, whether continuous cavernous permeability. See conduit or discontinuous from a single opening[10]. permeability. Synonyms: (French.) réseau souterrain; (German.) Höhlensystem; (Greek.) cavernous rock. Any rock that has many speleothes systema, thiction; (Italian.) cavities, cells, or large interstices (e.g., a sistema carsico sotterraneo; (Russian.) cliff face pitted with shallow holes sistema podzemnih pescer; (Spanish.) resulting from cavernous ). sistema de cavidades; (Turkish.) ma{ara sistemi, serisi; (Yugoslavian.) peeinski cavernous weathering. Chemical and (spiljski) sistem, amski sistem. See also mechanical weathering on a cliff face, in cave; cave group; cave series; cavern. which grains and flakes of rock are loosened so as to enlarge hollows and caving. The sport of exploring caves. recesses. Synonyms: (British.) potholing; spelunking. 2. A method of in which the ore is allowed to cave or fall[10].

36 cavings. Rock fragments that fall from the ceiling slab, roof slab. A thin but extensive walls of a borehole and contaminate the piece of rock that has fallen from the well cuttings or block the hole. These ceiling of a cave in roughly horizontal fragments must be removed by drilling or limestone[10]. See also cave breakdown; circulation of drilling fluids before the ceiling block. borehole can be deepened. ceiling tube. A half tube remaining in the . 1. The collapse of bubbles in a ceiling of a cave[10]. fluid, caused by static pressure being less [11] than the fluid . 2. A celestite. A cave mineral — SrSO4 . phenomena of cavity formation, or formation and collapse, especially in cement. A microscopic textured nonskeletal regard to , when the absolute void-filling material precipitated on an pressure within the water reaches vapor intragranular or intrasedimentary free pressure causing the formation of vapor surface that holds the material together[20]. pockets[6]. Synonyms: (French.) ciment; (German.) Zement; (Greek.) tsiménto; (Italian.) cavity. A solutional hollow in a limestone cemento; (Spanish.) cemento; (Turkish.) cave. çimento; (Yugoslavian.) vezivo cement.

cavity dweller. A coelobitic organism. cementation. The process of binding granular material together by deposition ceiling block. Roughly cubical joint- of cementing material at contact points of bounded large block, which has fallen grains[16]. from the ceiling of a cave[10]. See also cave breakdown; ceiling slab. cement grout. Cement slurry of pumpable consistency[16]. ceiling cavity. Solutional concavity in the ceiling of a cave. The orientation is cement slurry. Liquid cement determined by joints or a bedding suspension[16]. plane[10]. cementing. See grouting. ceiling channel. Sinuous channel developed in the ceiling of a cave, cenote. (Spanish. after Mayan tzonet or presumably during the phreatic phase of dzonot.) 1. Steep-walled natural well that cave development[10]. extends below the water table; generally caused by collapse of a cave roof. Term ceiling meander. A winding upside-down used only for features in Yucatán[10]. 2. channel in a cave ceiling[10]. Steep or vertical sided collapse doline floored by a lake whose surface is at the ceiling pocket. See pocket. regional water table. The term originates from the many in the low of Mexico’s Yucatan, but has

37 been applied to flooded dolines in Florida locally in a single passage, where erosion and elsewhere. Probably the most famous has been enhanced by collapse exposing cenote is the sacred well of Chichen Itza, more rock to dissolution. Maximum Yucatan; it has vertical sides and is 60m in chamber size is controlled by the strength diameter, 30m deep and half full of water[9]. and shape of the limestone ceiling. The Synonyms: (French.) cenote; (German.) largest chamber currently known, cenote; (Greek.) voulismeno speleven. See in Lubang Nasib also jama; natural well. Bagus, at Mulu, Sarawak, is over 700m long, up to 400m wide and nowhere less centrifuge moisture equivalent. See than 70m high. It has formed where a moisture equivalent. large stream eroded sideways as it cut obliquely across the included bedding in [11] cerussite. A cave mineral — PbCO3 . unusually massive limestone. It is doubtful whether a much larger chamber chain gage. Water level measuring could exist without collapse of its roof[9]. device[16]. 2. The largest order of cavity in a cave or cave system; it has considerable length chalk. 1. Used as a proper noun chalk and breadth but not necessarily great describes a rock unit of Cretaceous age, height. 3. (British.) A room in a cave[10]. that consists predominately of relatively Synonyms: (French.) salle; (german.) soft, white, porous limestone with beds of Halle, Kammer, Dom; (Greek.) ypoyios marl and bands or nodules of flint. The aethousa; (Italian.) sala; (Russian.) zal; term is used without its initial capital to (Spanish.) sala, salón; (Turkish.) oda; describe any rock with similar appearance (Yugoslavian.) dvorana. See also room; and properties. Generally chalk has a passage. relatively high primary permeability and so rarely develops caves of explorable chandelier. Large variety of gypsum size, though conduit-water flow does flower, with branching occur. Some harder in northern that may hang many meters from a cave France and south-eastern England hold ceiling. Very rare, except in Lechuguilla explorable active and relict caves, which Cave of [9]. extend for many hundreds of meters[9]. 2. Soft poorly indurated limestone, generally channel. Natural or artificial watercourse light in color; commonly composed of the bounded by banks[16]. tests of floating microorganisms in a matrix of very finely crystalline calcite[10]. channel characteristics. Hydraulic properties of stream channel[16]. chalcanthite. A cave mineral — [11] CuSO45H2O . chasm. 1. A deep, fairly narrow breach in the earth’s surface; an abyss; a gorge; a chamber. (American.) 1. An enlargement deep canyon. 2. A deep, wide, elongated in a cave passage or system, commonly gap in the floor of a cave[10]. Related to formed at a junction of passages, or canyon, corridor. Synonyms: (French.)

38 gouffre, fracture ouverte; (German.) Kluft; lips[9]. 2. Light-cream or gray to black (Greek.) chasma; (Italian.) fattura beante, rock composed of silica, found occurring canyon; (Spanish.) cañon, taso; (Turkish.) as nodules or layers in limestone, or as a derin yarnt; (Yugoslavian.) provalija. replacement of limestone[10]. See also ravine. Chézy equation. An equation used to chemical carbonate rock. Carbonate rock compute the velocity of uniform flow in form by the precipitation of mineral an open channel: mean velocity of flow matter in situ by chemical or biological (V) equals the Chézy coefficient © times processes. the square root of the product of hydraulic radius in feet (R) times the slope of the chemical deposit. A sediment precipitated channel[1]. See also Froude number; out of solution by chemical action[16]. Manning equation; Reynolds number. chemical erosion. Processes partially chimney. 1. Nearly circular shaft rising synonymous with chemical dissolution, upwards from the ceiling of a cave but including any other form of rock towards the surface of the ground; if it breakdown accelerated by chemical does not reach the surface it is termed a changes of the constituent minerals[9]. blind chimney. If the chimney is formed mainly by solution, it is related to a dome- chemical equivalent. The expression of pit; if formed mainly by collapse of the water characteristics such as hardness or roof along bedding planes, it is related to alkalinity resulting from several ions in cenote[20]. 2. A narrow vertical shaft in solution in terms of only one equivalent the roof of a cave, generally smaller than concentration[16]. an aven; a dome pit[10]. Synonyms: (French.) cheminée (aven); (German.) chemical mobility. The tendency of an Schlot, Kamin; (Greek.) kapnothochos; element to move in a given (Italian.) camino; (Russian.) truba; hydrogeochemical environment[16]. (Spanish.) chimenea; (Turkish.) baca; (Yugoslavian.) dimnjak. chemical oxygen demand (COD.) The measure of readily available oxidizable chimneying. Ascending or descending by material contained in a water sample[16]. means of opposed body and/or limb against two facing walls[25]. , chert nodule. 1. Black, brown or grey rock, consisting of very fine-grained chlorophyll. A group of silica, that occurs as horizons of nodules producing the green color of plants; and discontinuous bands, generally less essential to photosynthesis[23]. than 200mm thick, within many limestones. It is very hard and almost chock. A block of metal for use as a insoluble in water, so commonly it chockstone[25]. projects from cave walls where it forms passage or shaft ledges and

39 chockstone. A rock wedged between the Rijeka, mainly in Slovenia with some walls of a cave passage[10]. parts in and [9].

choke. 1. A blockage of inwashed mud, clastic. Pertaining to a rock or sediment sand or boulders in a cave passage. Most composed principally of broken boulder chockes are formed by collapse fragments that are derived from pre- of a passage roof and may have an open existing rocks or minerals and that have chamber or shaft above them; others are been transported some distance from their formed by collapse and inwashed debris places of origin[6]. where a large old passage is cut by a hillside. A passable route through a clastic carbonate rock. Carbonate rock that choke may be opened by excavation, and is made up of carbonate grains (e.g., thereby lead to discovery of new passage shells, shell fragments, oolites). — as was done so successfully in Ogof Agen Allwedd[9]. 2. Rock debris or cave clastic rock; detrital rock. A sedimentary fill completely blocking a passage[10]. rock derived from fragmentated other preexisting rock or organic structures[16]. C-horizon. Zone of weathered parent material in a soil profile[16]. clastokarst. Karst phenomena in clastic rocks composed of detrital carbonate chute. An inclined channel or trough in a material[20]. Synonyms: (French.) cave[10]. clastokarst; (German.) Klastokarst?; (Greek.) clastokarst; (Italian.) carsismo ciénaga. (Spanish.) . See also clastico; (Russian.) klastokarst; (Spanish.) wetland. clastokarst; (Turkish.) klastik karst; (Yugoslavian.) klastokrs, klastokras, cimolite. A cave mineral — klastokarst. [11] Al4(SiO2)9(OH)12 . claustrophobia. An irrational fear of being . A small water reservoir used to in a closed space[25]. collect surface and rain water[16]. clay. 1. A rock or mineral fragment or a classical karst. Originally the region called detrital particle of any composition Kras in Slovenia, which gave its name to smaller than a very fine silt grain, having the karst landscape. Used in this sense a diameter less than 1/256 mm (4 about 95% of the classical karst lies in microns, or 0.00016 in., or 8 phi units.) Slovenia, with the remaining 5% This size is approximately the upper limit extending to Italy. A slightly different of size of particle that can show colloidal area was covered by descriptions of early properties. 2. A loose, earthy, extremely investigations or karst phenomena, when fine-grained natural sediment or soft rock the name classical karst was applied to a composed primarily of clay-size or region between , Gorizia and colloidal particles and characterized by a considerable content of clay minerals and

40 subordinate amounts of finely divided clayey silt. 1. An unconsolidated sediment quartz, decomposed feldspar, carbonates, containing 40–75% silt, 12.5–50% clay, ferruginous matter, and other impurities. It and 0–20% sand. 2. An unconsolidated forms a plastic, moldable mass when finely sediment containing more particles of silt ground and mixed with water, but retains its size than of clay size, more than 10% shape on drying, and becomes firm, clay, and less than 10% of all other rocklike, and permanently hard on heating or coarser sizes. firing. 3. A term that is commonly applied to any soft, adhesive, fine-grained deposit clay loam. A soil containing 27–40% clay, (such as loam or siliceous silt) and to earthy 20–45% sand, and the remainder silt. material, particularly when wet (such as mud). 4. A term used by the International clay marl. 1. A whitish, smooth, chalky Society of Soil Science for a rock or mineral clay. 2. A marl in which clay particle in the soil, having a diameter less predominates. than 0.002 mm (2 microns). clay mineral. One of a complex and loosely clay ball, clayball. A chunk of clay defined group of finely crystalline, released by erosion of a clayey bank and metacolloidal, or amorphous hydrous rounded by wave action. silicates, essentially of aluminum. clay boil. A mud circle that suggests a claypan. A dense, heavy, relatively welling-up or heaving of the central core. impervious subsurface soil layer that owes its hardness to a relatively higher clay colloid. 1. A clay particle having a clay content than that of the overlying diameter less than 1 micron (0.001 mm.) material from which it is separated by a 2. A colloidal substance consisting of sharply defined boundary. clay-size particles. clay parting. 1. Clayey material between a clay fill. Dry or wet clay that fills a cave vein and its wall. 2. A seam of hardened passage[10]. carbonaceous clay between or in beds of coal, or a thin layer of clay between clay filling. Time interval between end of relatively thick beds of some other rock phreatic solution of a cave and beginning (e.g., sandstone). or deposition of flowstone[10]. clay plug. Fine flood deposits in a cut off clayey sand. 1. An unconsolidated river meander[16]. sediment containing 50–90% sand and having a ratio of silt or clay less than 1:2. clean sand. Sand with little or no clay 2. An unconsolidated sand containing content[16]. 40–75% sand, 12.5–50% clay, and 0–20% silt. cleavage. The tendency to cleave or split along definite parallel planes, which may be highly inclined to the bedding. It is a

41 secondary structure and is ordinarily closed depression, closed basin. 1. Any accompanied by at least some karst hollow with internal drainage, recrystallinization of the rock. including dolines, uvalas, poljes, cockpits and all varieties of blind karst valleys, of climate. The average weather conditions of both small and large scales[9]. 2. A an area, including temperature, rainfall, general term for any enclosed topographic humidity, wind, and hours of sunlight, basin having no external drainage, based on records kept for many years[23]. regardless of origin or size[10].

climatic factor. A factor influencing closed karst. A karst terrane that is covered hydrologic parameters due to the local by sediments. Synonyms: (Russian.) climate[16]. skryty karst or zakryty karst. See also buried karst; interstratal karst; mantled clinometer. An instrument for measuring karst. vertical angles or angles of dip[25]. closed traverse. A traverse which begins clint. (British.) 1. Flat or sloping bare and ends at survey points with known limestone outcrops (limestone co-ordinates and orientation or at the pavements) weathered into straight-sided same point[25]. or furrowed blocks and ridges of limestone which are separated by deep cloud. Large masses of coralloid or clefts or solutionally widened joints botryoidal calcite, deposited under water, (grikes) that often crisscross[20]. 2. Slabs with each mass reaching 200–800mm in of limestone, parallel to the bedding, diameter. Famous examples hang above forming a pavement. Widened joints, or the Lake of the Clouds in Carlsbad grikes, isolate individual clints[10]. Cavens, New Mexico[9]. Synonym: (French.) lapiaz; (German.) Flachkarren, Karrenfeld; (Greek.) pethion clusterite. See botryoid. amaxotrochion thactyloglyphon; (Italian.) campo carreggiato; (Russian.) karrovoe coarse. Composed of or constituting pole; (Spanish.) campo de lapiaz, lenar; relatively large particles. (Turkish.) pürtüklü, oluklu; (Yugoslavian.) škrapari, škraplje. See coarse sand. 1. A geologic term for a sand also grikes; karrenfeld; lapies; limestone particle having a diameter in the range of pavement. 0.5–1 mm (500–1000 microns, or 1 to zero phi units.) 2. An engineering term clog, to. The action of blocking fluid flow for a sand particle having a diameter in paths, especially around a well bore[16]. the range of 2 mm. 3. A soil term used in the U.S. for a sand particle having a clogger. A type of ascender without a diameter in the range of 0.5–1 mm (the handle; used with a karabiner to keep it diameter range recognized by the securely on the rope[25]. International Society of Soil Science is 0.2–2 mm).

42 coarse silt. A geologic term for a silt Units are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also particle having a diameter in the range of coefficient of volume compressibility. 1/32 to 1/16 mm (31–62 microns, or 5 to 4 phi units). coefficient of permeability. An obsolete term that has been replaced by the term cockpit. (Jamaican.) 1. Any closed hydraulic conductivity[6]. depression having steep sides. 2. A star-shaped depression having a conical coefficient of storage. See storage or a lightly concave floor. The coefficient. surrounding hill slopes are steep and convex. Cockpits are the common type coefficient of transmissivity; coefficient of of closed depressions in a kegelkarst[10]. transmissibility. An obsolete term replaced by the term transmissivity. cockpit karst. (Jamaican.) 1. Term describing an area containing numerous coefficient of volume compressibility. The scattered, yet closely spaced dolines; compression of a clay (aquitard) per unit generally a tropical karst land form. The thickness, due to a unit increase of corresponding Yugoslav term may more effective stress, in the load range accurately be translated as ‘pock-marked’ exceeding preconsolidation stress. It is karst. 2. Tropical karst topography expressed by the equation containing many closed depressions surrounded by steep-sided conical hills. Divided by French and German geographers into several types depending [10] on shape of hills . Synonyms: (French.) in which e0 is the initial void ratio. Units karst cockpit; (German.) Turmkarst, are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also coefficient Kegelkarst; (Greek.) dolinovrithes karst; of compressibility. (Italian.) campo carsico a doline; (Spanish.) karst esponja; (Turkish.) cohesion. Shear resistance at zero normal düdenli karst; (Yugoslavian) boginjavi stress. An equivalent term in rock kr³, kozavi kras. See also cone karst; mechanics is intrinsic shear strength. Halbkugelkarst; Kegelkarst; Spitzkegelkarst; tower karst. coliform organism. A microorganism, the concentration of which is used as an coefficient of compressibility. indication of the degree of biological Compressibility is the aptitude of the soil pollution of water[16]. to be deformed. It is expressed by means of a coefficient which is the ratio between collapse breccia. A mass of rock composed

a void ratio decrease from e0 to e and an of angular to rounded fragments of increase in effective stress. The value av limestone or dolomite that has formed as = e0–e p represents the coefficient of the result of the collapse of the roof of a compressibility for the range p0 to p0 + p. cave, of an underlying cave, or of an

43 overhanging ledge[10]. See also solution collector well. A central well with breccia. horizontal sections of screened collector pipe arranged radially to increase yield[16]. collapse chamber. An underground chamber containing notable quantities of colloid. Extremely small solid particles, collapsed material. The term is 0.0001 to 1 micron in size, which will not commonly abused in describing the origin settle out of solution. It is intermediate of cave chambers floored by collapse between a true dissolved particle and a debris. Though wall and roof collapse are suspended solid which will settle out of common modifying processes in larger solution[6]. chambers, it is important to remember that such collapse cannot form a chamber, column. 1. A subsurface dripstone as it can only take place into a pre- formation produced by the union of a existing cavity[9]. and a stalagmite in a cave[20]. 2. A flowstone formation, generally collapse sink; collapse sinkhole. 1. A cylindrical, formed by the union of a variety of closed depression that forms by stalactite and stalagmite[10]. Not to be collapse of the rock above an existing confused with pillar. Synonyms: cave passage or chamber[9]. 2. A closed (French.) colonne, pillier stalamitique; depression formed by the collapse of the (German.) Tropfstein-Säule; (Greek.) roof of a cave[10]. See also doline. stalaktitike stele; (Italian.) colonna (stalagmitica o stalattitica) (Russian.) collapse of caves. Collapse and breakdown kolonna; (Spanish.) columna; (Turkish.) of cave walls and ceilings are continuing sütun; (Yugoslavian.) stup, steber, stolpic. aspects of cave development and See also pillar. modification. Massive unfractured limestone can easily span a void of over comminution. The reduction of a substance 100m, but thinly bedded, closely jointed, to a fine powder; pulverization; faulted or poorly lithified limestone may trituration. collapse into very small passages. Collapse is a significant component of community. All the plants and animals that cave erosion. As well as simple falls of live in a particular habitat and are bound unsupported rock forming connections together by food chains and other between passages, the collapse process interrelations[23]. exposes more rock surface area for potential dissolution. As rates of collapse compaction. A decrease in the volume of a are measured on a geological time scale mass of sediments from any cause. In collapse in natural caves offers a general, compaction may be regarded as negligible threat to explorers, in the decrease in the thickness of comparison to the dangers of roof sediments, as a result of an increase in collapse in mines[9]. vertical compressive stress, and is synonymous with ‘one-dimensional consolidation,’ as used by engineers. The

44 term compaction is applied both to the common necessities, such as food or process and to the measured change in living space[23]. thickness. In thick fine-grained beds, compaction is a delayed process involving complete well penetration, fully the slow escape of pore water and the penetrating. 1. The property of a well gradual transfer of stress from neutral to that penetrates an aquifer completely from effective. Until sufficient time has passed the upper confining bed or water table to for excess pore pressure to decrease to zero, the lower confining bed[16]. 2. A well that measured values of compaction are is completed over the whole thickness of transient[21]. See also compaction, residual; the aquifer to allow radial production over compaction, specific. its entire completed length[16].

compaction, residual. Compaction that compressibility. The relative change in would occur ultimately if a given increase volume with pressure of water or aquifer in applied stress were maintained until matrix[16]. steady-state pore pressures were achieved, but had not occurred as of a specified compressive stress. Normal stress tending time because excess pore pressures still to shorten the body in the direction in existed in beds of low diffusivity in the which it acts. compacting system. It can also be regarded as the difference between (1) the compromise boundary. 1. A plane amount of compaction that will occur interface between two crystals which ultimately for a given increase in applied evolved by mutual interference of their stress, and (2) that which has occurred at respective growing faces. This interface a specified time[21]. See also compaction; is a face of neither crystal. 2. A compaction, specific. microscopic texture[20]. compaction, specific. The decrease in concentration gradient. The change in thickness of deposits, per unit of increase solute concentration per unit distance in in applied stress, during a specific period solute. Concentration gradients cause of time[21]. See also compaction; Fickian diffusion (spreading) of solutes compaction, residual. from regions of highest to regions of lowest . In slowing . An instrument with a magnetic moving ground water, this is the needle which is free to point to magnetic dominant mixing process[22]. north. For survey the needle is either attached to a graduated card or can be concretion. The localized deposition of read against a graduated circle to measure mineral matter going out of solution in the angle in degrees from the north sediments or tuffs, usually nodular or clockwise[25]. irregular in shape[16]. competition. The struggle between condensation. The transition from vapor to individuals or groups of living things for liquid state[16].

45 condensation nucleus. A small solid . A depression of the particle around which condensation potentiometric surface in the shape of an occurs[16]. inverted cone that develops around a well that is being pumped. It defines the area condensation water. Atmospheric moisture of influence[6]. Synonym: cone of deposited inside caves when the surface pressure relief (applied to artesian temperature of the exposed rock falls only). below the dew point of circulating air[19]. cone of impression. A rise of the conduit; karst conduit. Relatively large potentiometric surface in the shape of a dissolutional voids, including enlarged cone that develops around an injection fissures and tubular tunnels; in some well[22]. usage the term is restricted to voids that are water-filled. Conduits may include all cone karst. 1. A karst landscape dominated voids greater than 10mm in diameter, but by low conical (or hemispherical) hills another classification scheme places them that forms only in wet tropical climates. between arbitrary limits of 100mm to The type example is Gunung Sewu in 10m. Whichever value is accepted in a Java. Individual hills are remarkably particular context, smaller voids are uniform, each some few hundred meters commonly termed sub-conduits[9]. in diameter and around 50m high. Synonyms: (French.) conduite forcée; Between them lie broken valleys, dolines (German.) Druckleitung (Leitung); or cockpits, draining into . (Greek.) ; (Italian.) condotta Erosion that seems to be initiated in forzata; (Spanish.) conducto saturado; valley systems develops in such a way (Turkish.) yeraltsu yolu, mecra. See also that the valleys break up into dolines, but pressure flow tube; stream tube; siphon. the mechanisms leading to uniform shaping of the hills are not fully conduit flow; karst conduit flow. understood. The widespread cone karst in Underground water flow within conduits. is mostly known as fengcong, and Conduit flow is generally turbulent, but its hills are generally more conical than can also be laminar[9]. hemispherical in profile[9]. 2. A type of karst topography, common in the tropics, conduit permeability. Sometimes referred characterized by star-shaped depressions to as cavernous permeability, this is a or dolines at the feet of many steep-sided measure of the efficiency with which a cone-shaped hills; narrow steeply-walled particular aquifer transmits water through valleys may be present[10, 20]. A variety of conduits (see permeability)[9]. Kegelkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst à pitons; (German.) Kegelkarst, Turmkarst; conduit porosity. That part of the porosity (Greek.) konoethes karst; (Italian.) carso within an aquifer (usually a karst aquifer) di torri, carsismo con forme residuali that is a function of the presence of coniche; (Russian.) karst s koniceskimi conduits [9]. ostancami; (Spanish.) karst de conos; (Turkish.) konili karst; (Yugoslavia.)

46 stoÓasti krš, gokasti kras stoÓgsti, kras. . Junction point of streams[16]. See also cockpit karst. Compare: cupola karst, pinnacle karst, and tower karst. conformal mapping. The transposition and solution of plane flow problems in a confined. A modifier which describes a complex plane[16]. condition in which the potentiometric surface is above the top of the aquifer[22]. conglomerate. Rock consisting of large Synonymous with artesian. well rounded waterworn particles[16].

confined aquifer. 1. An aquifer bounded conical wall niche. See meander niche. above and below by confining units of distinctly lower permeability than that of conjugate joints or faults. Two sets of the aquifer itself. 2. An aquifer joints or faults that are formed under the containing confined ground water. same stress conditions (usually shear Generally, a confined aquifer is subject to pairs). pressure greater than atmospheric[6]. conjunctive use. The use of both surface confined water. Water separated from the water and ground water[16]. atmosphere by impermeable rock stratum[16]. connate water. Water entrapped in the interstices of a sedimentary or extrusive confining bed. A body of impermeable or igneous rock at the time of its distinctly less permeable material deposition[22]. stratigraphically adjacent to one or more aquifers[22]. Synonymous with confining consequent river. A river flowing down unit. the original slope of geologic beds or general slope of topography[16]. confining unit. 1. A hydrogeologic unit of impermeable or distinctly less permeable conservation. The use of natural resources material bounding one or more aquifers in a way that assures their continuing and is a general term that replaces availability to future generations; the wise aquitard, aquifuge, aquiclude[22]. 2. use of natural resources. Means a body of impermeable or distinctly less permeable material consolidation. 1. The binding of grains by stratigraphically adjacent to one or more cementing material to solid matrix[16]. 2. aquifers[22]. Synonymous with confining The gradual reduction in the water bed. content (void ratio) of a saturated soil, as a result of an increase in the pressure confining zone. A geological formation, acting on it, because of the addition of group of formations, or part of a overlying sediments or the application of formation that is capable of limiting fluid an external load. A laboratory test movement above an injection zone[22]. commonly known as a one-dimensional See confining unit. consolidation test (odometric test), is

47 performed on soil samples to evaluate travertínico; (Turkish.) dü·üm; consolidation. From such a test, the (Yugoslavian.) slap, precaga.

coefficient of consolidation, cv usually expressed in cm2/sec, is calculated as the consumer. Any living thing that is unable ratio to manufacture food from nonliving substances, but depends instead on the energy stored in other living things[23]. See also carnivore; decomposers; food chain; herbivore; omnivore; producers.

where K is the hydraulic conductivity, mv is the coefficient of volume consumptive use. The quantity of water

compressibility, and w is the unit weight used annually by crops or natural of water. The theory of consolidation vegetation due to transpiration, tissue leads to a relation between degree of building, and evaporation from adjacent consolidation and time: soil[16].

contact load. The solid material in sliding or rolling contact with a stream bed[16].

In this expression U is the degree of contact spring. See spring, contact. consolidation or the percentage of total

consolidation occurring in some time t; cv contaminant. 1. An undesirable substance is the coefficient of consolidation; and H not normally present or an unusually high is half of the sample’s thickness when the concentration of a naturally occurring odometric test is performed[21]. substance in water or soil[22]. 2. Any physical, chemical, biological, or consolidated rock. Rock that has become radiological substance or matter in hard and coherent through compression water[22]. See also pollutant. and lithification[16]. contaminant plume. An elongated body of constant-temperature zone. The area of a ground water containing contaminants, cave where air temperature is unchanging emanating and migrating from a point throughout the year and approximates the source within a hydrogeologic unit(s)[22]. average annual temperature aboveground[23]. See also zonation. contaminate. To introduce a substance that would cause (a) the concentration of that constructive waterfall. A large substance in the around water to exceed dam on a surface stream[10]. See rimstone the maximum contaminant levels; or (b) dam. Synonyms: (French.) chute an increase in the concentration of that incrustante; (German.) Waßerfall, substance in the ground water where the inkrustierender?, Sinter...?, Sinterbecken; existing concentration of that substance (Greek.) katarráktis; (Italian.) (vasche exceeds the maximum contaminant d’incrostazione); (Spanish.) dique levels[22]. See also pollutant.

48 cooling water. Water used only for cooling contamination. The addition to water of purposes[16]. any substance or property preventing the use or reducing the usability of the water. cool spring. Spring water temperature There is no specific limits, since the below mean annual surface degree of permissible contamination temperature[16]. depends upon the intended end use, or uses, of the water[6]. Sometimes coprolite. The fossilized excrement of considered synonymous with pollution. vertebrates such as fishes, reptiles, an mammals, larger than a fecal pellet, continuous stream. A stream that is measuring up to 20 cm in length, continuous in space from source to characterized by an ovoid to elongate discharge point[16]. form, a surface marked by annular convolutions, and a brown or black color, contributing region. That region which and often composed largely of calcium contributes to well discharge in inclined phosphate; petrified excrement[1]. water-table flow[16]. coprophage. A scavenger which feeds on control. The combined effect of channel animal dung, including guano[25]. characteristics (area, shape, slope, roughness) on rating curve[16]. coquina. Porous limestone composed of broken shell fragments[16]. conulite. A hollow, cone-shaped speleo• them formed when a conical depression is coralloid speleothem. Any variety of drilled in cave mud by falling water. microcrystalline, coralloid or botryoidal Subsequent erosion may remove the mud, calcite deposit that is distinguished by isolating the calcite lining of the curved outer surfaces and curved internal depression[10]. structures. Large examples, including clouds, are formed under water. Smaller convective diffusion. See mechanical varieties, also known as cave coral and dispersion, coefficient. cave popcorn, are splash deposits, or are precipitated onto cave passage walls from convective transport. The component of mists or thin surface films of saturated movement of heat or mass induced by water[9]. thermal gradients in ground water[22]. See also advection. corrasion. Mechanical erosion performed by such moving agents as water, ice, and convection. The process whereby heat is wind, especially when armed with rock carried along with the flowing ground fragments[10]. See also corrosion. water[22]. corridor. 1. Long, narrow chasm enlarged convergence. Net horizontal inflow of by action of water and into which surface moisture per unit area[16]. runoff or stream may flow; may be

49 located along a fault plane, fissure, joint coupole. (French.) Cupola or hemispheric or between two beds. Struga (Slavic) hill[10]. refers to such a corridor along a bedding plane in a carbonate formation[20]. 2. cove. (Southern Appalachians.) Narrow Relatively narrow passageway permitting steep-sided karst valley flanking travel between two larger areas. 3. A limestone plateaus[10]. fairly level and straight passage that links two or more rooms or chambers in a cave. covered karren. Any karren that is covered 4. Intersecting linear depressions on the by soil. Draining water is oversaturated

surface of the land, related to joints or with respect to CO2 so that corrosion is dikes[10]. See also bogaz; struga; zanjón. extensive[3]. See also wave karren; root Related to chasm; bogaz. Synonyms: karren; cavernous karren. (French.) gouffre absorbant; (German.) Karstgaße; (Greek.) apocheteftikos covered karst. 1. A fossil or currently karstikos agogos; (Italian.) dolina developing karst in karst limestone which allongata; (Russian.) coridor, hod; underlies superficial deposits or other (Spanish.) callejón; (Turkish.) koridor; rock, and which may produce landforms (Yugoslavian.) struga, bogaz. at the surface which reflect subsurface karstification[19]; contrasted with naked corrasion. Abrasion of the rock floor and karst, which is soil free. See also buried walls of a stream channel by rock debris karst; interstratal karst; mantled karst; carried in the water[9]. subsoil karst; sulfate-reduction karst. 2. A generally subdued karst landscape corrosion. 1. Chemical action of water developed where carbonate rocks are containing carbonic acid (also humidic, affected by dissolutional processes nitric, and other acids) on limestones and beneath a soil cover (see bare karst)[9]. dolomites causing partial solution and Synonyms: (French.) karst couvert; related chemical changes in the rocks[20]. (German.) Bedeckter karst; (Greek.) 2. Erosion by solution or chemical kekalymenon karst; (Italian.) carso action[10]. 3. The act or process of coperto; (Russian.) pokryty karst, pokritij dissolving or wearing away metals[6]. See karst; (Spanish.) karst cubierto; (Turkish.) also accelerated corrosion; alluvial örtülü karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krš, corrosion; corrasion; solution. Compare pokriti kras. aggressive water. Synonyms: (French.) corrosion; (German.) Korrosion; (Greek.) cow’s tail. A length of rope used as a safety chemeke thiavroses; (Italian.) dissoluzione, when crossing a rebelay[25]. corrosione; (Russian.) korrozija; (Spanish.) corrosión; (Turkish.) eritme, crack. 1. Tight joint[16]. 2. A small fracture yenme, kemirilme; (Yugoslavian.) (i.e. small with respect to the scale of the korozija. feature in which it occurs). corrosive. Property of aggressive water. crandallite. A cave mineral — [11] CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5H2O .

50 crawl, crawlway. A cave passage that is crooked hole. Borehole deflected from the large enough to be negotiated on hands vertical[16]. and knees[10] or so small as to require a caver to squeeze through on his/her back cross bedding. Oblique deposition of thin or belly[13]. beds with respect to the main planes of stratification[16]. creek, brook. Watercourse of lesser volume than a river. cross fault. A geologic fault that is oblique or at right angles to the strike direction of crescentic wall niche. See meander niche. the beds.

crest line. Line connecting crests[16]. cross section. 1. Vertical section of a geologic profile[16]. 2. A section of a cave crest segment. The top part of a passage or a chamber across its width[25]. hydrograph[16]. crust stone. A fragile layer of flowstone crest-stage indicator. A mechanical gage covering portions of walls of caves; looks that preserves the indication of highest like a flaky crust. Found in some water level rise[16]. caves[10].

crevice. Opening in a rock formation or crustaceans. The large class of animals that glacier[16]. includes lobsters, crayfish, amphipods, isopods, and many similar forms. crevice karst. An intricate irregular crevice Crustaceans typically live in water and system that has formed by solution have many jointed appendages, widening of closely spaced joints. segmented bodies, and hard Crevices may be as much as 6 meters exoskeletons[23]. across and 20 meters deep. Especially well developed near rivers in lowland cryokarst. 1. A non-karstic term. Land New Guinea[10]. surface with closed depression (usually small and shallow) formed by alternate critical depth. The depth of flow in open freezing and thawing of permafrost or channels when specific energy is ground-ice overlying different rock, minimum[16]. including limestone. The term ‘cryokarst’ is more common in Europe while the term critical depth flume. Venturi or Parshall ‘thermokarst’ is used in America[20]. 2. A flume for discharge measurements[16]. karst-like periglacial, or formerly periglacial, landscape superimposed upon critical flow. Open channel flow with unconsolidated, superficial deposits. Froude Number equal to unity[16]. See Cryokarst is characterized by small also Froude Number. depressions or pits that develop due to settlement of overlying deposits into voids formed by the melting of entrapped

51 ice. Also known as thermokarst[9]. cuesta, hogback. A nonsymetrical ridge Synonyms: (French.) cryokarst, due to a gently dipping stratum[16]. thermokarst; (German.) Thermokarst, Cryokarst; (Greek.) thermokarst; (Italian.) cueva. (Spanish.) Cave, especially one that criocarsismo; (Russian.) temokarst, is horizontal or nearly so[10]. criokarst; (Spanish.) criokarst, thermokarst; (Turkish.) don karst; cul-de-sac; dead end. A subterranean pas- (Yugoslavian.) toplotni krs, temokarst. sage having only one entry[10].

cryptokarst. A karst term used to describe cumulative production. The sum total of (a) the result of subsurface removal of volumetric discharge of a well since limestone taking place beneath permeable production began[16]. loess resulting in a loss of limestone and subsequent slow subsidence of the loess cupola. A hemispheric hill of limestone[10]. without noticeable surface expression, (b) See also cone karst; cupola karst; mogote; the initial effects of intergranular solution pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms: of rock when there is practically no (French.) cupole; (German.) Halbkugel. movement of water from microcavity to microcavity, (c) the karst that develops in cupola karst. A type of karst topography chalk beneath a mantle of its residual clay common in the tropics in which the and chert, and (d) pockets in limestone residual hills rise in hemispherical or which are filled with terra rossa or other dome-capped mounds from intervening residual material and which may be depressions or sinkholes[20]. See also actively forming, arrested in cone karst; cupola; pinnacle karst; tower development, or ‘inherited’. Because this karst. Synonyms: (French.) karst à term has been used for at least four cupules, coupole; (German.) Kegelkarst; different meanings, it is recommended (Greek.) konoidhes karst; (Italian.) that it be abandoned[17]. carsismo con forme residuali a cupola; (Spanish.) karst de cupulas; (Turkish.) cryptozoa. The assemblage of small kubbeli karst; (Yugoslavian.) kupolni krs terrestrial animals found living in (kras). darkness beneath stones, logs, bark, etc. Potential colonizers of caves[25]. cupula (plural cupulae). A jellylike rod projecting into the water from a crystal cave. A cave in which much of the neuromast, part of a fish's or amphibian's surface of the roof, walls, and floor is lateral line system. Vibrations in the covered with well-formed mineral water cause the cupula to move, thus crystals[10]. setting off nervous impulses that enable the animal to detect nearby movements in crystal pool. In caves a pool, generally the water[23]. [Not to be confused with having little or no overflow, containing cupola.] crystals[10].

52 current marking. Shallow asymmetrical cutter. 1. (.) Solution crevice in hollows, caused by turbulent waterflow, limestone underlying residual phosphate that are distributed in rather regular deposits. 2. A karren-like groove formed fashion over limestone surfaces[10]. See beneath the soil, more commonly referred also scallop. to as subsoil karren[10]. See also karren.

current meter, current counter. A device cuttings. Rock chips loosened from the used to measure the current velocity bottom of a borehole by drilling[16]. directly at a given point[16]. Synonym: ammeter. cyanotrichite. A cave mineral — [11] Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)122H2O . curtain. 1. Sinuous, thin sheet (or sheets) of dripstone formed on the roof or walls of a cycle. Regular periodic occurrence of an cave or behind a waterfall[20]. 2. A wavy event[16]. or folded sheet of flowstone hanging from the roof or projecting from the wall of a cave; often translucent and resonant[10]. See also bacon; blanket; drapery. Related to helictite and speleothem. Synonyms: (French.) draperie stalagmitique; (German.) Sinterfahne; (Greek.) parapetasma stalaktitikon; (Italian.) cortina stalattitica; (Russian.) zanavesj; (Spanish.) bandera, cortina; (Turkish.) perde; (Yugoslavian.) sigasta zavjesa, sigasta zavesa. curve, backwater. A water surface profile in a stream or channel above a constriction or impoundment[16].

curve, concentration. The rising limb on a hydrograph curve[16]. curve, desorption. Curve of moisture content verses soil moisture tension[16]. curve, drawdown. A plot of drawdown with radial distance from a well[16].

curve fitting. The fitting of experimental data points to a theoretical type curve[16].

53 D which states that in contrast to laminar flow, the average volumetric discharge of dam. A structure across a watercourse that flow is directly proportional to the square impounds water; may be natural or root of the driving force and that the artificial[16]. friction loss is equal to the hydraulic head[5]. Note: Q=discharge, A=cross- damping. The process of gradually sectional area, R=hydraulic radius of the reducing amplitude of a periodic event conduit, g=gravitational acceleration, such as acoustic oscillations in velocity f=some friction factor, dh/dL=gradient, logging[16]. and I have attached a negative sign to indicate that ground-water flow occurs in dar geçit. See aisle. the direction of decreasing head. In most instances, a negative sign is not included Darcian velocity; seepage velocity. See because it is not possible to take the specific discharge. square root of a negative number.

Darcy’s law. An empirical law given as dark adaptation. A change in the retina of the eye sensitizing it to dim light (the eye “becomes accustomed to the dark”)[25]. Compare light adaptation.

which states that the average volumetric dark zone. The part of a cave which [25] discharge of flow through a porous daylight does not reach . medium is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient assuming that the flow dating of cave sediments. Determination is laminar and inertia can be neglected. of the age of development of caves is Note: Q=discharge, K=hydraulic normally impossible. Only the sediments conductivity, A=cross-sectional area, they contain can be dated, and these must dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign is necessarily be younger than the attached as a convention to indicate that containing passage. Geomorphological flow occurs in the direction of decreasing correlations may allow more accurate head[5]. dating of the cave erosion. The most useful dating method in current use is Darcy unit. A practical unit for the measure based upon a knowledge of the rates of of intrinsic permeability[16]. decay of radioactive isotopes of uranium to thorium in stalagmites. This technique Darcy-Weisbach equation. An empirical allows measurement of ages in material equation given as up to 350,000 years old. Dating of stalagmites has confirmed that many cave ages lie beyond this range. Electron spin resonance (ESR) measures the cumulative effects of radiation that are partly a function of time and can give stalagmite

54 ages back to about 900,000 years. Deckenkarren. (German.) Solutional Palaeomagnetism may recognize events pendant features in cave ceilings[10]. up to 2 million years old, but a sequence of palaeomagnetically dated sediments is declination. The angle from true (or grid) required to allow identification of the north to magnetic north for a given time actual ages[9]. and place[25].

datum plane. A reference level to which declogging. The cleaning of clogged well topographic or water levels in wells are surface or screens[16]. related[16]. decomposers. Living things, chiefly daylight hole. A hole in the roof of a cave, bacteria and fungi, that live by extracting reaching the surface[10]. energy from the decaying tissues of dead plants and animals. In the process, they dead cave. A dry cave in which all solution also release simple chemical compounds and precipitation has ceased[10]. stored in the dead bodies and make them available once again for use by green dead end. See cul-de-sac. plants[23].

dead water. Standing, stagnant water[16]. decoration. Cave features due to secondary precipitation of calcite, aragonite, debris. 1. Any material found to have been gypsum, and other rarer minerals. washed into a cave from some other locality. 2. Coarse rock fragments deep percolation. The drainage of soil resulting from erosion and disintegration water downward by gravity below the of bedrock[16]. maximum effective depth of the root zone toward storage in subsurface strata[22]. debris karren. These are pinnacles that form in limestones with a thin sheet deflocculation. The breakup of flocs of gel structure that soon fall into smaller structures by use of a thinner[6]. fragments[3]. See also pinnacles. deformation. Changing of form, volume, decalcification. Removal by solution of the and relative position of rock masses[16]. calcium carbonate constituents from a rock or sediment, leaving a residuum of degradation. 1. Geological action of noncalcareous material[9, 21]. Synonyms: wearing down a surface[16]. 2. the process (French.) décalcification; (German.) of degrading water quality in an aquifer Lösungsrückstand (Entkalkung); (Greek.) by the addition of contaminants, either exasvestoses; (Italian.) decalcificazione; naturally or artificially. 3. The process by (Russian.) dekaljcifikacija; (Spanish.) which various chemicals are altered to decalcificación; (Turkish.) karbonatn form new chemicals; breakdown. giderme; (Yugoslavian.) dekalcifikacijâ.

55 degree of cementation. The degree to randomly in all directions and at almost which a rock has been solidified due to any angle, resembling in plan the cementation[16]. branching habit of certain trees. It is produced where a consequent stream degree of karstification. The ratio of the receives several tributaries which in turn volume of openings to the total volume of are fed by smaller tributaries. It is an a soluble massif, expressed as a indicative of insequent streams flowing percentage. It is the sum of the activity across horizontal and homogeneous strata indices from the initiation of or complex crystalline rocks offering karstification, and so is normally applied uniform resistance to erosion. This only to carbonate rocks with little or no pattern may form on top of the land primary porosity[20]. Related to corrosion surface or below the land surface in karst and solution. Synonyms: (French.) taux aquifers with anastomoses forming the de karstification; (German.) Ausmaß smaller tributaries. (Grad) der Verkarstung; (Greek.) vathmos karstikiiseos; (Italian.) grado di density. The mass of water per unit volume, carsificazione; (Spanish.) grado de usually stated in grams per cubic karstificación; (Turkish.) karstla·ma centimeter (gm/cm3), but may also be derecesi; (Yugoslavian.) stupanj krskog measured in pounds per gallon (lb/gal), procesa, stopnja zakrasevanja, stepen pounds per cubic (lb/ft3), and karstifikacijé. kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3.) Density of fresh water is taken to be 1.0. degree of saturation. See percent saturation. density current. A gravity-induced flow of one current through, over, or under delay. The lapse time between signal another, owing to density differences. emission and signal reception in seismic Factors affecting density differences logging[16]. include temperature, salinity, and concentration of suspended particles. delta. A triangular deposit of sediments at the inflow of a river into an ocean or denudation. The wearing away of lake[16]. overlying loose rock to top of bedrock[16].

demand. The rate of draft from an aquifer denuded karst. Subsoil karst or interstratal or reservoir to meet a certain demand[16]. karst which has been exposed by erosion of its cover[17]. See also exposed karst; demineralization. The removal of mineral interstratal karst; subsoil karst. matter from water[16]. Synonyms: (French.) karst dénudé; (German.) nackter Karst, oberflächlicher dendritic. Tree-like pattern[16]. Karst; (Greek.) apogymnomenon karst; (Italian.) carso denudato, carso nudo; dendritic drainage pattern. A drainage (Russian.) golij karst, otkritij karst; pattern in which the streams branch (Spanish.) karst denudado; (Turkish.)

56 belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.) ogoljeli krs desiccation crack. A crack formed in soil (krãs), goli krs (krãs), razkriti kras. as a result of shrinkage to a drying volume[16]. depletion. The withdrawal of water at a greater rate than replenishment[16]. desorption. The reverse process of sorption[22]. See also sorption. deposition factor. The factor that describes the settling of suspended solids within detritus. Loose material originating from pore space[16]. disintegrated and weathered rock[16].

depression. A small hollow in a surface[16]. developed section. The result of straightening out a section composed of depression spring. See spring, depression. several parts with differing directions into one common plane. Usually the plane is depth gage. 1. Any device used to measure vertical and the length of the section depths such as water level in wells[16]. 2. equals the plan lengths of the passages Specific gage for measuring river stage[16]. and chambers comprising[25].

depth of penetration. In electrical development. The act of repairing damage resistivity surveys, it is the depth to which to the formation caused by drilling an electrical field penetrates into the procedures and increasing the porosity subsurface as a function of electrode and permeability of the materials spacing[16]. surrounding the intake portion of the well[6]. desalinization. The process of salt removal[16]. deviation. 1. Deflection of a recording from a base line (e.g., the deviation from desander. A device used to separate sand vertical of a borehole)[16]. 2. Usually a from well water[16]. sling of rope or tape attached to a natural anchor at one end and clipped to the rope descender. A mechanical device for with a karabiner at the other. Used to descending ropes[25]. avoid rub points on pitches[25]. Synonym: redirection. desert. 1. Region where precipitation is less than 10 inches per year. 2. Region where dew-point. The point at which dew the net moisture inflow is too small to formation starts for given temperature and support vegetation[16]. humidity conditions[16].

desiccation. The removal of moisture by D-horizon. The zone of bedrock in a soil evaporation or drying[16]. horizon[16].

diagenesis. Post depositional physical and chemical changes in sediment[16].

57 diatomaceous earth. A light-colored, soft, influence of their kinetic activity in the siliceous earth composed of the shells of direction of their concentration diatoms, a form of algae. Some deposits gradient[22]. are of lake origin but the largest are marine[6]. diffusion coefficient. See , coefficient. differential water capacity. The absolute value of the rate of change of water diffusion, convective. See mechanical content with soil water pressure. The dispersion, coefficient. water capacity at a given will depend on the particular desorption diffusivity, soil water. The hydraulic or adsorption curve employed. conductivity divided by the differential Distinction should be made between water capacity (care being taken to be volumetric and specific water capacity[22]. consistent with units), or the flux of water per unit gradient of moisture content in diffuse circulation; diffuse flow. the absence of other force fields[22]. Circulation of ground water in karst aquifers (or other aquifers) under condi• diffusivity, hydraulic. The ratio of tions in which all, or almost all, openings transmissivity divided by the storage (primary and secondary) in the karstified coefficient or the hydraulic conductivity rock intercommunicate and are full of divided by the specific storage[22]. water but have not been selectively enlarged in specific zones by dissolution, dig. An excavation made to discover or and so thus no concentration of ground extend a cave or to uncover artefacts or water occurs in restricted conduits[9, 21]. animal bones[25]. The ground-water flow is generally slow- moving, may be laminar, and have a dike. 1. A wall or embankment protecting uniform discharge and slow response to lowlands from being flooded[16]. 2. A storms. It is being replaced by the term, subsurface sheet-like igneous intrusion slow flow, because significant confusion into bedrock fractures[16]. regarding its usage especially when thought of as in terms of porous-media Dinaric Karst. The extensive expanse of flow. Synonyms: (French.) circulation karst landscape stretching from Italy, diffuse; (German.) Diffuse across the whole of southern Slovenia and Grundwaßerbewegung; (Greek.) Croatia, into parts of south-west thiacheomenon ydhor; (Italian.) and across , ultimately circolazione carsica diffusa; (Spanish.) extending into and [9]. circulación saturada difusa; (Turkish.) yaygn dola·m; (Yugoslavian.) difuzno dip. 1. The angle between an inclined tegenje. bedding plane in a rock sequence and the horizontal. The dip value includes an diffusion. Process whereby ionic or inclination and a direction and the two molecular constituents move under the components are generally quoted in this

58 order and in the format l0° ENE or 10° discharge, natural. The discharge of water towards 025° magnetic (etc.). The dip into surface water bodies or springflow[16]. direction is down the slope. True dip is the maximum dip value of a given discharge hydrograph. A graph showing bedding plane; other, lesser values, the discharge of water as a function of obliquely down the same bedding plane, time[16]. referred to as apparent dips. The direction at right-angles to the true dip, discharge pipe. A pipe through which a where the dip value is zero, is known as pump discharges[16]. the strike[9]. 2. Maximum plunge of sloping planar features (e.g bedding, discharge pressure. The pressure at which fractures) within a geological formation a certain discharge takes place[16]. measured perpendicularly to the strike of the features. See also strike; hade. discharge velocity. The rate of discharge of water through a porous medium per unit dipmeter survey. A geophysical borehole of total area perpendicular to the direction logging method where the dip of the of flow. penetrated strata is measured[16]. disconformity. A geological unconformity diphenyl brilliant flavine 7GFF, direct between parallel beds, often with some yellow 96. A yellowish dye initially series missing[16]. developed to color tennis balls and subsequently shown to be useful in discontinuity. 1. A point where a environmental tracing studies. Dye type: mathematical function becomes Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes. nondefined[16]. 2. An unconformity in which the bedding planes above and discharge. The volumetric flow of water below the break are basically parallel, through a given cross section[16]. indicating a significant hiatus in the orderly sequence of sedimentary rocks. 3. discharge area. An area in which ground A surface at which seismic-wave water is discharged to the land surface, velocities abruptly change. surface water, or atmosphere[22]. discontinuity surface. Any surface across discharge, evaporation. The direct which some property for a rock mass is discharge of ground water to the discontinuous. This includes fracture atmosphere by evaporation[16]. surfaces, weakness planes, and bedding planes but the term should not be discharge, hydraulic. The discharge of restricted only to mechanical continuity. ground water through springs or wells[16]. dispersion. The spreading and mixing of discharge, maximum. The maximum chemical constituents in ground water discharge of a river or spring during high caused by diffusion and mixing due to flow conditions[16].

59 microscopic variations in velocities disposal well. A well used for the disposal within and between pores[6]. of waste into a subsurface stratum. See also injection well[22]. dispersion coefficient. 1. A measure of the spreading of a flowing substance due to dissociation. A chemical process that the of the porous medium, with its causes a molecule to split into simpler interconnected channels distributed at groups of atoms, or ions. For example, [22] random in all directions . 2. The sum of the water molecule (H2O) breaks down the coefficients of mechanical dispersion spontaneously into H+ and OH– ions[6]. and molecular diffusion in a porous medium[22]. dissolution. See solution. dispersion, longitudinal. Process whereby dissolution of limestone. The of some of the water molecules and solute calcite (and hence of limestone) in pure molecules travel more rapidly than the water is very low, but is vastly increased average linear velocity and some travel in the presence of carbon dioxide. This more slowly which results in spreading of gas, dissolved in the water to produce the solute in the direction of the bulk carbonic acid, permits dissociation of flow[22]. calcium carbonate, and dissolution rates and loads are therefore directly related to dispersion, mechanical. See mechanical carbon dioxide content. This accounts for dispersion. the importance to limestone dissolution of plant growth; soil water contains greatly dispersion, transverse. Spreading of the more carbon dioxide than stream waters. solute in directions perpendicular to the Further dissolution occurs due to mixing bulk flow[22]. of saturated waters of different carbon dioxide content (see dispersion zone. A zone of intermixing in Mischungskorrosion), because of a non- miscible flow or in sea water linear relationship between carbonate encroachment. See also transition saturation and carbon dioxide content. zone[16]. This process is of major significance to continued dissolution within the phreas. dispersivity. A geometric property of a Cold water can dissolve more carbon porous medium which determines the dioxide but, with respect to cave dispersion characteristics of the medium development, this climatic factor is by relating the components of pore overwhelmed by the higher organic velocity to the dispersion coefficient[22]. activity producing more carbon dioxide in warmer environments. Loss of carbon displacement. 1. The process of replacing dioxide, by diffusion into open air, causes one fluid in a porous medium by water to precipitate calcite as another[16]. 2. A change in position of a speleothems. Limestone dissolution may material point. See also miscible also be achieved by organic acids or by displacement. strong acids, particularly sulphuric acid,

60 though such effects are normally far less the same aquifer, may have a than that of carbon dioxide. Strong acid potentiometric surface lacking the ridge, dissolution is probably involved in the and so may flow past the divide. See also inception of most underground drainage. ground-water divide; water-table divide. Dissolution by sulphuric acid formed by Synonyms: ground-water divide; ground- oxidation of sulfide minerals or gases water ridge; water-table divide. 3. (a) The may be a major cave-forming process in line of separation, or the ridge, summit, or some regions, and was largely responsible narrow tract of high ground, marking the for the enlargement of Carlsbad Caverns boundary between two adjacent drainage and , New Mexico[9]. basins or dividing the surface waters that flow naturally in one direction from those dissolution zone. A laterally extensive zone that flow in the opposite direction; the where extensive dissolution of bedrock line forming the rim of or enclosing a has occurred. drainage basin; a line across which no water flows. 3. (b) A tract of relatively distortion. A change in shape of a solid high ground between two streams; a line body. that follows the summit of an interfluve[1]. See also drainage divide. distribution coefficient. The quantity of the solute, chemical, or radionuclide DNAPL. Abbreviation for dense sorbed by the solid per unit weight of nonaqueous phase liquid. Liquids falling solid divided by the quantity dissolved in into this category have specific the water per unit volume of water[22]. greater than water (the specific gravity for water is usually taken to be one), are distribution, frequency. Distribution of the relatively immiscible with water, and tend number of occurrences of a variate. to migrate downwards through the vadose and phreatic zones in a relatively disturbance. In , any change of the unimpeded manner. See also LNAPL; original position of rocks by folding[16]. immiscible; NAPL.

disturbed sample. A sample disturbed with dog-tooth crystal; dog-tooth . A respect to its original mode of packing variety of calcite in the form of sharp- and sedimentation (e.g., a drill core)[16]. pointed crystals[10]. divide. 1. A line connecting the highest doline; sinkhole. A basin- or funnel-shaped topographic elevations or ground-water hollow in limestone, ranging in diameter crests that separate one drainage basin from a few meters up to a kilometer and from another[16]. 2. A ridge in the water in depth from a few to several hundred table or potentiometric surface from meters. Some dolines are gentle grassy which the ground water represented by hollows; others are rocky cliff-bounded that surface moves away in both basins. A distinction may be made by directions. Water in other aquifers above direct solution of the limestone surface or below, and even in the lower part of zone, (solution dolines), and those formed

61 by collapse over a cave, (collapse doline karst. Karst dominated by closed dolines), but it is generally not possible to depressions, chiefly dolines, perforating a establish the origin of individual simple surface[25]. examples[10]. Solutional enlargement is either circular in plan, if there is one doline lake. A small karst lake occupying a dominant vertical joint, or otherwise doline or closed depression in limestone. irregular if there are several and can The term implies that the doline is at or achieve dimensions of up to 1,000 meters near the ground-water table and in in diameter and 100 meters deep. Where hydrological continuity with it, or that the a karst bedrock is covered by superficial base of the doline is sealed with an deposits, solutional enlargement permits impermeable layer such as clay[20]. See the latter to subside into vertical fissures, also sinkhole pond. Synonyms: (French.) creating subsidence cones or alluvial lac de doline; (German.) Dolinensee; dolines, whose slopes are unstable (Greek.) limni dholina; (Italian.) lago di because of the unconsolidated nature of dolina, lago carsico; (Russian.) karstovoe the surface material. The bedrock ozero; (Spanish.) dolina laguna, torca remains covered in the first instance. laguna; (Turkish.) obruk gölü; Dolines are also formed by the large-scale (Yugoslavian.) krsko jezero, krasko jezero. subsidence caused by cave roof-collapse of near-surface caverns; in this instance, dolomite. 1. The pure mineral dolomite has the collapse doline, the sides are cliff-like the composition CaMg(CO3)2 and has and the floor composed of the irregular properties very similar to those of calcite. blocks from the fragmented roof. Cave The rock dolomite consists mainly of the roof-collapse is considered a relatively mineral dolomite, with subordinate rare phenomenon. Closed depressions calcite, and has properties very similar to receiving a stream are known as swallow those of limestone. The natural holes or stream sinks. A doline which is dissolution of dolomite is generally largely dependent upon snow for slower than that of limestone. Hence, solution-enlargement is known as a kotlici dolomite karst is generally less well or Schneedoline[19]. In America most developed than limestone karst, though dolines are referred to as sinks or exceptions do occur in areas such as sinkholes. See also jama; pit; ponor; north-west . Large, deep caves sink, sinkhole; stream sink; swallet; can form in dolomite, as in the Rand of swallow hole; sumidero. Synonyms: [9]. 2. A mineral composed (French.) doline; (German.) Dolinen, of calcium magnesium carbonate,

Karsttrichter; (Greek.) tholene; (Italian.) CaMg(CO3)2. 2. Rock chiefly composed dolina, pozzo naturale; (Russian.) of the mineral dolomite[10]. Also called karstovaja voronka, karstovaja kotlovina; dolostone. (Spanish.) dolina; (Turkish.) düden, kokurdan, huni; (Yugoslavian.) vrtaga, dolomitic limestone. A limestone ponikva, dolac, do, duliba, kotlig, konta. containing a significant proportion of the mineral dolomite but in which calcite is more abundant (e.g. 10–45% dolomite,

62 90–55% calcite). Many dolomitic (French.) évorsion, marmite inversée; limestones originate as calcite limestone that (German.) Deckenkolk; (Greek.) vathís is subsequently affected by magnesium-rich lákkos me thólon; (Italian.) marmitta water that replaces part of the calcite with inversa; (Spanish.) marmita inversa; dolomite[9]. (Turkish.) kemerli obruk.

dolomitic flour (sand). A loose mealy rock donga. In the Nullarbor Plain, , a or residuum, produced by the shallow, closed depression, several meters disintegration of dolomitic limestones deep and hundreds of meters across, with under the processes of karstification[20]. a flat clay-loam floor and very gentle Synonyms: (French.) sable dolomitique; slopes[25]. (German.) Dolomitsand, Dolomitasche; (Greek.) dholomitikon alevron; (Spanish.) double brake bars. A rappel device used arena dolomítica; (Turkish.) dolomit by cavers that consists of two carabiners kumu; (Yugoslavian.) dolomitni pijesak, d. with a brake bar on each and connected pesak, d. pesek. together with another carabiner or a metal ring[13]. dolomitization. The process whereby limestone becomes dolomite by the sub• downwarping. A down bending of stratum stitution of magnesium carbonate for part to form a depression or syncline[16]. of the original calcium carbonate[10]. drag. The resistance force of flowing fluid domain. A biological region of the earth's on a solid boundary[16]. crust[25]. drainage area. A horizontal projection of dome. 1. A high shaft in a room or passage an area drained by a particular river formed by solution[13]. 2. A large system[16]. hemispheroidal hollow in the roof of a cave,formed by the breakdown and/or salt drainage basin. The land area from which weathering, generally in mechanically surface runoff drains into a stream weak rocks, which prevents bedding and channel or system of stream channels, or joints dominating the form[25]. See also to a lake, reservoir, or other body of dome pit. water[6]. In a karst setting, subsurface drainage (internal drainage) may have dome pit. 1. American term defined by boundaries defined on the basis of Davis (1930) ‘Mammoth Cave possesses comprehensive ground-water tracing several extraordinary vertical cavities of studies. See also ground-water basin. which the arched tops are called domes and the deep bottoms are called pits. The drainage density. A ratio of total channel combined name, dome pits, is here used segments lengths cumulated for all orders for them’. 2. A deep shaft in a cave, to basin area[16]. intersected by a passage at or near its mid-section[20]. See aven. Synonyms:

63 drainage ditch. A small channel through potentiometric surface at a point caused which surface water can drain[16]. by the withdrawal of water from a hydrogeologic unit[22]. drainage divide. The rim of a drainage basin[16]. See also divide; ground-water drawdown curve. A plot of drawdown divide; water-table divide. with radial distance from a well[16].

drainage network. A system of streams driphole. 1. Hole in rock or clay produced and rivers draining a given basin[16]. by fast-dripping water. 2. Hollow space surrounded by precipitated material, such drainage pattern. A geometric as the bottom of a stalactite[10]. arrangement of stream segments in a drainage system[16]. dripline. A line on the ground at a cave entrance formed by drips from the rock drainage ratio. A ratio of runoff to above. Useful in cave survey to define precipitation[16]. the beginning of the cave[25].

drainage system. A network of streams and dripstone. Calcium carbonate deposited tributaries[16]. from water dripping from the ceiling or wall of a cave or from the overhanging drainage well. 1. A well installed to drain edge of a ; commonly refers to surface water, storm water, or treated the rock in stalactites, stalagmites, and waste water into underground strata[22]. 2. other similar speleothems; in some places A water well constructed to remove composed of aragonite or gypsum[10]. subsurface water or to reduce a Synonyms: (French.) concrétions; hydrogeologic unit’s potentiometric (German.) Tropfstein, Stalagmit, Stalaktit; surface[22]. (Greek.) stalaktitis, stalagmitis; (Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.) kapeljnik; drain tile; french drain. A porous pipe (Spanish.) concreción (estalagmitjca o used for collection of excess ground estalactítica); (Turkish.) damlata·; water[16]. (Yugoslavian.) sige, smugori. See also flowstone. drapery. A thin sheet of dripstone, equiv• alent to curtain[10]. See also bacon; drowned karst. Karst topography that is blanket; curtain. submerged by a change in sea level or lake level. Synonym: karst noyé. See draw. A natural depression or small also subaqueous karst. valley[16]. drowned spring. See spring, drowned. drawdown. 1. The vertical distance the water elevation is lowered or the drought. A period of moisture deficiency reduction of the pressure head due to the and absence of water for plant growth[16]. removal of water[22]. 2. The decline in

64 dry cave. A cave without a running is so close to the roof that crawling or stream[10]. See also dead cave. swimming beneath the water surface is needed to pass[10]. dry hole. A hole not obtaining any production. A non-producing well[16]. dug well. A hand excavated well[16].

dry valley. 1. Valley that lacks a permanent dune limestone. (Australian.) See eolian surface stream. Dry valleys are common calcarenite. on carbonate rocks with good primary permeability and occur on other Dupuit’s assumption. A simplifying permeable rocks such as sandstone. Dry assumption for the solution of a free valleys on cavernous limestone were surface well flow problem[16] (e.g. a formed when streams flowed on the water-table aquifer.) It is based on the surface, either before secondary assumption that the slope of the phreatic permeability and cave systems developed, surface is negligibly small so that the or when caves were blocked by ground equipotential lines are vertical and flow is ice in periglacial climates. The valleys essentially horizontal. became dry when underground drains formed or were re-opened, capturing first duration curve. A cumulative frequency part and then all of the surface drainage[9]. curve of a continuous time series of 2. A valley that lacks a surface water hydrologic parameters[16]. channel; common in the chalk of southern England[10]. 3. Elongated recesses and Durchgangshöhle. (German.) See through valleys at the bottom of which are cave. dolines, jamas and caves. 4. A valley form of fluvial or periglacial origin in dye gaging. See tracer gaging. which surface drainage is intermittent or totally absent. Fossil, usually with steep dye test. Determination of direction and slopes, it is variously identifiable as rate of flow of streams by marking them a product of nival processes or higher with dye at the infiltration area and then water tables subsequently lowered by identifying and timing the reappearance allogenic valley[19]. Synonyms: (French.) of color at lower-lying springs, in river vallée sèche; (German.) Trockental; beds and elsewhere in a cave system[20]. (Greek.) xera kilas; (Italian.) valle morta, Synonyms: (French.) coloration; valle asciutta; (Russian.) suhaja dolina; (German.) Färbung, Färbversuch; (Spanish.) valle seco; (Turkish.) kuru (Greek.) chrostike ichnithetesis; (Italian.) vadi; (Yugoslavian.) suha dolina. tracciamento con colorante; (Russian.) method krasjascih, indikatorov; (Spanish.) duck; duck-under. 1. A place where water coloración; (Turkish.) boya deneyi; reaches the cave roof for a short distance (Yugoslavian.) bojenje, barvanje. See and can be passed by quick submergence also tracer. without swimming. 2. In cave , a longer stretch of passage where the water dynamic phreas. See phreas, dynamic.

65 dynamic similarity. A scaling procedure of model and prototype where the relationship of dynamic parameters is retained[16]. dynamometer. A device used to measure the momentum force of a stream velocity[16].

66 E effective precipitation. That part of precipitation that contributes entirely to Easting. 1. The distance of a point east of direct runoff. the point of origin of the grid of a map or some abbreviation of it[25]. 2. The effective rainfall. Effective precipitation west-east component of a survey leg, or when only rainfall is involved[16]. of a series of legs or of a complete traverse; east is positive and west is effective size. The 90%-retained size of a negative[25]. sediment as determined from a grain-size analysis; therefore, 10% of the sediment ebb-and-flow spring; ebbing-and-flowing is finer and 90% coarser[6]. well. See spring, ebb-and-flow. effluent. 1. The discharge of water or other eccentric. Adjective or noun implying fluids from a spring. 2. A waste liquid abnormal shape in speleothems, such as discharge from a manufacturing or [10]. treatment process, in its natural state or partially or completely treated, that [6] eccentric well. A well that is not in the discharges into the environment . center of the radius of influence[16]. effluent cave. See outflow cave. ecology. The scientific study of the relationships of living things to one effluent stream. See gaining stream. another and to their environment. A who studies these relationships is elastic limit. The point on a stress/strain an ecologist[23]. curve at which transition from elastic to inelastic behavior takes place. eddy. A non-laminar circulation of fluid at boundaries of flow separation[16]. elastic properties. The properties describing deformation of a solid[16]. effective abstractions. The difference between total precipitation and effective elasticity. The property of a material that precipitation[16]. allows the material to return to its original form or condition after the applied force effective diameter. A 10 percentile size has been removed. (i.e. 10% diameter smaller than this diameter)[16]. electric lamp. As used in caving, generally a -mounted headpiece (bulb, effective hydraulic conductivity. See reflector, and lens) with a wire running to hydraulic conductivity, effective. a battery carried elsewhere on the person[13]. effective porosity. See porosity, effective.

67 electro-chemical gaging. Flow endogean. Pertaining to the domain measurement based on electric detection immediately beneath the ground surface, of electrolyte tracer flow[16]. i.e., in the soil or plant litter[25]. See also endogenic, epigean, hypogean. electrolyte. A chemical which dissociates into positive and negative ions when endogenic. 1. Pertaining to, or living in, the dissolved in water, increasing the zone immediately beneath the earth’s electrical conductivity[6]. surface[9]. 2. Pertaining to geological process originating within the earth[16]. elutriation. A washing process by See also endogean, epigean, hypogean. decantation with water[16]. endokarst. The part of a vertically layered embankment. A natural or artificial lateral karst system that is beneath the surface. boundary of a river[16]. Endokarst includes the full spectrum of underground voids and the dissolutional embryo. A developing individual before its features that are present on the rock birth or hatching[23]. surfaces surrounding them[9]. See also exokarst. emergence. A general term for the outflowing water, for the opening or for energy head. Hydraulic head plus velocity the area of outflow of a karst spring; head[16]. includes exsurgence and resurgence[20]. Synonyms: (French.) émergence; enthalpy. Heat content[16]. (German.) Ausflutelle, Karstquelle; (Greek.) pigházon ýthor (or kephalari); entrance capacity. The property of a soil to (Italian.) risorgenza; (Russian.) vihod allow water to infiltrate (the maximum karstovih vod; (Spanish.) fuente, value of this property)[16]. manantial, surgencia; (Turkish.) yüzeye eri·im; (Yugoslavian.) krško vrelo, krski entrenchment. Erosion of an existing cave izvor, obrh. See also exsurgence; floor by a freely flowing stream to form a resurgence; rise. canyon passage that is commonly narrower than the original passage. encroachment. 1. The landward Where the stream entrenches an advancement of saline waters into coastal originally tubular phreatic passage a aquifers[16]. 2. The displacement of clean characteristic keyhole shaped profile water by pollutants[16]. develops. Also known as vadose entrenchment or incision[9]. end effect. A disturbance introduced by the inflow and outflow sections in a flow entropy. The degree of thermodynamic experiment[16]. disorder[16].

endellite. A cave mineral — environment. All the external conditions [11] [23] Al2Si2O5(OH)42H2O . surrounding a living thing .

68 eolian calcarenite. A terrestrial limestone epsomite. A cave mineral — [11] formed by the cementation by carbonates MgSO47H2O . of calcareous coastal dune sand. Often shorted to eolianite. Synonym: equation of hydrologic equilibrium. A dune-limestone; aeolianite. Compare mass balance for a ground-water basin[16]. beachrock. equipotential line or surface. 1. A contour eolian deposit. Sediment material deposited line on the potentiometric surface along by wind action[16]. which the pressure head of ground water in the aquifer is the same. Fluid flow is ephemeral stream. A stream flowing only normal to these lines in the direction of in direct response to precipitation[16]. decreasing fluid potential[6]. 2. Line (or surface) along which the potential is epigean. Pertaining to, or living on, the constant[22]. surface of the earth. See endogean and hypogean. equivalent per million. The number of equivalent in a million parts per epigeum. The surface environment[23]. weight solution[16]. epikarst; epikarst zone. A relatively thick erodible. Susceptible to erosion[16]. (the thickness may vary significantly, but 15 to 30 meters thick is a good erosion. 1. The general process or group of generalization) portion of bedrock that processes whereby the materials of the extends from the base of the soil zone and Earth’s crust are moved from one place to is characterized by extreme fracturing and another by running water (including enhanced solution. It is separated from rainfall), waves and currents, glacier ice, the phreatic zone by an inactive, relatively or wind[6]. 2. The sequence of processes waterless interval of bedrock that is of disintegration and transportation of locally breached by vadose percolation. rock material[16]. Significant water storage and transport are known to occur in this zone. erosion surface. The land surface resulting Synonym: subcutaneous zone. from the action of erosion[16]. epikarstic flow. See subcutaneous flow. erosiveness. The capacity to erode[16]. epilimnion. Upper layer of stratified escarpment. A steep slope, often the result water[16]. of faulting[16]. epiphreas, epiphreatic zone. The zone in a estavelle. (French.) An intermittent cave system, immediately above the resurgence or exsurgence, active only in phreatic zone, affected morphologically wet seasons. May act alternatively as a and hydrologically by floods too large for swallow hole and as a rising according to the cave to absorb at once[10]. ground-water conditions[10]. Opening in

69 karstic terrane which acts as a discharge evaporation suppression. The complete spring during high potentiometric surface prevention of evaporation by mechanical and as a swallet during low or physico-chemical means (e.g., potentiometric surface. Sea estavelles are monomolecular layer)[16]. known to exist[20]. Synonyms: (French.) estavelle; (German.) Estavelle; (Greek.) evaporite. Rock formed by precipitation of estavella; (Italian.) estavella; (Russian.) minerals from evaporating water, usually estavella; (Spanish.) estavela; (Turkish.) from sea water. As sea water evaporates su batar çkar; (Yugoslavian.) estavela, the least soluble mineral contents ponor-rigalo. precipitate first; these include calcium carbonate that is deposited as fine-grained . A stratified fluvio-glacial deposit in limestone. If evaporation continues, first the form of a winding ridge[16]. gypsum, then halite and finally a number of other sulfates and chlorides are etched pothole. See solution pan. deposited[9]. . The lower course of a river evaporativity. Evaporative power[16]. discharging into the sea and subject to tidal currents[16]. evapotranspiration. 1. The combined loss of water from a given area and during a evaporate. A formed by specified period of time, by evaporation evaporation and precipitation of saline from the land and transpiration from waters[16]. plants[22]. 2. The return of water in vapor form to the atmosphere through the evaporation. The changing or water from combined actions of evaporation, plant the liquid or solid states into the gaseous transpiration, and sublimation[16]. state through heat exchange[16]. evolution. The process of natural evaporation loss. The loss of precipitated consecutive modification in the inherited water that is discharged to the atmosphere makeup of living things; the process. by by evaporation[16]. which modern plants and animals have arisen from forms that lived in the past[23]. evaporation opportunity. The amount of See also mutation. water made available for discharge into the atmosphere[16]. evorsion. Mechanical erosion by whirling water that may carry sand and gravel; evaporation pan. An open tank used to pothole erosion[10]. Mechanical erosion measure evaporation[16]. by rotating or whirling water carrying sand, gravel, cobbles, or boulders in evaporation reduction. The rate control of suspension or as bedload[20]. Synonyms: escape of water vapor from an open (French.) évorsion; (German.) surface[16]. (Auswaschung), Auskolkung; (Greek.) mihanikí diávrosis; (Italian.) evorsione;

70 (Spanish.) evorsión; (Turkish.) dev kazan experimental basin. A basin chosen for the a·ndrmas; (Yugoslavian.) vrtloÓna thorough study of hydrological erozija. phenomena[16].

exchange capacity. 1. The amount of exposed karst. A general term for bare exchangeable ions measured in moles of karstic rocks outcropping at the surface of ion change per kilogram of solid material the ground. It embraces karst areas at a given pH. Synonymous with ion without any initial cover (naked karst) or exchange capacity[22]. 2. The total ionic exposed by erosion of the residuum and charge of the adsorption complex active soil (denuded karst) or of the in the adsorption of ions[22]. See also allochthonous cover (exhumed karst)[20]. cation-exchange capacity. Karst topography in which cover is absent[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst exhumed karst. A karstic outcrop which exposé; (German.) nackter Karst, has been exposed by the erosion of an oberflächlicher Karst, wiederaufgedeckter allochthonous cover; there is an Karst; (Greek.) akalypton karst; (Italian.) implication that karstification (partial or carso denudato; (Russian.) golij karst, complete) had preceded the removal of otkritij karst; (Spanish.) karst subaéro; the cover[20]. Mantled karst or buried (Turkish.) belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.) karst which has been divested of its ljuti krš. See also denuded karst; cover. It is the re-exposed portion of a exhumed karst; naked karst. former landscape[17]. See also buried karst; exposed karst; mantled karst. extensometer. An instrument used for Synonyms: (French.) karst dénudé; measuring vertical deformation of fine- (German.) wiederaufgedeckter Karst; grained beds in the subsoil under stress. (Greek.) gymnothen karst; (Italian.) carso Vertical extensometers commonly are riesumato; (Spanish.) karst exhumado; installed when land subsidence follows (Turkish.) açk karst; (Yugoslavian.) ground-water withdrawal. Extensometers ogoljeli krš (kras). also are used to measure small horizontal displacements[21]. exogenic. Pertaining to processes on or near the surface of the earth[16]. external loads. External loads causing water level fluctuations in wells. exokarst. All features that may be found on a surface karst landscape, ranging in size exsurgence. 1. A term used to explain the between tiny karren forms and extensive re-emergence at the surface, as a stream, projes, belong to the exokarst[9]. See also of meteoric water which has fallen endokarst. entirely upon and percolated through a calcareous massif[19]. 2. A spring or seep exoskeleton. An external . The in karstic terrane not clearly connected hard body covering or shell of most with swallets a higher level. Synonyms: invertebrate animals, including insects, (French.) exsurgence; (German.) crayfish, and millipedes[23]. Karstquelle, Austrittßtelle; (Greek.)

71 karstiki pighi; (Italian.) risorgente carsica; (Russian.) karstovij istoenik; (Spanish.) exsurgencia; (Turkish.) yüzeyde blirme; (Yugoslavian.) vrelo, obrh. See also emergence; resurgence.

72 F along which there has been displacement of the two sides relative to one another [6] fabric. The orientation in space of the parallel to the fracture . This elements composing a rock substance. displacement may be of a few centimeters or many kilometers. See also joint fault facet. See scallop. set; joint fault system.

facies. The lithologic appearance of a fault breccia. The assemblage of broken rock[16]. rock fragments frequently found along faults. The fragments may vary in size facies change. The change in appearance from inches to feet. that occurs when one lithologic unit ends and a new one is encountered. fault cave. A cave developed along a fault or fault zone[10]. failure. In rocks, failure means exceeding of the maximum strength of a rock or fault gouge. A clay-like material occurring exceeding the stress or strain requirement between the walls of a fault as a result of of a specific design. the movement along the fault surfaces. fall. The gross slope of a river[16]. fault line. The intersection of a fault with the surface of the earth or any other plane [16] false floor. A remnant of a sheet of of reference . flowstone, originally deposited on clastic sediments that were subsequently washed fault plane. A plane on which dislocation [16] out from beneath. False floors may and relative movement has taken place . survive as a complete bridge between passage walls or just as projecting ledges. fault scarp. An elevation formed by They may be thin and easily broken or movement of blocks along a fault [16] thick and very strong[9]. plane .

farangothes ipoyios thiavasis. See aisle. fault zone. A zone with numerous small parallel faults[16]. fathometer. A water depth measuring device[16]. feeding tube. In karst terrane, a more or less straight and waterbearing fault. 1. A fracture in the earth’s crust, underground gallery of regular cross- across which relative rock movement has section. Synonyms: (French.) tunnel; taken place, or continues to take place. (German.) Stromungsrohr, Karstgerinne; Fault planes commonly guide vertical or (Greek.) karstikos ypoyios agogos; sub-vertical shafts in caves, as well as (Spanish.) tubo; (Turkish.) akarsu guiding sub-horizontal or oblique mecras; (Yugoslavian.) vodonosni rov. passages within the confines of the fault See also stream tube. plane[9]. 2. A fracture or fracture zone

73 feldspars. A very common group of rock peak density, in contrast to the Western forming minerals[16]. classification by hill shape. Fenglin is therefore almost the equivalent of tower fengcong; fengcong karst. (Chinese.) 1. A karst; its hills have very steep or vertical karst, conspicuous in China, that is walls, and may have a height/width ratio identified by its clustered limestone hills. greater than four. The limestone hills rise Fengcong (pronounced ‘fungston’), which above level, alluviated plains, and the translates as ‘peak cluster’, is a mature finest fenglin karst around Yangshuo, karst normally developed during long , in southern China, is one of the uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution world’s most dramatic landscapes. The in wet tropical environments with high classification by hill density means that levels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. low residual cones scattered across a plain The Chinese classify karst by the hill or are also referred to as fenglin by the peak density, in contrast to the Western Chinese[9]. 2. Tower karst characterized classification by hill shape. Fencong is as peak forest because the individual almost the equivalent of cone karst; its towers appear as isolated groups on a closely packed hills are conical rather plain. Dry valley networks separate than hemispherical, with intervening individual towers[4]. See also fengcong; dolines and disjointed valleys. The major fungling; mogote; tower karst. occurrences are in and Guangxi, in southern China. Some cones in ferghanite. A cave mineral — [11] Guangxi are so steep that they have been U3(VO4)26H2O . termed fengcong tower karst, but this [9] [16] concept is best avoided . 2. Tower karst ferric oxide. Rust; hematite (Fe2O3) . characterized as peak cluster because the individual karst towers appear to be ferrito zone. Zone of iron oxide grouped together in clusters. Closed accumulation in soil under humid climate depression among the peaks are conditions[16]. common[4]. See also fenglin; fungling; mogote; tower karst. Fickian diffusion. The spreading of solutes from regions of highest to regions of fenglin; fenglin karst. (Chinese.) 1. A lower concentrations caused by the karst, conspicuous in China, that is concentration gradient. In slow moving identified by its isolated limestone hills. ground water, this is the dominant mixing Fenglin (pronounced ‘funglin’) translates process[22]. from Chinese as ‘peak forest’, and is distinguished from fengcong. Both fissure. Any discontinuity within the rock fenglin and fengcong are mature karst mass that is either initially open or normally only developed by long capable of being opened by dissolution to uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution provide a route for water movement. in wet tropical environments with high Fissures in this sense, applied generally in levels of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. karst, therefore include the primary The Chinese classify karst by the hill or sedimentary bedding planes as well as

74 tectonic faults and joints. More out to become wells or vertical shafts[10]. specifically, the term has been used to See also vertical shaft. describe voids with average dimensions from 10 to 100mm[9]. See also conduit; Flachkarren. (German.) See clint. fracture. flank. A limb of a fold[16]. field capacity; field moisture capacity. See specific retention. flash flood. A relatively short but very intense flood[16]. field survey. Measurements taken in the field[16]. flattener. A cave passage, which though wide, is so low that movement is only field test. A test run in the field under possible in a prone position[10]. See also normal field conditions[16]. crawl.

field velocity of ground water. Actual flexure. A bend in a stratum with one flank interstitial velocity of ground water[16]. or limb only[16].

fill terrace. An elevated valley surface flint. A concretionary form of silica, similar formed by aggregation[16]. to chert, that occurs in chalk as tabular sheets and layers of irregularly shaped fine gravel. Rock aggregates of 1–2 mm nodules. Being very hard and relatively diameter[16]. insoluble, flint tends to stand out from chalk cliffs. Flint-rich horizons may also fine sand. A material with a influencer the inception of bedding- grain diameter of 0.1– 0.25 mm[16]. related dissoluational conduits in chalk[9].

finite difference method. A numerical float gage. A device that indicates or method used to approximate the solution records water levels with a float[16]. of partial differential equations[16]. floating pan. An evaporation pan floating finite element method. A numerical in a water body with drum floats[16]. method used to approximate the solution of partial differential equations. floe calcite. Very thin film of pure calcium carbonate floating on the surface of a . Compacted granular snow[16]. subterranean pool of very calm water[10].

firstkarren. (Austrian.) See Rillenkarren. flood. A high river flow overtopping banks.

fissure. An open joint or crack in rocks[16]. flood crest. The peak of a flood wave[16].

fissure cave. A narrow vertical cave or cave flooding method. A recharge method by passage along a fissure. Fissures widen flooding a recharge area[16].

75 floodmarks. The marks left on fixed flow-mass curve. 1. A mass curve with objects by flood waters[16]. runoff discharge as a hydrologic quantity[16]. 2. The integral of the curve flood plain. The surface or strip of of a hydrograph[16]. relatively smooth land adjacent to a river channel, constructed by the present river flow line. The general path that a particle of and covered with water when the river water follows under laminar flow overflows its banks. It is built of conditions[22]. Flow lines are usually alluvium carried by the river during drawn perpendicular to equipotential floods and deposited in the sluggish water lines. See also equipotential lines. beyond the influence of the swiftest current[6]. flow net. 1. A graphical representation of flow lines and equipotential lines for flood profile. A continuous line two-dimensional, steady-state representing the water surface for a given ground-water flow[22]. 2. A net of rate of flow[16]. orthogonal streamlines and equipotential lines applied in the graphical solution of flood water. Water that has overflowed its Laplace’s equation[16]. confines; the water of a flood[1]. flow path. The subsurface course a water flood-water zone. See epiphreas. molecule or solute would follow in a given ground-water velocity field. flood wave. A rise in the stage of a stream that culminates in a crest before flow rate. Volumetric rate of flow[16]. receding[1]. flow, steady. A characteristic of a flow floor pocket. See pocket. system where the magnitude and direction of specific discharge are constant in time flow, base. See base flow. at any point[22]. See also flow, unsteady.

flow, creep. Flow with a creeping motion flow, uniform. A characteristic of a flow where inertial terms have been system where specific discharge has the dropped[16]. same magnitude and direction at any point[22]. flow, critical. See critical flow. flow, unsteady. A characteristic of a flow flow duration curve. A curve of system where the magnitude and/or cumulative streamflow versus the direction of the specific discharge corresponding per cent of time[16]. changes with time. Synonymous with nonsteady flow. See also flow, steady. flow gage. A gage used to measure flow rate[16]. See also gage. flow velocity. See specific discharge.

76 flower. A cave flower is a group of crystals, fluorescein. A reddish-yellow crystalline commonly of gypsum or mirabilite, that compound that imparts a brilliant green grow by accretion at their bases on a cave fluorescent color to water in very dilute wall. As the crystals grow, curve and ; used to label underground splay, their form mimics that of a water for identification of an flower[9]. emergence[10]. Also commonly known as uranine. Dye type: Xanthene. flowing artesian well. A well with its potentiometric surface above the ground fluorescent dyes. Material used in surface[16]. environmental tracing studies that may be detected and measured in small flowmeter. An instrument for measuring concentrations (10–12 mg/L), are volumetric flowrate[16]. inexpensive, relatively nontoxic, and are relatively miscible with the water being flowstone. Deposits of calcium carbonate, traced. gypsum, and other mineral matter which have accumulated on the walls or floors fluorometer, filter fluorometer. A highly of caves at places where water trickles or sensitive instrument used for measuring flows over the rock[10]. Layered deposits the fluorescence of water. It is commonly of calcium carbonate precipitated on used in water tracing and tracer gaging. rocks from water trickling over them[20]. Selected filters are used to control the (French.) coulée stalagmitique; excitation and emission ranges for (German.) Sinterfall, Sinter; (Greek.) specific fluorescent dyes of interest. See asvestolithikon epiphlioma; (Italian.) also scanning spectrofluorophotometer. colata stalagmitica, deposito, concrezione, stalagmite; (Russian.) flushed zone. In geophysical well logging, nateki; (Spanish.) colada estalagmítica; the zone around the well bore completely (Turkish.) akmata·; (Yugoslavian.) invaded by the mud filtrate[16]. kaskade. See also dripstone. flute. See scallop. fluid potential. The mechanical energy per unit mass of a fluid at any given point in fluviokarst. 1. A karst landscape where the space and time with regard to an arbitrary dominant landforms are valleys cut by state and datum[22]. surface rivers. Such original surface flow may relate either to low initial fluorapatite. A cave mineral — permeability before caves (and hence [11] Ca5(PO4)3F . underground drains) had developed, or to reduced permeability due to ground [11] fluorite. A cave mineral — CaF2 . freezing in a periglacial environment. In both cases the valleys become dry as karst flume. A channel supported on or above development improves underground ground[16]. drainage[9]. 2. Mixed terranes characterized by both shallow karst and

77 erosional landscape[20]. 3. A food web. An interlocking system of food predominantly karst landscape in which chains. Since few animals rely on a there is much evidence of past or present single food source and since no food fluvial activity[10]. Synonyms: (French.) source is consumed exclusively by a fluviokarst; (German.) Fluviokarst; single species of animal, the separate food (Greek.) fluviokarst; (Italian.) chains in any natural community interlock fluviocarsimo; (Spanish.) fluviokarst; and form a web[23]. (Turkish.) akarsu karst; (Yugoslavian.) fluviokrš, fluviokras, fluviokarst. forestry compass. A lightweight, compact instrument to be mounted on a tripod, flux. See specific discharge. which functions as a compass and a clinometer, and has a telescopic sight. foaming agent. See . Some types facilitate measurement of horizontal angles as well as bearings[25]. . (Italian.) 1. A deep wide vertical cavity or the swallow point of a river at formation. The fundamental unit in the beginning of its underground course. rock-stratigraphic classification, 2. A natural vertical shaft in soluble rock, consisting of a distinctive mappable body tending toward cylindrical shape; it may of rock[10]. See also cave formation; or may not reach the surface. A dome speleothem. pit[10]. formation temperature. The prevailing fold. A bend in a geologic stratum with two temperature in a given subsurface flanks, often in anticlinal and synclinal formation[16]. sequence. formation stabilizer. A sand or gravel food chain. A series of plants and animals placed in the annulus of the well between linked by their food relationships; the the borehole wall and the well screen to passage of energy and materials from provide temporary or long-term support producer through a succession of for the borehole[6]. consumers. Green plants, plant- eating insects, and an insect-eating bat would form factor. A factor indicating the shape form a simple food chain[23]. See also and form of mineral aggregates food web. influencing their hydrodynamic properties[16]. food . The normally diminishing number of individuals and amount of fossil. Any remains or traces of animals or organic material produced at each plants that lived in the prehistoric past, successive level along a food chain. The whether bone, cast, track, imprint, pollen, declining productivity at each level or any other evidence of their results from the constant loss of energy in existence[23]. as the energy passes along the chain[23]. See also trophic level.

78 . A fossil cave is an underground fracturing. A formation of breaks in a rock cavity that formed when a carbonate due to folding or faulting[16]. succession was undegoing karstification but subsequently buried. Most fossil francoanellite. A cave mineral — [11] caves have been infilled by younger H6K3Al5(PO4)813H2O . sediments. See neptunian deposits, palaeokarst, and relict cave. free . Where a rope or ladder hangs vertically and free of the walls[25]. fossil karst. See paleokarst. free-surface stream. In a cave, a stream fossile karst. (French.) See buried karst. that does not completely fill its passage[10]. fouling. The process in which undesirable foreign matter accumulates in a bed of free water. See gravitational water. filter media or ion exchanger, clogging pores and coating surfaces and thus free-water elevation. See water table. inhibiting or retarding the proper operation of the bed[6]. freezing point. The point at which a liquid solidifies[16]. fountain. A free-flowing well or spring[16]. See also artesian well; spring, artesian. fresco. A half-section of a stalactite on the wall of a cave. fracture. 1. A break or secondary discontinuity in the rock mass, whether or fresh water. Water that contains less than not there has been relative movement 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of across it. Faults, thrusts, and joints are all dissolved solids; generally more than 500 fractures, but bedding planes, which are mg/L is undesirable for drinking and primary features, are not. In a more many industrial uses[22]. strictly hydrogeological context the term has been used to classify voids in the size freshwater lens. 1. Body of fresh ground range 0.1 to 10mm[9]. 2. Breakage of rock water found typically beneath permeable strata[16]. 3. The general term for any limestone islands or peninsular land mechanical discontinuity in the rock; it is, masses in the tropics. The lens-shaped therefore, the collective term for joints, water body is bounded above by a water faults, cracks, etc. See also conduit; table and below by a mixing zone fissure. between fresh and saline ground water along the . In the center of the fracture pattern. The spacial arrangement lens freshwater extends below sea-level, of a group of fracture surfaces. and another set of springs exists where dissolutional conduits associated with the fracture spring. See spring, fracture. lower limit of the lens intersect the rock surface below sea-level[9]. 2. A lenticular

79 form of a freshwater body under oceanic funicular regime. The distribution of coasts[16]. continuous liquid phase along pore walls with gaseous phase at the pore center[16]. friction head. Head loss due to energy dissipation by friction[16]. friend. A mechanical camming device used for anchors[25].

Froude number. A dimensionless numerical quantity used as an index to characterize the type of flow in a hydraulic structure that has the force of gravity (as the only force producing motion) in conjunction with the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, and is equal to the square of a characteristic velocity (mean, surface, or maximum velocity) of the system divided by the product of a characteristic linear dimension (e.g. diameter or depth) and the gravity constant, acceleration due to gravity, all of which are expressed in consistent units in order that the combinations will be dimensionless. The number is used in open-channel flow studies or where the free surface plays an essential role in influencing motion[1] such as in karst conduits that are not necessarily flowing at pipe-full conditions. See also Chézy equation; Manning equation; Reynolds number. fullflow spring. See spring, fullflow. fungling; fungling karst. (Chinese.) Isolated limestone hill in alluvial plain, probably similar to mogote[10]. See also fencong; fenglin; mogote; tower karst.

80 G geohydrologic system. The geohydrologic units within a geologic setting, including gage well. A stilling well in which stage any recharge, discharge, interconnections measurements are performed[16]. between units, and any natural on man-induced processes or events that gage station. The point at which stage could affect ground-water flow within or [22] measurements are performed[16]. among those units . See also ground- water system. gaining stream. A stream or reach of a stream whose flow is being increased by geohydrologic unit. An aquifer, a inflow of ground water[22]. confining unit or a combination of aquifers and confining units comprising a galena. A cave mineral — PbS[11]. framework for a reasonably distinct geohydrologic system[22]. gallery. A rather large, nearly horizontal passage in a cave[10]. geohydrology. The branch of hydrology relating to the quantitative treatment of [16] galvanometer. A sensitive current meter[16]. ground-water occurrence and flow .

gardening. Clearing stones or other loose geological column. A vertical cross section [16] material from a route, usually a pitch, through a sequence of formations . which might otherwise be dangerous to a caver continuing[25]. geological map. A map on which is recorded geologic information, such as gas-expansion method. The measurement the distribution, nature, and age of porosity based on the Boyle-Mariotte’s relationships of rock units (surficial [16]. deposits may or may not be mapped separately), and the occurrence of geo. See blowhole. structural features (folds, faults, joints), mineral deposits, and fossil localities. It geode. Hollow globular bodies varying in may indicate geologic structure by means size from a few centimeters to several of formational outcrop patterns, by decimeters, coated on the interior with conventional symbols giving the direction crystals[10]. and amount of dip at certain points, or by structure-contour lines[1]. geochemistry. The science of the qualitative and quantitative identification geological organ. A cylindrical or funnel- of the elements and their distribution in shaped cavity in relatively soluble the earth[16]. bedrock which typically has a vertical orientation and is partly or wholly filled geodesy. The science of measuring the with material similar to the overlying geometrical properties of the earth[16]. sediment cover. They are produced by solution of bedrock and concomitant

81 subsidence of its sedimentary cover. and failure, mining disasters, pollution Most have a diameter of 25 cm to 7 m and waste disposal, and seawater and a depth of 2 to 30 m, but some may intrusion[1]. be much larger. A depth/diameter ratio of 5 to 20 may be considered representative. geologic log. A vertical cross section of the In actuality, geological organs are a type lithologic column indicating geologic and of subsidence doline that develops under petrographic data[16]. a cover of younger rock or sediment[17]. Synonyms: (French.) Orgue géologigue, geologic similarity. A model-prototype poche de dissolution, puits naturel; length ratio[16]. (Belgian.) abannet, cavité de dissolution; (German.) geologische Orgel, Orgel, geology. The study of the planet Earth—the unterirdische Doline, Verwitterungssacke, materials of which it is made, the naturlicher Schacht, Erdorgel, Erdpfeife, processes that act on these materials, the Riesentoph, Bodenkarren, (British.) sand products formed, and the history of the pipe, sand-gall, gravel-pipe, pipe, pocket planet and its life forms since its origin. deposit, gull; (Italian.) organo geologico; Geology considers the physical forces that (Roumanian.) orgile geologice; (Czech.) act on the Earth, the chemistry of its geologické varhany; (Polish.) organy constituent materials, and the biology of geologiczne; (Russian.) organ truba, its past inhabitants as revealed by . kamin; (Serbo-Croatian.) geološke Clues on the origin of the planet are orgulje; (Slavic) geološke orglje, zapolvje sought in a study of the Moon and other jaški; (Dutch.) geologische orgelpijp, extraterrestrial bodies. The knowledge aardpijp. thus obtained is placed in the service of man—to aid in discovery of minerals and geological section. A vertical section fuels of value in the Earth’s crust, to through a sequence of rock masses or identify geologically stable sites for major strata[16]. structures, and to provide foreknowledge of some of the dangers associated with geologic control. The influence of geologic the mobile forces of a dynamic Earth[1]. factors on hydrogeologic features[16]. geomorphic process. The process geologic correlation. The correlation of responsible for the formation and geologic formations as shown in geologic alteration of the earth’s surface[16]. logs over a given area[16]. geomorphology. The science of the origin geologic . A naturally occurring or and evolution of land forms[16]. man-made geologic condition or phenomenon that presents a risk or is a gestation. The gestation phase of potential danger to life and property. speleogenesis follows the inception Examples include landsliding, flooding, phase, and the two in combination are earthquakes, ground subsidence, coastal essentially equivalent to the more and beach erosion, faulting, dam leakage commonly used term ‘initiation’. The

82 transition from inception to gestation may are ephemeral. The most extensively correspond to the establishment of explored glacier caves were the Paradise gravitational laminar flow conditions, and Caves on , USA, whose gestation is complete when turbulent flow passages extended for many kilometers, is achieved[9]. before the glacier wasted away and the caves were destroyed[9]. 2. Cave in ice Ghyben-Herzberg conditions. Equilibrium formed within or at the base of a condition at the interface of immiscible glacier[10]. freshwater bodies and saltwater bodies in coastal aquifers[16]. glaciofluvial. Pertaining to the meltwater streams flowing from wasting glacier ice gibbs. An ascender with its cam operated and especially to the deposits and by the weight of the caver[25]. landforms produced by such streams[6]. glacial deposit. Sedimentary deposits due glaciokarst. 1. A karst landscape that was to transport by [16]. glaciated during the cold periods of the Pleistocene and displays major landforms glacial drift. Sediment material contained, of relict glacial origin. Bare rock scars, transported, and deposited by glaciers[16]. locally with glacial striations, and limestone pavements are characteristic, glacial groove. A groove cut into bedrock due to the lack of rapid soil formation on by rock fragments at the bottom of a the limestones since glacial stripping. moving glacier[16]. Dolines within a glaciokarst are mostly small and immature, as are caves, except glacial till. An unassorted mixture of where pre-glacial passages are glacial drift[16]. Synonym: boulder clay; intercepted. Glaciokarst is almost till. synonymous with alpine karst, and some of the finest is developed on the high glaciation. A covering of the land surface plateaus of the Calcareous , south of by glacier ice[16]. , [9]. 2. A glaciated limestone region possessing both glacial glacier. An extensive body of ice covering and karst characteristics[10]. (French.) the land surface[16]. karst glaciaire; (German.) Gebiet mit karst und Glazial-Formen; (Greek.) . 1. A cave carved out of the ice pagheto-karst; (Spanish.) glaciokarst; inside a glacier, not to be confused with (Turkish.) buzul karst; (Yugoslavian.) an . Passages are formed by glaciokrs, glaciokras, glaciokarst. See meltwater descending from the glacier also alpine karst; nival karst. surface via , or by melting on the glacier base. Through caves may glade. 1. (Jamaican.) An elongate connect sinkholes (sometimes called depression, having steep sides, in which a moulins) to glacier snout resurgences, but generally flat floor is divided into small due to ice movement most glacier caves basins separated by low divides. 2.

83 (Tennessee.) Limestone pavement having graben. A depression formed by a fault extensive growth of cedar trees[10]. See also block moving downward on the two . bounding faults[16]. globularite. Small crystals of calcite tipped gradation. The leveling of a surface to a with spheres composed of radiating common level[16]. fibers[10]. grade. 1. Inclination or slope[16]. 2. The gloop. Synonym for blow hole. Also class of a cave survey on the basis of the spelled gloup. precision of the instruments and the accuracy of the methods[25]. goethite. A cave mineral — FeO(OH)[11]. graded. An engineering term pertaining to a goly karst. (Russian.) See naked karst. soil or an unconsolidated sediment consisting of particles of several or many gooseneck. The part of a winding valley sizes or having a uniform or equable resembling in plan the curved neck of a distribution of particles from coarse to goose. Normally found as part of an fine[6]. entrenched meander[1]. gradient. The change in hydraulic head gorge. A narrow passage or canyon in a over some given distance (dh/dL) with mountain system[16]. See also canyon. ground-water flow usually occurring in the direction of decreasing hydraulic head gour. Flowstone deposit, normally of which requires by convention, the calcite, built up along the edge of a pool attaching of a minus sign to any equation due to precipitation from a thin film of utilizing a gradient for flow. The overflow water. Once initiated, by maximum value of the directional calcite-saturated water overflowing from derivative[16]. floor hollows, development is self- enhancing, and the gours can grow into grain packing. The spatial arrangement of large dams many meters high and wide. grains forming porous medium[16]. Inside the gour pool, more calcite may be precipitated as crystals or pearls. Large grain per gallon (gpg.) A common basis for flights of gours occur in many caves, with reporting water analyses in the water- spectacular and well known examples treatment in the United States around the Hall of Thirteen in the Gouffre and Canada. One grain per U.S. gallon Berger, France. Large travertine, gours equals 17.12 milligrams per liter[6]. can form in the open air, as at Band-i- Amir, Afghanistan[9]. See also rimstone grain shape. The geometrical aspect of barrage; rimstone barrier; rimstone dam. grains[16].

granular. Of structure clearly showing grain shape[16].

84 granule. Small rounded grain or rock clints from one another. Synonyms: fragment[16]. (British.) gryke; (French.) lapiaz; (German.) Kluftkarren. See also clint; grape formation. See botryoid. bogaz; limestone pavement.

gravel. Waterworn rounded rock grains and grotto. 1. Hole in small cave or cavern fragments[16]. which has eroded in the wall of a main cave. 2. Widely open and shallow cave gravimetric moisture content. The ratio of within a vaulted roof. 3. A cave or water weight to the weight of solid chamber preceded by a narrower particles[16]. passage[20]. 4. A small cave, natural or artificial. 5. A room, in a cave system, of gravitational head. The component of total moderate dimensions but richly hydraulic head related to the position of a decorated[10]. A grotto is often intricately given mass of water relative to an decorated, and may occur above, at, or arbitrary datum[22]. below sea-level[20]. Synonyms: (French.) grotte, baume, balme; (German.) Höhle, gravitational water. Water which moves Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) grotta; into, through, or out of the soil or rock (Russian.) grot; (Spanish.) gruta; mass under the influence of gravity[22]. (Turkish.) ma{arauk; (Yugoslavian.) nis a. gravity component. The component acting in the direction of gravitation[16]. ground air. See soil air.

gravity drainage. The flow of water ground slope. The inclination of the land towards a well under its own weight[16]. surface with the horizontal[16].

gravity spring. See spring, gravity. ground water, phreatic water. 1. The part of the subsurface water that is in the grid north. The direction of a north-south phreatic zone[10]. Its lower limits are the grid line on a map. Except for the zone of rock flowage or the lowest fully north-south grid line through the point of confining bed; its upper limits are the origin of the grid, it will differ slightly uppermost fully confining bed or the from true north[25]. water table[16]. 2. Used loosely and incorrectly by some to refer to any water grike. (British.) 1. A solutionally enlarged beneath the surface. See also phreas; vertical or steeply inclined joint in the phreatic water; phreatic zone. surface of a karstland, extending for up to a few meters into the limestone[10]. 2. A ground-water artery. A tubular body of vertical or sub-vertical cleft in a permeable water-filled material limestone pavement developed by surrounded by confining beds[16]. solution along a joint or system of crisscrossing joints[20]. Grikes separate

85 ground-water barrier. Rock or artificial water released from the zone of material which has a relatively low saturation[22]. permeability and which occurs below the land surface where it impedes the ground-water divide. 1. A ridge in the movement of ground water and water table or other potentiometric consequently causes a pronounced surface from which ground water moves difference in the potentiometric surface away in both directions normal to the on opposite sides of it[22]. ridge line[22]. 2. A dividing line between two ground-water basins. 3. In well ground-water basin. 1. A general term , the streamline with no flow used to define a ground-water flow representing the boundary of the aquifer system that has defined boundaries and region contributing to well discharge[16]. may include permeable materials that are See also divide. Synonyms: divide; capable of storing or furnishing a water-table divide. significant ; the basin includes both the surface area and the ground-water flow. The movement of permeable materials beneath it[22]. 2. The water in the zone of saturation[22]. area throughout which ground water drains towards the same point; it can be ground-water flux. The rate of larger than the accompanying surface ground-water flow per unit area of porous water drainage basin if permeable layers or fractured media measured extend outside of the topographic perpendicular to the direction of flow[22]. divide[16]. See also drainage basin. See also specific discharge.

ground-water cascade. The flow of ground ground-water inventory. The complete water over a subsurface barrier[16]. quantitative accounting for all volumes of ground water[16]. ground-water cement. A cementing material precipitating at the water ground-water mound. A raised area in a table[16]. water table or other potentiometric surface created by ground-water ground water, confined. Ground water recharge[22]. under pressure significantly greater than atmospheric and whose upper limit is the ground water, perched. Unconfined bottom of a confining unit[22]. See also ground water separated from an confined; confining unit; confined underlying body of ground water by an aquifer. unsaturated zone. Its water table is a perched water table. Perched ground ground-water dam. A geological stratum water is held up by a perching bed whose serving as a subsurface dam[16]. permeability is so low that water percolating downward through it is not ground-water discharge. 1. Flow of water able to bring water in the underlying from the zone of saturation[22]. 2. The

86 unsaturated zone above atmospheric velocity is the average ground-water flux pressure[22]. See also perched ground water. passing through the cross-sectional area of the geologic medium through which ground-water pumping. 1. Directed or flow occurs, perpendicular to the flow oscillatory ground-water movement, direction, divided by the effective along incipient fissures in the rock, that porosity along the flow path. If discrete occurs due to very small but significant segments of the flow path have different relative movements of the rocks hydrologic properties, the total travel time themselves, maybe as a diurnal, tidal will be the sum of the travel times for process. It may be one of the driving each discrete segment[22]. mechanisms of earliest, inception, phase of speleogenesis[9]. The pumping of a ground water, unconfined. Water in an water well to provide water for drinking, aquifer that has a water table. , and manufacturing. but may Synonymous with phreatic ground also be conducted for dewatering water[22]. purposes. grout. A fluid mixture of cement and water ground-water recharge. The process of (neat cement) of a consistency that can be water addition to the saturated zone or the forced through a pipe and placed where volume of water added by this process[22]. required. Various additives, such as sand, bentonite, and hydrated lime may be ground-water reservoir. A reservoir in the included in the mixture to meet certain void space beneath the water table[16]. requirements. Bentonite and water are sometimes used for grout[6]. ground-water system. A ground-water reservoir and its contained water. Also, grout curtain. The filling of void spaces in the collective hydrodynamical and rocks to prevent the flow of water into geochemical processes at work in the and through the rock; most commonly reservoir[22]. associated with dams.

ground-water table. The surface between grouting. The operation by which grout is the zone of saturation and the zone of placed between the casing and the sides of aeration. Also, the surface of an a well bore to a predetermined height unconfined aquifer[6]. Synonym: water above the bottom of the well. This table. secures the casing in place and excludes water and other fluids from the well ground-water travel time. 1. The bore[6]. time-required for ground water to travel between two locations[22]. 2. The time grünkarst. See subsoil karst. required for a unit volume of ground water to travel between two locations. gryke. See grike. The travel time is the length of the flow path divided by the velocity, where

87 guano. An accumulated deposit of animal evaporite precipitated from sea water and excrement. In caves it is most commonly is therefore soluble in water and may associated with bat colonies, but cave contain dissolutional caves. Mineral dwelling birds such as swifts may also gypsum is formed in some caves by contribute. Guano is only abundant in reactions between the host limestone and tropical regions and may be dry and sulfates (including sulphuric acid) derived powdery, or a foul, wet, sludge — as in from oxidized sulfide minerals (see the Niah Caves of Sarawak. It is a vital ). Gypsum, also referred to as food source for many troglobites. selenite, commonly occurs as transparent Consisting mainly of phosphates and crystals, blades, needles or fibres in cave nitrate it is valued as a fertilizer or an clay deposits. A more spectacular form is ingredient of explosives and has as fibrous or curved crystals that may commonly been mined. Over 100,000 develop into cave flowers on cave walls tons of bat guano have been extracted and ceilings, as for example in parts of from Carlsbad Caverns, USA[9]. See also the Flint Mammoth Cave System, USA, cave guano. or grow into large, hanging chandeliers, as in Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico[9]. 2. guano cave. A cave containing large A mineral composed of hydrous calcium [13] [10] amounts of guano . See also cave sulfate , CaSO42H20. guano. gypsum cave. Both vadose and phreatic guanobia. An animal association feeding caves can form in gypsum, which is very on guano. Not considered true soluble in water, but they are uncommon cavernicoles as guano is not confined to because gypsum rock rarely survives total caves. dissolution in the near-surface environments associated with explorable gulf. Steep-walled closed depression having caves. Gypsum caves certainly exist at a flat alluviated bottom; in some gulfs a depth within buried evaporate sequences. stream flows across the bottom[10]. In areas of wet climate gypsum caves are generally seen only if encountered by gull. A widened fissure formed by land man-made excavations. In contrast, slipping along valley sides, generally gypsum caves are more common and where massive beds such as limestone more extensive in areas that have overlie weaker rocks[9]. See also tectonic experienced a long period of dominantly cave; windypit. arid climate. The most spectacular gypsum caves are in the Podolie region of gully. A deep erosional channel[16]. the , where joint guided maze- cave systems are very extensive — gushing spring. See spring, vauclusian. Optimisticeskaja has around 180km of passsage[9]. gypsum. 1. White or colorless mineral or rock composed of the hydrated calcium gypsum flower. See cave flower.

sulfate, CaSO4.2H2O. Gypsum rock is an

88 gypsum karst. A karst landscape developed on, or perhaps above, gypsum or similar evaporite rock sequences. Dissolution of gypsum by ground water in buried, interstratal, situations is common and the effects of such dissolution may be expressed at the land surface in the form of subsidence depressions. There are extensive areas of gypsum karst in North America and the Ukraine but British examples are limited to rare caves, exposed by quarrying, and subsidence depressions above dissolved gypsum beds, such as those around Ripon, Yorkshire[9].

89 a tube remaining in the roof or wall of a H cave[10]. See also tube. habitat. The immediate surroundings Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The equation (living place) of a plant or animal; used to define the laminar flow of water everything necessary to life in a particular in either fractures or tubes and is given as location except the organism itself[23]. hade. The angle of inclination of a fault (or joint) plane measured relative to the vertical[9]. See also dip. for laminar flow in fractures

Halbhöhle. (German.) See rock shelter. and

Halbkugelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst topography containing dome-shaped residual hills surrounding depressions, a kind of Kegelkarst. Also called for laminar flow in tubes Kugelkarst[10]. which states that the average volumetric half-exposed karren. These are patches of discharge of flow through either type of soil on otherwise bare limestone that opening is directly proportional to the attack the rock by means of biogenic type, shape, and dimensions of a [3] particular pore and the hydraulic CO2 . gradient[5]. Note: Q=discharge, w=width of the fissure, b=open portion of the long half-blind valley. Blind valley in which the dimension of the fissure, r=radius of the stream overflows in floodtime when the tube, and µ are the specific weight and swallow hole can not accept all the dynamic viscosity of water respectively, water[10]. dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign is attached to the equations to indicate that half tube; half-tube. 1. An inverted flow occurs in the direction of deceasing channel with semi-circular cross section hydraulic head. seen in cave-passage ceilings, most clearly where the ceiling is an uneroded halite. The mineral form of sodium chloride bedding surface. The half tube originates (NaC1), or rock salt. Halite occurs, as part of a phreatic tube guided by the sometimes to considerable thicknesses, in bedding plane, and the lower half is many buried-rock successions, from subsequently removed by vadose which it has been extracted both by enlargement. The presence of half tubes mining and by redissolving it in water provides important evidence of early pumped from and back to the surface. phreatic-cave development[9]. 2. Trace of The existence of brine springs indicates that natural water movement occurs

90 through buried halite sequences, hardness. 1. Property of water that prevents presumably through voids that could be lathering because of the presence of thought of as caves. Although distinctive cations, mainly calcium and magnesium, halite (or salt) karst features are known in which form insoluble soaps[10]. 2. The some arid areas, a range of features sum of calcium and magnesium ions analogous to those found on karstic rocks expressed as the equivalent amount of [16] such as limestone are unlikely to form, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) . 3. The and less likely to be preserved, due to property to form insoluble salts of fatty halite’s relative weakness and very high acid (soap)[16]. solubility. In Britain expressions of salt karstification are limited to relatively hardpan. This develops when there are subdued surface features. The “flashes” secondary calcium carbonate of the Cheshire area, are hollows, cementations in the lower part of the soil sometimes transformed into water-filled profile[16]. Synonym: mortar bed. See meres, formed by subsidence of overlying also caliche; havara; nari. rocks and superficial deposits where salt has been dissolved from buried halite harness. An arrangement of tape for beds of Triassic age[9]. attaching the lower body (seat harness) or the upper (chest harness) to ascenders or hall. In a cave, a lofty chamber which is descenders[25]. much longer than it is wide[10]. See also gallery. havara. Name given in Cyprus to a soft porous carbonate formation, up to several halocline. A locally steep salinity gradient meters thick, found capping many along the interface between fresh ground- formations and containing fragments and water and saline ground-water, such as is minerals derived from older rocks; it is found at the base of the freshwater lens probably a type of hardpan or caliche[20]. common beneath many limestone islands See also caliche; kafkalla. in the tropics. Water mixing and microbial activity are important haystack hill. (Puerto Rican.) In the influences on dissolution along the tropics, rounded of limestone halocline, as shown for instance in blue developed as a result of solution. Term holes[9]. replaced by mogote[10]. Synonyms: (French.) mogote; (German.) Mogote; halomorphic soil. Saline and alkali soils. (Italian.) mogote, rilievo carsico residuo; (Spanish.) mogote; (Turkish.) konik hanging blade. A blade projecting down kireçta· tepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. See from the ceiling[10]. See also blade. also mogote. hannayite. A cave mineral — head. The energy contained in a water [11] (NH4)2Mg3H4(PO4)48H2O . mass, produced by elevation, pressure, or velocity[6]. hardening. The process of induration[16].

91 head loss. That part of head energy which is shape is created by crystal lattice lost because of friction as water flows[6]. distortion and crystal form changes within the calcite, but what causes these is head, static. The height above a standard uncertain. Impurities may plan a role, and datum of the surface of a column of water rare groups of parallel growing helictites (or other liquid) that can be supported by may be wind-guided[9]. 2. Irregular, twig- the static pressure at a given point. The like, crystalline growths with varying static head is the sum of the elevation orientations but often in crystal head and the pressure head[22]. continuity, formed in caves by precipitation from bicarbonate head, total. The total head of a liquid at a solutions[20]. 3. A curved or angular given point is the sum of three twiglike lateral projection of calcium components: (a) the elevation head, carbonate having a tiny central canal, which is equal to the elevation of the found in caves[10]. Also known as point above a datum, (b) the pressure eccentric anemolite[20]; eccentric head, which is the height of a column of stalactite. Synonyms: (French.) static water that can be supported by the excentrique; (German.) exzentrisch static pressure at the point, and (c) the gekrümmter, Tropfstein, Excentriques; velocity head, which is the height to (Greek.) stalaktits akanonistos; (Italian.) which the kinetic energy of the liquid is stalattiti anomale, eccentiche; (Spanish.) capable of lifting the liquid[22]. estalactita excentrica; (Turkish.) düzensiz sarkt; (Yugoslavian.) heliktit. head water. The upper reach of a stream[16]. Related to curtain, dripstone, speleothem.

heat of condensation. The heat released in heligmite. An eccentric growing upward transforming a substance from its vapor from a cave floor or from a shelf in a to its liquid state[16]. cave. A curved or angular thin stalag• mite[10]. heat of vaporization. The heat necessary to change water from the liquid to the helmet. A miner's, climber's or other kind gaseous state[16]. of non-metallic, protective helmet used in caving. heel-print karren. See Trittkarren. [11] hematite. A cave mineral — Fe2O3 . helictite. 1. Generally small variety of stalactitic calcite growth that is twisted hemimorphite. A cave mineral — [11] and contorted with no apparent regard for Zn4Si2O7(OH)2H2O . gravity. Helictites form on cave walls, ceilings, and on stalactites. The growth herbivore. An animal that eats plants, thus develops as seepage water loses carbon making the energy stored in plants dioxide from near its tip, having been available to carnivores[23]. See also supplied to that point by capillary action carnivore; insectivore; omnivore. through a fine central canal. The helictite

92 heterogeneity. A characteristic of a hod. See aisle. medium in which material properties vary from point to point[22]. holokarst. 1. Karst area with little or no surface runoff or streams; it is underlain heterogeneous. The unequal spacial by thick carbonate rocks and is distribution of aquifer properties[16]. characterized by well developed karst surface topography from karren to poljes, hexahydrite. A cave mineral — extensive subsurface karst features like [11] [20] MgSO46H2O . caves, caverns, galleries, chimneys, etc . 2. Cvijie’s term for a karst area like that hibbenite. A cave mineral — of the Dinaric Karst of Slovenia. Such [11] Zn7(PO4)4(OH)27H2O . areas have bare surfaces on thick deposits of limestone that extend below sea level, hibernation. A prolonged dormancy or well developed karren, dolines, uvalas, sleeplike state in which animal body poljes, deep ponors, and extensive cave processes such as heartbeat and breathing systems; they have little or no surface slow down drastically and the animal drainage[10]. Synonyms: (French.) neither eats nor drinks. Nearly all holokarst; (German.) Holokarst; (Greek.) cold-blooded animals and a few holokarst; (Italian.) olocarsismo, warm-blooded animals hibernate during carsismo, maturo; (Spanish.) holokarst; the winter in cold climates. Extremely (Turkish.) tam karst; (Yugoslavian.) large aggregations of bats, crickets, and potpuni krs (kras), holokarst. Contrast spiders hibernate in some caves[23]. causse, merokarst.

histo, histoplasmosis. The disease caused homogeneity. A characteristic of a medium by the Histoplasma capsulatum, in which material properties are identical found in bird and bat guano, especially in everywhere[22]. the southern USA and the tropics. An occupational disease of cavers, aviary and homogeneous. The even spacial poultry workers, guano miners, and distribution of aquifer properties[16]. maintenance workers. Infection is usually caused by breathing the microscopic homogeneous fluid. A fluid that occurs in a spores, which infect the lungs, or single phase[16]. sometimes the eye. Flu-like symptoms accompanied by low-grade fever, hook gage. A gage for the precise position breathing difficulties and pain, and measurement of liquid levels[16]. miasma may start about 14 days after exposure and continue for weeks, months, hopeite. A cave mineral — [11] or rarely until death, usually from Zn3(PO4)24H2O . complications. Treatable with various anti-fungals, such as itroconazole. Often horizontal angle. The difference in misdiagnosed, as the standard tests may direction of two survey lines measured give a false negative[23]. clockwise in a horizontal plane[25].

93 horst. A block having been uplifted along humidity can be done from tables, special its boundary faults[16]. slide rules or calculators, graphs, or complex equations[23]. See also Horton number. Expresses the relative hygrometer; psychrometer. intensity of erosion process in a drainage basin[16]. humus-water grooves. This is a special type of meandering karren or wall karren hot-seat rappel. A method of rappelling in in which the water originated in humus a cave with the rope running under one covering. Water originating from a

leg, up across the opposite shoulder and humus cover has an excess of CO2 and is controlled with a hand. The friction of therefore, very aggressive and can the rope on the body creates a lot of heat, dissolve large amounts of limestone. hence its name[13]. Thus humus-water grooves can be very deep but after approximately 2–3 meters, hoya, hoyo. (Spanish.) A very large closed the grooves flatten out and continue as depression. Used in for normal meanders or wall karren[3]. See doline, in Cuba for polje[10]. also meander karren; wall karren.

hum. 1. Karst inselberg. Residual hill of huntite. A cave mineral — [11] limestone on a fairly level floor, such as CaMg3(CO3)4 . the isolated hills of limestone in poljes. In some tropical areas, used loosely as hydration. The act by which a substance synonym for mogote[10]. 2. Yugoslavian takes up water by absorption and/or term for an isolated residual hill on the adsorption[6]. bottom of a polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.) témoin; (German.) hydraulic barrier. A general term referring (Karstinselberg), Hum; (Greek.) karstiki to modifications of a ground-water flow martyree lophi; (Italian.) testimoni system to restrict or impede movement of carsici; (Russian.) karstovij ostanec; contaminants[22]. (Spanish.) hum; (Turkish.) karst adatepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. See also hydraulic conductivity. 1. A karst inselberg; mogote. proportionality constant relating hydraulic gradient to specific discharge which for humidity, absolute. The moisture content an isotropic medium and homogeneous by weight per unit volume of air[16]. fluid, equals the volume of water at the existing kinematic viscosity that will humidity, relative. The ratio, expressed as move in unit time under a unit hydraulic a percentage, of the amount of water gradient through a unit area measured at vapor actually present in air of a given right angles to the direction of flow[22]. 2. temperature, as compared with the The volume of water that will move greatest possible amount of water vapor through a medium in a unit of time under that could be present in air at that a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit temperature. Calculation of relative area measured perpendicular to the

94 direction of flow[22]. 3. The ability of a hydraulic jump. 1. A standing of rock unit to conduct water under specified water passing from below critical depth in conditions[10]. It is typically expressed as open channel flow[16]; often occurs in gpd/ft2, ft/day, or m/day. caves. 2. An abrupt depth variation in rapidly varying channel flow[16]. hydraulic conductivity, effective. The rate of flow of water through a porous hydraulic profile. A vertical section of the medium that contains more than one potentiometric surface[16]. fluid, such as water and air in the unsaturated zone, and which should be hydraulic radius. The ratio of the filled specified in terms of both the fluid type cross-sectional area to wetted and content and the existing pressure. perimeter[16]. hydraulic diffusivity. See diffusivity, hydrochemical facies. Distinct zones that hydraulic. have cation and anion concentrations of diagnostic chemical character of water hydraulic discharge. The discharge of solutions in hydrologic systems which is ground water through springs or wells[16]. describable within defined composition categories[22]. hydraulic fracturing. The formation of artificial fractures in rock systems around hydrocompaction. The process of volume a well by high pressure fluid injections[16]. decrease and density increase that occurs when moisture-deficient deposits compact hydraulic gradient. 1. The change in static as they are wetted for the first time since head per unit of distance in a given burial[21]. Synonym: shallow subsidence. direction. If not specified, the direction generally is understood to be that of the hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with maximum rate of decrease in head[22]. 2. subsurface waters and related geologic Slope of the water table or potentiometric aspects of surface waters. surface[22]. 3. A chance in the static pressure of ground water expressed in hydrograph, characteristic. A hydrograph terms of the height of water above a based on the unit step process. datum, per unit of distance in a given direction[22]. hydrodynamic dispersion. 1. The spreading (at the macroscopic level) of hydraulic head. The height above a datum the solute front during transport resulting plane (such as sea level) of the column of from both mechanical dispersion and water that can be supported by the molecular diffusion[22]. 2. The dynamic hydraulic pressure at a given-point in a dispersion of fluid particles in flow ground-water system. For a well, the through a porous medium due to velocity hydraulic head is equal. to the distance changes in the pore channels[16]. between the water level in the well and the datum plane[22].

95 hydrodynamic dispersion, coefficient of. hydrologic budget. The quantitative See dispersion coefficient. accounting of all water volumes and their changes over time for a given basin or hydrogeochemistry. The geochemistry of province[16]. water as related to the occurrence of subsurface water[16]. hydrologic properties. Those properties of a rock that govern the entrance of water hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with and the capacity to hold transmit, and subsurface waters and related geologic deliver water, such as porosity, effective aspects of surface waters[6]. porosity, specific retention, permeability, and the directions of maximum and hydrogeologic unit. 1. Any soil or rock minimum permeabilities[22]. unit or zone which by virtue of its hydraulic properties has a distinct hydrology. The study of atmospheric, influence on the storage or movement of surface, and subsurface waters and their ground water[22]. 2. Means a soil or rock connection with the water cycle[16]. unit or zone which by virtue of its porosity or permeability, or lack thereof, hydromagnesite. A cave mineral — [11] has a distinct influence on the storage or Mg5(CO3)4(OH)24H2O . movement of ground water[22]. hydrometeorology. Meteorology dealing hydrogeology. The study of subsurface with water in the atmosphere[16]. waters in their geological context[16]. hydrometric station. A station at which hydrograph. 1. A graph relating stage, there usually are a number of hydrometric flow, velocity, or other characteristics of measurements being performed[16]. water with respect to time[22]. 2. A time record of stream discharge at a given hydrometry. The science of water cross section of the stream or of the measurements[16]. stream surface elevation at a given point[16]. hydrophilic. Having a great affinity for water[16]. hydrograph separation. The separation of a hydrograph into its different hydrophobic. The repelling of water[16]. components to analyze flow contributions[16]. hydrophyte. A plant requiring large amounts of moisture for growth[16]. hydrography. The geographical description of water bodies on the earth’s surface[16]. hydrosphere. That part of the earth that contains liquid or solid water[16]. hydrologic barrier. See barrier, hydrologic. hydrostatic pressure. The pressure due to a column of water[25].

96 hydrostratigraphic unit. See hypogean. Pertaining to, or living in, hydrogeologic unit. regions deeper than the endogean zone. See also epigean. hydroxylapatite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca5(PO4)3(OH) .

hydrozincite. A cave mineral — [11] Zn(CO3)2(OH)6 .

hyetograph. A graph of rainfall intensity against time[16]. hygrometer. 1. An instrument that reads the humidity in the air directly; some are based on a hair's ability to shrink or expand with humidity, or on certain electronic chips. Generally, a psychrometer is more accurate at higher humidities (above 95%)[23]. 2. Apparatus for the direct measurement of the relative humidity in the atmosphere[16]. See also psychrometer.

hygroscopic nucleus. Small solid particles around which water condensates (cloud formation)[16]. hydroscopic water. Condensed water at a solid surface[16].

. The subterranean environment[23].

hypolimnion. A deep layer in stratified water[16]. hydroscopic coefficient. The amount of absorbed water on the surface of soil particles in an atmosphere of 50% relative humidity at 25°C[16].

97 I only[16]. 3. Absorption of water by plants. Synonym: capillary percolation. ice. Crystallized water formed below the [16] immiscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are freezing point (H2O) . not readily soluble[22]. 2. The chemical ice cave. 1. Any cave in rock that is partly property of two or more phases that, at filled with ice. The term should not be mutual equilibrium, cannot dissolve applied to glacier caves. The ice may completely in one another, e.g., oil and [22] form in massive icicles and flows, when water . 3. The quality of liquids percolation water from unfrozen rock exhibiting a clear interface where they are [16] seeps into a cave containing freezing air in contact; not miscible . drawn in from outside. This is a seasonal situation in many alpine caves, and if impermeable. A characteristic of some winter freezing exceeds summer melting geologic material that limits their ability the ice may become permanent, as in to transmit significant quantities of water Austria’s Dachstein and under the pressure differences ordinarily [22] caves. Alternately water vapor may found in the subsurface . crystallize out as hoar frost, commonly forming large hexagonal ice crystals that impervious. Not permitting the flow of line the walls of a freezing cave, as in water[16]. Grotte Valerie, northern Canada[9]. 2. A cave, generally in lava or limestone, in impervious lens. An impermeable, lens- which the average temperature is below shaped body of sediment in an otherwise 0°C., and which ordinarily contains permeable aquifer[16]. perennial ice. Ice may have the form of stalactites, stalagmites, or flowstone[10]. imported water. Water coming from (French.) glacière; (German.) ‘Eishöhle’; outside the ground-water basin under (Greek.) paghoménon spíleon; (Italian.) consideration[16]. ghiacciata naturale, grotta ghiacciata; (Russian.) ledjanaja pescera; (Spanish.) impound. The collecting of water by cueva helada, cueva de hielo; (Turkish.) damming[16]. buz ma{aras; (Yugoslavian.) ledena peeina, ledenjaca, ledena jama. See inception. The earliest stage of glacier cave. speleogenesis. The start of the inception phase marks the transition from ‘rock illite. A clay mineral. with no caves’ (in the widest sense) to ‘rock with caves’, and extends through imbibition. 1. The absorption of a fluid, whatever time interval is required for usually water, by a granular rock or other gravitational laminar flow conditions to porous material, under the force of be established in a given situation (see capillary attraction, and in the presence of gestation and initiation)[9]. pressure. 2. Fluid displacement in porous media as a result of capillary forces

98 inception horizon. A part of a rock induced infiltration. An increase in succession that is particularly susceptible infiltration from a surface water body by to the effects of the earliest cave forming the lowering of the original water table[16]. processes and hence is critical to the origin of most non-tectonic caves. By induced recharge. A method of virtue of physical, lithological or withdrawing ground water at strategic chemical deviation from the predominant points to induce natural recharge[16]. carbonate facies within the sequence, it passively or actively favors the localized indurated rock. A rock that has been inception of dissolutional activity[9]. See hardened and solidified by diagenetic also inception. processes[16].

incision. See entrenchment. infiltrability. The ease of infiltration[16].

initiation. The early parts of speleogenesis, infiltration. The downward entry of water generally up to the point of breakthrough into the soil or rock[22]. from laminar to turbulent flow, at an average conduit diameter of 10mm. infiltration basin. A basin in which water Initiation includes, but is not the same as, is spread for recharge. inception[9]. infiltration capacity. The maximum rate at inclinometer. An instrument to measure the which a soil or rock is capable of inclination of surfaces[16]. absorbing water or limiting infiltration[22].

incoherent material. Unconsolidated infiltration gallery. A horizontal conduit material[16]. for the purpose of intercepting ground water[16]. incrustation. 1. Deposition of a crust (of calcite, etc.) upon an object by infiltration index. The average rate of precipitation from water oversaturated infiltration throughout a given rain with salts (calcium bicarbonate, etc.)[20]. storm[16]. 2. The deposition of mineral matter by water[16]. Synonyms: (French.) infiltration rate. 1. The rate at which a soil incrustation; (German.) Krustenbildung; or rock under specified conditions (Greek.) epiphlioma; (Italian.) absorbs falling rain, melting snow, or incrostazione; (Russian.) obrazovanie surface water expressed in depth of water natecnih kor; (Spanish.) incrustción; per unit time[22]. 2. A characteristic (Turkish.) kabuk ba{lama, kabukla·ma; describing the maximum rate at which (Yugoslavian.) inkrustacija. water can enter the soil or rock, under specified conditions, including the induced activity. The activity or response presence of an excess of water. It has the of a system that has been subjected to an dimensions of velocity[22]. artificial excitation[16].

99 infiltrometer. Apparatus for measuring the input point. Points where water enters an amount of infiltration[16]. underground drainage route or aquifer. An obvious type of input point is a inflow cave, influent cave. Cave into surface sink or swallow hole, where which a stream flows or formerly allogenic drainage has direct access to a entered[10]. conduit system within a carbonate aquifer. Less obvious are points where influent stream. See . drainage enters a potential carbonate conduit-system from adjacent non- infrared light. Light not visible to the carbonate strata (such as a porous human eye, with wavelengths longer than sandstone aquifer) or where water utilizes those of visible red light and shorter than a fracture system to pass through those of radio waves[23]. otherwise relatively impermeable beds and into the carbonate aquifer[9]. initial abstraction. The maximum amount of rainfall absorbed without producing insectivore. An animal that feeds on runoff[16]. insects. Almost all species of North American bats are insectivores[23]. See inject, to. 1. The introduction of also carnivore; herbivore; omnivore. pressurized fluids into a porous subsurface formation[16]. 2. The in-situ density. The density of water introduction of tracer materials (e.g. measured at its actual depth[22]. See also fluorescent dyes) into the subsurface. potential density.

injection head. A swivel head connector insulated stream. A stream neither through which drilling fluid is injected receiving nor abstracting water from a into the drill pipe[16]. ground-water body because of an impermeable bed[16]. injection well. Well used for emplacing fluids into the subsurface[22]. insurgence. A term proposed to describe a point of inflow for surface water into injection zone. A geological ‘formation,’ subsurface conduits. It has not gained group of formations, or part of a wide usage and is not recommended for formation receiving fluids through a well. use. Diffuse insurgence may be used to describe the slow percolation of water injectivity. The capacity of a well or through overburden and tight pores in the formation to accommodate pumped in rock. Confluent insurgence may be liquid[16]. applied to water entering the rock via identifiable streams sinking into the inlet cave. A cave developed beneath a subsurface while a confluent insurgence swallow hole where a surface watercourse complex would apply to a cluster of first passes underground in karst insurgences. Abandoned insurgences is limestone[19]. the term applied to inflow points no

100 longer used by infiltrating water. An interflow. Subsurface runoff[16]. overflow insurgence is the term used to describe insurgences utilized only during intergranular stress. The stress between periods of high flow[12]. grains in a solid matrix[16].

intake area, recharge area. The surface intergranular voids. Generally primary or area in which water is absorbed into an secondarily enhanced voids within rocks, aquifer eventually to reach the zone of with average dimensions of 0.00l to saturation[10]. 0.lmm. Such voids, or pores, may provide interconnected porosity in many interaquifer flow. The flow that occurs karst rocks and allow early water between aquifers through fracture movement under laminar flow openings or through the wellbore[16]. conditions[9]. interbedded. Pertaining to beds or intermittent spring. See spring, sedimentary material intercalated in a intermittent. parallel fashion into a main stratum[16]. intermittent stream, intermittent river. 1. interbedding. A bed between layers of A stream or river which flows only in different material[16]. direct response to precipitation or to intermittent discharge of a spring; not interception. The abstraction of direct confined to karst areas, but not rainfall on vegetation cover[16]. uncommon in them[20]. 2. A stream or river that flows at irregular intervals[16]. interception loss. That part of rainfall Synonyms: (French.) cours d’eau retained by the aerial portion of intermittent; (German.) intermittierender vegetative cover[16]. Fluß, episodischer periodischer Fluß; (Greek.) dialípon potamós; (Italian.) interdigitation. The lateral interlocking of torrente intermittente; (Spanish.) sedimentary series[16]. corriente intermitente; (Turkish.) kesintili akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) susica, suvaja. interface. 1. The contact zone between two Contrast with interrupted river. materials of different chemical or physical composition[22]. 2. The contact intermontane basin. A basin lying between plane of two immiscible liquids[16]. two mountain ranges[16].

interference. The condition occurring when internal drainage. Drainage in a closed the area of influence of a water well basin and not reaching the sea[16]. It is comes into contact with or overlaps that common in maturely karsted terranes of a neighboring well, as when two wells where surface water bodies are relatively are pumping from the same aquifer or are nonexistent. located near each other[6].

101 interstice. 1. An opening in a rock or soil interstratal karst. Karst topography that is that is not occupied by solid matter[22]. 2. covered by and developed beneath pre- An opening or space which may be karst rock or sediment and may or may occupied by air, water, or other gaseous not be part of the contemporary or liquid material[22]. Synonymous with landscape. It is younger than its cover void, pore. See also pore; pore space; and is formed by the solution of soluble porosity; porosity, effective; porosity, rock in the subsurface, most commonly primary; porosity, secondary. beneath relatively insoluble rock such as sandstone or chert. The term refers to interstitial ice. Ice occurring below the areal solution rather than to cave surface in soil pores[16]. development but is also applicable to rejuvenated mantled karst and rejuvenated interstitial medium. Spaces between grains buried karst. Subsoil karst is transitional of sand or fine gravel filled with water to interstratal karst[17]. Synonyms: which contains phreatobia[25]. (French.) karst sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches Karstphänomen; (Greek.) interstitial water. Water held in small kalyménon karst; (Italian.) carso coperto; wedge like interstices at grain contact[16]. (Spanish.) karst interstradal; (Turkish.) tabakalar aras karst. See also buried interstratal karst; interstratal karst; denuded karst; covered karst. karstification. 1. Features formed by the dissolutional removal of all or part of a inter-permafrost karst. See permafrost buried rock unit. Interstratal-karst karst; sub-permafrost karst. features are common within highly soluble evaporite rocks such as gypsum interrupted river, interrupted stream. 1. and halite, and may be equally common, A river which flows for part of its course but less readily recognized, within the on the surface, and part underground in preserved remnants of carbonate caves[20]. 2. A stream interrupted over successions. Interstratal karst should not space[16]. 3. A discontinuous stream[16]. be confused with buried karst. The finest Synonyms: (French.) rivière interrompue; interstratal karst in Britain is the (German.) periodischer Fluß ?, Karstfluß, extensive cave development in the versickernder Fluß; (Greek.) limestones beneath the Namurian thiakekoménos potamós; (Russian.) Millstone Grit plateaux of South , peresihauchaj reka, syhaja reka; where the large collapse dolines in the (Spanish.) rio sumente; (Turkish.) yer yer Millstone Grit are interstratal-karst akan nehir; (Yugoslavian.) susica, landforms[9]. 2. The process of suvaja, periodieka rijeka (reka). See karstification of highly soluble rocks also lost river; intermittent stream. (e.g., gypsum, anhydrate, and salt) that are overlain by less soluble rocks (e.g., intrinsic permeability. See permeability, shales), but are still selectively dissolved intrinsic. by circulating ground water[10].

102 inundation. The covering of an area by migrates to an aquifer or surface water flood waters[16]. body[22]. invaded zone. In geophysical well logging, irrotation flow. Potential flow or flow with the zone in which an appreciable amount no rotational component[16]. of mud filtrate has penetrated[16]. isobath. A line of equal depth[16]. invasion. In geophysical well logging, the penetration of a fluid into the porous isochrone. A line connecting water levels medium[16]. in observation wells for a given instant in time[16]. invasion depth. The depth to which drilling mud filtrate penetrates into a isohyet. A line of equal rainfall[16]. formation[16]. isopiestic line. A contour on a piezometric invertebrate. An animal, such as a surface connecting points of equal static planarian, snail, or crayfish, without a level[16]. backbone[23]. See also vertebrate. isopleth. A line of equal distance from the inverted siphon. See water trap. point of outflow of a basin[16].

ion. An element or compound that has isopotal line. A line of equal infiltration gained or lost an electron so that it is no capacity[16]. longer neutral electrically and now carries a charge[6]. isotherm. A line of equal temperatures[16].

ion mobility. The ease with which ions isotope tracer. Tracer which is an isotope move in an electrolytical solution[16]. of an element present in the water; it may be artificial (added to water) or natural irreducible saturation. The lowest water (present in the water)[20]. Synonyms: saturation obtainable by mechanical (French.) traceur isotopique; (German.) reduction methods[16]. Markierung durch radioaktive Isotopen; (Greek.) isotopicos ichnithetis; (Italian.) irrigation. The artificial watering of fields tracciante isotopico; (Russian.) izotopnij for crop production[16]. indikator; (Spanish.) trazador isotópico; (Turkish.) izotop izleyicisi; irrigation requirement. The water needed (Yugoslavian.) izotopni traser. for crop production exclusive of precipitation[16]. isotropic. Equal properties in all directions.

irrigation return flow. The part of isotropic mass. A mass having the same artificially applied water that is not property or properties in all directions[22]. consumed by evapotranspiration and that

103 isotropy. The condition in which the property or properties of interest are the same in all directions[22]. izdan. A general Yugoslavian term for a ground-water reservoir from which ground water may readily be extracted; it is not specifically a karst term[20].

104 J joint pattern. A group of joints which form a characteristic geometrical relationship, jama. 1. (Slavic.) Vertical or steeply in• and which can vary considerably from clined shaft in limestone, known as abîme one location to another within the same or aven in France and as pothole in geologic formation. England. 2. Any cave[10]. Synonyms: (French.) jama; (German.) Abgrund, joint-plane cave. A cavity high in relation Schacht, Schlund; (Greek.) karstikon to width developed along steeply dipping phrear; (Italian.) abisso, foiba, pozzo, joint planes[10]. voragine; (Russian.) karstovij kolodec, karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima, pozo, jumar. An ascender with a simple avenc; (Turkish.) obruk; (Yugoslavian.) finger-operated safety catch, a handle and bezdan, japaga, zvekara, pekel, brezno, several attachment points[25]. prepad, propast. Related to cenote, doline, obruk, pit, shaft, shake hole. juvenile water. Water that has not been part of the hydrosphere before and is jarosite. A cave mineral — derived from the earth’s interior[16]. [11] KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 . joint. 1. A break of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock occurring either singly, or more frequently in a set or system, but not attended by a visible movement parallel to the surface of the discontinuity. 2. A junction or connection of mechanical elements such as drill pipe[16]. See also fracture. joint diagram. A diagram constructed by accurately plotting the strike and dip of joints to illustrate the geometrical relationship of the joints within a specified area of geologic investigation. joint or fault set. A group of more or less parallel joints or faults. joint or fault system. A system consisting of two or more joint or fault sets or any group of joints or faults with a characteristic pattern (e.g., radiating, concentric, etc.).

105 K limestone surfaces; they vary in depth from a few millimeters to more than a kafkalla. A term used in Cyprus for the meter and are separated by ridges. In hardened upper portion of crust of modern usage, the terms are general, havara[20]. See also caliche; havara. describing the total complex of superficial solution forms found on compact pure . A stratified glacial sand and gravel limestone. Classified into several kinds, deposit forming a small, conical hill[16]. the most common of which are: Rillenkarren — shallow channels sepa• Kamenica, Kamenitza. (German, possibly rated by sharp ridges 2-3 centimeters of Slavic origin; plural, Kamenice.) A apart; Rinnenkarren — flat-bottomed small depression (a few meters in grooves several centimeters apart; diameter and several centimeters deep) in Kluftkarren — joints enlarged by solu• a level calcareous surface, enlarged by the tion; Spitzkarren — large deep grooves solution effect of water collecting extending down from steep spires or between slight undulations. It is pinnacles; meandering karren developed vertically at first by stagnant (Mäanderkarren) — small winding or water; the steep sides thus evolved then meandering channels; round karren induce the flow of water which flutes the (Rundkarren) — karren having rounded slope and so eventually widens the basin. channels and intervening rounded ridges, Sediments and low orders of plant life probably reexhumed after formation frequently collect on the even floor, the under soil or peat; Flachkarren — equiv• latter aiding further solution by alent to the English clint; Bodenkarren — [10] reactivating the pH of the water[19]. karren formed beneath the soil . Synonyms: (French.) kamenice; Synonyms: (French.) lapiés; (German.) (German.) Opferkeßel; (Greek.) lakouva, Karren, Schratten; (Greek.) ythrolakkos; (Russian.) bljudoe; thaktyloglyphae, amaxotrochiae; (Italian.) (Spanish.) cuenco, tinajita; (Turkish.) campo solcato; (Russian.) karri; erime tavas; (Yugoslavian.) kamenica, (Spanish.) lapiaz; (Turkish.) erime olu{u; skalne kotlice, scalba, skalnica. See also (Yugoslavian.) škrape, škripovi, griÓine, solution pan; water pot. Ólebici, skraplje. kankar; kunkar. (Australian.) See caliche. Karren, free. (German.) Bare karst; water flows unhindered over the limestone [3] Kannelierungen. (German.) See surface . Rillenkarren. Karrenfeld; Karren field. (German.) An [10] kaolin. A common clay mineral[16]. area of limestone dominated by karren . These appear as bare karst and consist of karabiner. See carabiner. the sum of exposed and half-exposed karren, occasionally also of covered Karren. (German.) Channels or furrows, karren which have become exposed. caused by solution on massive bare They range in size from a few hectares to

106 a few hundred square kilometers[3]. karst aquifer. See aquifer, karst. Synonym: (Turkish.) erime olu{u alan. See also clint; grike. karst barré. (French.) 1. A karst terrane of limited area completely surrounded by karst. (Internationally used term, originally rocks of low permeability[10]. 2. Term for the German form of the Slavic word kras karst areas whose lower part is enclosed or krš, meaning a bleak waterless place; it and bordered by more or less impervious is the German name for a district east of rocks which impedes ground-water flow having such terrane.) A terrane, out of the karst area. Synonyms: generally underlain by limestone or (French.) karst barré; (German.) dolomite, in which the topography is Riegelkarst; (Greek.) phragmenon karst; chiefly formed by the dissolving of rock, (Spanish.) karst cerrado; (Turkish.) setli and which may be characterized by karst; (Yugoslavian.) zagaceni krs (kras), sinkholes, sinking streams, closed depres• zajezeni kras. sions, subterranean drainage, and caves[10]. The term karst unites specific karst base level. Level below which morphological and hydrological features karstification does not or has not taken in soluble (mostly carbonate) rocks. place[10]. Synonyms: base level of Morphological features include karren, karstification[20]; (French.) niveau de base dolinas (sinkholes), jamas, ponors, karstique; (German.) Korrosionsniveau; uvalas, poljes, caves, caverns, etc. (Greek.) basis apokarstoseos, or better Hydrological features include basins of ‘patoma apokarstoseos’; (Italian.) livello closed drainage, lost rivers, estavelles, di base della attività carsica; (Spanish.) vauclusian springs, submarine springs, nivel de base kárstico; (Turkish.) more or less individualized underground karstla·ma tabani; (Russian.) bazis karsta; streams and incongruity of surface and (Yugoslavian.) baza krškog procesa, baza underground divides. Karst is understood karstifikacije, baza zakrasevanja. to be the result of natural processes in and on the earth’s crust cause by solution and karst breccia. See collapse breccia; leaching of limestones, dolomites, solution breccia. gypsum, halite, and other soluble rocks[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst; (German.) karst bridge. A natural bridge or arch in Karst; (Greek.) karst; (Italian.) carso, limestone[10]. carsismo; (Russian.) karst; (Spanish.) karst; (Turkish.) karst; (Yugoslavian.) karst couvert. (French.) See covered karst. krš, kras. See also buried karst; cone karst; covered karst; exhumed karst; karst . 1. Marshes developed in Halbkugelkarst; Holokarst; Kegelkarst; sinkhole terrain; swampy solution fens[10]. Merokarst; microkarst; naked karst; 2. Marsh or swamp formed by plants paleokarst; pseudokarst; relict karst; overgrowing a karst lake or seepage. Spitzkegelkarst; subjacent karst; Synonyms: (French.) marais karstique; syngenetic karst; thermokarst; tower (German.) Karstsumpf ?; (Greek.) karst. karstikon elos; (Italian.) palude o

107 acquitrinio carsico; (Russian.) karstovoje karstiki limni; (Italian.) lago carsico; boloto; (Spanish.) laguna karstica; (Russian.) karstovoe ozero; (Spanish.) (Turkish.) karst batakl{; (Yugoslavian.) lago kãrstico; (Turkish.) karstik gölü; lokva, kal. (Yugoslavian.) krško (krasko) jezero.

karst fenster. See karst window. karst margin plain. A plain generally on limestone between higher country of karst fossile. (French.) See buried karst. limestone on one side and of less pervious rocks on the other, but having a cover of karst hydrology. 1. The branch of impervious detritus, which allows surface hydrology dealing with hydrological drainage[10]. phenomena on and in regions and areas composed totally or in part of rocks karst noyé. (French.) See drowned karst. which are soluble in water, such as limestones, dolomites, gypsum, and karst nu. (French.) See exposed karst. halite[20]. 2. The drainage phenomena of karstified limestones, dolomites, and karst plain. 1. Large flat surface in karst other slowly soluble rocks[10]. Synonyms: formed by erosion and corrosion[20]. 2. A (French.) hydrologie karstique; plain on which closed depressions, (German.) Hydrologie des ; subterranean drainage, and other karst (Greek.) karstike hydrologia; (Italian.) features may be developed. Also called idrologia carsica; (Russian.) gidrologija karst plateau[10]. Synonyms: (French.) karsta; (Spanish.) hidrología kárstica; plateau karstique; (German.) Karstebene, (Turkish.) karst hidrolojisi; Karstrandebene, Korrosionsfläche; (Yugoslavian.). (Greek.) karstikon pedhion; (Italian.) piano carsico; (Russian.) karstovaja karst inselberg. A residual hill of soluble ravnina; (Spanish.) llanura kárstica; rock in a polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.) (Turkish.) karst ovas; (Yugoslavian.) inselberg karstique; (German.) krska zaravan, površ, kraski ravnik. See Karstinselberg (Hum, Mogote); (Greek.) also marginal polje. karstiki martyres lophi; (Italian.) rilievo carsico residuo; (Russian.) karstovij karst polje. See polje. ostanec; (Spanish.) relieve kástico residual; (Turkish.) karst tepesi; karst pond. Closed depression in a karst (Yugoslavian.) hum. area containing standing water[10]. karst lake. 1. Lakes on karst surface, karst river. 1. A river (or stream) flowing frequently connected with ground water; in a karstic area, either on the surface of lakes in subterranean hollows (caves and the ground or through an underground caverns)[20]. 2. A large area of standing cave system[20]. 2. A river that originates water in extensive closed depression in from a karst spring[10]. Synonyms: limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) lac de (French.) rivière karstique; (German.) karst; (German.) Karstsee; (Greek.) Karstfluß; (Greek.) karstikós potamós;

108 (Italian.) corso d’acqua carsico; karst valley. 1. Valleys in karst are (Russian.) karstovaja reka; (Spanish.) río normally distinctive due to the lack of kárstico; (Turkish.) karst nehiri; integrated surface drainage. Most are (Yugoslavian.) krska rijeka, kraska reka. either blind (due to being closed where the drainage sinks underground), headless karst seep. Place where karst ground water or pocket (where a river emerges from a oozes out at the surface of the ground; spring) or dry (where surface flow has sometimes overgrown and then forming a been lost due to underground capture). karst [20]. Synonyms: (French.) The exception is the allogenic valley, suitement karstique; (German.) where a river completely traverses a karst, Karstgrundwaßer-Austritt; (Greek.) normally because underground conduits karstiki thiaroi; (Russian.) visacivanie at or below valley floor level are karstovih vod; (Spanish.) zona de immature. Fine examples of allogenic absorción; (Turkish.) karst sznts; karst valleys are Dove Dale in the Peak (Yugoslavian.) mogilo. District and France’s Tarn Gorge[9]. 2. Elongated solution valley in limestone[20]. karst shaft. A vertical or steeply-sided 3. Valley produced by collapse of a natural opening a few tens to a few cavern roof[10]. Synonyms: (French.) hundred meters deep, formed by solution vallée karstique; (German.) Karsttal, or erosion of vertical or sub-vertical Karstgaße; (Greek.) Karstik kilás; fractures or fissures by down flowing (Italian.) valle carsica; (Russian.) surface water. Such a pit, formed from karstovaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle above, may connect with a chimney kárstico; (Turkish.) karst vadisi; formed from below. Synonyms: (French.) (Yugoslavian.) krška (kraska) dolina. karst shaft; (German.) Schacht, Schaft; (Greek.) karstikós lákkos; (Italian.) karst vert. See subsoil karst. voragine, inghiottitoio; (Russian.) karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima; karst water. Water discharged from karst (Turkish.) karst bacas; (Yugoslavian.) springs which posses characteristics, jama. Related to dolina, jama, obruk, pit. primarily that of calcium content, indicating solution during the passage of karst sous-jacent. (French.) See interstratal that water across and through karst karst. limestone. That part of karst spring water which is derived from watercourses karst spring. See spring, karst. sinking into the rock (and therefore originates mainly on impermeable rock) is karst topography. Topography dominated said to be allogenic; that which derives by features of solutional origin[10]. from precipitation over the karst area Geomorphically, the dominant features alone is said to be autochthonous - the usually but not always obviously present, distinction between resurgence and are sinkholes and caves. In tropical exsurgence waters[19]. regions, karst towers (e.g. mogotes) may also dominate the landscape.

109 karst well. Term applied to features that besides corrosion, such phenomena as result from the solution enlargement and mechanical erosion, jointing, and rounding of joints (grikes) to produce faulting[20]. Synonyms: (French.) cylindrical pits[8]. See also grike; joint. karstification; (German.) Verkarstung; (Greek.) apokarstosis; (Italian.) karst window. 1. Depression revealing a carsificazione; (Russian.) part of a flowing across karstoobrazovanie; (Spanish.) its floor, or an unroofed part of a cave. 2. karstificación; (Turkish.) karstla·ma; A small natural bridge or arch which can (Yugoslavian.) okršavanje, zakrasevanje, be seen through[10]. 3. A through opening karstifikacija. in natural limestone walls, formed by the joining of karst as a result of karstland. A region characterized by karst dissolution processes[20]. Synonyms: topography[10]. (French.) fenêtre karstique; (German.) Karstfenster; (Greek.) karstikon Karstrandebene. (German.) See karst parathyron; (Italian.) finestra carsica; margin plain. (Russian.) karstovoe okno; (Spanish.) dolina en ventana; (Turkish.) karst katavothron. (Greek.) A closed depression penceresi; (Yugoslavian.) krsko (krasko) or swallow hole[10]. okno. Kegelkarst. (German.) A general term used karstic. Occasionally used as the adjective to describe several types of tropical form of karst[10] and pertaining to karst humid karst characterized by numerous, landforms or processes[19]. closely spaced cone-, hemispherical-, or tower-shaped hills having intervening karstification. 1. The processes of solution closed depressions and narrow and infiltration by water, mainly chemical steep-walled karst valleys or but also mechanical, whereby the surface passageways[10]. See also cockpit karst; features and subterranean drainage cone karst; Halbkugelkarst; tower karst. network of a karstland are developed to form a karst topography, including such keld. See rising. surface features as dolines, karren, and mogotes and such subsurface features as kernmantel rope. A rope with a plaited caves and shafts. An area currently or sheath around a core of parallel or twisted formerly undergoing karstification, and strands[25]. thus characterized by karst landforms, is said to be karstified[19]. 2. The process by krab. See carabiner. which karst is formed. The term has been given a wide range of meaning, from keyhole passage; keyhole. 1. This very almost a synonym or corrosion of soluble descriptive name derives from the cross- rocks by water to a term comprising all sectional shape of a cave passage that processes responsible for the consists of a phreatic tube with a vadose development of karst features including, canyon cut in its floor. It is the classic

110 example of a two-phase cave passage that cavers[13]. See also ; prusiking. originated and began its development in the phreas and was then modified by kras; krš. A slavic word meaning bleak, vadose entrenchment. As this sequence is waterless place, from which the term the result of water table lowering by karst is derived[10]. See also karst. normal surface erosion, keyholes are common. Some keyholes are so small Kugelkarst. See Halbkugelkarst. that the lower slot is impassable and the caver has to squeeze along the upper tube; kunker. See caliche. others are very large. Spectacularly long is the 5km of keyhole forming the Fissures in , Canada. A tube 6m in diameter tops an irregular tapering canyon 15m deep that must be traversed on sloping ledges at mid-level[9]. 2. A small passage or opening in a cave; in cross section, rounded at the top, constricted in the middle, and rectangular or flared out below[10]. They appear as keyholes when viewed in cross section. They are formed when underground streams flowing in a tubular passage begin downcutting to form a canyon passage[15]. See also canyon passage; passage; tubular passage; vertical shaft.

klinkenberg effect. The slip of gas molecules at the pore wall giving apparently higher permeability than would be obtained by liquid measurements[16].

Kluft. See aisle.

Kluftkarren. (German.) See grike. knobstone. Speleothem, larger, more pronounced, and more widely separated than cave coral[10].

. Various methods of securing or tying ropes or webbing material together by

111 L . A general term indicating a disposal site for refuse, dirt from [6] laboratory coefficient of permeability, excavations, junk , and hazardous standard coefficient of permeability. wastes. Permeability defined for controlled temperature conditions (60NF) as gallons land-form. A topographic feature of the per day per square foot (gpd/ft2) under a earth’s surface[16]. unit gradient[16]. See also Meinzer unit. land pan. An evaporation pan used to labyrinth. See network; maze cave. measure evaporation from a land surface; pan is usually mounted at the land [16] lacustrine formation. A sedimentary surface . formation of lacustrine origin. land subsidence. The subsidence of a [16] ladder. In caving, a flexible, lightweight surface due to a loss of support . Often ladder of galvanized or stainless steel occurs as a result of over pumping wires and aluminium alloy rungs[25]. underlying aquifers or as a result of mining activities. In karst terranes, lag time. A time lapse between the onset of subsidence can occur as a result of man- a given event and the produced results[16]. made changes to the natural hydrologic system (ground-water withdrawals or lagoon. A body of relatively shallow water storm-water injection) or as a near a sea shore, with or without a direct consequence of the natural dissolution connection to the sea[16]. process. Subsidences may be sudden or progress slowly over time. lake. 1. As used in speleology, a body of standing water too deep to walk across[10]. land surface. That part of the lithosphere [16] 2. In caving, a body of standing water in a usually not covered by water . cave, but used for what would be called a pond or pool on the surface[25]. 3. A body land-use. A particular utilization of a land of fresh inland water[16]. surface especially with respect to its influence on the hydrologic cycle[16]. laminar flow. Flow in which the head loss is proportional to the first power of the . The sliding down of earth and [16] velocity[22]. Water flowing in a laminar rock on a slope . manner will have streamlines that remain distinct and the flow direction at every lapiés. (French; sometimes spelled lapies or point remains unchanged with time. lapiaz.) Term for a region with outcrops Synonymous with streamline flow, of small regular pillars, cones, or blocks [20] viscous flow. of carbonate rock . Synonyms: (French.) lapies; (German.) Karren; lamination. The layering or very thin (Greek.) lapiaz, lenar; (Italian.) lapia, bedding of sedimentary rocks[16]. solcato, carregiato; (Russian.) karri;

112 (Spanish.) lenar; (Turkish.) erime oluyu, explorable cave when completely cooled. lapya; (Yugoslavian.) škrapa, griÓine, Most lava caves are just very long tubes, bridine, Ólebici. See karren, rock-rill, though branching and multiple levels may grikes. occur as dictated by flow patterns and re- invasions of older tubes. On Kilauea larva (plural larvae). An active immature , , the is stage in an animal’s life history when its 47km long and descends 888m, but its form usually differs from the adult form, tubes, mostly 5m in diameter, lie less than such as the grub stage in the development 20m beneath the sloping surface of the of a beetle or the tadpole stage in the life lava[9]. 2. A cave in a lava flow, generally history of a frog[23]. See also formed by gas blistering the surface or by metamorphosis; pupa. lava flowing out from beneath a solidified crust, forming a tube or tunnel[10]. 3. An lateral line system. A series of sensory empty tubular supply channel from which organs, usually appearing in a line or liquid lava has drained[16]. See also lava series of lines on the sides and heads of karst; pseudokarst. fishes and larval amphibians. The system enables the animal to sense vibrations in lava karst. A non-karst term. Subsurface the water[23]. See also cupula; neuromast. openings formed in lava flows due to outflow of liquid lava from beneath a lateral . A glacial deposit at the solidified crust or due to gas blisters. flank of a glacier, often constituted by Tubes or tunnels are formed with such debris from valley walls[16]. pseudokarst features as lava stalactites and also collapse structures and basins of laterite. A tropical ferruginous clay soil[16]. closed drainage. Lava karst does not arise through solution of the rock by circulating lateritic soil. A red colored soil with high water and thus is not a true karst[20]. iron oxide content[16]. Synonyms: (French.) pseudo-karst; (German.) (Vulkanischer Karst), Lava- lava bed. A lava flow of considerable areal Karst, Pseudokarst; (Greek.) extent and relatively small thickness[16]. pseudokarst; (Italian.) pseudocarsismo vulcanico; (Spanish.) volcanokarst , . 1. A cave that formed (general), tubo volcanico (tube, tunnel), in a partly cooled, broadly basaltic or jameo (collapse structure), malpaís phonolitic lava, not by erosion but by (topographic feature similar to lapiés); molten material flowing away. In most (Turkish.) lav karst, a ldatc karst. See cases, an initial active lava conduit is also lava cave; pseudokarst. formed when a flowing surface lava stream has a roof grow over it by lay. The way in which strands of a rope or accretion of chilled solidified material. cable are twisted[25]. Insulated inside its conduit the lava can continue to flow and develop an airspace layer. A sheetlike deposit of sediment[16]. above it, which is preserved as an Bed or stratum of rock[16].

113 leachate. 1. Materials removed by the flow across a unit (horizontal) area of a process of leaching[22]. 2. A liquid that semipervious layer into (or out of) an has percolated through soil rock or waste aquifer under one unit of head difference and has extracted dissolved or suspended across this layer. Synonymous with materials[22]. coefficient of leakage[22].

leaching. 1. The removal of materials in leaky aquifer. Aquifers, whether artesian solution from soil, rock, or waste[22]. 2. or water-table, that lose or gain water Separation or dissolving out of soluble through adjacent less permeable layers[22]. constituents from a porous medium by percolation of water[22]. lecontite. A cave mineral — [11] (NH4,K)Na(SO4)2H2O . lead. A passage noticed but as yet unexplored[25]. leg. A part of a survey traverse between two successive stations[25]. lead-acid cell. A rechargeable acid battery for use with an electric cap lamp[25]. leucophor. One of a family of optical brightening agents that have been used leader. In caving, the person directing the with some degree of success in water- activities of a caving party, especially tracing experiments. It has no color, but with regard to safety[25]. is readily detected by its distinctive fluorescence under ultra-violent light[9]. leak. An opening in an aquiclude that permits penetration of water from other . An artificial bank to prevent formations into the main aquifer[16]. overbank flow of a river[16].

leakage. 1. The flow of water from one level. 1. Within a cave, a group of passages hydrogeologic unit to another. The developed in the same horizontal plane[10]. leakage may be natural, as through 2. The altitudinal relation of a cave floor semi-impervious confining layer, or man- to an outside surface[10]. 3. The surface of made, as through an uncased well[22]. 2. water in a well or standing reservoir[16]. The natural loss of water from artificial structures as a result of hydrostatic lift. The vertical pumping distance between pressure[22]. the water level in a well to the land surface[16]. leakage factor. The factor describing leakage flow into or out of a leaky light hole. (Jamaican.) 1. A hole in the roof aquifer[16]. of a cave through which light enters; sometimes a nonfunctioning swallow leakance. 1. The ratio K’/b’, in which K’ hole[20]. 2. Fossil or abandoned swallow and b’ are the vertical hydraulic con• hole[10]. ductivity and the thickness, respectively, of the confining beds[22]. 2. The rate of

114 lime. Calcium oxide, CaO; used loosely and blocks (clints or dalles) by solution- incorrectly in referring to limestone[10]. enlargement of vertical joints[19]. 3. Horizontal or sloping platforms of bare lime sink. See sinkhole. limestone whose surface usually coincides with bedding-plane partings of limestone. Sedimentary rock containing at the rock; often eroded into clint and least 50% calcium carbonate by weight. grikes rock forms[20]. Synonyms: The purer limestones consist almost (French.) plateforme calcaire; (German.) entirely of calcite; less pure rocks may be Kalk Plattform, Limestone Pavement; referred to as, for example, muddy (Greek.) karstikon lithostroton; limestone. Some limestones are porous (Spanish.) lapiaz entrecruzado; (Turkish.) with diffuse permeability; these rarely kireçta· dö·emesi. See also clints; become truly cavernous, though some grikes; Karrenfeld. fissure flow may occur. Where ground- water flow in less porous rocks is limestone sink. see sinkhole. restricted to bedding related fissures and secondary fractures it can, even when limnology. The study of lakes[16]. moving very slowly, corrode the almost entirely soluble rock and lead to true cave line of seepage. See seepage line. development[9]. lineation. The parallel orientation of limestone pavement. 1. A level, or gently structural features that are lines rather inclined, bare limestone surface scored than planes. Some examples are parallel and fretted by karren. The stripping of orientation of the long dimensions of soil or cover rocks to expose the bare minerals, long of pebbles, striae on rock pavement is a glacial process, and slickensides, and cleavage-bedding plane the development of the karren — both the intersections. dissolutional enlargement of the joints and also the dissolutional carving of lintel line. A line on the ground at a cave runnels — is largely post-glacial. entrance perpendicularly beneath the Limestone pavements are characteristic outer edge of the rock above; may or may features of glaciokarst and occur not coincide with the dripline[25]. See also extensively in the north of England, in the dripline. Burren of in and on many high alpine limestones[9]. 2. A bare liquid. An incompressible or nearly plane surface of limestone, parallel to the incompressible fluid. bedding, commonly divided into blocks (clints, Flachkarren) by solutionally liquid medium. Contains the aquatic widened joints (grikes, Kluftkarren), and cavernicoles[25]. pitted by solution pans[10]. 3. A glaciokarstic landform, produced on a lithologic factor. The factor influencing glacially planed limestone surface which composition, texture, and sequence of has subsequently become dissected into rock types[16].

115 lithology. 1. The physical characteristic of a to migrate downwards through the vadose rock, including composition, grain size, and to float on top of the water table. See texture, degree of cementation (or also LNAPL; immiscible; NAPL. lithification) and structure, that determine the rock type[9]. 2. The physical loam. Calcareous clay[16]. properties and aspect of a rock[16]. localized circulation. Circulation in karst lithosol. A rocky soil[16]. aquifers in which the water moves in certain preferred zones and does not lithosphere. That part of the earth’s crust occupy all or most of the openings below containing solid rocks[16]. this level[10]. Synonyms: (French.) circulation préfèrentielle; (German.) lithostratigraphy. A formal naming system Örtlich begrenzte Karstwaßer- that allows the description of rock Zirkulation; (Italian.) circolazione successions in terms of recognizable carsica parziale; (Spanish.) circulación defined units on a local scale. The units, localizada; (Turkish.) yersel dola·im; which comprise supergroups, groups, (Yugoslavian.) lokalizirana (lokalna) formations, members and beds in cirkulacija. Compare diffuse circulation. decreasing order of size, are described on the basis of observable characteristics[9]. lodgement till. Glacial till deposited from slowly melting ice at the base of a littoral zone. The coastal strip where rocks glacier[16]. that are above sea-level are in contact with rocks that are generally below sea- loess. Fine-grained and poorly consolidated level. Where suitable aquifer conditions windblown sediment, mainly of silt. occur across the littoral zone, notably Great thicknesses of loess are found in around relatively young carbonate islands, areas marginal to hot and cold deserts, fresh ground-water interfaces with saline where the prevailing wind deposits fine ground-water at the halocline and dust particles blown from the desert dissolutional processes are enhanced by basins or out of glaciofluvial sediments. mixing water and, possibly, by microbial Loess is a common allogenic component effects[9]. of soils on limestones. Large numbers of artificial caves have been excavated in the live cave. Cave in which there is river hillsides of soft loess in central China[9]. action or active deposition of speleothems. Compare active cave[10]. longitudinal fault. A fault having the same direction of strike as the surrounding LNAPL. Abbreviation for light nonaqueous strata[16]. phase liquid. Liquids falling into this category have specific gravities that are longitudinal section; long section. A less than water (the specific gravity for section along the length of a cave passage water is usually taken to be one), are or chamber or combination of these, or relatively immiscible with water, and tend along a survey traverse in a cave[25].

116 loosest packing. The three-dimensional low flow. The lowest sustaining flow during arrangement of particles with the highest base runoff conditions of a river[16]. possible void volume per unit cell[16]. Lycopodium spores. 1. The spores of a club losing stream. A stream or reach of a moss, with individual structures about stream in which water flows from the 0.03mm in diameter. Easily transported stream bed into the ground[22]. In karst by and almost indestructible in cave terranes, losing streams may slowly sink water, the spores can be dyed a variety of into fractures or completely disappear colors, and offer a valuable water-tracing down a ponor. Synonym: influent stream. technique. Preparation and collection of See also ponor; stream sink. the spores is very tedious, and the method lacks the convenience of using simple lost circulation. The result of drilling fluid dyes[9]. 2. Spores of Lycopodium escaping from a borehole into the clavatum, which can be used in natural or formation by way of crevices within the dyed color as a label in studying formation[6]. It is a common occurrence ground-water movement in karst areas[10]. in most karst aquifers due to the existence of large subsurface voids that are lysimeter. A device for measuring sometimes intersected during a drilling percolation and leaching losses from a program. column of soil under controlled conditions[22]. lost river. 1. A surface river or stream flowing onto or over karst that then disappears completely underground through a swallow hole (ponor) and which may or may not rise again and flow as a resurgent surface river or stream[20]. 2. In a karst region, a surface stream that enters an underground course[10]. Synonyms: (French.) perte de rivière; (German.) Flußversickerung, Flußchwinde; (Greek.) chanomenos potamos; (Russian.) iscezajuscaja reka; (Spanish.) rio sumente; (Turkish.) kayp nehir; (Yugoslavian.) ponornica, ponikalnica. See also ponornica; sinking stream. Compare intermittent river. lower confining bed. An impermeable bed underlying an aquifer[16].

lower course. The part of a water course near a discharge point[16].

117 M young, which are nursed on milk from the mother's breast[23]. Ma. Internationally accepted abbreviation for million years, commonly applied to manatial. (Spanish.) Spring. See also measurements of geological time. This spring. abbreviation is currently used in preference to My[9]. Manning equation. An equation used to compute the velocity of uniform flow in 2/3 1/2 macrokarst. Karst area with large open channel: V=1.486/n R S , where morphological features. The term is not V is the mean velocity of flow (in cfs easily defined because it lacks limits[20]. units), R is the hydraulic radius in feet, S Synonym; (Italian.) merocarsismo. is the slope of the channel or sine of the Compare microkarst. slope angle, and n is the Manning roughness coefficient[1]. See also Chézy macropore. A pore with dimensions such equation; Froude number; Reynolds that capillary forces become less number. important during flow[16]. manometer. A pressure measuring device magnesian limestone. Common but loose for determining the hydraulic head [16] synonym for dolomitic limestone or developed by a flowing fluid . dolomite rock. The magnesian limestone of northern England is a rock sequence of mantled karst. Karst topography that is Permian age that includes a locally wholly or partly covered by a relatively variable number of beds of dolomitic thin veneer of post-karst rock or sediment limestone[9]. and is part of the contemporary landscape[17]. See also buried karst; [11] covered karst. magnesite. A cave mineral — MgCO3 .

magnetic north. The direction to the north marble. 1. Metamorphosed and magnetic pole at a given place and time. recrystallized carbonate rock that is This differs from the direction towards generally capable of supporting cave which the north end of a compass points development. For example much of the by a small individual compass error and Antro del Corchia in Italy and many caves by the effect of any local magnetic in the South Nordland area of Norway [9] attraction[25]. have formed in marble . 2. Limestone recrystallized and hardened by heat and malachite. A cave mineral — pressure. 3. Commercially, any limestone [11] that will take a high polish[10]. Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 .

mammals. The class of animals that marine relict. An animal whose presently includes bats, mice, man, and many extinct ancestors lived in salt water but others. They typically have a body became adapted to life in fresh water covering of hair and give birth to living

118 when an area formerly covered by the sea massive structure. A homogenous became dry land[23]. structure without any oriented features[16].

marine water. Ocean water having invaded master cave. Best defined as a low level coastal aquifers[16]. trunk streamway cave with many tributaries. The old concept of the master marginal polje. 1. Flat plain surrounded by cave being formed at the water table higher limestone country on all except should be disregarded. The Leck Fell one side which consists of impermeable Master Cave, in the Yorkshire Dales, is ridges or hills. Such a feature is normally 2km long, partly a vadose canyon, partly a found on the edge of a karst area or drained phreatic tube and partly a region[20]. 2. Flat limestone plain which is submerged tube. Part of it therefore lies surrounded by higher country but is below the water table while elsewhere its bordered on one side by impervious presence controls the water table. The rock[10]. Synonyms: (French.) polje French equivalent, ‘collecteur’, is more marginal; (German.) Randpolje, descriptive of the master cave’s true role. Semipolje; (Greek.) perithoriakón ‘polje’; The depth to a currently active master (Italian.) polje marginale; (Spanish.) cave is dictated by interactions between polje marginal; (Turkish.) kenar gölova; local topography, stratigraphical factors (Yugoslavian.) rubno polje, robno polje. and geological structure. In the low hill See Randpolje. Compare blind valley. karst of England and Kentucky, active master caves lie at depths of around marker bed. A bed with characteristic 100m, but in Monte Canin, Italy, and the features that can be followed over large Hautla Plateau, Mexico, they lie at depths areas for identification purposes[16]. of 1000m. The collecteur of the Gouffre Berger, France, is met just 250m down marl. Unconsolidated sedimentary rock but can be followed to a depth of over consisting largely of calcium carbonate 1000m, down the dipping limestone beds, and clay; usage varies from calcareous thus emphasizing the local dominance of clay to earthy limestone, and in some stratigraphical over topographical parts of the United States, the term has factors[9]. been used for any unconsolidated sedimentary rock containing fossil shells[10]. match point. A common point in the superposition of a type curve over mass curve. A graph of cumulative values measured data in aquifer test analyses. of a hydrological quantity against time[16]. matric potential. The energy required to mass density. Mass per unit volume of a extract water from a porous medium to substance[16]. overcome the capillary and adsorptive forces[22]. mass flowmeter. A measuring device for mass flow rates[16].

119 matrix. The solid framework of a porous mean value. The statistical average or system[22]. measure of central tendency[16].

maximum basin relief. The elevation meander. 1. Overdeveloped and self- difference between basin mouth and exaggerated bend is a stream course either highest point within a basin perimeter[16]. on the surface or underground, caused by more erosion on the outside than on the maze cave. A cave with an essentially inside of a bend due to natural wash of horizontal network of interconnecting and the flow. Undergound meanders mainly contemporaneous passage loops. commonly originate within bedding plane Three broad types of maze cave have guided elements of the phreas, where a been described — anastomotic, network single dominant tube has gathered and spongework — and these may be drainage from the surrounding area. subdivided on the basis of how they Following uplift and the onset of vadose developed by slow-moving water, conditions any stream that utilizes the restricted to a confined, artesian aquifer, meandering tube incises rapidly and the or by water that is ponded due to imposed meander course is entrenched backflooding. A mechanism of into the underlying rocks. Such incision potentially great importance, particularly or entrenchment produces characteristic in the context of the inception of network tall, narrow, twisting vadose canyons, to maze caves, is multiple, diffuse input such an extent that the French describe from adjacent, permeable but non- them as ‘meandres’. Canyons may cavernous rocks. Spectacular joint- meander more at their lower levels, due to guided maze caves such as Knock Fell enlargement during incision[9]. 2. A loop- Caverns and the Devis Hole Mine like bend in a river due to lateral erosion Caverns occur in the thin Yoredale activities[16]. 3. In a cave, an arcuate limestones of the northern Pennines, but curve in a channel formed by lateral the most extensive mazes are in the Black shifting of a cave stream[10]. See ceiling Hills of Dakota, USA (including Jewel meander; meander niche. Cave) and in the Ukrainian gypsum karst (including Optimisticeskaja)[9]. See also meander belt. A zone within which maze cave pattern. meandering of a stream occurs[16]. maze cave pattern. A cave system which meandering karren. These are small consists of a labyrinth of intersecting grooves cut directly into the rock surface, passages of rather uniform character that generally a few centimeters wide and form closed loops. See also anastomotic deep. Their size remains the same or cave pattern; maze cave; network cave decreases downslope and usually exhibit pattern; spongework cave pattern. small meanders with typical undercut slopes and slip-off slopes. They mean deviation. A linear mean of absolute frequently appear in the bottom of larger deviations[16]. grooves such as rinnenkarren[3]. See also

120 wall karren; humus-water grooves. medium sand. Grain particle with a Synonym: (German.) Mäanderkarren. diameter of 0.25 to o.5 mm[16].

meander niche. A conical or crescent-• Meinzer unit. A measure of hydraulic shaped opening in the wall of a cave, conductivity as gpd/ft2 under a unit formed by the downward and lateral hydraulic gradient[16]. erosion of a stream on the floor of a passage[10]. melanterite. A cave mineral — [11] FeSO47H2O . measuring flume. An artificial channel used for discharge measurements. melting. The passage from the solid to the liquid state due to temperature measuring weir. A device used to measure increases[16]. flow rates indirectly through a weir head. melting point. The temperature at which a mechanical ascender. A mechanical device solid substance is transformed into its that is the same as an ascender, but is liquid state[16]. used to clarify the use of a mechanical device instead of a rope ascender knot[13]. meltwater. Water derived from the melting See also ascender. of snow pack or of a glacier[16].

mechanical cover. A mechanical covering meniscus. A free surface or interface of a free water surface to prevent formed by liquid in a capillary tube[16]. evaporation. column. A cylindrical bore in a mechanical dispersion. The process manometer filled with mercury[16]. whereby solutes are mechanically mixed during advective transport caused by the mercury injection method. A velocity variations at the microscopic measurement of porosity by mercury level. Synonymous with hydraulic injection into a sample[16]. dispersion[22]. merokarst. 1. Defined by Cvijie to indicate mechanical dispersion, coefficient. The imperfect karst topography as found on component of mass transport flux of thin, impure, or chalky limestone where solutes caused by velocity variations at surface drainage and dry valleys are the microscopic level. Synonymous with present in addition to some karstic fea• convective diffusion[22]. tures[10]. 2. Karst developed in soluble rocks retaining considerable surface median. A value dividing frequency of drainage. Synonyms: (French.) varieties into two equal portions[16]. merokarst; (Turkish.) yar karst. Contrast perfectly formed Holokarst. medicinal spring. See spring, medicinal. Compare causse.

121 mesh. 1. An opening in a sieve screen[16]. 2. microclimate. "Little climate." The Number of openings per inch[16]. environmental conditions, such as temperature; humidity, and air movement, mesophyte. A plant growing under in a very restricted area, such as a intermediate moisture conditions[16]. sheltered nook in a cave wall[23].

metabolic rate. The rate at which a living microgour. Miniature rimstone dams with thing transforms food into energy and associated tiny pools of the order of 1cm body tissue. The higher its metabolic wide and deep on flowstone[25]. rate, the more food it must consume. Most cave animals live at a reduced microhabitat. A miniature habitat within a metabolic rate[23]. larger one; a restricted area where environmental conditions differ from metabolism. The sum of the chemical those in the surrounding area. A sheltered activities taking place in the cells of a nook in a cave wall is an example of a living thing; the sum of the processes by microhabitat within the cave[23]. which a living thing transforms food into energy and living tissue[23]. microkarren. Very small dissolutional channels, commonly 1–3mm across; metamorphosis. A change in the form of a parallel, convergent or randomly living thing as it matures, especially the intersecting on a limestone surface. drastic transformation from a larva to an Though found in all climatic regions they adult[23]. See also pupa. are most conspicuous in semi-arid and periglacial environments, where meteoric water. Water recently involved in dissolutional processes are minimal and atmospheric circulation[16]. very slow. The random patterns of some microkarren may be due to the effects of meteorology. The science dealing with all condensation water[9]. physical phenomena occurring in the atmosphere[16]. microkarst. 1. Karst area with small morphological features. Term is not mexican onyx. See onyx marble. easily applied because it lacks limits[20]. 2. Karst topography in which all surficial micrite. A microscopic texture. An features are small; an area dominated by abbreviation of ‘microcrystalline calcite minor karst features[10]. Compare ooze’ which refers to precipitated finely macrokarst. crystalline carbonate sediments in grains from 1 to 4 microns in diameter[20]. microspar. A microscopic texture. Mosaic Synonyms: (French.) micrite; (Greek.) of tiny (4 to 10 micron diameters) clear micrite; (Italian.) micrite; (Spanish.) calcite crystal[20]. Synonyms: (French.) micrita; (Turkish.) mikrit; (Yugoslavian.) microsparite; (Greek.) mikrosparítis mikrit. See biomicrite, peloid. (mikroskopikón, mosaikón kristállon);

122 (Italian.) microsparite; (Spanish.) The resultant mixture is undersaturated microesparita; (Turkish.) mikrospar. and capable of further calcite dissolution, because the relationship between calcite middens. Accumulations of animal solubility and carbon dioxide partial droppings other than guano and often pressure is non-linear[9]. found in caves; may be solidified[13]. See also cave guano; guano cave; coprolite. miscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are mutually soluble (i.e. they will dissolve migration. The movement of water, in each other[22]. 2. The chemical property contaminants, or other fluids in the of two or more phases that, when brought geologic substratum, mostly by natural together, have the ability to mix and form causes[16]. one phase[22]. mine drainage. Waters coming from or miscible displacement. 1. The mutual passing through surface or subsurface mixing and movement of two fluids that mine workings[16]. are soluble in each other[22]. 2. The displacement of a fluid saturating a mine water. Water accumulating in a mine. porous medium by another fluid completely miscible with the first fluid[16]. minerals. Mineral components of a rock, Synonymous with miscible-phase often in macrocrystalline form[16]. displacement.

mineral spring. See spring, mineral. mixing length. The length over which mixing occurs, especially of momentum mining of ground water. The permanent in turbulent flow[16]. depletion of ground-water reserves[16]. mixture corrosion. See minor karst features. See karren; rill; Mischungskorrosion. solution pan. mode. The most frequently occurring mirabilite. The natural white mineral form variate in a frequency distribution[16]. of hydrated sodium sulfate, [9] Na2SO410H2O , which may grow as model. 1. A conceptual, mathematical, or cave flowers or in various other forms physical system obeying certain specified similar to those of gypsum. conditions, whose behavior is used to understand the physical system to which Mischungskorrosion. (German.) it is analogous in someway[22]. 2. A Dissolution of calcite (and hence of conceptual description and the associated limestone) by ground water that is derived mathematical representation of a system, from the mixing of two different waters subsystem, components, or condition that that were originally saturated with carbon is used to predict chances from a baseline dioxide but had reached saturation under state as a function of internal and/or differing carbon dioxide partial pressures. external stimuli and as a function of time

123 and space[22]. 3. A simplified system moisture equivalent. The percentage of bearing some physical similarity to a water retained in a soil sample 1 cm thick prototype[16]. after it has been saturated and subjected to a centrifugal force 1000 times gravity model technique. A method of solving for 30 min. Centrifuge moisture complex physical problems through the equivalent is the water content of a soil application of simplified models[16]. after it has been saturated with water and then subjected for 1 hour to a force equal mogote. A steep-sided hill of limestone, to 1000 times that of gravity[22]. generally surrounded by nearly flat alluviated plains: karst inselberg. Orig• moisture tension. The equivalent negative inally used in Cuba in referring to pressure of water in an unsaturated porous residual hills of folded limestone in the medium equal to the pressure that must be Sierra de los Organos but now used applied to the medium to bring the water internationally for karst residual hills in to hydraulic equilibrium through a porous the Tropics[10]. Differs from cone, cupola, permeable material with a pool of water pinnacle and tower karst in its shape of the same composition. Synonym: which reflects its karstification history[20]. capillary tension[22]. Synonyms: (French.) mogote; (German.) (Karstinselberg), Mogote; (Greek.) moisture volume percentage. The ratio of ‘moghotis’ (apókrimnos, asvestólofos the volume of water in a soil to the total perikliómenos apó proschomatikas bulk volume of the soil[22]. pediadas); (Italian.) mogote, rilievo carsico residuo; (Spanish.) mogote; moisture weight percentage. The moisture (Turkish.) karst kalnt tepesi; content expressed as a percentage of the (Yugoslavian.) hum. See also hum; karst oven-dry weight of a soil[22]. inselberg; pepino hill. mold. A microscopic form of fungus moisture content. 1. The ratio; expressed responsible for much food spoilage and, as a percentage, of either (a) the weight of in caves, for conspicuous tufts quickly water to the weight of solid particles covering scats, dead insects and bats, and expressed as moisture weight percentage even wooden structures such as or (b) the volume of water to the volume ladders[23]. of solid particles expressed as moisture volume percentage in a given volume of molecular diffusion (diffusion.) The porous medium[22]. 2. The gravimetric process whereby solutes are transported at water vapor content of air[16]. See also the microscopic level due to variations in water content. the solute concentrations within the fluid phases[22]. The kinetic energy generated moisture deficiency. The quantity of water by the transport of ionic or molecular required to restore moisture to field constituents results in some dispersion of capacity in a desiccated soil[16]. a chemical.

124 molecular diffusion, coefficient of. The caverns. When in suspension, they give component of mass transport flux of the water the appearance of milk. Name solutes (at the microscopic level) due to originated in 1714 by M. B. Valentini variations in solute concentrations within (Fénelon)[20]. 3. Moonmilk consists of a the fluid phases. Synonymous with variety of hydrocarbonates some of which diffusion coefficient[22]. are associated with particular species of bacteria. A common mineral in molecule. A stable configuration of atomic moonmilk from temperate caves is nuclei and electrons bound together by hydromagnesite; cold caves yield electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. moonmilk of calcite after hydrocalcite[20]. It is the simplest structural unit that Synonyms: (French.) mondmilch; displays the characteristic physical and (German.) Bergmilch, Montmilch; chemical properties of a compound[6]. (Greek.) speleogala; (Italian.) latte di monte; (Russian.) kamennce moloko; mollisol. A soil layer subject annual (Spanish.) mondmilch, leche de luna; thawing and freezing, often becoming (Turkish.) dik karstik kalnt; mobile upon thawing[16]. (Yugoslavian.) gorsko mlijeko (mleko). Also mountain milk. [11] monetite. A cave mineral — CaHPO4 . moor. A wet peat bog[16]. monohydrocalcite. A cave mineral — [11] CaCO3H2O . . The French word for ‘mil’, moulin has been used to describe partially monomolecular film. A layer of dissolutional, partially scoured pockets monomolecular thickness of a polar cut in rock, particularly the potholes substance spread over a free water surface formed in the beds of surface and to prevent evaporation. underground streams. In some areas sinkholes in the surface of glaciers, which montgomeryite. A cave mineral — may provide access to glacier caves, are [11] [9] Ca4MgAl4(PO4)6(OH)412H2O . also referred to as moulins .

montmorillonite. A clay mineral mountain milk. See moonmilk. containing magnesium oxide (MgO) in its structure[16]. moraine. A mound, ridge, or other distinct accumulation of unsorted, unstratified moonmilk. 1. A white plastic calcareous glacial drift, predominantly till, deposited cave deposit composed of calcite, huntite, chiefly by direct action of glacier ice[6]. or magnesite. From Swiss dialect moon- milch, elf’s milk. Corrupt spelling morphometric analysis. A geodetic and mondmilch is common[10]. 2. Deposits geometric description of basin and stream consisting mainly of very fine particles of network or to a sinkhole plain[16]. calcium and magnesium carbonate precipitated from water in caves and

125 mud. Water saturated fine clayey earth My. See Ma. material[16]. mud crack. Desiccation cracks appearing in drying mud surfaces due to shrinkage[16].

mud pendulite. A pendulite with the knob coated in mud[25].

mud stalagmite. 1. Stalagmitic column made of mud or clay with about 30% calcium carbonate cement. There may be some coarse noncalcareous detritus in the core of such a column[20]. 2. Stalagmite composed principally of clay or sandy clay and commonly less than 30% calcium carbonate[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalagmite d’argile; (German.) Stalagmit aus Tonschlamm; (Greek.) pilostagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite di fango; (Spanish.) ostalagmita de barro; (Turkish.) çamur dikiti. Related to stalagmite.

mudflow. A flow of water saturated unconsolidated debris[16]. multiaquifer formation. A formation with several aquifers overlying each other[16].

multiaquifer well. A well completed and tapping several aquifers[16]. mutation. A sudden change in the genetic material of an organism's germ cells, resulting in offspring that possess characteristics markedly different from those of either parent. Mutations generally are harmful, but occasionally may improve an organism’s chances for survival[23]. See also adaptation; evolution.

126 N (Turkish.) ayiz geçit; (Yugoslavian.) sutjeska, klisura, soteska. Nackter karst. (German.) See exposed karst. native ground water. Original ground water[16]. Nacktkarst. (German.) See exposed karst. . 1. A residual portion of the naked karst, bare karst. Karst topography roof of a subsurface karst cavity which developed beneath a temporary cover. has not collapsed. Such a natural arch Some naked karsts develop beneath a may occur as a surface topographic [20] temporary cover of snow (nival karst) or feature, or as a part of a cave system . water[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst nu; 2. A rock arch or very short natural (German.) oberflächlicher nackter Karst; tunnel; contrasted with natural bridge, [10] (Greek.) gymnon karst; (Italian.) carso which spans a ravine or valley . nudo; (Russian.) goly karst or otkryty Synonyms: (French.) arche naturelle; karst; (Spanish.) karst desnudo; (German.) natürlisches Gewölbe, (Turkish.) çplak karst; (Yugoslavian.) Naturbrücke, Felsfenster, Felsbrücke; goli krš. See also exposed karst. (Greek.) physike apsitha; (Italian.) arco naturale; (Russian.) estestvennij arka; NAPL. Abbreviation for nonaqueous phase (Spanish.) arco natural; (Turkish.) do{al liquid. This term is used to describe the kemer; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni svod, luk, physico- chemical that exist between a naravni obok. See also natural bridge. bulk hydrocarbon and water which results in the two liquids being immiscible with natural bridge. 1. A residual portion of the one another (i.e. little or no mixing of the roof of a subterranean stream which has two liquids occurs.) The interface is a not collapsed and is found bridging a physical dividing surface between the valley. Normally a surface feature, but bulk phases of the two liquids. NAPLs may be used to describe a similar [20] are divided into two categories; LNAPLs occurrence in a cave system . 2. A rock and DNAPLs. See also DNAPL; bridge spanning a ravine and not yet [10] immiscible; LNAPL. eroded away . Synonyms: (French.) pont naturel; (German.) Naturbrücke, nari. Term used in the countries bordering Felsbrücke; (Greek.) physiki gefyra; the Eastern Mediterranean for caliche or (Italian.) ponte naturale; (Russian.) hardpan[20]. See caliche, sabath. estestvennij most; (Spanish.) puente natural; (Turkish.) do{al köprü; narrow. A passage of restricted width (Yugoslavian.) prirodni most, naravni between two caves or hollows in the karst most. See also natural arch. underground; often not readily traversable[20]. Synonyms: (French.) natural levee. A river bank raised by the [16] étroiture; (German.) Enge; (Greek.) steno river’s own depositions . perasma; (Italian.) strettoia; (Russian.) laz; (Spanish.) laminador, gatera;

127 natural load. Sediment carried by a stable neptunian deposits. Younger sediment or stream[16]. sedimentary rock that infills pre-existing cavities, such as grikes, dolines or cave natural tunnel. A nearly horizontal cave passages, in older rocks. The most open at both ends, generally fairly straight common form is a fissure fill, known as a in direction and fairly uniform in cross neptunian dike. Neptunian deposits section[10]. occupy voids in non-karstic as well as karstic rocks, and the combination of void natural water. Water with a mineral and fill may subsequently be buried by content occurring under natural still younger rocks. They may thus conditions. become part of a paleokarst[9].

natural well. (Jamaican.) A vertical shaft nesquehonite. A cave mineral — [11] in limestone, open to the surface and Mg(HCO3)(OH)2H2O . having water at the bottom; similar to a cenote[10]. Synonym: (Italian.) pozzo nested sinkholes. (American.) See uvala. carsico. net radiation. The sum of incident and neck. A filled with lava[16]. reflected sun and sky shortwave radiation plus incident and reflected atmospheric necrophage. A scavenger feeding on long-wave radiation[16]. animal carcasses (not prey)[25]. network cave pattern. A type of maze neomorphism. A microscopic texture. A cave characterized by a complex pattern complex of processes whereby a mosaic of repeatedly connected passages in a of finely crystalline carbonate is replaced cave system. In map view, this type of by a coarser (sparry) mosaic without the maze cave appears similar to a city street development of visible porosity. map. It is typically formed by Dominant reactions are the wet solutionally aggressive water infiltrating transformation of aragonite to calcite and through fractures in an overlying recrystallization. The process is insoluble cap-rock thus exhibiting a joint- ‘porphyroid’ where some of the controlled pattern. Synonym: labyrinth. neomorphic crystals are conspicuously larger than those which surround them[20]. neutrality point. The separation point Synonyms: (French.) néomorphisme; between acid and basic solution with a pH (German.) Neomorphismus ?; (Greek.) of 7.0[16]. neomorphismós; (Spanish.) neomorfismo; (Turkish.) neomorfizm. neuromast. One of the individual sense organs that make up the lateral line neoteny. The condition of retaining larval systems of fishes and amphibians[23]. See form and behavior even as a mature also cupula. individual. Certain salamanders in particular are neotenic[23].

128 nife cell. A rechargeable alkaline battery for nodule. A small, irregularly rounded knot, use with an electric-cap lamp[25]. mass, or lump of a mineral or mineral aggregate, normally having a warty or nip. An undercutting notch in rock, knobby surface and no internal structure, particularly limestone, along a seacoast and usually exhibiting a contrasting between high and low levels along composition from the enclosing sediment sea coasts and produced by solution and or rock matrix in which it is embedded erosion. Most common along coasts with (e.g. a chert nodule in limestone.) Most limited tidal variation[20]. Synonyms: nodules appear to be secondary structures (French.) resserrement, étranglement; in sedimentary rocks they are primarily (German.) Kliff ?, Brandungsmarke; the result of post depositional (Greek.) káto engopí vráchou; (Italian.) replacement of the rock and are solco di battigia; (Spanish.) socavación commonly elongated parallel to the marina; (Turkish.) dalga yar{ çenti{i. bedding. Nodules can be separated as discrete masses from the host material[1]. nisa. See aisle. noethphreatic flow. A type of conduit flow niter. A white orthorhombic mineral — that is always laminar[9].

KNO3. It is a soluble crystalline salt that occurs as a product of nitrification in nominal. Used to describe standard sizes 1 most arable soils in hot, dry regions, and for pipe from /8 inch to 12 inches (3.2 in the loose earth forming the floors of mm to 304 mm.) The nominal size is some natural caves[1]. Synonyms: specified on the basis of the inside saltpeter; potassium nitrate. diameter. Depending on the wall thickness, the inside diameter may be less [11] nitrammite. A cave mineral — NH4NO3 . than or greater than the number indicated[6]. nitrocalcite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca(NO3)24H2O . nongraded. An engineering term pertaining to a soil or an unconsolidated sediment nitromagnesite. A cave mineral — consisting of particles of essentially the [11] [6] Mg(NO3)26H2O . same size . nival karst. Alpine karst[1]. non-point source. 1. Any source, other than a point source, which discharges nivo-karst. A karst-like topography pollutants into air or water[22]. 2. Source produced by the differential chemical originating over broad areas, such as areas weathering beneath snowbanks from of fertilizer and pesticide application and snowmelt containing carbonic acid. It is leaking sewer systems, rather than from found mostly in periglacial areas[1]. discrete points[22]. node point. The intersection point on a non-recording gage. A standard rain gage grid[16]. (8 is standard in U.S.)[16].

129 normal depth. The depth at which uniform flow occurs in an open channel[16]. normal fault. A fault in which the upper block appears to have moved downward relative to the lower block.

Northing. 1. The distance of a point north of the point of origin of the grid of a map, or some abbreviation of it. 2. The south-north component of a survey leg, or of a series of legs, or of a complete traverse; north is positive and south is negative[25]. nothephreatic. Referring to water moving slowly in cavities in the phreatic zone[25]. numbering. Assigning an alphanumeric index to a cave entrance[25].

130 O onyx marble. Translucent layers of calcium carbonate from cave deposits, often called oasis. A limited area in a desert supplied Mexican onyx or cave onyx; used as an [10] with water[16]. ornamental stone . obruk. Turkish form for a vertical or oolite. A type of limestone that is composed steepsided depression or shaft in karst, largely or partly of ooliths. Also known often formed by collapse of roof of an as oolitic limestone. The best known underground cave or cavern. When the examples in Britain, within the Jurassic depression contains a lake of pond, it is limestone sequence of the Cotswolds, are known as ‘sulu obruk’ or ‘obruk gölü’. of only moderate strength, very porous When it is dry, it is called ‘kuru obruk’ or and only weakly cavernous. In contrast, just ‘obruk’. Synonyms: (French.) obruk; oolites of early Carboniferous age have (German.) Schlot; (Greek.) ‘obruk’ hosted extensive cave development (káthetos karstikós lákkos); (Italian.) beneath Mymydd Llangattwg and in other pozzo carsico; (Spanish.) torca; parts of South Wales[9]. (Turkish.) obruk; (Yugoslavian.) jama. See cenote, dolina, jama, pit, shaft, oolith. A small ovoid to spherical sinkhole. accretionary particle, usually composed of concentric layers of calcium carbonate. obsequent river. A river flowing in a Such ooliths, cemented together by direction opposite to that of the dip of the calcium carbonate, iron salts or other underlying strata[16]. minerals, are the major constituent of oolite or oolitic limestone[9]. observation well. A well drilled for the purpose of observations such as water oolitic. Of spherical or ovoidal shape[16]. level or pressure recordings[16]. [11] . A cave mineral — SiO2nH2O . oceanic water. Sea water with a total salt content of about 34,500 ppm[16]. open system. A system where matter and energy may cross a system boundary[16]. ojo, ojo de agua. (Spanish.) An artesian spring in limestone regions, especially open traverse. A traverse which does not one forming a small pond; a vauclusian close onto a survey point of known spring[10]. coordinates and orientation or onto itself[25]. olivenite. A cave mineral — [11] Cu2(AsO4)(OH) . Opferkessel. See solution pan.

omnivore. An animal that habitually eats optical brighteners. Material contained in both plants and animals[23]. See also laundry detergents to make ‘whites carnivore; herbivore; insectivore. whiter’ and used in environmental tracing studies. Common types are, Tinopal

131 CBS-X, Tinopal 5BM GX, and Phorwite the observer. 4. Directional arrangement BBH Pure. Dye type: Stilbene. See also of nonspherical grains in a sand fluorescent dyes. aggregate[16].

ore karst. Formation of interstices, caverns original dip. Dip due to deposition of caves and other karst forms produced by sediments[16]. solution in water from thermal springs and ore-bearing solutions[20]. Synonyms: original interstice. Interstice formed during (French.) karst minier; (German.) rock formation stage[16]. Zwischenräume, Kavernen, Höhlen im Karst, gebildet durch Thermalwässer orographic precipitation. Precipitation oder erzhaltige Lösungen; (Greek.) due to mechanical lifting of air over a thermometallikon karst; (Italian.) ground relief[16]. carsismo per dissoluzione idrotermale; (Russian.) rudnij karst; (Spanish.) karst orthogonal. Perpendicular. termomineral; (Turkish.) cevher karst; (Yugoslavian.) rudni krs (kras). otkry karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.

organic. Pertaining to anything that is or oulopholite. See cave flower. ever was alive or produced by a living plant or animal. Organic material brought outcrop. An open exposure of bedrock or into the cave from outside is virtually the otherwise buried material[16]. only source of food for cave dwellers[23]. outflow cave. Cave from which stream organic deposit. Deposits of calcareous and flows out or formerly did so[10]. [16] siliceous remains of animals . Synonym: effluent cave. organic pollution. Contamination outlet cave. A cave developed at the point [16] originating from organic sources . of re-emergence of an underground karst watercourse[19]. orientation. 1. The assignment or imposition of a definite direction in output point. A point where water exists space; the act of establishing the correct from an underground drainage route or relationship in direction, usually with aquifer. An obvious output point is a reference to the points of the compass. surface resurgence or exsurgence, where Also, the of being in such relationship. 2. drainage emerges from a conduit system. In describing crystal form and symmetry, Less obvious are points where drainage the placing of the crystal so that its leaves a carbonate aquifer and enters an crystallographic axes are in the adjacent non-carbonate bed, such as a conventional position. 3. The direction sandstone aquifer[9]. in which an aerial photograph is turned with respect to observer or map. A single outwash. Stratified sand and gravel photo is best oriented for study when removed or washed out from a glacier by turned so that the shadows are cast toward

132 meltwater streams and deposited in front oxbow. Abandoned loop of a stream course, of or beyond the end moraine or the Original usage, applied to surface rivers, margin of an active glacier. The coarser describes short-circuited meander loops material is deposited nearer to the ice[6]. but in caves the term is applied to dry loop passages of any shape and origin[9]. outwash gravel. Glacial drift material deposited by streams from a glacier[16]. oxidation. The combining of an element with oxygen[6]. . Plain in front of a glacier that is composed of outwash material[16]. oxygen demand. The ability of substances A broad, gently sloping sheet of to utilize dissolved oxygen in water. outwash[6].

ouvala. (French.) See uvala.

oven-dry. The degree of dryness of a porous sample after drying in an oven at a specified temperature[16].

overbank area. An area covered by flood waters overtopping natural or artificial river banks[16]. overburden. 1. The loose soil, sand, silt, or clay that overlies bedrock. In some usages it refers to all material overlying the point of interest. 2. The total cover of soil and rock overlying an underground excavation. overburden pressure. The pressure exerted by weight of the overburden column[16]. overflow spring. See spring, overflow. overland flow. Surface runoff flowing over the land surface towards a channel[16].

overthrust. Upthrust fault with a very low angle of dip and a relatively large net displacement[16].

133 P formed by the effects of karst erosion. The presence of a paleokarstic surface packing. The three-dimensional indicates that during the deposition of the arrangement of particles[16]. full rock sequence the young rocks were exposed to the effects of surface (sub- pahoehoe. (Hawaiian.) Lava flows with a aerial) erosion. During such a non- smooth or billowy surface in which lava depositional and erosional phase a full tubes are found[13]. See also lava cave; suite of karst features, including caves, [9] pseudokarst. could develop . paleokarst. 1. A karstified rock or area that paleomagnetism. Natural remanent has been buried by later sediments; in magnetization preserved in rock some places, ancient caves have been sequences. During rock deposition completely filled by the later magnetic minerals are aligned according sediments[10]. 2. A decoupled to the direction and polarity of the earth’s contemporary system that has contemporary magnetic field. After experienced tectonic subsidence and lie movement of the magnetic poles, or unconformably beneath clastic cover periodic reversals of polarity, the rocks, occasionally becoming exhumed remanent magnetization is preserved in and re-integrated into the active the rocks and may be measured to aid system[17]. 3. A karst formed in the past identification of stratigraphical units and [9] under an earlier erosion cycle and often in to assess their relative ages . remote geological times. The karst is preserved by burial or suspension of . The study of life in past karstification processes[20]. 4. A karstified geologic time, based fossil plants and surface and the karst features associated animals and including phylogeny, their with it, such as caves, that have been relationships to existing plants, animals, buried by younger rocks. Paleokarstic and environments, and the chronology of [1] features at various scales may be the Earth’s history . recognized within most carbonate successions. More rarely they may be re- palette. In a cave, a more or less flat exposed (exhumed) by the effects of later protruding sheet of crystalline calcium uplift and erosion[9]. Synonyms: (French.) carbonate spared during solution of the paléokarst; (German.) Paläokarst, rock on each side of it[10]. See also blade; foßiler Karst; (Greek.) paleokarst; shield. Synonym: shield. (Italian.) paleocarsismo, carsismo fossile; (Russian.) paleokarst; (Spanish.) palygorskite. A cave mineral — [11] paleokarst; (Turkish.) eski karst; (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)4H2O . (Yugoslavian.) paleokr³, paleokras, paleokarst. See also buried karst. pan coefficient. Coefficient to correlate a high rate of evaporation in a pan to an paleokarstic surface. A surface, preserved evaporation rate from larger water within a carbonate succession, that was bodies[16].

134 panhole. See solution pan. particle. The smallest individual constituent of an aggregate[16]. paragenesis. A type of cave passage development in which erosion of the particulate transport. The movement of passage floor is inhibited by the presence particles in subsurface water[22]. of an armoring layer of sediment, such that any dissolutional enlargement is parting. The separation of sedimentary dominantly upwards[9]. Generally, an rock along bedding planes[16]. Synonyms: unproven and unsupported theory. bedding-plane; bedding-plane parting. See also bedding plane. paragenetic cave. Cave passage, usually of canyon form, believed to be created by partition. 1. A nearly vertical residual rock paragenesis. Passage formation by mass in a cave. 2. A continuous rock paragenesis is normally very difficult to span across a cave[10]. prove, as later sediment removal leaves a passage that looks very similar to the far partitioning function. A mathematical more common vadose canyon. It is relation describing the distribution of a thought that some of the larger canyons in reactive solute between solution and other the Flint Mammoth Cave System, USA, phases[22]. may have formed in this way[9]. . parts per million. An expression of parahopeite. A cave mineral — concentration (ppm.) The weight per [11] [16] Zn3(PO4)24H2O . weight of a solution . paraphreatic. A paraphreatic passage has passage. 1. Broadly, a passage is any an air surface under relatively low flow negotiable part of cave system, though the conditions, when drainage is within the usage is commonly restricted to those capacity of its downstream continuation, elements that tend towards the horizontal but reverts to being water-filled (phreatic) rather than vertical or sub-vertical under conditions of high flow or when the sections. Cave passages very in size and downstream drainage is temporarily shape, with the latter relating to the mode impeded[9]. of origin and providing evidence of the nature of cave development mechanisms. parent material. Material from which soil Perhaps the largest passage in the world is or sediment was formed[16]. , which is up to 170m wide and 120m high, in the Mulu karst of parietal . Pertaining to the Sarawak[9]. 2. A comparatively small inhabitants on the walls of the entrance underground opening made along and twilight zones of a cave[23]. fractures, fissures, and bedding-plane partings by running water but through park. (Arizona.) Shallow broad solution which it is possible to pass[20]. 3. In a depression[10]. cave, the opening between rooms or chambers[10]. Synonyms: (French.)

135 galerie; (German.) Gallerie, Stollen; pearl. See cave pearl. (Greek.) ypohios thiothos; (Italian.) cunicolo, galleria; (Russian.) hod; pediment. An inclined erosion surface (Spanish.) galeria; (Turkish.) geçit; covered with thin fluvial deposits[16]. (Yugoslavian.) galerija. See also chamber; room. pendulite. A kind of stalactite which has been partly submerged[25]. pathogenic bacteria. Disease inducing bacteria[16]. and the submerged part covered with dog-tooth spar to give the appearance of a pavement. See limestone pavement. drumstick. peat. Decomposed matter, mainly pellicular water. 1. The film of water left vegetable[16]. around each grain or fracture surface of water-bearing material after gravity pebble. A smooth rounded rock drainage[22]. 2. Water of-adhesion[22]. 3. fragment[16]. Water that can be extracted by root absorption and evaporation but cannot be Péclet number. 1. measure of the relative moved by gravity or by the unbalanced contribution of mechanical dispersion and film forces resulting from localized diffusion to solute transport. It relates the evaporation and transpiration[22]. effectiveness of mass transport by  vx ∂C ∂C   − = − P  peloid. A microscopic texture. A advection  ∂ e ∂  to the D x x sedimentary grain composed of micrite effectiveness of mass transport by either carbonate irrespective of origin[20].  ∂ 2C   P =  dispersion or diffusion  e ∂x2  . Péclet Synonyms: (French.) peloïde; (German.) mikroskopisches, sedimentäres Gefüge; numbers below 0.4 indicate (Greek.) piloidís; (Italian.) peloide; diffusion/dispersion control; 0.4–6.0 (Spanish.) peloide; (Turkish.) peloit. suggest that diffusion/dispersion and See micrite, pelsparite. advection are in transition and thus approximately equal to each other; and pelsparite. A microscopic texture. A >6.0 indicate advection control. Large limestone composed of pellets (peloids) Péclet numbers indicate strongly in a matrix of cement[20]. Synonyms: advective systems. 2. A relationship (French.) pelsparite; (German.) between the advective and diffusive Pelsarite, Kalkstein gefügt aus components of solute transport expressed Kügelchen ?; (Greek.) pelsparítis; as the ratio of the product of the average (Italian.) pelsparite; (Spanish.) interstitial velocity, times the pelsparita; (Turkish.) pelsparit. See characteristic length, divided by the peloids. coefficient of molecular diffusion. Small values indicate diffusion dominance, pendant, rock pendant. One of a group of large values indicate advection isolated similarly proportioned dominance[22].

136 projections surrounded by a complex of rock. It may be either temporary or connected cavities in the bedrock ceiling permanent. of a cave[10]. Formed by the rapid, differential solution of the surrounding percolate. To flow through saturated void rock[19]. space[16]. The act of water seeping or filtering through soil or rock without a pendular regime. A saturation regime definite channel[6]. where a porous medium has the lowest possible saturation in the form of percolation; percolation water. 1. Ground pendular rings at grain contacts[16]. water moving slowly through the micro- fissure network of a limestone, most of peneplain. A degradation surface without which eventually joins a major cave relief[16]. conduit and flows more rapidly. In most environments percolation water enters the pen trace. Ink, magnetic, or photographic limestone through a soil cover. It is line traced on the drum of a recording therefore high in carbon dioxide and has a gage or meter[16]. major influence on limestone dissolution and later redeposition of calcite pepino hill. (Puerto Rican.) 1. Rounded or speleothems. Percolation water accounts conical-shaped hill resulting from tropical for most of the storage in a limestone humid karst action. Term generally aquifer, responds slowly to flooding in replaced in Puerto Rico by mogote. 2. comparison to sinkhole water, and is Elongate hill or ridge capped by normally of high enough quality to mogotes[10]. See mogote. provide a drinking-water supply[9]. 2. The movement in laminar flow under percent saturation. The ratio, expressed as hydrostatic pressure of water through the a percentage, of (a) the volume of some interconnected, saturated interstices of fluid (water, gas, or oil) to (b) the total rock or soil, excluding movement through volume of intergranular space (voids) in a large openings such as caves and solution given porous medium. Synonymous with channels. 3. The downward movement of degree of saturation[22]. water through the unsaturated zone[22]. 4. The downward flow of water in saturated perched ground water. Ground water or nearly saturated porous medium at separated from an underlying body of hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 or ground water by an unsaturated zone[6]. less[22]. 5. The movement of water See also ground water, perched. through saturated interior pore space[16]. Synonym: seepage water. perched karst spring. See spring, perched karst. percolation water. Autochthonous karst water which permeates directly through perched water table. Unconfined ground karst limestone without using a surface water separated from an underlying body watercourse[19]. of ground water by unsaturated soil or

137 perennial spring. See spring, perennial. permeability barrier. See barrier, permeability. perennial yield. Sustained yield[16]. permeability coefficient. The rate of flow periodic spring. see spring, periodic. of water through a unit cross-sectional area under a unit hydraulic gradient at the perforation. Holes or openings in well prevailing temperature (field permeability casing to permit water inflow into a coefficient) or adjusted to a temperature well[16]. of 15NC[22].

permafrost. Ground that is perennially permeability, effective. The observed below the freezing point of water[16]. permeability of a porous medium to one fluid phase under conditions of physical permafrost karst. A nonkarst term. A interaction between this phase and other pseudokarst developed in areas of fluid phases present[22]. permafrost due to melting of ice and frozen ground in a manner superficially permeability, intrinsic. 1. A measure of similar to the solution of carbonate the ability of a medium to transmit a fluid material in water. A general term through a porous medium. It is a function embracing intrapermafrost karst, of the medium only and is proportional to subpermafrost karst, and suprapermafrost the mean grain size diameter. 2. A karst[20]. (French.) karst de permafrost; measure of the relative ease with which a (German.) Permafrost Karst ?, porous medium can transmit a fluid under Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst monímou a potential gradient and is a property of paghtoú; (Italian.) pseudo-carsismo di the medium alone[22]. 3. The property of a permafrost; (Spanish.) karst de porous medium itself that expresses the permafrost; (Turkish.) aldatc don ease with which gases, liquids, or other karst; (Yugoslavian.) permafrost krs substances can pass through it[22]. (kras, karst). permeability, relative. 1. The ratio of the permafrost table. The upper limit of effective permeability for a given flow permafrost[16]. phase to the intrinsic permeability of the porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the permanent hardness. Noncarbonate effective and specific permeabilities[22]. hardness[16]. 3. The ratio of permeability of one immiscible phase to intrinsic permeability permanent wilting point. Saturation at in multiphase flow[16]. which permanent wilting occurs[16]. permeability, specific. The permeability permeability. See hydraulic conductivity; measured when the rock contains only permeability, intrinsic . one fluid[22].

138 permeability tensor. Permeability in an phreas, phreatic water. (From the Greek anisotropic medium[16]. word meaning well.) 1. The zone of saturated rock below the water table, permeability, transverse. Permeability within which all conduits and sub- measured perpendicular to the axis of a conduits are water filled (sometimes core sample[16]. referred to as the flooded, phreatic or saturated zone). Commonly the phreatic permeameter. A device used to measure zone is considered as being subdivided the permeability of small samples[16]. into an upper (shallow phreatic) zone and a lower stagnant phreatic zone[9]. 2. pervious. Permitting fluids to pass[16]. Water in the zone of saturation; water below the water table[10]. See also petrography. The science of describing and bathyphreatic, bathyphreatic zone, ground identifying rocks[16]. water, phreas.

pH. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of phreas, dynamic. A phreatic zone or part a solution, numerically equal to 7 for of a phreatic zone where water moves fast neutral solutions, increasing with with turbulence under hydrostatic increasing alkalinity and decreasing with pressure[25]. increasing acidity. Originally stood for the words, potential of hydrogen[6]. phreatic cave. 1. Cave conceived and developed by dissolution, usually below phonolite. A type of volcanic rock, the water table, where all voids are water common as lava flows in some areas, that filled within the phreas. Phreatic caves is capable of supporting the formation of may include loops deep below the water extensive lava caves, including those on table, particularly in dipping limestone Mount Suswa in Kenya[9]. with widely spaced bedding-related fissures. Higher fissure densities, sub- photogeology. The interpretation of aerial horizontal geological guidance, or greater photographs for geological purposes[16]. karstic maturity encourage shallow phreatic development just below the photogrammetry. The preparation of maps water table. Progressive abondonment of and measurements from stereoscopic phreatic caves is usually in a downward aerial photographs[16]. sequence, as erosionally lowered valley floors intersect lower levels of the flooded photosynthesis. The process by which system. Active phreatic cave segments, green plants convert carbon dioxide and left perched for geological reasons after a water into simple sugar. Chlorophyll and general water-table lowering, are sunlight are essential to the series of relatively common. Characteristics of complex chemical reactions involved in phreatic caves are blind dissolution the process[23]. pockets on walls and ceilings, branching and looping of passages, and overall switchback gradients as phreatic flow

139 may be uphill under pressure. The most atmospheric[22]. 2. That part of the earth’s common passage, and overall switchback crust beneath the regional water table in gradients as phreatic flow may be uphill which all voids, large and small, are under pressure. The most common ideally filled with water under pressure passage form is a tube, though cross- greater than atmospheric[22]. When sectional shape reflects local geological discussing a karst setting, it is preferable factors. A classic active phreatic cave is to use the term, phreatic zone, so as to that behind the Fontaine de in avoid confusion regarding chemical France, while Hölloch, Switzerland, is a saturation. Synonym: saturated zone. major system consisting mostly of relict See also zone of saturation. phreatic passages[9]. 2. Cave passage developed in the phreatic zone and still phreatobia. An animal association found in actively forming. Passages often appear water separating grains of sand or fine as tubes. gravel[25]. phreatic decline. The downward phreatobite. An inhabitant of groundwater, movement of the water table[16]. often exhibiting troglomorphy, but not limited to karst systems. Many examples phreatic fluctuation. The fluctuation of the of amphipods and other crustaceans water table[16]. abound[23]. phreatic lift. An active or abandoned phreatophyte. Desert plants with deeply phreatic conduit that carries or carried penetrating roots reaching the water table water upwards in a downstream mainly along stream courses[16]. direction[9]. physiography. The science of the origin phreatic line. See seepage line. and evolution of land forms[16]. phreatic rise. The upward movement of the phytometer. A device used to measure the water table[16]. transpiration of plants embedded in soil[16]. phreatic surface. See water table. piedmont plain. A plain extending phreatic water. That part of the outwards from the base of a mountain underground water in a karst limestone system[16]. which lies within the zone of permanently saturated rock — the phreatic zone. piezometer. A devise used to measure Caves formed within this zone are known ground-water pressure head at a point in as phreatic caves[19]. the subsurface[22]. phreatic zone. 1. Those parts of the earth’s piezometric head. The sum of the pressure crust in which all voids are filled with and elevation head[16]. water under pressure greater than

140 piezometric limit. The point within a given remaining after solution of the flow path below which the flow direction surrounding rock. 3. A stalactite-• is influenced by hydrostatic pressure. In stalagmite that reaches from roof to floor cases where flow is confined to a planar in a cave; more properly termed a structure, the piezometric limit can be column. 4. A tall thin stalagmite that identified as a point where the flow path does not reach the roof of a cave[10]. See changes from a dip-oriented to a strike- column; rock pillar. oriented trend. The piezometric limit is determined both by discharge rate and pinnacle karst. 1. Tropical karst geometry of the openings. Used to characterized by vertical rock blades describe karst aquifers with a fretted sharped by dissolution. It is discontinuous piezometric surface[14]. practically indistinguishable from arête karst and tsingi, and includes the varieties piezometric surface. 1. The imaginary sur• known as shilin. The Pinnacles in the face to which water from a given aquifer Mulu karst of Saraway have rock blades will rise under its full static head[10]. 2. up to 50m high projecting through the Defined by the elevation to which water rain forest canopy[9]. 2. A tropical will rise in artesian wells or wells landscape of bare reticulated saw-topped penetrating confined aquifers[16]. See also ridges having almost vertical slopes and a potentiometric surface. relief of as much as 120 meters. The ridges rise above forest-covered . A chemical substance that imparts depressions and corridors. Found in New color to an object by reflecting or Guinea at elevations or around 2,000 transmitting only certain light rays and meters[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst à absorbing all others. For example, a pinacles; (German.) Pinnacle Karst; substance that absorbs all but green rays (Greek.) karst koriphón; (Italian.) appears green. An object that contains no carsismo a pinnacoli; (Turkish.) pigment, on the other hand, appears white sivritepeli karst. Compare cone, cupola, because it reflects all light rays and tower karst. absorbs none. Many troglobites have lost all their pigment[23]. pinnacles. These are a particularly mature form of karren. The side walls are grikes pillar. 1. Remnant of bedrock joining the with Rinnenkarren cutting across one cave floor and ceiling. Not to be another to form sharp edges and peaks confused with a column, which is a that can reach several meters in height. calcite deposit. Pillars are common in Generally, pinnacles need a long period phreatic caves, formed by complexly time to form. They are common in the looping ground-water flow, but may also tropics and can attain great sizes[3]. Often, be left as small oxbow cores of vadose they are covered. See also debris karren. origin. A spectacular group of pillars occurs in the ill-named Chamber of pipe. 1. A generally small, sub-cylindrical, Columns in the Sof Omar cave, vertical hole developed in an Ethiopia[9]. 2. A column of rock unconsolidated sedimentary deposit by

141 the washing away of all or part of its fines pit. A deep hole, generally circular in content. Some pipes develop above outline, having vertical or nearly vertical points on a carbonate-rock surface, such walls[10]. See also jama; pothole as joint intersections, where ground-water (definition 2); shaft. seepage is locally concentrated. Pipes in chalk include cylindrical and conical pitch. Vertical or sub-vertical shaft or cave masses of clay and sand that are waterfall that normally requires rope, neptunian fills of dissolutional dolines, ladder or equipment to pass; a term used shafts and caves; all shapes and sizes are by British cave explorers[9]. commonly referred to as chalk pipes[9]. 2. Small cylindrical hole in unconsolidated piton. 1. (French.) Limestone hill having sediments, caused by removal of fine sharply pointed peak[10]. 2. A solid or material by water[10]. 3. A closed tubular folded metal spike, of steel or other alloy, conduit for fluid transport[16]. to be driven into a crack in the rock to form an anchor[25]. piping. 1. A process whereby a cavity or small conduit is developed in an pitot tube. A device used to measure flow unconsolidated soil due to progressive velocity via pressure differences[16]. sediment removal by seepage water. The cavity develops headwards, as the fines pitted plain. Plain having numerous small are removed first and the coarser material closely spaced closed depressions[10]. is then washed out of the growing cavity[9]. Definition 1 is often incorrectly plan. A plot of the shape and details of a applied to the formation of sinkhole cave projected vertically onto a horizontal development — the migration of smaller plane at a reduced scale[25]. particles through openings created by larger particles is of no consequence in planarian. A flatworm. A relatively simple terms of sinkhole development and wormlike animal with a flattened should not be confused as such. 2. ribbonlike body, a distinct head end, and a Formation of a passage by water under mouth located more or less centrally on pressure in the form of conduits through the underside of the body[23]. permeable materials when the hydraulic head exceeds a certain critical value[10]. 3. plane of weakness. Surface or narrow zone The mechanical washout of caves in with a shear (or tensile) strength lower gravels, soils, loess, etc., and shows than that of the surrounding material. evidence of associated collapse. planimeter. An instrument that pisanite. A cave mineral — automatically determines irregular areas [11] [16] (Fe,Cu)SO47H2O . on a map . pisolite, pisolith. See cave pearl. plateau. An elevated level land surface[16].

142 Pleistocene. An epoch of the Quaternary point source. Any discernable, confined, or period, after the Pliocene of the Tertiary discrete conveyance from which and before the ; also the pollutants are or may be discharged, corresponding worldwide series of rocks. including, but not limited to, any pipe, It began two million years ago and lasted ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, until the start of the Holocene some 8,000 container, rolling stock, concentrated years ago[1]. animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft[22]. plunge pool. A swirlhole, generally of large size, occurring at the foot of a waterfall or poise. A measure of viscosity. rapid, on the surface or underground[25]. See also swirlhole. pokryty karst. (Russian.) See covered karst. pocket. Solution cavity in ceiling, floor, or walls of a cave, shaped like the interior of polarization. The migration and separation a round-bottomed ; unrelated to of ions to the electrodes in a direct current joints or bedding[10]. See also electrolyte process giving rise to higher spongework. overall resistance[16]. pocket valley. 1. The reverse of a blind polje. (Slavic word for field.) 1. A large, valley, extending headwards into the foot flat floored depression in karst limestone, of a calcareous massif. The upstream end whose long axis is developed parallel to is terminated by a cliff, frequently lunate, major structural trends and can reach tens from whose base emerges a subterranean of kilometers in length. Superficial karst stream meandering across a flat, deposits tend to accumulate on the floor. steep-sided valley below the Drainage may be by either surface resurgence[19]. 2. A valley that begins watercourses (when the polje is said to be abruptly and has no headwaters, having open) or swallow holes (a ‘closed’ polje.) formed from and below the site of a Their development is encouraged by any spring[9]. impedance in the karst drainage[19]. 2. Polje or karst polje signifies the flat- pocket storage. Water storage in bottomed lands of closed basins which depressions on the land surface[16]. may extend over large areas, as much as 1,000 km2. The flat floor of the polje may podzol. A light colored soil, usually found consist of bare limestone, of a nonsoluble in forest regions[16]. formation (and so with rolling topography), or of soil. The polje will point-bar deposit. Sedimentation on the show complex hydrogeological inside of a meander loop of a river or characteristics such as exsurgences, stream channel[16]. swallow holes, estavelles, and lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term polje is applied point of inflection. The point where a to flat-bottomed lands which are curve changes slope[16]. overgrown or are under cultivation[20]. 3.

143 Large flat-floored closed karst depression, contaminants such that the water quality with sharp slope breaks between the has become severely degraded. commonly alluviated floor and the marginal limestone. Streams or springs pollution. 1. Specific impairment of water drain into poljes and outflow is quality by agricultural, domestic, or underground through ponors. Commonly industrial wastes (including thermal and the ponors cannot transmit flood flows, so atomic wastes), to a degree that has an many poljes turn into wet-season lakes. adverse effect upon any beneficial use of The form of some poljes is related to the water[22]. 2. The addition to a stored body geological structure, but others are purely of water of any material which diminishes the projects of lateral dissolution and the optimal economic use of the water planation. The Dinaric Karst has many body by the population which it serves, poljes; the Livansko polje is around 60km and has an adverse effect on the long and 7km wide. The word is Slovene surrounding environment[22]. (common also to other Slav languages) for a field, reflecting the agricultural pollution abatement. All measures taken value of the alluvial polje floor soils[9]. to prevent or to protect against Synonym: interior valley; (French.) polje; pollution[16]. (German.) Polje; (Greek.) polye; (Italian.) polje; (Russian.) polje; polygonal karst. 1. A karst area where the (Spanish.) polje; (Turkish.) gölova, surface is completely pitted with closed polye; (Yugoslavian.) polje. See also depressions, the divides of which form a karst polje. crudely polygonal network. Especially common in humid tropical cone-karst pollutant or contaminant. Includes, but is terrain, but also found in well-formed not limited to, any element, substance, temperate doline-karst terrain[10]. 2. A compound. or mixture including disease type of karst in which numerous closed causing agents, which after release into depressions are separated by dividing the environment and upon exposure, ridges that impose a crudely polygonal ingestion, inhalation or assimilation into appearance upon the landscape[9]. any organism, either directly from the environment or indirectly by ingesting pond. A small body of surface water[16]. through food chains, will or may reasonably be anticipated to cause death, ponded water. Water held in a depression disease, behavioral abnormalities, cancer, by a barrier[16], such as breakdown in a genetic mutation. Physiological cave system. malfunctions (including malfunctions in reproduction or physical deformation in ponor. (Slavic.) 1. Hole or opening in the such organisms or their offspring[22]. bottom or side of a depression where a surface stream or lake flows either polluted water. Water that has become partially or completely underground into contaminated by sewage or other the karst ground-water system. A sea• ponor is where sea-water flows or is

144 drawn into an opening by a in pore space. 1. The total space not occupied karstified rock[20]. 2. Hole in the bottom by solid soil or rock particles[22]. 2. The or side of a closed depression through space occupied by voids containing gases which water passes to or from an or liquids in soil or rock samples[16]. See underground channel[10]. Synonyms: also interstice; porosity; porosity, (British.) swallet, swallow hole, stream effective; porosity, primary; porosity, sink; (French.) ponor, aven, gouffre, secondary. perte; (German.) Schlund, Saugloch, Schlinger, Ponor; (Greek.) katavothra; pore velocity. See velocity, average (Italian.) inghittitoio, capovento; interstitial. (Russian.) ponor; (Spanish.) sumidero, ponor, pérdida; (Turkish.) su yutan; porosimeter. A device used to measure (Yugoslavian.) ponor, utok, poÓiralnik, porosity[16]. . See also swallow hole. porosity. 1. The ratio of the aggregate ponornica. See lost river. volume of interstices in a rock or soil to its total volume; generally stated as a pool deposit. Crystalline material deposited percentage[10]. 2. The ratio, usually in an isolated pool in a cave[10]. expressed as a percentage, of the total volume of voids of a given porous population. Individuals of a species in a medium to the total volume of the porous given locality which potentially form a medium[22]. 3. The volume percentage of single interbreeding group separated by the total bulk not occupied by solid physical barriers from other such particles[22]. See also porosity, effective; populations (e.g., populations of the same porosity, primary; porosity, secondary; species in two quite separate caves)[25]. porosity, tertiary. pore. Small void space in rock or porosity, absolute. Porosity established by unconsolidated material of soil particles. taking into account all interconnected and See also interstice[16]. nonconnected or isolated void volumes[16]. pore deposit. Mineral matter deposited on porosity, effective. 1. The ratio, usually the interior of a cave from water entering expressed as a percentage of the total the cave so slowly through pores and volume of voids available for fluid cracks that it does not form drops[10]. transmission to the total volume of the porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the pore entry radius. The radius of a flow volume of the voids of a soil or rock mass channel at pore entry, usually smaller than that can be drained by gravity to the total the average pore radius[16]. volume of the mass[22]. 3. The amount of interconnected pore space and fracture pore pressure. The pressure of water in openings available for the transmission of pores of a saturated medium[16]. fluids, expressed as the ratio of the volume of interconnected pores and

145 openings to the volume of rock. See also as a function of position or of condition; porosity; porosity, primary; porosity, e.g., the fluid potential of ground water[22]. secondary; porosity, tertiary. potential density. 1. The density of a unit porosity, primary. Porosity of some of water after it is raised by an adiabatic lithological material that developed while process to the surface, i.e., determined the rock was forming. See also interstice; from in-situ salinity and potential pore; pore space; porosity; porosity, temperature[22]. 2. Density that would be effective; porosity, secondary. reached by a compressible fluid if it were adiabatically compressed or expanded to a porosity, secondary. Porosity of some standard pressure[22]. lithologic material that has developed after the rock was initially formed, such potential drop. The difference in total head as joints and fractures, and may be between two equipotential lines[22]. capable of enlargement by dissolution processes. See also pore; pore space; potential evapotranspiration Evapotran• porosity, effective; porosity, primary; spiration occurring under adequate soil- porosity, tertiary. moisture supply at all times for given temperature and humidity conditions[16]. porosity, tertiary. Porosity caused by solutional enlargement of secondary potential flow. Irrotational flow occurring porosity. See also pore; pore space; in a conservative force field or potential porosity; porosity, effective; porosity, field[16]. primary; porosity, secondary. potentiometer. An instrument used to porous. Having numerous interstices, measure voltage differences[16]. whether connected or isolated. potentiometric field. As used in karst porous medium. Any medium containing hydrology, a discontinuous highly interdispersed void space[16]. irregular surface representing the static ground-water head as indicated by the porthole. A nearly circular natural opening level to which water rises in a selected in a thin rock wall in a cave[10]. See also piezometer. In some piezometers, the window. water-level rise will be greatly different from other piezometers (either higher or potable water. Water that is suitable for lower) or may be non-existent all human consumption[22]. together. potamology. The study of streams. potentiometric surface. An imaginary surface representing the total static head potential. Any of several different scalar of ground water and defined by the level quantities, each of which involves energy to which water will rise in a

146 piezometer[22]. Replaces the term preadapted. Possessing adaptations that piezometric surface. would contribute to survival in a habitat other than the immediate one because of pothole. 1. A single shaft, or an entire cave similarities in living conditions in the two system that is dominantly vertical. It is habitats. Insects that live in leaf litter on also used to describe a single erosional the forest floor, for example, may be bowl or moulin, rounded mainly by the pre-adapted to cave life[23]. swirling current, in a stream bed[9]. 2. A small rounded hole pipe worn into the precipitation. 1. Water precipitating in bedrock of a streambed, or on the coast, liquid or solid form from the or at a waterfall, by sand, gravel, and atmosphere[16]. 2. The growth and stones spun around by the current in development of crystals from solutions evorsion or mill action[20]. 3. Term used that are supersaturated with respect to in England for vertical or steeply inclined various minerals. shaft in limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) marmite de géant, aven; precipitation excess. That part of (German.) Kolk, Strudelloch; (Greek.) precipitation that contributes directly to strongíli opí is petróthi kítin révmatos; runoff[16]. (Italian.) marmitta dei giganti; (Russian.) karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) precipitation gage. An instrument used to marmita de gigante, pilancón; (Turkish.) measure the amount of precipitation per dev kazan; (Yugoslavian.) erozioni unit area[16]. kotas. See also pit; shaft. predator. An animal that lives by capturing potholer. (British.) Explorer of openings in other animals for food[23]. See also prey. karst formations with emphasis on vertical and steep openings; somewhat of pressure. The force exerted across a real or [20] a slang term . Synonyms: (French.) imaginary surface divided by the area of spéléologue; (German.) Speläologe, that surface. Höhlenforscher; (Greek.) erevna karstikon engelon; (Italian.) speleologo; pressure cell. A pressure measuring and (Spanish.) espeleólogo, explorador de transducing device[16]. simas; (Turkish.) dev kazanc; (Yugoslavian.) speleolog, jamar. See pressure cell. The pressure difference speleologist, caver. occurring between two points along a stream line in a flow system[16]. potholing. 1. The process of scouring holes in rock in stream beds or near the strand pressure flow tube. Gallery with water line by rapid rotation of trapped pebbles [10] flowing under pressure including or cobbles; evorsion . 2. (British.) See differential gravity head and artesian caving. pressure[20]. Synonyms: (French.) galerie en conduite forcée; (German.) pozo. (Spanish.) See sima. Druckströmungsröhre, Karstgerinne;

147 (Greek.) ypoghion ytnatagogos, A few types of bacteria also manufacture ypopiesin; (Italian.) condotta forzata; food from nonliving substances and (Russian.) karstovij kanal s napornimi therefore serve as producers in some cave vodami; (Spanish.) galería (o tubo) communities[23]. See also consumer. saturada; (Turkish.) basnçl su mecras; (Yugoslavian.) kanal s vodom pod projected section. The result of projecting tlakom. See also conduit; streamtube. a section composed of several parts with differing directions onto a single plane. pressure head. Hydrostatic pressure Usually the plane is vertical along the expressed as the height of a column of general trend of the cave. The horizontal water that the pressure can support at the distance apart of points is not correct, point of measurement[22]. See also head, only the vertical, so that slopes are static; pressure, hydrostatic. distorted[25]. pressure, hydrostatic. The pressure proto-cave. Natural void that links a exerted by the weight of water at any potential input point and an output point given point in a body of water at rest[22]. within an aquifer, but which is still too small to be entered by man[9]. prey. A living animal that is captured for food by another animal[23]. See also prusik knot. A knot tied by looping a predator. smaller diameter rope around a larger standing line (rope) that has the property prism storage. The storage of water in a of sliding with no load on the knot, but river channel or reservoir in prism above will hold when it is loaded (e.g. when the the original water level[16]. weight of a caver is applied)[13]. See also ascender; mechanical ascender; prusiking; prismatic compass. A compass with a standing line. prism attached so that the compass card can be read at the same time as the prusik sling. A sling fastened by a prusik compass is directed into the line of sight knot to the rope[25]. to a distance point[25]. prusiking. The art of ascending a standing probe. A sensing instrument used to take line (rope) by a caver with prusik knots[13] measurements at the interior of a as opposed to the use of a mechanical relatively unaccessible system[16]. ascender. See also ascender; knots; mechanical ascender; prusik knot; producers. Green plants, the basic link in standing line. any food chain; by means of photosynthesis, green plants manufacture pseudokarren. These are karren appearing the food on which all other living things features that form mostly on insoluble, ultimately depend. They are available in silicate rocks by means of weathering the cave community only in the twilight processes. They appear as a rounded type zone, or as debris that falls or washes in. of Rinnenkarren and less frequently as an

148 atypical form of solution pan[3]. See also minerals followed by break-up and karren; Rinnenkarren; solution pan. redistribution of the residual carbonate component[9]. pseudokarst. 1. Terrane with features similar to karst but formed in nonsoluble psychrometer. 1. An instrument used for rocks, as by melting of permafrost or measuring relative humidity. The ground ice, collapse after mining, and by simplest sling psychrometers consist of outflow of liquid lava from beneath its two thermometers mounted on a rotating solidified crust[20]. 2. Karst-like terrane frame. One thermometer's bulb is kept produced by a process other than the moist, the other dry. By comparing the dissolving of rock, such as the rough "wet bulb" and "dry bulb" readings of the surface above a lava field, where the two thermometers after they have been ceilings of lava tubes have collapsed. whirled in the air, one can determine the Features of pseudokarst include lava relative humidity. An electric fan is used tunnels, lava tubes, lava stalactites, and to ventilate the wet bulb in many lava stalagmites[10]. 3. A landscape psychrometers[23]. 2. Apparatus designed containing karst-like features such as to measure relative humidity indirectly[16]. caves and dolines, but not formed by See also hygrometer. bedrock dissolution as in true karst. Pseudokarst embraces volcanic puddle. Water collecting in very small landscapes with lava caves, cryokarst or surface depressions[16]. thermokarst formed by ground-ice melting in a permafrost environment, and pumping test. A test designed to determine situations where mechanical soil piping aquifer characteristics by pumping a well has occurred, producing depressions and and plotting the drawdown curves of pipes, as occur commonly in areas of observation wells for comparison with loess cover[9]. Synonyms: (French.) theoretical curves. pseudokarst; (German.) Pseudokarst; (Greek.) psevthokarst; (Italian.) pupa (plural pupae). The inactive stage in pseudocarsismo; (Russian.) psevdokarst; the life history of certain insects during (Spanish.) pseudokarst; (Turkish.) which the larva undergoes a gradual aldatc karst; (Yugoslavian.) pseudoks, reorganization of its tissues in the process pseudokras, pseudokarst, navidezni kras. of becoming an adult. See also See lava cave, lava karst, pahoehoe. metamorphosis.

pseudo-breccia. A type of limestone pycnometer. A bottle with an accurately resembling a breccia, in which angular determined volume for density limestone fragments are cemented determinations[16]. together by limestones of different composition. Pseudo- are pyrite. Iron sulfide mineral (FeS2) also common in many preserved limestone known as iron and fool’s gold. sequences and may owe their origin to the Pyrite occurs in trace amounts in many dissolutional removal of originally sedimentary rocks. It may be locally interbedded and interstitial sulfate

149 common in dark carbonaceous limestone and in thin non-carbonate beds such as shales, coals and wayboards. Pyrite may break down spontaneously, with or without bacterial mediation, to form sulfates, particularly sulphuric acid, that may be involved in early speleogensis[9]. pyrrhotite. A cave mineral — FeS[11].

150 Q

quagmire. A wet unstable land area[16]. quartz. A crystal form of silicon dioxide [16] (SiO2) . quiet reach. The reach of a river with no features disturbing the flow pattern[16].

151 R ground-water travel time, because of physical and chemical interactions rabies. An infectious disease of the central between the radionuclide and the nervous system in mammals, caused by a geohydrologic unit through which the [22] lyssavirus. Usually transferred by the bite radionuclide travels . of an infected animal, such as dogs, skunks, racoons, or rarely bats. radius of influence. The radial distance Characterized by choking, convulsions, from the center of a well bore to the point inability to swallow, etc. Different where there is no lowering of the water genetic strains are now recognized and table or potentiometric surface (the edge [6] can be identified by tests. Transfer of of its cone of depression) . rabies from bats via aerosols to caged animals in a cave has been demonstrated, raft. A thin sheet of crystalline calcite but has not been proven in [23]. supported by surface tension on a cave pool or lake. The calcite is precipitated radial flow. 1. Radial flow into or out of a mainly in response to evaporation of the well under ideal circular boundary pool water and rafts are therefore found conditions[16]. 2. The flow of ground mainly in caves in arid regions or caves water in all directions in response to with powerful through draughts. recharge entering the subsurface at or near the top of a ground-water plateau. rain. Liquid precipitation of atmospheric This conditions occurs most often water in the form of droplets[16]. through point recharge entering the subsurface via sinkholes in karst terranes. rainfall excess. That portion of rain fall that contributes directly to runoff[16]. radioactive tracer. A tracer used in hydrological direction and velocity rainfall intensity. The volume or depth of determinations[16]. The two most rainfall per unit time[16]. common types are tritium and deuterium. rain gage. An instrument used to measure radioactivity log. A log measuring the height of rainfall[16]. radioactivity in a borehole[16]. rain gage network. An areal distribution of radioisotope. An unstable isotope of an rain gages[16]. element that decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation[22]. rain intensity. The intensity of rain fall expressed in depth per time (in/hr)[16]. radionuclide. A radioisotope[22]. randpolje. An enclosed plain at the edge of radionuclide retardation. The process or a karst area receiving surface water from processes that cause the time required for the nonkarstic area. The water drains out a given-radionuclide to move between through underground passages in the karst two locations to be greater than the area. The plain is thus completely

152 enclosed by higher ground. Compare raw sewage. Untreated sewage. blind valley; karst margin plain[10]. raw water. Untreated water[16]. rappel. The art of descending a rope using some sort of friction between the rope and reaction path modeling. A simulation the rappeller to control the rate of approach to studying the chemical descent[13]. Synonym: abseil. See also evolution of a (natural) system[22]. abseil; carabiner. rebelay. The reanchoring of a rope, usually rappel rack. A long U-shaped steel bar that to avoid rub points or split long pitches. holds several brake bars and is used for rappelling[13]. See also rappel. REDIRECTION Syn. deviation

rappel spool. One of the devices used to rebound. An upward movement of soil as a create friction between a rappeller and the consequence of a decrease in effective rope that consists of a spool on which the stress. In fine-grained soils, rebound is rope can be wrapped around several usually much less than the amount of times[13]. See also rappel. compaction since compaction is mostly irreversible[21]. rapid. A stream section with a notably higher flow velocity than in adjoining receiver. That part of a remote measuring parts[16]. system that receives incoming data or impulses[16]. rapid flow. Open channel flow with a Froude number greater than unity[16]. See receiving surface. A surface receiving also Froude Number. precipitation or radiation[16].

rate of draft. The rate at which water is recessional moraine. A moraine deposited required for use (demand)[16]. by a retreating glacier[16]. rate of infiltration. The maximum rate at recession curve. The falling limb of a which soil can absorb water[16]. hydrograph curve[16].

rating curve. The graphic relationship of recession flow. The flow that occurs after stage to discharge[16]. rainfall has ended[16]. rational formula. An equation relating recession segment. That part of a runoff intensity and area to a runoff hydrograph that represents the withdrawal coefficient[16]. of water from storage[16].

ravine. A small erosional depression[16]. recharge. 1. The process of addition of See chasm. water to the saturated zone[22]. 2. The artificial replenishment of a depleted

153 aquifer by injection or infiltration of recharge water. Water used for water from the surface[16]. replenishment of a depleted aquifer[16]. recharge, allogenic. Recharge derived from recharge well, absorbing well, diffusion runoff of neighboring or overlying non- well, inverted well. A well that is used karst rocks that drains into a karst aquifer. to recharge water back into an aquifer. Diffuse allogenic recharge is used to Commonly used when aquifer depletion, describe the slow percolation of recharge saltwater intrusion, and contaminant when runoff into direct input points is migration are problems. reduced in magnitude while concentrated allogenic recharge is used to describe the recipient. A vessel receiving liquids in concentrated recharge that occurs by volume measurements[16]. runoff into large fractures, sinkholes, and sinking streams. reclamation. To reclaim land after abusive effects such as strip mining. recharge area. An area in which water reaches the zone of saturation by surface recorder. An instrument designed to infiltration[22]. See also intake area. continuously or intermittently record measurements[16]. recharge, autogenic. Recharge derived from precipitation directly onto the karst recovery. The water-level rise in a well landscape. Diffuse autogenic recharge is occurring upon the cessation of discharge used to describe the slow percolation of from that well or an observation well. recharge through a myriad of small openings while concentrated autogenic recovery method. A pumping test analysis recharge is used to describe the method in which both drawdown and concentrated recharge that occurs by flow recovery of head after cessation of into large fractures, sinkholes, and pumping are observed and plotted for the sinking streams. same observation well[16].

recharge capacity. The ability of the soils recrystallization. A new formation of and underlying materials to allow crystals from solid rock material[16]. precipitation and runoff to infiltrate and reach the phreatic zone[22]. reculée. See pocket valley.

recharge line. A series of recharge wells redirection. See deviation. arranged in linear fashion to approximate a line source[16]. redox. A chemical reaction in which an atom or molecule loses electrons to recharge pit. A large diameter well or shaft another atom or molecule. Also known as for recharge under gravity[16]. oxidation-reduction. Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of electrons[6].

154 redox potential (Eh.) Oxidation-reduction spirochaetes carried by several species of potential[16]. tick. Related to Lyme disease, but less chronic and milder. An occupational . A dissected ridge of rocks totally or disease of some cavers in who partially submerged in sea water; often of come in contact with the soft tick organic origin[16]. Ornithodoros turicatae, which carries Borrelia turicatae and may live in cave regelation. The melting of ice under entrances[23]. pressure and subsequent freezing[16]. relative humidity of atmosphere. The rigging. The process of establishing the ratio of absolute humidity to the belays for SRT or laddering[25]. See also maximum possible saturation at given single rope technique. conditions[16].

region of dispersed water. The diffuse relative permeability. See permeability, interface between freshwater and sea relative. water caused by mixing in a coastal aquifer[16]. See also transition zone. relict cave. Abandoned, inactive cave segment, left when the water that formed regolith. A general term for the layer of it is diverted elsewhere, normally due to fragmental and unconsolidated rock rejuvenation, continuing cave material that nearly everywhere forms the development and increasing karstic surface of the land and overlies or covers maturity. Relict unmodified phreatic the bedrock[6]. passage segments are abandoned in the , where they may remain dry, regosol. Dry sandy soil[16]. retaining a typical phreatic morphology, or be invaded and modified to a keyhole regression line. A curve fitted to all mean profile by new streams. Ages of relict values of one variable[16]. caves vary greatly and due to lack of stream-flow breakdown and speleothem rejuvenation. A process that interrupts an deposition may become the dominant active erosional or development cycle and processes. Relict caves are commonly initiates a new cycle. Rejuvenation is referred to incorrectly as fossil caves[9]. most commonly achieved in the karst and speleogenesis context by erosional base- relict karst. A karst area that exists within level changes caused by relative uplift (or the contemporary system, but has been sea-level fall) or by local water-table removed from the situation in which they changes caused by downcutting of surface developed, usually as a result of base- valleys intercepting deeper drainage level changes. lines[9]. relief. Elevation differences in topography relapsing fever. One type of Borreliosis, of a land surface[16]. caused by various species of Borrelia

155 relief intensity. The average altitude European literature, the term is reserved difference between the highest point of a for the re-emergence of a stream that has basin and the valley bottom[16]. earlier sunk upstream; the term exsurgence is applied to a stream without replenishment. The restoration of water in known surface headwaters[10]. Synonyms: a depleted aquifer[16]. (French.) résurgence; (German.) Karstquelle; (Greek.) kephalari; resequent river. A river flowing according (Italian.) risorgenza; (Russian.) vihod to a consequent drainage pattern but at a karstovih vod; (Spanish.) resurgencia; lower level than the original slope[16]. (Turkish.) suçkan; (Yugoslavian.) krski izvor (vrelo), obrh. See emergence. reservoir. 1. A recipient for the collection Compare exsurgence. of small amounts of liquid[16]. 2. A surface water impoundment[16]. retardation factor. The ratio of the average linear velocity of ground water to the reservoir evaporation. Evaporation from velocity of the retarded constituent at [22] the free surface of impounded water C/Co=0.5 . bodies[16]. retention. 1. The detention of water on reservoir lake. A lake obtained by the surface depressions or in subsurface void impoundment of water for storage space. 2. the retention of water in pores [16] purposes[16]. against gravity .

residual clay. Clay or sandy clay remaining reverse fault. A fault where relative on a rock surface after removal of movement of the hanging wall has [16] calcium carbonate by solution. Compare occurred in the upward direction . terra rossa[10]. Reynolds number. A numerical quantity residual drawdown. The rise in water level used as an index to characterize the type in a well in response to cessation of of flow in a hydraulic structure in which pumping. resistance to motion depends on the viscosity of the liquid in conjunction with residual hill. See emergence. the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces, and is residue. Solids remaining after equal to the product of a characteristic evaporation[16]. velocity of the system (e.g. the mean, surface, or maximum velocity) and a resurgence. 1. Re-emergence of karst characteristic linear dimension, such as ground water a part or all of whose waters diameter or depth, divided by the are derived from surface inflow into kinematic viscosity of the liquid; all ponors at higher levels[20]. Point at which expressed in consistent units in order that an underground stream reaches the the combinations will be dimensionless. surface and becomes a surface stream. In The number is chiefly applicable to closed systems of flow, such as pipes or

156 conduits where there is a free water unspent precipitation is active and end surface, or to bodies fully immersed in the where the water attains too high a content fluid so the free surface need not be of lime or where water is added. Their considered[1]. See also Chézy equation; length increases with slope, temperature, Froude number; Manning equation. and rainfall; eventually reaching 1 m and more in the tropics, up to 50 cm, and as rhodamine dye, sulpho rhodamine dye. an exception, 100 cm in the Alps. Their Orange dyes used in environmental width extends from 1 to 3 cm. They lie tracing studies that fluoresce red when together in rows with no space between, held under a black light. See also with sharp intermediary ridges of no more fluorescent dyes. than 1 cm in height. They increase at all freely exposed peaks and ridges where rice paddy. In a cave, a terraced rimstone fresh rainwater alone is at work. The pool[10]. grooves gradually flatten out to a smooth surface. Their theory of origin is ridge. An elongated narrow elevation[16]. unknown.[3]. Synonyms: (German.) Kannelierungen; solution flutes; and rift. 1. A cave passage that is relatively high firstkarren. and narrow. Generally rifts are straight or nearly so, reflecting that they are Rillenstein. (German.) Microsolution commonly guided by, and developed grooves and pitting on rock surface[10]. along, vertical or sub-vertical fissures, joints and faults[9]. 2. A long narrow high rimstone. 1. A wall-shaped deposit around cave passage controlled by joints or springs and below cascades which faults[10]. impounds water in pools. Its formation is due to precipitation from saturated rift valley. A surface depression due to the bicarbonate waters[20]. 2. Calcareous formation of graben block faulting[16]. deposits formed around the rims of overflowing basins, especially in caves[10]. rill. 1. Small solution groove on surface ex• Synonyms: (French.) gour; (German.) posures of limestone; most common in Sinterbecken; (Greek.) frágma, arid or semiarid areas[10]. 2. Small epiphliomatos; (Italian.) vasche channel cut by flowing water in the floor, d’incrostazione; (Russian.) natecnaja wall, or ceiling of a cave[20]. 3. The plotina; (Spanish.) dique travertínico; smallest category of stream in any (Turkish.) sedde, kenarta·. See terrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.) traces de constructive waterfall, rimstone barrage, ruissellement; (German.) Rinne, Kerbe; rimstone pool. (Greek.) riákion; (Italian.) solchi di ruscellamento; (Spanish.) arroyuelo; rimstone barrage, rimstone barrier, rim- (Turkish.) küçük dere, oluk, ark. stone dam. A wall-shaped deposit that impounds pools of water in caves, around Rillenkarren. (German.) Solution flutes springs, and in cascades of streams that occur only in places where fresh saturated with calcium bicarbonate[10].

157 Synonym: (French.) gour. See also vertical discharge dissipates at the rimstone; rimstone pool. surface[19]. rimstone pool. A pool sited on a cavern riser. A pipe through which liquid rises in a floor and enclosed by a rim of carbonate well[16]. reprecipitated from the karst water in the pool at points locally favoring the release riser pipe. A pipe through which water is of carbon dioxide[19]. See also rimstone; raised in a production well[16]. rimstone barrage. rising. 1. The resurgence of an underground Rinnenkarren. (German.) Solution grooves watercourse, usually at the base margin of that form where runoff water is collected the calcareous massif, although in the in streams. If the whole surface is instance of a blind valley the rising has moistened, the amount of water increases eroded headwards for some distance. downwards with the result that the Each rising accounts for the collective grooves are widened and deepened at the discharge of several sinks and in this way bottom. This distinguishes them from has a relatively high discharge as the sole other similar forms. When the slope is drainage outlet for a large area. If the slight they are coiled, but become water issues freely, the rising is said to be straighter with increasing inclination. free-flowing, but if it issues under They are sometimes interpreted to be pressure, the terms artesian, forced, or subcutaneous forms that develop below vauclusian spring are used (after the type- soil cover, but this is believed to be a rare example of the resurgence of the Sorgue occurrence. They are found in all river at Vaucluse in France)[19]. 2. An climates. In arid zones, they exist as issue of water from massive limestone relics of the past when the climate was which cannot be classed with certainty as damper[3]. either a resurgence or a spring[20]. Synonyms: (French.) émergence; ripple mark. A wavelike on (German.) Ausflußtelle, Karstquelle; water covered sand surfaces obtained by (Greek.) kephalari; (Italian.) sorgente; wave action[16]. (Russian.) vihod karstovih vod; (Spanish.) emergencia; (Turkish.) rise. (Jamaican.) Spring rising from yüzeye yükseli·; (Yugoslavian.) krsko fractures in limestone. Point at which an vrelo, krski izvor, obrh. See also underground stream comes to the emergence; exsurgence; resurgence. surface[10]. rising segment. That part of a hydrograph rise pit. An artesian spring rising up curve that represents a rise in water level [16] through alluvium accumulated in an as a result of precipitation . earlier surface valley phase and often fringed, except on the outlet side, by a river. A natural water course through which [16] minor levee deposited as the force of the runoff reaches the sea .

158 river bed. The channel of a river covered rock pinnacle. A tall sharp projection of by water[16]. bedrock rising from the floor of a cave[10].

river reach. A particular segment of a rock shelter. 1. Shallow cave under an river[16]. overhanging rock ledge. Many sea caves are rock shelters. Also found in limestone river swamp. A swamp in lowlands and other rock types where streams have adjoining a river[16]. undercut their banks at bends, or where there has been abrasion by blowing sand. river system. The system of a main river Common in tropical areas at places where that includes all its branches and a secondarily hardened layer of limestone tributaries[16]. forms a ledge that projects over unindurated limestone[10]. 2. A wide but river terrace. A level land terrace formed shallow cavity in any rock; in carbonate in a valley by fluviatile erosion or rock often formed below a noncarbonate aggradation[16]. layer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) abri sous roche, balme, baume; (German.) rivulet. A very small stream[16]. Halbhöhle, weite aber flache Höhle; (Greek.) kataphyion; (Italian.) riparo rock. Consolidated mineral matter of sotto roccia, androne; (Spanish.) abrigo, igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic balma; (Turkish.) kaya si{ina{i; origin[16]. (Yugoslavian.) potkapina, okapina, polupeeina, spodmol, zijalka. rock fall. See cave breakdown. rock system. Rocks deposited during a [16] rock formation. A lithologically or given geological time period . structurally distinct part of the lithosphere[16]. rock terrace. A terrace formed by erosional action and denudation[16]. rock-hill. See karren, rill. rock texture. The geometrical aspects and rock milk. Less common synonym for arrangement of the component particles of [16] moonmilk[9]. See moonmilk. a rock .

rock pendant. See pendant. rockhole. A shallow, small hole in rock outcrops, often rounded in form and rock pillar. A residual isolated mass of holding water after rains. Well known on [25] bedrock linking the roof or overhanging the Nullarbor Plain, Australia . wall and floor of a cave, in contrast with a column, which to composed of dripstone rockpile. A heap of blocks in a cave, or flowstone[10]. See column; pillar. roughly conical or part-conical in shape[25].

159 rockfall. The falling of bedrock from a cliff roughness. An unevenness of surfaces or steep slope[16]. giving rise to high flow resistances[16]. romanechite. A cave mineral — roughness coefficient. A coefficient that [11] [16] BaMn9O16(OH)4 . describes roughness of a channel bed .

roof crust. Flowstone deposited on ceilings round karren. See Rundkarren. of caves from thin films of water, which have crept over the rock from pore or roundness. The degree to which a sand crack sources[10]. grain approaches spherical shape[16].

roof drainage. Precipitation runoff from rout, to. The action of predicting and roofs. directing of flood waves through a channel system[16]. roof pocket. Blind upward extension into the ceiling of a cave passage, commonly run dry, to. The cessation of flow from a enlarged by dissolution along a transverse well or spring[16]. fracture, and less extensive than an aven or chimney[9]. Rundkarren. (German.) 1. Karren forms with rounded edges; formed by soil water roof slab. See ceiling slab. than cannot flow freely due to the tightness of soil pores and thus corrodes room. A part of a cave system that is wider away all edges and points. The small than a passage[10]. Synonym: (British.) karren forms disappear, grooves and chamber. grikes are widened and deepened. One or two centuries after being laid bare, the root karren. These are small, relatively flat earlier rounded edge is only just karren that are formed beneath compact recognizable so round karren and their soils where roots etch into the remains provide evidence of an earlier limestone[3]. See also covered karren; soil covering[3]. 2. Karren form wave karren. comprising rounded channels, commonly 50–500mm deep and wide and separated root zone. The zone in a soil profile by rounded ridges. Rundkarren are the penetrated by plant roots[16]. characteristic dissolutional form created beneath superficial material such as sandy rope protector. A length of heavy fabric or till, peat or other soil, or beneath a cover plastic hose placed around a rope where it of plants or lichen[9]. Synonym: round may rub against rock[25]. karren. See also Karren.

rotating meter. A stream velocity meter runoff. 1. The discharge of water through that transforms stream momentum into the surface streams of a drainage basin[16]. angular momentum by vanes and rotor[16]. 2. The sum of surface runoff and ground- water flow that reaches a stream[16].

160 runoff coefficient. A dimensionless coefficient to estimate runoff as a certain percentage of storm rainfall[16]. rupture. That stage in the development of a fracture where instability occurs. It is not recommended that the term rupture be used in rock mechanics as a synonym for fracture.

161 S dissolution of rock salt occurs in buried, interstratal, situations, and the effects of sabath. See hardpan, nari. such dissolution at the surface include subsidence pipes or wider subsidence safe yield. The amount of water that can be areas, such as those represented by the safely withdrawn from an aquifer without meres and ‘flashes’ in the Cheshire Plain, [9] causing undue effects such as aquifer England . depletion. salt lake. A lake containing high salt safe yield of stream. The lowest dry concentrations and usually not having any [16] weather flow of a stream[16]. outflow .

safety line. A safety rope attached to a salt tolerance. The resistance of crops to [16] caver on a ladder or negotiating salt concentration . a difficult situation and held by a man above[25]. salt weathering. Detachment of particles of various sizes from a rock surface by the saline spring. See spring, saline. growth of crystals from salt solutions. Forms substantial features in Nullarbor [25] saline water. Water that generally is Plain caves . considered unsuitable for human consumption or for irrigation because of saltation. Solid matter transported by a its high content of dissolved solids. stream by the action of leaping movement Generally expressed as milligrams per over the stream bed. See also saltation liter (mg/L) of dissolved solids, with load. 35,000 mg/L defined as sea water, slightly saline is 1,000-3,000 mg/L, saltation load. The solid matter transported [16] moderately saline is 3,000-10,000 mg/L, by streams . very saline is 10,000-35,000 mg/L, and brine has more than 35,000 mg/L[22]. saltwater intrusion. The movement of salt water into fresh water aquifers[22]. salinity stratification. The stratification of water in due to salinity-density sampling. The taking of small quantities of [16] differences[16]. water or porous media for analysis .

salt dome. A dome-like intrusion of a sand. Unconsolidated detrital rock [16] mobile salt core into sedimentary rock[16]. material .

salt karst. Areas in which karst landforms sand pipe. See solution pipe. are developed upon halite or halite-rich rock, which are generally small and sand stalagmite. A stalagmite formed on limited to arid regions, are referred to as sand and made of calcite-cemented salt karst. Except in desert regions, sandstone[10].

162 sandstone caves. Most natural sandstone saturated water. Water which is in caves are surface river-cut notches at the chemical equilibrium with its enclosing foot of rock cliffs, or left part way up the media and is thus nonagressive. Water, at cliff due to later downcutting. This origin about 25" C, in contact with calcite and accounts for most of the caves once the normal atmosphere, will contain inhabited by the Pueblo Indians in the approximately 30 to 50 ppm of Ca when sandstone cliffs of the western USA. True saturated, variations being mainly due to caves do occur in sandstone and some of differing pH. Determination of the these appear to be at least partially of saturation point of natural waters is dissolutional origin. Their existence complex[20]. Synonyms: (French.) eau probably reflects matrix leaching by saturée; (German.) gesättigtes Waßer; ground water moving through zones of (Greek.) koresménon ýdor; (Italian.) especially high primary porosity and acqua satura; (Spanish.) agua saturada; permeability. Though sandstones with a (Turkish.) doygun su; (Yugoslavian.) calcite matrix cement are more prone to zasieena voda. such development, even siliceous cement, which has a very low solubility in water, saturated zone. See phreatic zone and zone may be removed during a sufficiently of saturation. long time span. The sandstone caves of the Sarisarinama Plateau, may saturation regime. A flow regime in be a special case of this type of completely saturated porous medium[16]. development. These include shafts 300m in diameter and 200m deep, and passages saturation, zone of. See phreatic zone and up to 500m long. They were probably cut zone of saturation. in the quartz sandstone by underground streams, after early leaching of the cement scale. 1. A very thin and flat rock by hydrothermal solutions, and the shafts fragment[16]. 2. The accumulation of have been modified by later collapse[9]. precipitated solid material. 3. The ratio of prototype to model dimensions. 4. The saprophage. A scavenger feeding on ratio of the length between any two points decaying organic material[25]. on a map, plan or section to the actual distance between the same points on the saturated. 1. Referring to rock with ground or in a cave[25]. water-filled voids. 2. Referring to water which has dissolved as much limestone or scaling chip. A thin small rather irregular other karst rock as it can under normal piece of limestone, commonly crumbly, conditions[25]. which has fallen from the ceiling or wall of a cave. A form of cave breakdown[10]. saturated flow. Single phase flow when all voids are filled[16]. Not to be confused scaling factor. The ratio of characteristics with chemical saturation. of a model to those of the prototype[16].

163 scaling plate. A small flat piece of rock of Klippe; (Greek.) oulí; (Spanish.) ceja (in rectangular or polygonal shape, that has central ); (Turkish.) kireçta· dik fallen to the floor of a cave. A form of yar. cave breakdown in thin-bedded impure limestone cut by closely spaced joints[10]. scats. Animal droppings, an important source of food in caves[23]. scaling poles. A lightweight metal alloy pole, in short sections for transport and scavenger. An animal that eats the dead fastened together where used, to raise a remains and wastes of other animals and ladder to points inaccessible by plants[23]. See also predator. climbing[25]. Schichtfugenkarren. (German.) See scallop. 1. A spoon-shaped hollow carved bedding grike. in a cave wall, floor or ceiling due to erosion by eddies in flowing water. scholzite. A cave mineral — [11] Scallops are commonly closely packed, CaZn2(PO4)22H2O . leaving sharp ridges at the intersects. They range from 10mm to 1m in length scour. The erosive action of running water and as a general rule the smaller they are in streams[16]. then the faster flowing was the water that carved them. The scallops are generally screen, screen pipe. Slotted well casing asymmetrical, with their upstream end that is positioned within the producing steeper than the downstream end — a horizon to prevent the inflow of detrital useful indicator of paleo-flow direction in particles into a well while allowing the abandoned passages[9]. 2. Oval hollow inflow of water. See also well screen. having an asymmetric cross section along its main axis. Scallops form patterns on sea cave. 1. A cave cut in any rock type the walls of caves and in streambeds and where a geological weakness is exploited may be used to determine direction of by the highly selective erosion power of flow of turbulent water, since they are wave action. Fingal’s Cave, cut in the steeper on the upstream side. Commonly basalt of Staffa, , is a famous called flutes in America[10]. Synonyms: example. True sea caves should not be (French.) cannelure, vague d’érosion; confused with dissolutional caves that (German.) in Fließrichtung des Waßers pre-dated the wave action but were then ausgezogener Kolk; (Greek.) kílon o• intersected and revealed as a cliff line was oïthés; (Spanish.) huella de corriente; eroded back such as caves in the Chalk at (Turkish.) de{irmi, tarak. See also flute. Beachy Head in south-east England. In some young tropical islands, dissolutional scar. (Northern England.) Steep rock cliff voids have formed below sea-level in the in limestone country often indicating mixing zone between fresh and saline outcrop of relatively bare and massively ground water. Some have subsequently bedded limestone[20]. Synonyms: been tectonically uplifted into a shoreline (French.) cicatrice, griffure; (German.) position, to give the misleading

164 impression of having developed due to (German.) Meermühle; (Greek.) waver action. Caves of this type on the thalassomylos; (Spanish.) molino de coast of Tongatapu, Tonga, have pools mar; (Turkish.) deniz suyu de{irmeni; that connect with active dissolutional (Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica. See cavities below sea-level that might be sea estavelle. related to the mixing zone[9]. 2. A cave or cleft in a sea cliff or coastal karst outcrop sea ponor. A submarine opening in karst eroded by waves or currents or dissolved formations where seawater flows or is by circulating ground water[20]. drawn by a vacuum into the aquifer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) grotte marine; Synonyms: (French.) perte sous-marine; (German.) Küstenhöhle, Meereshöhle; (German.) submariner Ponor; (Greek.) (Greek.) thalassion spelson - paraktion ypothalassia katavothra; (Italian.) speleon; (Italian.) grotta marina; inghiottitoio sottomarino; (Spanish.) (Russian.) morskaja pescera; (Spanish.) sumidero marino; (Turkish.) denizalte cueva marina; (Turkish.) deniz suyutan; (Yugoslavian.) morska mayaras; (Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica, morski ponor. See ponor. peeina (spilja). See cave. Compare nip. See also littoral zone. sea water intrusion. See saltwater intrusion. sea estavelle. Submarine or sea-shore opening in karst formations which at one sealing-grout, grout. Cement grout season or period discharges round water injected between a well casing and the (fresh or brackish) from the aquifer into borehole wall (annular space) to seal off the sea-bed and at another season or an aquifer from external contamination. period draws seawater into the aquifer by a vacuum[20]. Synonyms: (French.) secondary interstices. Voids formed in a estavelle marine; (German.) submarine rock after the rock had been formed[16]. Estavelle; (Greek.) estavelle thalassia (estavella); (Italian.) Estavella secondary porosity. Porosity created after sottomarina, sorgente sottomarina a rock formation due to fracturing, flusso alterno; (Spanish.) estavela leaching, etc. marina; (Turkish.) sahil batar çkar. section. A plot of the shape and details of a sea level. The average height of the surface cave in a particular intersecting plane, of the sea used as a datum for called the section plane, which is usually elevations[16]. vertical[25]. sea-mill. A mill whose motive power is sediment. Material recently deposited by derived from the flow of water into (or water, ice or wind, or precipitated from possibly out of) a sea estavelle; the water[25]. classical example is on the Vinaria Peninsulas, at Argostolion, Kephallinia[20]. Synonyms: (French.) moulin de la mer, moulin d’Argostoli;

165 sedimentation. The deposition of solid seepage line. 1. The uppermost level at disintegrated rock material by water, which flowing water emerges along a wind, or gravity transport[16]. seepage face[22]. 2. The upper free water surface of the zone of seepage. . The transport of Synonymous with line of seepage, eroded rock material by moving water or phreatic line[22]. wind[16]. seepage path. The trajectory of fluid seep. 1. An area, generally small, where particles in seepage flow[16]. water or oil percolates slowly to the land surface. See seepage and spring[22]. 2. To seepage rate. The rate of seepage flow[16]. move slowly through small openings of a porous material[22]. seepage spring; filtration spring. See spring, seepage. seepage. 1. The infiltration or percolation of water through rock or soil to or from the seepage surface. The outflow surface surface and usually restricted to the very between water level and the intersection slow movement of ground water. 2. The of the phreatic surface in a well[16]. fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 3. The amount of fluid discharged at a seep[22]. seepage velocity. See specific discharge. 4. The slow flow of water through a porous medium. 5. The movement of selenite. Blade-like crystals of gypsum[9]. water in unsaturated soil[16]. self-cleaning capacity. The capacity of a seepage water. See percolation. river to clean its water of pollutants over a given length of water course[16]. seepage face. A boundary between the saturated flow field and the atmosphere selenite needles. A sulfate speleothem along which ground water discharges, having the shape of a needle that grows either by evaporation or movement from gypsiferous cave soils[13]. See also ‘downhill’ along the land surface or in a speleothem. well as a thin film in response to the force of gravity[22]. semiconfined aquifer. See leaky aquifer.

seepage force. The frictional drag of water sepiolite. A cave mineral — [11] flowing through voids or interstices in Mg4Si6O15(OH)26H2O . rock causing an increase in the intergranular pressure (i.e. the hydraulic series. A subdivision of rock according to force per unit volume of rock or soil age at which they were laid down in a which results from the flow of water and geologic epoch[16]. which acts in the direction of flow). setting of cement. The process of hardening of cement[16].

166 settling basin. A basin used for the settling shawl. Simple triangular-shaped curtain[10]. out of solids from suspension[16]. shear plane. A plane along which failure of settling velocity. The terminal velocity at material occurs by shearing. which a particle will fall through a fluid[16]. shear stress. See stress, shear. sewage. Domestic and municipal wastes[16]. sheet. A thin coating of calcium carbonate formed on walls, shelves, benches, and shaft. 1. Vertical, or steeply inclined, terraces by trickling water[10]. sections of a cave passage, of enormously varied size. The world’s deepest known sheet erosion. Erosion occurring over shaft is the entrance shaft of Brezno pod widespread tabular sedimentary or Velbom on the Kanin plateau, Slovenia; it effusive rock[16]. is 501m deep, with no ledges. Much debate surrounds statistics on the depths sheet jointing. Fracturing of tensile of fully underground shafts, which may character, mostly in granitoid rocks, be broken by ledges, but among the parallel to the land surface. Sheet jointing deepest is a shaft about 430m deep in is developed either by load release or Italy’s Abisso di Monte Novegno[9]. 2. A temperature differences. cylindrical tube generally steep sided, that forms by solution and (or) collapse[10]. 3. shield; cave shield. 1. A thin circular disc A vertical passage in a cave[10]. 4. A of calcite projecting from a cave wall at vertical and usually large diameter hole any upward inclination, commonly a penetrating geologic formations for meter or more in diameter and with the access of subsurface points[16]. See jama, underside draped with stalactites and karst shaft. See also pit; pothole curtains. The shield is actually a double (definition 2.). disc with a thin central crack that acts as the continuation of a wallrock fracture. It shake; shakehole. (England; sometimes grows by water moving up the crack spelled shackhole.) 1. Term used mainly under pressure and depositing calcite on by cavers to indicate a doline, especially both sides of its outer rim. Shields are one formed by subsidence. 2. Hole rare, but Lehman Cave, , has more formed by solution, subsidence, and than a hundred of them[9]. 2. A compaction in loose drift or alluvium disk-shaped speleothem standing overlying beds of limestone[10]. 3. Small edgewise at a high angle[10]. 3. A subsidence or doline formed in geologically stable and undisturbed the glacial till overlying limestones in the continental block[16]. northern Pennies. See jama. shilin. A type of pinnacle karst formed on shall sand. Sand containing considerable low plateau of gently dipping limestone; amounts of clay and shale[16]. it is distinguished by densely packed pinnacles up to 25m high, fluted by sharp

167 Rillenkarren. Known only in southern sima. (Spanish.) Natural well that has China, shilin (pronounced sherlin) vertical sides[10]. translates as stone forest[9]. similarity criteria. The conditions shore. The zone of separation between land indicating under what circumstances a and moving water[16]. model and prototype are similar[16].

. A cave that has been made simple hydrograph. A single peaked accessible to the public for guided hydrograph[16]. visits[25]. single outlet. A stream cutting through a sieve analysis. The determination of the divide (tributary basin) or outflow to the particle-size distribution of a soil, sea (major basin)[16]. sediment, or rock by measuring the percentage of the particles that will pass single rope technique. The practice of through standard sieves of various sizes[6]. climbing up and down ropes with the help of ascenders and descenders. sieve opening. The opening between the Abbreviation: SRT. mesh wires of a sieve[16]. sink; sinkhole. (American.) 1. A point sieve retention. The material retained on a where a stream or river disappears sieve[16]. underground. The sinking water may filter through a choke that excludes silicate rock. Rock containing silica in cavers, or may flow into an open predominant proportions[16]. horizontal cave or vertical shaft, and while active all of these may be termed [16] silicic acid. H4SiO4 monomeric acid . sinkholes. The flow of water may be very small, but in full flood many sinkholes

silicon dioxide. Silica (SiO2.) See also swallow flows of tens of cubic meters per quartz. second. The character of sink water (or swallet water, as it is commonly termed Silikatkarren. (German.) and by hydrologists), flowing directly and related rocks that possess small outcrop rapidly into an open cave, distinguishes it sculpturing such as rounded runnels. from percolation water[9]. 2. General They are best developed in the humid terms for closed depressions. They may tropics such as [8]. be basin, funnel, or cylindrical shaped[10]. See also closed depression; doline; ponor; silt. A grain particle with a diameter that stream sink; sumidero; swallet; swallow ranges between 0.005 to 0.05 mm[16]. hole.

silting. The deposition of silt in wells, sinkhole plain. (American.) Plain on which caves, or [16]. most of the local relief is due to closed

168 depressions and nearly all drainage is intermittent springs as the Fontestorbes subterranean[10]. spring in France, and the Ebbing and Flowing Well at Giggleswick Yorkshire. sinkhole pond. (American.) Small lake in Both flow in regular pulses when the closed depression in limestone, due to an siphon is full and working, only to cease impervious clay floor or to intersection of when the siphon input is broken by air, as depression with the water table[10]. See the upstream reservoir level drops. Their doline lake. operation depends on critical flows and both operate only in favorable weather sinking river, sinking stream. A small conditions[9]. 2. Gallery in form of an stream that disappears underground[10]. inverted ‘U’ with water moving only See also lost river; doline; ponor; sink; under pressure when the siphon has sinkhole; stream sink; sumidero; swallet; completely filled up; the water head at the swallow hole. input end being higher than at the drainage point[20]. 3. In speleology, a cave sinter. 1. A rock or deposit formed by passage in which the ceiling dips below a precipitation from natural water, often water surface[10]. Synonyms: (French.) from a hot or cold spring. Calcareous siphon; (German.) Siphon; (Greek.) sinter is calcium carbonate and is also siphon; (Italian.) sifone; (Russian.) sifon; known as tufa, travertine, and onyx (Spanish.) sifon; (Turkish.) sifon; marble. Siliceous sinter is silica and is (Yugoslavian.) sifon, smrk. See also also known as and [20]. 2. water trap. A mineral precipitate deposited by a mineral spring, either hot or cold. site characterization. Means the program Siliceous sinter, consisting of silica, may of exploration and research, both in the be called geyserite and fluorite; cal• laboratory and in the field, undertaken to careous sinter, consisting of calcium establish the geologic conditions and the carbonate, may be called tufa, travertine, ranges of those parameters relevant to a and onyx marble[10]. Synonyms: (French.) particular site. Site characterization concrétion; (German.) Sinter, Kalktuff, includes borings, surface excavations, Travertin; (Greek.) asvestolithikos excavation of exploratory shafts, limited toffos; (Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.) subsurface lateral excavations and otlozenija istocnikov; (Spanish.) borings, and in situ testing at depth concreción; (Turkish.) kaynak tüfü; needed to determine the suitability of the (Yugoslavian.) travertin, sedra, bigar, site for a geologic repository, but does not lehnjak. Related to travertine. include preliminary borings and geophysical testing needed to decide siphon. 1. Synonym for a sump, or a section whether site characterization should be of flooded cave passage, in common undertaken[22]. parlance. True , where water flows first up and then down are rare in skin effect. The effect of the zone of caves, as the fractures in limestone tend reduced permeability immediately around to disrupt the required hydraulics. They are, however, the origin of such

169 the borehole on transient flow phenomena snow cover; snowpack. The accumulated in pumping tests[16]. height of snow covering a given area[16].

skryty karst, zakryty karst. (Russian.) snow line. A line connecting elevations See closed karst. above which snowpack remains throughout the year[16]. skylight. A hole in the roof of a cave passage through to the ground surface. It snow sampler. A tube used for the taking may be an inlet shaft, a section of of cylindrical snow samples through a collapse or a breach due to surface snow profile[16]. lowering[9]. snowdrift. Snow accumulation due to wind slickenside. 1. A polished, commonly transport[16]. striated rock surface within a fault plane, produced due to friction during fault sod. Root system in a soil[16]. movement. The striae give an indication of the fault movement direction[9]. 2. A . 1. Proto-stalactite in which polished fault plane with grooves due to water flow down through the center of the relative motion of fault blocks[16]. straw. Upon entering a vadose cave passage, the change in the sliding. 1. The relative displacement of two of carbon dioxide cause CO2 degassing bodies along a surface, without loss of and the slow precipitation of CaCO3. The contact between the bodies. 2. The straw grows downwards as a result; water downslope movement of rock and earth also flows down the outside of the straw material[16]. causing the stalactite to grow outwards around the straw. 2. American name for sling. A joined loop of rope or tape[25]. straw stalactite[9]. slocker. Local term used in the eastern soddy karst. See subsoil karst. Mendip Hills, England for a swallet or stream sink[9]. sodium. A naturally occurring element (Na). slope. The inclination of a surface[16]. soil aggregate. Loosely cemented cluster of slump pit. A hollow in the clay fill of a soil particles[16]. cave floor caused by erosion beneath the fill[10]. soil air. The air that fills soil and rock interstices above the zone of saturation[10]. [11] smithsonite. A cave mineral — ZnCO3 . soil bulk density. The mass of dry soil per snow. Solid crystalline form of water[16]. unit bulk soil[22].

soil-covered karst. See subsoil karst.

170 soil mechanics. The science of dealing with solid matrix. An assembly of the mechanical properties of soils[16]. interconnected solid mineral grains surrounded by voids[16]. soil moisture. Subsurface liquid water in the unsaturated zone expressed as a solid volume. The volume of solid particles fraction of the total porous medium in a porous sample[16]. volume occupied by water. It is less than or equal to the porosity[22]. solifluction. The slow flowage of mud streams in arctic regions. soil-moisture meter. A device used to record soil moisture in situ[16]. solubility. The total amount of solute species that will remain indefinitely in a soil-moisture suction. The negative pore solution maintained at constant pressure exerted by capillary forces[16]. temperature and pressure in contact with the solid crystals from which the solutes soil profile. A vertical section of the soil were derived[22]. mantle usually with distinguishable soil horizons[16]. solum. The top layers of a soil profile[16].

soil sample. A sample of soil on which soil solute. The substance present in a solution properties are to be determined[16]. in the smaller amount. For convenience, water is generally considered the solvent soil swelling. The volume increase of soil even in ‘concentrated’ solutions with due to swelling of unsaturated clay water molecules in the minority[22]. particles when in contact with water[16]. solute transport. The net flux of solute soil water. See soil moisture. through a hydrogeologic unit controlled by the flow of subsurface water and soil-water pressure. The pressure (positive transport mechanisms[22]. or negative), in relation to the external gas pressure on the soil water, to which a solution. 1. Synonym for dissolution, solution identical in composition with the except that the product of the solution (or soil water must be subjected in order to dissolution) process, is also termed a be in equilibrium through a porous solution, this being a combination of permeable wall with the soil water[22]. liquid and non-liquid (solid or gaseous) components that exists as a liquid[9]. 2. A soilcover. A layer of soil material covering homogeneous mixture of two or more bedrock[16]. components. In ideal solutions, the movement of molecules in charged soilwater zone. The upper portion of the species are independent of each other; in zone of aeration containing soil water[16]. aqueous solutions charged species interact even at very low concentrations, decreasing the activity of the solutes[22].

171 4. The change of matter from a solid or surface expression, filled with debris, gaseous state to a liquid state by such as sand, clay, rock chips, and combination with a liquid[10]. 5. The bones[10]. Synonym: sand pipe. See also result of such change; a liquid geologic organ. combination of a liquid and a nonliquid substance[10]. See corrosion. solution runnel. See Rinnenkarren. solution breccia. A mass of rock composed solution scarp. Escarpment formed by of angular to rounded fragments of rock more active solution of lower area or by that have accumulated by solution of corrosional undercutting of the base of the surrounding or underlying carbonate. See escarpment[10]. also collapse breccia. solution subsidence. 1. Any subsidence solution flutes. See rillenkarren. due to solution of underlying rock but particularly the subsidence of parts of a solution lake. A lake whose origin is formation into hollows or pockets of an attributed largely to solution of under- immediately underlying soluble lying rock. formation[10]. 2. A crater-like doline in rock other than karst limestone, formed solution notch. These form wherever by surface subsidence above solutionally humic soil borders on a very steep or enlarged fissures in a sub-surface karst vertical limestone surface. The rock limestone stratum[19]. Synonyms: becomes undercut by water rich in (French.) affaissement par dissolution;

biogenic CO2. In the cone karst of the (German.) Lösungstaschen, humid tropics, foot caves occur which are Lösungstrichter; (Greek.) katakáthisma over-sized enlargements of solution thiá thialíseos; (Italian.) subsidenza per notches[3]. dissoluzione, subsidenza per suberosione; (Russian.) prosedanie solution pan. Shallow solution basin or vsledstvie rastvorenija; (Spanish.) closed depression formed on bare subsidencia por disolucion; (Turkish.) limestone, generally characterized by flat erime alçalm; (Yugoslavian.) bottom and overhanging sides[10]. The korozivno urusavanje. initial form is a closed hollow created by a humus patch. It may have over-hanging . A system for detecting obstacles by side walls and a flat floor covered by emitting sound and intercepting and algae and small pieces or broken rock. interpreting echoes that bounce back. It is Diameters are rarely greater than 15 cm[3]. used by bats and also by oilbirds and Synonyms: (German.) Kamenitza or some when they fly in the [23] Kamenica, opferkeßel; (British.) panhole; darkness of caves . (Spanish.) tinajita. See Kamenica. sorption. 1. A general term used to solution pipe. A vertical cylindrical hole encompass the process of absorption and [22] attributable to solution, often without adsorption . 2. All processes which remove solutes from the fluid phase and

172 concentrate then on the solid phase of the specific retention, water retaining medium[22]. capacity. The ration of the volume of water that a given body of rock or soil sótano. (Spanish for cellar or .) will hold against the pull of gravity to the Term used in Mexico for deep vertical volume of the body itself. It is usually shafts in limestone, which may or may expressed as a percentage[6]. not lead to a cave[10]. specific storage. The volume of water spangolite. A cave mineral — released from or taken into storage per [11] Cu6Al(SO4)(OH)123H2O . unit volume of the porous medium per unit change in head[6]. species (singular or plural). A group of plants or animals whose members breed specific surface. The ratio of grain particle naturally only with each other and surface to the volume of grain particles[16]. resemble each other more closely than they resemble members of any similar specific yield. The ratio of the volume of group[23]. water that a given mass of saturated rock or soil will yield by gravity to the volume specific capacity. The rate of discharge of of that mass. This ratio is stated as a water from a well per unit of drawdown. percentage[6]. It is commonly expressed as gpm/ft or m3/day/m and varies with pumping test spelean. Of, pertaining to, or related to duration[6]. caves[10]. specific conductance. A measure of the speleogen. A secondary cave structure ability of water to conduct an electrical formed by dissolving, such as a dome pit current expressed in micromhos per or a scallop[10]. centimeter at 25°C[22]. speleogenesis. Although the term literally specific discharge. The rate of discharge of means the birth, origin or mode of ground water per unit area of a porous formation of caves, the full extent of medium measured at right angle to the speleogenesis includes all the changes direction of flow. Synonyms: Darcy that take place between the inception and velocity; seepage velocity. the eventual destruction of an underground drainage system. It includes specific drawdown. The amount of development phases during which the drawdown per unit discharge in a well[16]. active drainage voids are too small to be considered caves as normally defined, as specific gravity. The weight of a particular well as phases when the cave no longer volume of water that a given body of rock functions as a drain, is enlarging only by or soil will hold against the pull of gravity collapse and, eventually, is being totally to the volume of the body itself. It is removed[9]. usually expressed as a percentage[6].

173 speleogenetics. The totality of all processes speleothem. 1. General term for all cave which effect the creation and mineral deposits, embracing all development of natural underground stalactites, flowstone, flowers, etc. Most cavities. These comprise corrosion, are formed of calcite whose precipitation erosion, and incasion, but are also processes, related mainly to carbon influenced by lithology, tectonics, and dioxide levels in the water, are the direct climate. reverse of the dissolution of limestone. Climatic influences on dissolution speleologist. 1. A scientist engaged in the processes ensure that speleothems are study and exploration of caves, their generally larger and more abundant in the environment, and their biota[10]. 2. caves of the wet tropics, which are Explorer of caves, caverns, and other typified by thick stalactites and massive underground openings especially in karst. stalagmites, in contrast to the straws and Caver and potholer are slang terms[20]. of alpine caves[9]. 2. General Synonyms: (French.) spéléologue; term for stalactites, stalagmites, (German.) Höhlenforscher, Speläologe; moonmilk, helictites, and other secondary (Greek.) speleologos; (Italian.) mineral deposits in caves and caverns[20]. speleologo; (Russian.) speleolog; 3. A secondary mineral deposit formed in (Spanish.) espeleólogo; (Turkish.) caves, such as stalactite or stalagmite[10]. speleolo, ma{arabilimci; (Yugoslavian.) Synonyms: (French.) concrétions speleolog, spiljar, jamar. cavernicoles; (German.) Höhlenformation; (Greek.) speleology. 1. Scientific study of caves, speleolithoma; (Italian.) concrezione; including aspects of sciences, such as (Russian.) natecnia obrazovanija; geomorphology, geology, hydrology, (Spanish.) concreción (estalagmítica o chemistry and biology, and also the many estalactítica); (Turkish.) magara techniques of cave exploration[9]. 2. The olu·u{u; (Yugoslavian.) sige. See also scientific study, exploration, and cave formation. description of caves, cave organisms, and related features[10]. 3. The branch of spelunker. See caver. knowledge dealing with the study and exploration of underground caves[20]. 4. spelunking. See caving. Study, exploration, and description of caves, caverns, and other underground spencerite. A cave mineral — [11] cavities in karst and rarely in or Zn4(PO4)2(OH)23H2O . ice[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologie; (German.) Höhlenforschung, sphalerite. A cave mineral — ZnS[11]. Höhlenkunde; (Greek.) speleologhia; (Italian.) speleologia; (Russian.) spillway. A device that allows for the speleologija; (Spanish.) espeleología; escape of excess water[16]. (Turkish.) speleoloji, ma{arabilim; (Yugoslavian.) speleologija, Spitzkarren. (German.) These are isolated peeinarstvo, jamarstvo. projections that may be of a beehive form

174 or may be sharply pointed and tend to lie de esporas; (Turkish.) spor izleyici. See between grikes and the strike ribs of isotope tracer, Lycopodium spores. bedding grikes[8]. See also grike; bedding grike; clint. spring. 1. Point where underground water emerges on to the surface, not exclusive Spitzkegelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst to limestone, but generally larger in topography containing sharply pointed cavernous rocks. The image of a trickle residual limestone hills[10]. of water springing from a hillside hardly matches that of a vast cave pouring forth splash cup. The shallow concavity in the a river, but both are called springs. top of a stalagmite[10]. Among the world’s largest is the Dumanli spring, , with a mean flow of over spongework. 1. Randomly shaped cavities 50 cubic meters per second. Springs may created by undirected phreatic dissolution be exsurgences or resurgences, depending in a massive, essentially homogeneous upon the source of their water, and also limestone. Fine examples occur in may be vauclusian in character[9]. 2. A Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico[9]. 2. An natural outflow of water (or other liquid arrangement of partitioned depressions or gas) at the surface of the land or into found in cave ceilings and walls, and surface water. In some usages. `spring’ is attributed to the differential solution of restricted to the water which outflows, in submerged karst limestones. Larger and other usages the word can refer to the more isolated hollows are known as water, the outlet, or to the locality of the ‘pockets’[19]. outflow[20]. 3. Any natural discharge of water from rock or soil onto the surface of spongework cave pattern. A complex the land or into a body of surface water[10]. maze cave pattern consisting of irregular 4. A discrete place where ground water interconnecting cavities with intricate flows naturally from a rock or the soil perforation of the rock. The cavities may onto the land surface or into a body of be large or small. All spongework surface water[22]. Synonyms: (French.) patterns are non-branching in source; (German.) Quelle; (Greek.) pighi; development and contain profuse (Italian.) sorgente; (Russian.) istocnik; travertine. In map view, these caves often (Spanish.) fuente; (Turkish.) kynak. See appear as an irregular ink blot. also seep. spontaneous potential. See self-potential. spring, artesian. Water flowing under artesian pressure with the potentiometric spore tracer. Dyes spores of the fern, surface above the land surface[16]. Lycopodium clavatum, used to label ground water in karstic terranes. spring, barrier. A subsurface barrier Synonyms: (French.) traceur marqueur; forcing water to rise to ground surface (German.) Sporenmarkierung; (Greek.) and discharge as a spring[16]. lycopodium ichnithetis; (Italian.) tracciante vegetale; (Spanish.) trazador

175 spring, boiling. 1. An uncommon type of spring, ebb-and-flow; ebbing-and-flowing vauclusian spring, where the flow is large well. A spring (flowing well or borehole) enough in a constricted site to form exhibiting periodic variation in volume of turbulence on the surface of the flow; this variation, which may be regular resurgence pool[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A. or irregular, is often attributed in karst variable-discharge artesian spring in regions to siphonic action. Ebb-and-flow which hydrostatic pressure is great springs differ from intermittent springs enough to cause a turbulent or even because the latter can be related to fountain-like discharge[19]. See also blue seasonal variations in rainfall[20]. hole. Synonyms: (French.) source intermittente; (German.) intermittierende Quelle; spring, boundary. A spring located at the (Greek.) pighí ambótidos kai palírrias; boundary between a permeable formation (Italian.) sorgente carsica intermittente; overlying an impermeable substratum[16]. (Russian.) sifonnij istocnik; (Spanish.) manatial intermittente, fuente spring, cave. A spring rising in a cave[10]. intermittente; (Turkish.) so{ultkan kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) periodicni ixvor, periodic spring, contact. A spring formed at the ni izvir. See also spring, periodic. Related intersection of the land surface and a to intermittent spring. permeable water-bearing formation overlying a less permeable formation[16]. spring, drowned. A spring which continues to function as a spring after it has been spring, depression. A spring originating at submerged by rising sea or lake levels or the intersection of the land surface with by subsidence of the ground[20]. the water table[16]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous• aquatique, source noyé; (German.) spring, drowned. A spring which continues submarine Quelle, sublacustre Quelle; to function as a spring after it has become (Greek.) vethisthesa pigi; (Italian.) submerged by rising sea or lake levels or sorgente sommersa; (Russian.) by subsidence of the ground[20]. subakvaljnij istoenik; (Spanish.) fuente Synonyms: (French.) source sous• subacuática; (Turkish.) batik kaynak; aquatique, source noyé; (German.) (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor, potopljeno submarine Quelle, sublacustre Quelle; vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). Related to (Greek.) vethisthesa pigi; (Italian.) sublacustrine spring, submarine spring. sorgente sommersa; (Russian.) subakvaljnij istoenik; (Spanish.) fuente spring, fracture. A spring with its outflow subacuática; (Turkish.) batk kaynak; openings consisting of fractures[16]. (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor, potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). spring, fullflow. A spring that is the sole Related to spring, sublacustrine, spring, drain of an area. submarine. spring, gravity. A spring flowing as a result of gravity[16].

176 spring head . The arcuate cliff spring, overflow. A spring that is part of a surrounding many risings, formed by distributary but which drains only at the progressive headward and cavern level above base flow. collapse. The rapidity of their formation is increased by the cliff-line which spring, perched karst. The emergence of frequently exists already at the lower underground water some where above the margin of the karst area[19]. basement of a calcareous massif caused by the interbedding of an impermeable or spring, intermittent. 1. A karst spring with intermittent perched water table by a pulsating flow, caused by the presence restricting the vertical movement of within the rock of cavities and siphons water, which instead issues from the fed by a subterranean watercourse. When contact[19]. the cavity is full, the siphon is complete and causes a pulse of water to issue from spring, perennial. Stream flowing above the spring. This diminishes or empties land surface throughout the year[16]. the water supply in the cavity and no further water is discharged from the spring, periodic. A spring that shows spring until the system is reactivated. The variation in flow that is either regular or discharge is said to be a reciprocating irregular. It may be due to siphonic spring when a reduced level of flow is action[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source maintained between pulses[19]. 2. A périodique; (German.) Periodische spring flowing at irregular intervals[16]. Quelle, intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.) Synonyms: (French.) source temporaire, periodhiki piyi; (Italian.) sorgente source intermittente; (German.) periodica; (Spanish.) fuente periódica; intermittierende Quelle, periodische (Turkish.) periyodik kaynak; Quelle; (Greek.) thialepousa pege; (Yugoslavian.) periodicini izvor (izvir). (Italian.) sorgente temporanea, sorgente See ebb-and-flow spring. Related to intermittente; (Russian.) intermittent spring. peremezajuscijsja istoenik; (Spanish.) fuente intermitente, fuente temporal; spring, saline. Spring water having a high (Turkish.) kesintili kaynak; salt content[16]. (Yugoslavian.) periodicko vrelo, potajnica, obdobni izvir. Related to spring, seepage. A spring where surface spring, ebb-and-flow; spring, periodic. discharge occurs from numerous small openings[16]. Synonym: filtration spring. spring, karst. A spring emerging from karstified limestone[10]. See also spring, subaqueous. A spring that emergence; exsurgence; resurgence; rise. discharges below the surface of a water body (e.g. ocean, lake, river, or stream)[16]. spring, medicinal. A spring with healing properties[16]. spring, sublacustrine. A spring emerging in the bed of a lake predominantly in karst spring, mineral. A spring having a high areas[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source mineral content.

177 sous lacustre; (German.) spring, valley. Springs occurring at valley Unterwaßerquelle, sublacustre Quelle; sides where the water table intersects the (Greek.) ypovrichios pighi; (Italian.) land surface. sorgente sublacustre; (Russian.) istocnik na dne ozera; (Spanish.) fuente spring, vauclusian; rising, vauclusian. 1. sublacustre; (Turkish.) gölalti kayna{. A type of rising or spring where direct See spring, drowned. drainage from the phreas flows up a flooded cave passage under pressure to spring, submarine. 1. A spring emerging emerge in daylight. The term is best in a sea or lagoon predominantly in karst applied where water rises from a vertical terranes. This is a descriptive term or very steep bedrock passage. Such generally corresponding to the genetic risings are named after the Fontaine de term `drowned spring[20].’ 2. Large Vaucluse in southern France. The River offshore emergence, generally from Sorgue rises from the Fontaine with a cavernous limestone, but in some areas mean flow of 26 cubic meters per second. from beds of lava[10]. Synonyms: Its upper part is steeply inclined, but a (French.) source sous marine; (German.) depth it is vertical. A diver has reached a Untermeeresquelle, Grundquelle, depth of –200m, and a robot reached submarine Quelle; (Greek.) ypothalassia –243m, below which the flooded shaft pighi; (Italian.) sorgente sottomarina; continues[9]. 2. Large karst spring (name (Russian.) submarinnij istocnik; by Fournet, after la Sorgue en Vaucluse, (Spanish.) fuente submarina; (Turkish.) France) characterized by a stream surging denizalti kayna{; (Yugoslavian.) vrulja. up as from a siphon. Also applied to See spring, drowned. karst springs with artesian characteristics[20]. 3. A large spring or spring, thermal. A spring with temperature exsurgence of an underground river, gen• of the spring water above the average erally from limestone, that varies greatly temperature of superficial rock[16]. in output and is impenetrable except with diving apparatus[10]. Synonym: spring, tubular. A spring issuing from a (American.) gushing spring; (French.) round channel such as a tubular source vauclusienne, bouillidou (South passage[16]. of France); (German.) Vauclusequelle, (Riesenquelle); (Greek.) spring, unconformity. A spring issuing at kephalari/vauclusiana pighi; (Italian.) the contact of an aquifer with an sorgente valchiusana; (Russian.) unconformity. vokljuz; (Spanish.) fuente vauclusiana, ojo, heryidero; (Turkish.) basnçcl spring, underflow. A spring that is part of kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) voklisko vrelo, a distributary but which is at lower obrh. See also gushing spring. elevation and preferentially drains base flow. Between it and an overflow spring squeeze. A narrow passage or opening just there may be several underflow-overflow passable with effort. Differs from springs. flattener in that there is little spare space in any direction[10].

178 staff gage. A fixed graduated scale[16]. common speleothem. Though the single 7m long stalactite in Ireland’s Poll an stage. Water surface elevation at a point Ionain is not the world’s longest, it is along a stream, river, lake, etc., above an uniquely spectacular against the dark arbitrary datum[16]. chamber walls[9]. 2. Conical deposit of calcite or aragonite often with a hollow stage-discharge relation. See rating curve. center hanging from the roof of a cave or cavern formed by precipitation of

stage hydrograph. The elevation of stage carbonate due to escape of CO2 from plotted against time[16]. hanging water beads and to evaporation of part of the water[20]. 3. A cylindrical or stage record. Stage discharge relations conical deposit of minerals, generally presented in tabulated form[16]. calcite, formed by dripping water, hanging from the roof of a cave, generally stagmalite. A general term including sta• having a hollow tube at its center. From lactite and stalagmite. Superseded by Greek word meaning exude drops[10]. dripstone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalactite; (German.) Tropfstein, Stalaktit; (Greek.) stagnation point. The foremost point on a stalaktitis; (Italian.) stalattite; (Russian.) streamline dividing an area of pumping stalaktit; (Spanish.) estalactita; depression from a zone of influence in a (Turkish.) sarkt (Yugoslavian.) mosur, tilted aquifer being pumped by a well[16]. viseci kapnik, stalaktit.

stalactite. 1. Speleothem, generally of stalagmite. 1. Speleothem, normally of calcite, formed by dripping water and calcite, formed by upward growth from a hanging from a cave roof. Stalactites cave floor, and therefore the complement embrace an enormous variety of sizes and of a stalactite. Stalagmites form when shapes. They form where percolation dripwater that is still saturated falls from water seeps from a cave ceiling and a cave roof or stalactite and, when or after becomes saturated with respect to calcite it lands, loses more carbon dioxide to the due to loss of carbon dioxide into the cave air, causing precipitation of calcite. cave air. Calcite is precipitated round the They vary in size and shape, from tall thin rim of the water droplet and continued towers to wide domes that grade into deposition creates a hollow tubular straw flowstone, the main controls being drip stalactite (soda straw). Additional rate and height, and saturation levels of deposition of calcite on the outside of the the water. The stalagmites of Aven initial cylinder creates an ordinary Armand, France, are of the multiple tapering stalactite. Almost infinite splash-cup variety while being notably variation in shape may be influenced by slender and up to 30m tall. Spectacularly changes in water flow, cave air chemistry, massive stalagmites occur in the Carlsbad [9] evaporation, temperature or dissolved and Cottonwood Caves of New Mexico . impurities, and by crystal growth 2. Columnar or partly irregular deposit of blocking flow paths. They are the most calcite or aragonite on the floor of a cave or cavern formed by the precipitation of

179 carbonates due to escape of CO2 from steady flow. Flow where the velocity at a water dripping from the roof[20]. 3. A point remains constant with respect to deposit of calcium carbonate rising from time[16]. the floor of a limestone cave, formed by precipitation from a bicarbonate solution steam hole. An opening from a cavity

through loss of CO2. The water drops on through which a current of air charged the stalagmite from above. From Greek with vapor blows upwards and condenses word meaning drip[10]. Synonyms: at the orifice to appear as steam. Such (French.) stalagmite; (German.) openings are an occasional feature in Bodenzapfen, Stalagmit; (Greek.) karst terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) stalagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite; puits à vapeur, puits fumant; (German.) (Russian.) stalagmit; (Spanish.) Dampfschlot; (Greek.) atmotrypa; estalagmita; (Turkish.) dikit; (Spanish.) cavidad fumante; (Turkish.) (Yugoslavian.) óulak, stojegi kapnik, buhar deli{i. stalagmit. See also dripstone. steep. The property of inclination with a stalagmite, capillary. See capillary very steep gradient[16]. stalagmite. steephead. A deeply cut valley, generally standard deviation. A measure of short, terminating at its upslope end in an variability of the square of individual amphitheater, at the foot of which a deviations from their mean[16]. stream may emerge[10]. standing line. A rope of approximately stegamite. A speleothem projecting 0.4375 inches or 11 mm in diameter that upwards from a cave floor in the form of is tied to a solid anchor and is used for a calcite ridge. A medial crack appears descending and ascending[13]. See also along the top of the ridge where water is ascender; knot; mechanical ascender; thought to be forced from the speleothem prusik knot; prusiking. under capillary action[25]. state of solution. The degree to which a stemflow. Rain water flowing down the mineral or rock has gone into solution[16]. stem of plants[16]. static head. See head, static. stereo aerial photographs. Aerial photographs shot in sequence over a static water level. The level of water in a landscape so that when adjoining photos well that is not being affected by are viewed at the proper interpupillary withdrawal of ground water[6]. spacing, features may be seen in three- dimensions. station. A survey point in a chain of such points in a survey[25]. stereogram. A block diagram or three- dimensional diagram[16].

180 stilling well. A well connected to a flowing water a confined hydrogeologic unit stream or spring through a bottom conduit releases from or takes into storage per permitting elevation measures to be taken unit subsurface area of the hydrogeologic in quiescent water[16]. unit per unit change in head.

stomatal transpiration. The transpiration storage gage. A precipitation gage for by escape of water through pores collecting and storing the total amount of (stomata) of leaves[16]. inflowing water to be read at long intervals[16]. stone forest. See shilin. storage in depressions. Water retention in stoping. The upward migration of the surface depressions[16]. ceiling in a passage or room by the action of slabs falling[13]. storativity. See storage coefficient.

storage capacity. 1. The ability of an storm. 1. A disturbance of average aquifer to store water[16]. 2. The capacity meteorological conditions and usually of rivers to store water in their own connected with precipitation[16]. 2. A channel[16]. period of precipitation over a specific drainage basin[16]. storage coefficient. 1. The volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into strath terrace. An erosional remnant of an storage per unit surface area of the aquifer elevated broad river valley[16]. per unit change in head[22]. In a confined aquifer, the water is derived from storage stratification. 1. A depositional structure of with decline in head resulting from an sedimentary rocks in beds and layers[16]. expansion of the water and compression 2. The separation into non-discrete layers of the aquifer. Similarly, water added to of water as a result of chemical, saline, or storage with a rise in head is temperature differences which in turn accommodated partly by compression of create density differences in the water. the water and partly by expansion of the aquifer. In an unconfined aquifer, the stratigraphic column. A graphic means of amount of water so released or accepted representing the various rock types of an is generally negligible compared to the area in a geologic report[13]. amount involved in gravity drainage or filling of pores, hence, in an unconfined stratigraphic sequence. The sequence of aquifer, the storage coefficient is virtually rock types in an area[13]. equal to the specific yield. 2. The volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes stratum. A sedimentary bed or layer[16]. into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head (virtually straw stalactite; straw. 1. The simplest equal to the specific yield in an form of stalactite — a fragile, thin walled unconfined aquifer.) 3. The volume of tube, normally of calcite, which is the

181 diameter of the drops of water that hang See also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole; from its end and continue its growth. sumidero; swallet; swallow hole. Though only about5mm in diameter, straw stalactites (or straws) may grow to stream tube. 1. A cave passage completely great length in clusters of spectacularly filled, now or in the past, with fast- dense profusion, more commonly in caves moving water and whose ceiling and of cooler climates. The length record walls normally show scallops[10]. 2. The may be held by a 6m straw in Easter imaginary space formed between two Cave, . Also known as adjacent streamlines in which flow is straw stalactite or soda straw[9]. 2. Thin constant (assuming steady flow tubular stalactite, generally less than a conditions). Synonyms: (French.) centimeter in diameter and of very great conduite forcée; (German.) length (examples as long as 4 meters); Druckflußrohr; (Greek.) ypóghios also called soda straw[10]. See also soda síranx; (Italian.) condotta forzata; straw; stalactite. (Spanish.) tubo (o conducto) fréatico; (Turkish.) akarsu mecras. See conduit, stream. A body of flowing water[16]. pressure flow tube.

stream bed. The bottom of a stream streamline. A curve that is everywhere covered by water[16]. tangent to the specific discharge vector and indicates the direction of flow at stream development. The ratio of actual every point in a flow domain. tortuous stream length between two points on a straight line connecting these streamtube. A cave passage completely points[16]. filled, or formerly filled, with fast-moving water and whose ceiling and walls stream flow. The total runoff confined in a normally possess scallops[10]. stream and its’ channel[16]. strength. The maximum stress which a stream frequency. Channel frequency; the material can resist without failing for any number of stream segments per unit given type of loading. area[16]. stress. The force acting across a given stream order. The hierarchic order of surface element divided by the area of the stream segments according to element. tributaries[16]. stress, applied. The downward stress stream profile. The elevation of the main imposed at an aquifer boundary. It differs stream bed as a function of distance from from effective stress in that it defines only outflow. the external stress tending to compact a deposit rather than the grain-to-grain stream sink, streamsink. Point at which a stress at any depth within a compacting surface stream sinks into the ground[10]. deposit[21].

182 stress, effective. Stress (pressure) that is deposit has been subjected, and which it borne by and transmitted through the can withstand without undergoing grain-to-grain contacts of a deposit, and additional permanent deformation. Stress thus affects its porosity or void ratio and changes in the range less than the other physical properties. In one- preconsolidation stress produce elastic dimensional compression, effective stress deformations of small magnitude. In fine- is the average grain-to-grain load per unit grained materials, stress increases beyond area in a plane normal to the applied the preconsolidation stress produce much stress. At any given depth, the effective larger deformations that are principally stress is the weight (per unit area) of inelastic (nonrecoverable)[21]. sediments and moisture above the water table, plus the submerged weight (per unit stress, seepage. When water flows through area) of sediments between the water a porous medium, force is transferred table and the specified depth, plus or from the water to the medium by viscous minus the seepage stress (hydrodynamic friction. The force transferred to the drag) produced by downward or upward medium is equal to the loss of hydraulic components, respectively, of water head. This force, called seepage force, is movement through the saturated exerted in the direction of flow[21]. sediments above the specified depth. Thus, effective stress may be regarded as stress, shear. Stress directed parallel the algebraic sum of the two body (tangential) to the surface element across stresses, gravitational stress, and seepage which it acts. stress. Effective stress mal also be regarded as the difference between strike. The direction or azimuth of a geostatic and neutral stress[21]. horizontal line in the plane of an inclined stratum, joint, cleavage plane or other stress, geostatic. The total load per unit planar feature within a rock mass. area of sediments and water above some plane of reference. It is the sum of (1) the strike valley. A valley following the strike effective stress, and (2) the neutral of underlying strata[16]. stress[21]. structure. One of the larger features of a stress, neutral. Fluid pressure exerted rock mass (e.g., bedding, foliation, equally in all directions at a point in a jointing, cleavage, brecciation, etc.). Also saturated deposit by the head of water. the sum total of such features as Neutral pressure is transmitted to the base contrasted with texture. In a broader of the deposit through the pore water, and sense, it refers to the structural features of does not have a measurable influence on an area such as anticlines or synclines. the void ratio or on any other mechanical property of the deposits[21]. structural factor. Features modifying or interrupting the continuity of rock stress, preconsolidation. The maximum types[16]. antecedent effective stress to which a

183 . That part of geology Sub-conduits are an essential part of a dealing with structures formed in continuum of void sizes that extends rocks[16]. between microscopic discontinuities and the largest tube passages[9]. struga. (Slavic.) A corridor formed along a bedding plane in karst country[10]. subcutaneous drain. Discrete percolation drains contained within the epikarst zone stygobite. An aquatic troglobite[23]. and leading to the transitions zone. See also epikarst zone; subcutaneous flow; stygophile. An aquatic troglophile[23]. subcutaneous zone; transition zone.

stygoxene. An aquatic trogloxene[23]. subcutaneous flow. Lateral and vertical flow that occurs within the epikarst zone stylolite. An irregular suture-like boundary under saturated conditions. Lateral flow developed along some bedding planes in distances can exceed hundreds of meters limestones, probably caused by and several meters per day while vertical dissolution under pressure and possibly within discrete percolation drains related in some cases to subsequent (subcutaneous drains) may allow flow inception of speleogenesis[9[. rates in excess of several hundred meters per hour. See also epikarst zone; subaqueous spring. See spring, subcutaneous drain; subcutaneous zone; subaqueous. transition zone.

subaqueous karst. A karst terrane that is subcutaneous zone. Synonym for epikarst covered by a discrete body of water[17]. zone. See epikarstic zone. See also drowned karst; subfluvial karst; submarine karst. subfluvial karst. Karst topography developed beneath a river. See also subartesian well. An artesian well with subaqueous karst. insufficient head to raise water above the land surface[16]. subjacent karst. Karst landscape in non- carbonate rocks due to presence of sub-conduit. Any void, whether of tectonic karstified rocks beneath the surface or dissolutional origin, that is smaller formation[10]. Synonyms: (French.) karst than the accepted defined size of a sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches conduit. Sub-conduits originate under Karstphänomen; (Greek.) ypokímenon inception conditions and enlarge during karst; (Russian.) pokritij karst; (Spanish.) gestation, but many fail to achieve larger karst subyacente; (Turkish.) gizli karst; dimensions when drainage later becomes (Yugoslavian.) pokriven krs (kras). See concentrated along preferred routes. In also interstratal karst. most cases, however, they will continue to function as part of the micro-fissure, or subkutan karst. See subsoil karst. percolation, system within the rock mass.

184 sublacustrine spring. See spring, dissolution or local collapse of caves. sublacustrine. The type of subsidence doline formed by downwashing of the soil cover is better sublimation. The direct conversion of described as a suffosion doline[9]. Also water from its solid state to the vapor known as sinkhole. phase[16]. subsidence/head-decline ratio. The ratio submarine karst. Karst topography between land subsidence and hydraulic developed below the tidal zone. See also head decline in the coarse-grained beds of subaqueous karst. the compacting aquifer system[21]. submarine spring. See spring, submarine. subsoil karst. Karst covered by soil, usually residual soil[17]. Synonyms: subpermafrost karst. Underground karst (British.) soddy karst; (French.) karst vert, in areas of permafrost. Karstification is karst subcutané; (German.) bedeckter due to the solvent action of subpermafrost Karst, bodenbedeckter Karst, grükarst, (or intrapermafrost) water[20]. Synonyms: subkutan karst; (Greek.) ypethaphikon (French.) karst sous-permafrost; karst; (Russian.) zadernovanny karst; (German.) Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst (Spanish.) karst subcutáneo; (Turkish.) ypomonímou paghetoú; (Italian.) toprakalt karst; (Yugoslavian.) carsismo di subpermafrost; (Russian.) pokriveni krs (kras). See also covered podmerzlonij karst, mezmerzlotnij karst; karst. (Spanish.) karst de subpermafrost, karst de intrapermafrost; (Turkish.) don alan subsurface divide. See underground yeralt karst. See permafrost karst. See divide. also intrapermafrost karst. subsurface flow. See subsurface runoff. subpermafrost water. Ground water below the permafrost[16]. subsurface runoff, storm seepage, subsurface flow, subsurface storm flow. subsequent river. 1. A river flowing along Runoff due to infiltrated precipitation the strike of a weak formation[16]. 2. A moving laterally under the surface. tributary to a consequent river[16]. subsurface water. All water that occurs subsidence. Lowering of the surface of the below the land surface[22]. ground because of removal of support. Caused in karst areas by subterranean subterranean. Beneath the land surface[16]. solution or collapse of caves[10]. subterranean cut-off. The diversion subsidence doline. A closed karst underground of a surface watercourse depression formed due to local beneath a surface meander neck, marked subsidence of the surface rocks and/or by a swallow hole on the upstream side soil into cavities formed by widespread

185 and a spring on the downstream side[19]. high solubility they may not survive See also stream piracy. subsequent dissolution by ground water. Even if they survive subsequent subterranean river, subterranean stream. dissolution by ground water. Even if they Underground stream of flowing water in survive at depth, they tend to dissolve as caves and caverns, but not necessarily they are raised nearer to the surface large[10]. See also underground stream. following uplift and erosion of overburden. Removal of sulfates by suction. See moisture tension. dissolution may contribute to the early establishment of secondary permeability suffosion. Undermining through removal of in limestone sequences. Sulfate solutions sediment by mechanical and corrosional have a limited corrosional effect upon action of underground water[20]. calcium carbonate, but may also be Synonyms: (French.) soutirage karstique; oxidized to produce sulphuric acid, which (German.) Anzapfung; (Greek.) is highly corrosive of limestone. ypoghion thiavrosis; (Russian.) suffozija; (Spanish.) sufosión; (Turkish.) sulfate-reduction karst. Karst topography karstik yeraltsuyu kazmas; developed in the subsurface where (Yugoslavian.) sufozija. solution of bedrock is chiefly a result of sulfate reduction by petroleum suffosion doline. More accurate synonym hydrocarbons aided by bacterial processes for a type of subsidence doline, indicating that oxidize hydrocarbons to yield carbon formation by the suffosion, or dioxide. Little, if any of the water that downwashing, of the soil into an dissolves the rock is meteoric[17]. underlying fissure[9]. Also known as shakehole. sulfide. A mineral compound characterized by the linkage of sulfur with a metal or sulfate. A mineral compound characterized semimetal, such as galena, PbS, or pyrite, 2– [1] by the sulfate radical SO4 . Anhydrous FeS2 . See also gypsum and pyrite. sulfates, such as barite, BaSO4, have divalent cations linked to the sulfate sulfide minerals. Minerals that are radical; hydrous and basic sulfates, such composed of one or more metals

as gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O, contain water combined with sulphur. The most molecules[1]. common is pyrite. They are believed to be produced by the metabolic action of sulfate minerals. Minerals containing the micro-organisms, and are found in many 2– SO4 radical, formed by precipitation sedimentary rocks, usually in trace from water. The most common are the amounts. anhydrous and hydrated calcium sulfates,

anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum sumidero. (Spanish.) 1. A swallow hole. 2. (CaSO4.2H2O). Sulfates are deposited as In Latin America, any closed depression a generally minor component of most caused by solution[10]. carbonate successions, but due to their

186 summation curve. A curve of cumulated superimposed valley. A valley established values[16]. on the land surface with a pattern that is independent of the underlying rock summit. The highest point of a structure. physiographic feature[16]. supersaturated. Referring to water that has sump. 1. In caves a sump is a section of more limestone or other karst rock in flooded passage. This may be a perched solution than the maximum sump, probably quite short, within a corresponding to normal conditions[25]. vadose cave and created by a local reverse passage gradient. Alternatively it may be supersaturation. A liquid that is over a major feature, where a cave passage saturated with respect to whatever descends below the regional water table particles may be contained in the fluid. into the phreas, as is common at the lower end of many cave systems. Some short suprapermafrost karst. Surface karst in sumps can be dived without the use of areas or permafrost. Karstification is due breathing apparatus, but most are to the solvent action of suprapermafrost restricted to exploration by cave divers. water[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst Logistics are a barrier to endless sump suprapermafrost; (German.) penetrations, but some have now been Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst epi explored for many kilometers in length, monímou paghetoú; (Italian.) carsismo notable in Cocklebiddy Cave, Australia, superficiale di permafrost; (Russian.) the Nohoch Nah Chich and other great nadmerzlotnij karst; (Spanish.) karst de flooded systems in Mexico’s Yucatan, suprapermafrost; (Turkish.) don alan and behind Keld Head in Yorkshire[9]. 2. yüzey karst. See also permafrost karst. A pool of underground water or point on an underground stream that has a suprapermafrost water. Ground water submerged extension, the nature of which above permafrost[16]. has not been determined[10]. 3. A place where the ceiling of a passage drops to surf karren. Surf karren form along marine and below water level in a cave, leaving limestone and dolomite coasts where the no air space with the cave passage surf sprays water onto abrasion surfaces continuing underwater[13]. 4. A water that lie slightly above normal sea level. trap. They are a result of corrosion caused by the mixing of sea- and rainwater, but do . An acid (H2SO4). not exist under the sea surface as seawater is not limestone-corrosive. Beyond the splashwater zone the karren are much less sunken pan. An evaporation pan buried in sharp[3]. the ground for equal elevation of the water surface with the ground surface[16]. surfactant. A substance capable of reducing the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved. Used in air-based

187 drilling fluids to produce foam, and surface water. Water obtained from surface during well development to disaggregate supplies[16]. clays[6]. are now being considered for the purpose of aquifer survey. In caving, the measurement of remediation by helping disperse directions and distances between survey immiscible contaminants. points and of cave details from them, and the plotting of cave plans and sections surface detention. Sheet flow of water in from these measurements either overland flow before a channel is graphically or after computation of reached[16]. coordinates[25].

surface entry. An opening immediately at susica. Yugoslavian term for intermittent the land surface that permits infiltration to stream or river in a karst terrane in which take place[16]. the water diverts and soaks gradually into the karst ground-water system[20]. See surface film. A monomolecular film of also intermittent river. organic compounds forming on water or grain surfaces[16]. suspended load. Detrital matter being transported in suspension by a moving surface mapping. The topographic and stream[16]. geodetic mapping of an area[16]. suspended matter. Solid matter small surface mine. Strip mine[16]. enough to be held in suspension by moving or stagnant water[16]. surface retention. Water held on land surface[16]. suspended water. See vadose water. surface runoff. That part of runoff sustained yield. The rate at which water traveling over the ground surface and can be withdrawn from an aquifer without through channels[16]. depleting the supply[16].

surface seepage. Surface discharge of clinometer®. A small, handheld ground water not important enough to pendulum clinometer commonly used in form a rivulet[16]. cave survey[25].

surface spreading. A method of artificial suunto compass®. A small, handheld recharge of water to an aquifer by sighting compass commonly used in cave spreading on a surface[16]. survey[25].

surface tension. The free specific surface swale. A marshy depression or depression energy occurring at the interface between in a ground moraine[16]. a liquid and its own vapor phase[16].

188 swallet, swallow hole. (British.) A place syngenite. A cave mineral — [11] where water disappears underground in a K2Ca(SO4)2H2O . limestone region. A swallow hole generally implies water loss in a closed synoptic network. A network of first order depression or blind valley, whereas a stations permitting the regular observation swallet may refer to water loss into of weather for all points at the same alluvium at a streambed, even though time[16]. there is no depression[10]. See also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole; stream sink; synthetic unit hydrograph. A unit sumidero. hydrograph constructed by assuming the reaction of a drainage basin will be based swelling. The volume increase due to intake on its physical characteristics[16]. and absorption of water, especially clays[16].

swelling rate. The time rate of volume increase[16].

swirlhole. A hole in rock in a streambed eroded by eddying water, with or without sand or pebble tools[25].

synclinal valley. A valley following the axis of a syncline[16]. syncline. Downfolded stratum[16].

syngenetic karst. 1. Karst developed contemporaneously with the lithification of the formation, as in eolian calcarenite where lithification and karstification of dune may proceed simultaneously[10]. 2. Karst landforms that developed upon young, porous carbonate rocks, such as aeolianites, as they underwent lithification[9]. Synonyms: (French.) karst syngénétique; (German.) Syngenetischer Karst; (Greek.) synegeticon karst; (Italian.) carsismo singenetico; (Spanish.) karst singenético; (Turkish.) e·türümlü karst; (Yugoslavian.) singenetski krs (kras).

189 T (Turkish.) tektonik karst; (Yugoslavian.) tektokrs, tektokras, tektokarst. table mountain. A flat topped mountain (mesa)[16]. tectonic. Pertaining to structural features due to the deformation of the crust[16]. tafoni. Roughly hemispherical hollows weathered in rock either at the surface or tectonic cave. A cave formed by some form in caves[25]. of ground movement. The most common is due to landsliding in a jointed rock, tagging. Affixing a metal tag bearing a cave leaving an open fissure cave parallel to number near its entrance, normally by means the line of the hillside along the back of of rock drill and a small nail[25]. the slipped block. Tectonic caves can form in any rock, as they do not depend tailwater. The lower course of a river with on dissolution. Well known examples are respect to a given point of structure[16]. the windypit fissures of north-east Yorkshire, England some of which are talus cone. A cone-like collection of hundreds of meters long and up to 60m [9] disintegrated rock material originating deep . from and adjacent to a steeper slope[16]. tectonic valley. A valley formed by tectonic [16] tape. 1. In survey, a graduated tape of steel, forces . plastic, wire-reinforced cloth, or fibreglass, used for measuring distance. temperature efficiency. An efficiency 2. Strips of woven synthetic fibre used for factor defined by Thornthwaite for slings and waist bands[25]. different climates. See also Thornthwaite. taranakite. A cave mineral — [11] temperature log. A recording curve of KAl3(PO4)3(OH)9H2O . ground-water temperature in a well[16]. tarbuttite. A cave mineral — [11] temporary hardness. See carbonate Zn2(PO4)(OH) . hardness. taylorite. A cave mineral — [11] [11] tenorite. A cave mineral — CuO . (K,NH4)2SO4 . tectokarst. Karst formed under the strong tensiometer. A device used to measure the influence of tectonic disturbances. The moisture tension in the unsaturated [22] term is indefinite and its use is not zone . generally recommended[20]. Synonyms: (French.) tectokarst; (German.) . A glacial deposit [16] Tektonischer Karst; (Greek.) tektonikon accumulated in front of a glacier . karst; (Russian.) karst zon tektoniceskih razlomov; (Spanish.) tectokarst;

190 terra rossa. 1. Reddish-brown soil texture. The arrangement in space of the mantling limestone bedrock; may be components of a rock body and of the residual in some places[10]. 2. Insoluble boundaries between these components[16]. residuum of a reddish-brown color left behind when carbonate rocks weather thalweg. A line of maximum depth of under Mediterranean or allied climatical stream cross section[16]. conditions[20]. Synonyms: (French.) terra rossa; (German.) Kalksteinroterde; Theis equation. The nonequilibrium (Greek.) erythroghi; (Italian.) terra equation of radial flow towards a well[16]. rossa; (Russian.) terra-rossa; (Spanish.) [11] terra rossa; (Turkish.) kzl toprak, thenardite. A cave mineral — Na2SO4 . terrarosa; (Yugoslavian.) crvenica, jerina, jerovica. thermal spring. See spring, thermal.

terrace. A flat surface bounded by steplike thermal stratification. The stratification of [16] steep slopes . water in reservoirs due to thermal-density differences[16]. terraced flowstone. Shallow rimstone [10] pools on outward-sloping walls . See . An intermediate layer in also rimstone barrage; rimstone barrier; stratified water[16]. rimstone dam; constructive waterfall. thermocouple. A temperature measuring terrain. An area with some specific device based on the proportionality characteristics. Reserved for surficial between thermoelectric current and features only. Contrast with terrane. temperature difference between thermojunctions[16]. terrane. An area with some specific [16] characteristics . Includes both surface thermokarst. 1. A pitted periglacial or and subsurface features. Contrast with former periglacial surface in superficial terrain. deposits, produced by settling or caving of the ground after melting of ground terrestrial. Living on land. Not to be ice[10]. 2. A term applied to topographic confused with "epigean." Terrestrial cave depressions in karstic terranes resulting animals include blind beetles, rnillipedes, from the thawing of ice. See cryokarst. spiders, and crickets[23]. See also aquatic. thermokarst pit. Steep-walled depression tertiary porosity. See porosity, tertiary. formed by thermokarst processes[10].

test hole. A hole to test the depth of ground thickness. The perpendicular distance water, water quality, or geological between bounding surfaces such as [16] conditions . bedding or foliation planes of a rock.

191 thief zone. The zone through which drilling tidal river. A river strongly influenced and fluid is lost into a formation through the subject to tidal currents[16]. borehole wall[16]. tidewell. See spring, ebb-and-flow. Thiem equation. The equation that describes steady-state equilibrium radial tightest packing. An arrangement of flow into a well[16]. particles allowing only minimum void space a unit cell of a sample[16]. thixotropy. The property of a gel to become fluid under application of shear till. Predominantly unsorted and unstratified stresses[16]. drift, generally unconsolidated, deposited directly by and underneath a glacier thread. A natural hole through a rope, tape without subsequent reworking by or wire can be passed to create an meltwater, and consisting of a anchor[25]. heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders ranging widely in threshold. That part of a cave system to size and shape[6]. which light penetrates in some degree[10]. tilted aquifer. A dipping aquifer[16]. threshold saturation. Saturation below which no flow occurs[16]. time base. The sum of storm duration time and concentration time in a through cave. Cave through which a hydrograph[16]. stream runs from entrance to exit or formerly did so[10]. Synonym: (German). time-drawdown curve. A plot of Durchgangshöhle. drawdown variation with time[16].

throughfall. A part of precipitation that time lag. The time elapsed between the reaches ground by falling through onset of a certain event and the reaction to vegetative cover[16]. this event[16]. throw. The vertical displacement of stratum time of concentration. The time required along a fault plane[16]. for surface runoff produced in the farthest part of a basin to reach a concentration thrust; thrust fault. A generally gently point under consideration[16]. dipping or subhorizontal fault plane where the relative movement has been time of rise. The time between the first essentially horizontal, with one rock arrival of runoff and arrival of the peak sequence being pushed across and above flow[16]. another. Some cave development in the Traligill area of north-west Scotland has tinajita. (Spanish.) See solution pan. been guided by thrust planes[9].

192 tinticite. A cave mineral — total dissolved solids, TDS. 1. The total [11] Fe6(PO4)4(OH)67H2O . concentration of dissolved constituents in solution, usually expressed in milligrams toadstone. Local term in the , per liter[22]. 2. The total concentration of England for lavas, tuffs and igneous dissolved material in water [as] ordinarily intrusions within the local Carboniferous determined from the weight of the dry carbonate sequence. residue remaining after evaporation of the volatile portion of an aliquot of the water topofil. A mechanical cave survey device sample[22]. that uses a roll of thread and a distance counter, a protractor to measure total hydraulic head. See head, total. inclination and a compass to measure the bearing[25]. total pore space. The sum of interconnected and noninterconnected topographic divide. A crest line dividing pore space[16]. one drainage basin from another[16]. See also divide. total runoff. The sum of all components of runoff into a stream[16]. topographic map. A map representing the land surface via the use of contour lines total soil-water potential. The sum of the which are lines of equal elevation on the energy-related components of a soil-water earth’s surface. Synonym: topo map. system; i.e., the sum of the gravitational, matric, and osmotic components[22]. topography. The physical features of a geographical area[16]. tourelle. (French.) A little tower; applied to small flat-topped of limestone in topsoil. The topmost portion of a soil karst areas. Contrasted with pitons, profile[16]. which have pointed tops, and with coupoles, which have rounded tops[10]. torca. (Spanish.) Large closed depression, more or less circular; a doline[10]. tower karst, towerkarst, turmkarst. 1. A spectacular variety of karst landscape torricellian chamber. A submerged air-- dominated by steep or vertical sided filled chamber of a cave at a pressure limestone towers each 30–300m high. By below atmospheric pressure, sealed by far the most extensive and best developed water, having an air-water surface above tower karst is the Guangxi province of that of adjacent free air-water surfaces[10]. southern China. Towers originate as residual cones and are then steepened by tortuosity. The ratio of actual length of water table undercutting from surround pore channel to over all length of sample. alluviated plains. Tectonic uplift matched The sinuosity of actual flow path in a by karst erosion then increases tower porous medium[16]. heights, but if uplift exceeds surface lowering the towers are raised to hillside

193 locations and the landscape is rejuvenated of dye and measuring its concentration to form a new generation of dolines and after mixing[25]. Consists of either the cone karst. Many towers are riddled with tracer-dilution method or the tracer- relict caves at high levels, and with active velocity method (salt-velocity method). caves through their bases[9]. 2. Karst Synonym: dye gaging. topography characterized by isolated residual limestone hills displaying traction load. See bed load. numerous shapes (e.g., cone shaped, steep-sided) separated by areas of allu- tranquil flow. Open channel flow with vium or other detrital sand; towers are Froude number smaller than unity[16]. generally forest-covered hills, and many have flat tops. They may form as isolated transgression. The spreading of the sea hills or in groups. 3. A type of karst over level areas[16]. topography, common in the tropics, in which the residual hills rise in steep-sided transient. A pulse dampened oscillation or but flat-topped mounds (resembling other temporary phenomena occurring in towers) from intervening depressions or a system prior to reaching a steady-state dolinas (sinkholes)[20]. Synonyms: condition[22]. See flow, unsteady. (French.) karst à tourelles, karst à tours; (German.) Turmkarst, Kegelkarst; transition zone. 1. Portion of bedrock in (Italian.) carsismo con forme residuali a the vadose zone that is between the torre; (Spanish.) karst de torres; epikarst zone and the phreatic zone, is (Turkish.) kuleli karst. See also cone relatively waterless and unfractured, but karst; cupola karst; pinnacle karst; is locally breached by discrete percolation fengcong; fenglin. points (vadose shafts.) 2. The zone in which the properties of two adjacent units trace. A short length of wire with fasteners change gradually (freshwater/saltwater). used for attaching ladders and ropes to an See also epikarst zone; subcutaneous anchor[25]. drain; subcutaneous flow; subcutaneous zone; vadose caves; vadose shafts. tracers. Materials, such as chemicals, dyes, radioactive salts, and light insoluble transit time; travel time. The travel time solids introduced into underground waters of a sonic impulse through a given length to determine points of egress of the water of rock[16]. and its velocity[10]. transmission capacity. The property of a tracer-flow method. A method of porous medium to conduct fluid[16]. determining flow velocities and directions by introducing tracers or indicators into transmissibility coefficient. The use of the ground water[16]. term transmissibility has been replaced by transmissivity[22]. See transmissivity. tracer gaging. Determining stream discharge by inserting a known quantity

194 transmissivity. The rate at which water of traverse. 1. The commonest form of cave the prevailing kinematic viscosity is survey in which direction, distance and transmitted through a unit width of an vertical angle between successive points aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient[6]. are measured. 2. A way along ledges Though spoken of as a property of the above the floor of a cave. 3. To move aquifer, it embodies the saturated along such a way[25]. thickness and the properties of the contained liquid as well. It is equal to an travertine. 1. Hard calcareous mineral integration of the hydraulic conductivities deposited by flowing water, that is the across the saturated part of the aquifer same as the calcareous variety of sinter perpendicular to the flow paths[22]. and comparable to the softer tufa. The term is normally used only for deposits transpiration. The process by which water formed outside caves, where plants and absorbed by plants, usually through the algae cause the precipitation by extracting roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere carbon dioxide from the water and give from the plant surface[6]. travertine its porous structure. Travertine forms most commonly on that transpiration depth. The depth of water build up like gour dams. Famous consumed annually by plants[16]. examples include those at Plitvice in Croatia, Dunn’s River Falls in Jamaica, transpiration ratio. The ratio of water and, largest of all, Band-I-Amir in weight transpired to weight of dry matter Afghanistan[9]. 2. Calcium carbonate, [16] produced . CaCO3, light in color and generally concretionary and compact, deposited transport. Conveyance of solutes and from solution in ground and surface particulates in flow systems. See also waters. Extremely porous or cellular solute transport; particulate transport[22]. varieties are known as calcareous tufa, calcareous sinter, or spring deposit. transportational process. All processes Compact banded varieties, capable of contributing to the transport of eroded taking a polish, are called onyx marble or material[16]. cave onyx[10]. 3. Generally compact calcium carbonate rock formed by transverse permeability. See permeability, precipitation of soluble bicarbonates transverse. when equilibrium is lost due to changes in temperature and chemical characteristics. transverse wave. A wave generated by Soft, porous variety is called calcareous shearing displacement where wave tufa[20]. Synonyms: (French.) travertin; motion is perpendicular to direction of (German.) Kalktuff, Sinter, Travertin; propagation[16]. (Greek.) travertinis/asvestolithikos toffos; (Italian.) travertino; (Russian.) trap. See siphon; sump; water trap. travertin; (Spanish.) travertino, toba; (Turkish.) traverten, suta·; (Yugoslavian.) sedra, travertin, bigar, lehnjak. Related to sinter and tufa.

195 travertine terraces. Terraces and related tritium. A short-lived isotope of hydrogen forms covered or composed of carbonates ( = 12.43 y) that is directly incorporated precipitated from water. Such into the water molecule as 1H3HO or precipitation is usually from saturated 1HTO [24]. Commonly used for tracing bicarbonate waters (as from karst) when ground water and for age dating of ground they enter a zone of turbulent flow[20]. water[16]. See also radioisotope; Synonyms: (French.) terrasse de radioactive tracer; tracers. travertin; (German.) Travertin-Terraße; (Greek.) anavathmos travertinou; Trittkarren. (German.) These are best (Italian.) spianata di travertino; described as heel-print karren because (Spanish.) terrazas travertínicas; they resemble the imprint of a heel. They (Turkish.) suta· traçalar; are nearly connected with subhorizontal, (Yugoslavian.) slapovi. See also adjacent, flat plains and migrate upslope constructive waterfall. by cutting ‘steps’ through the process of retrogressive corrosion. The semi- trellis. A geometrical arrangement of an circular form is preserved by the interwoven pattern[16]. ‘horseshoe falls effect’ which concentrates the main amount of water on trellis drainage pattern. A arrangement of the innermost part of the heel-print. At stream and tributaries in a rectangular the upper rim the water gain speed. The fashion[16]. thickness of the film of water is indirectly proportional to the speed of the flow. A tributary. A stream contributing its waters higher rate of flow results in a greater to another stream of higher order[16]. effectiveness of fresh precipitation added to the flow on the ground, but it also tributary river. A smaller stream entering causes the diffusion of atmospheric CO2 and contributing to the flow of a larger and more extensive corrosion. Most river[16]. Trittkarren originate at the rim of a grike lying below and have moved upward to tributary valley. A less important valley the surface through retrogressive joining a larger valley[16]. corrosion. At the base of steep slopes where snow collects, nearly funnel- tri-cam. A metalic devise placed in holes or shaped Trittkarren appear and are of cracks for use as an anchor[25]. Compare subnival origin. They are common in the chock Alps[3]. Synonym: heel-print karren. triple point. A point at which the solid, trough. A depression usually on the land liquid, and vapor phases are in surface, but can be found to occur in equilibrium[16]. ground water. tripoly. A very fine grained silica sand[16]. troglobite. 1. An animal living permanently underground in the dark zone of caves and only accidentally leaving it[10]. 2. A

196 creature that is fully adapted to life in true velocity. Ground-water flow velocity total darkness and can only complete its in porous interstice or cavernous life cycle underground[13]. 3. A creature opening[16]. that lives permanently underground beyond the daylight zone of a cave. True North. The direction of the Many troglobitic species are adapted in geographical north pole at a place[25]. some way to living in a totally dark environment. Synonyms: (French.) truncation. A horizontal or vertical clean troglobie; (German.) Troglobiont; cut through a topographic feature[16]. (Greek.) troglothitis; (Italian.) troglobio; (Russian.) troglobiont; (Spanish.) tsingi. Type of pinnacle karst found on troglobio; (Turkish.) troglobit, kör balk. limestone in [9]. troglodyte. A human cave-dweller[10]. tube, lava. See lava cave. Examples would be early ‘cave man’. tubular passage; tube; tube passage. 1. troglomorphy. The physical characteristics Cave passage formed by approximately of a troglobite or stygobite; e.g., reduced equal dissolution all round when full of eyes and pigment, elongated appendages, flowing water within the phreas. Relict well-developed tactile and olfactory tubes, abandoned as the water table was organs, etc[23]. lowered, are common in old caves, and may be partially filled by sediment, troglophile. 1. "Cave lover." An animal breakdown or stalagmite, or entrenched to that can complete its life cycle in caves, form keyhole passages. Tube sizes range but may also do so in suitable habitats to over 15m in diameter, but the larger outside caves[23]. ones are rarely of uniform section. Peak Cavern in Derbyshire is well known for troglophobe. An animal or person unable its fine circular phreatic tubes. Some of physically or psychologically to enter the the trunk passages of Mammoth Cave, dark zone of a cave or other underground Kentucky, are spectacular tubes of area[10]. elliptical section, formed by dissolution rates that were higher along the bedding trogloxene. 1. "Cave visitor." An animal than across[9]. 2. These are nearly that habitually enters caves, but must horizontal cave passages (tunnels) with return periodically to the surface for round or elliptical cross sections and are certain of its living requirements, usually either straight or winding. At Mammoth food[23]. Cave they vary in size up to 30 feet high and nearly 100 feet wide. They are trophic levels. Feeding levels in a food formed while completely filled with chain, such as producers, herbivores, and flowing water. Whereas they are typically so on. Most food chains include a wider than high as a result of dissolution maximum of four or five trophic levels[23]. along horizontal cracks and bedding- plane partings, they may also form as

197 high, narrow, straight fissures along appropriate. See also laminar flow; major vertical or near vertical fractures[15]. Reynolds Number; turbulent threshold. See also canyon passage; keyhole passage; passage; vertical shaft. turbulent threshold. The limiting value of sub-conduit size, below which water flow tubular spring. See spring, tubular. is essentially laminar and above which water flow includes a significant turbulent tufa. Soft, porous concretions of carbonate component. Sub-conduit diameters reprecipitated from saturated karst water, between 5mm and 15mm have been often around plants[22]. See also sinter; suggested as the minimum for turbulent travertine. flow, but the value depends upon a variety of factors, including the flow tunnel. See natural tunnel. velocity; at low flow velocities laminar flow conditions may persist in tubes up to turanite. A cave mineral — 500mm in diameter[9]. See also laminar [11] Cu5(VO4)2(OH)4 . flow; Reynolds Number; turbulent flow.

. A diminishing of light turlough. (Irish.) 1. A karst depression that penetration through a water sample due to may be dry or flooded according to season suspended and colloidal materials. or prevailing weather conditions; derived from the Irish term for ‘dry lake’. turbulence. An irregular motion of fluid Oscillations in the general ground-water particles in an inertia dominated flow level, including variations in response to regimen[16]. local or more distant tidal effects are the probable mechanism for water level turbulent flow. 1. Type of flow that begins changes in the true turloughs. Effects that to develop in a dissolutional sub-conduit appear similar can be produced by high as its diameter increases to the point surface runoff into a closed depression where differences between flow velocity with only restricted capacity for the at the bounding wall (slowed due to drainage to sink underground[9]. 2. A friction and adhesion) and the maximum depression in limestone or in glacial drift velocity in the tube’s center are sufficient over limestone that is liable to flood to cause development of eddies within the either from excess surface runoff or from flowing water[9]. 2. The flow condition in rising ground water. From the Irish which inertial forces predominate over words tuar loch, meaning dry lake[10]. viscous forces and in which head loss is not linearly related to velocity[22]. It is Turmkarst. (German.) See tower karst. typical of flow in surface-water bodies and subsurface conduits in karst terranes twilight zone. The area of a cave where provided that the conduits have a light penetrating through the entrance is minimum diameter of approximately sufficient to permit human vision[23]. See 2–5mm although some research has also zonation. suggested that 5–15 mm may be more

198 type curve. A plot of the theoretical well function verses the lower limit of the integral in Theis’ graphical solution method[16]. Numerous variations of Theis’ original work have been developed for which type curves readily exist. tyuyamunite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2nH2O .

199 U underdrainage. The drainage from under a hydrologic feature such as a river, barrier, unaltered rock. Rock that has not lake, etc. experienced physical or chemical erosion[16]. underfit stream. A small stream that flows along a cave passage that was enlarged to unconfined. A condition in which the its current size by an earlier, larger upper surface of the zone of saturation stream. Commonly underfit streams are forms a water table under atmospheric found flowing under vadose conditions pressure[22]. along the floors of drained phreatic tubes, long abandoned by the phreatic flow that unconfined aquifer. An aquifer where the enlarged them. Underfit streams may also water table is exposed to the atmosphere occur if the major flow in a vadose through openings in the overlying streamway is captured to lower levels by materials. the opening of a new shaft. The main flow no longer uses the downstream unconfined flow. Ground-water flow passages, leaving any tributaries to [9] displaying a free surface[16]. amalgamate as an underfit stream .

unconfined water. Ground water vertically underflow. Deep phreatic flow within an in direct contact with the atmosphere[16]. aquifer, along flow lines that are largely unrelated to the more obvious flow at unconformity. A fossil land surface higher levels. Underflow drainage may representing the absence of a sequence of be slower than that in shallower systems, sediments[16]. and may travel towards more distant and/or unrelated springs[9]. unconformity spring. See spring, unconformity. underground divide. Subsurface watershed between two catchment areas uncontaminated zone. In electrical logging in karst; often with incongruent with the [20] practice, the zone around a borehole that surface topography of the area . has not become contaminated by mud Synonyms: (French.) ligne de partage des filtrate[16]. eaux souterraines, limit souterrainne; (German.) unterirdische Waßerscheide; undercut karren. These are Rinnenkarren (Greek.) ypoghios ythroketis; (Italian.) (solution grooves) that have been spartiacque sotterraneo; (Russian.) transformed by humus filling and by their vodorazdel podzemnih vod; (Spanish.) side walls having been hollowed under by divisoria subterránea; (Turkish.) yeralt su bölümü; (Yugoslavian.) podzemna biogenic CO [3]. 2 razvodnica, podzemna vododelnica. See also subsurface divide. underflow spring. See spring, underflow.

200 underground river, underground stream. unsaturated coefficient of permeability. Water flowing in channels through caves, The apparent coefficient of permeability caverns, and larger galleries in karst in flow through an unsaturated terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) rivière medium[16]. souterraine; (German.) Höhlenfluß, unterirdischer Fluß; (Greek.) ypoghios unsaturated flow. 1. The movement of roe, potamos; (Italian.) fiume water in a porous medium in which the sotterraneo; (Russian.) podzemnaja pore spaces are not filled to capacity with reka; (Spanish.) río subterráneo; water[22]. 2. Two phase flow through (Turkish.) yeralt nehri, deresi; pores only partially filled with water and (Yugoslavian.) podzemni tok, podzemna air[16]. rijka, podzemna reka. See subterranean river. unsaturated zone. See vadose zone and zone of aeration. underground waters. All subsurface [16] waters . Not to be confused with unsteady flow. Flow with a finite local ground water which specifically refers to acceleration term and streamlines that water within the phreatic zone. vary with time[16]. uniaxial (unconfined) compression. unterirdische karst. See interstratal karst. Compression caused by the application of normal stress in a single direction. upconing. Process by which saline water underlying freshwater in an aquifer rises uniaxial state of stress. The state of stress upward into the freshwater zone as a in which two of the three principles result of pumping water from the stresses are zero. freshwater zone[22]. uniform flow. Flow with constant velocity uplift. 1. The hydrostatic force of water [16] at all points and at all times . exerted on or underneath a structure tending to cause a displacement of the uniformity coefficient. A numerical structure. 2. The relative upward expression of the variety in particle sizes movement of a part of the earth’s crust[16]. in mixed natural soils, defined as the ratio of the sieve size on which 40% (by upper confining bed. An impermeable bed weight) of the material is retained to the overlying an aquifer[16]. sieve size on which 90% of the material is [6] retained . upside-down channel. See ceiling channel. unit-hydrograph. A hypothetical discharge urkarst. See buried karst. hydrograph for a given point resulting from unit rainfall which produces unit uvala. 1. A multi-coned closed depression; [16] runoff . now little-used term of Croat, Serb or Bulgarian origin. The term was

201 introduced to describe features assumed to be the second step in a 3-stage process of polje development, in which dolines were supposed to coalesce into uvalas. This mechanism is no longer accepted and the term uvala has fallen into disuse[9]. 2. Large closed depression formed by the coalescence of several dolines which have enlarged towards each other. Typically, the floor is irregular, being a combination of doline floors and degraded slopes of the individual hollows[19]. 3. A Yugoslavian term for an elongated closed depression in karst that is commonly dry or with periodical small sinking streams or inundations. They are generally a few hundred meters long and may be considered as a small polje[20]. Synonyms: (American.) compound doline; (French.) cuvala; (German.) Uvala; (Greek.) ouvala; (Italian.) avvalamento carsico, uvala; (Russian.) uvala; (Spanish.) uvala; (Turkish.) koyak; kokurdan; (Yugoslavian.) draga. See also canyon; karst valley; valley sink. Related to polje.

202 V deep to hundreds and over a thousand of feet deep. They commonly occur as vadose cave. 1. A cave that underwent most complexes. A drain hole is usually of its development above the water table. evident at their base. See also vertical Within the vadose zone, drainage is free- shaft. flowing under gravity, and cave passages therefore have air above any water vadose water. 1. That part of the surface. The gravitational control of underground water in a karst limestone vadose flow means that all vadose cave which circulates freely under gravity passages drain downslope, they exist in above the level of saturation - the vadose the upper part of a karst aquifer, and they zone. Caves formed by flowing water are [19] ultimately drain into the phreatic zone or said to be vadose caves . 2. Water in the out to the surface. Active stream caves, zone of aeration; water above the zone of [10] explorable by non-diving cavers, are by saturation . definition vadose (though they generally have phreatic origins). Characteristics of vadose zone. 1. The zone between the land vadose caves are uneroded ceilings surface and the water table[22]. 2. The (except for immature phreatic features zone between the land surface and the pre-dating the vadose conditions) and deepest water table which includes the continuous downhill gradients (unless capillary fringe. Generally, water in this interrupted by short perched sumps). The zone is under less than atmospheric main passage forms are canyons, with pressure, and some of the voids may con- meanders and potholes, broken by sub- tain air or other gases at atmospheric cylindrical, spray-corroded shafts that pressure. Beneath flooded areas or in may demonstrate waterfall retreat. Some perched water bodies the water pressure of the caves of Monte Canin, Italy, are locally may be greater than spectacularly long and deep vadose atmospheric[22]. When discussing a karst systems[9]. 2. Older, higher cave passages setting, it is preferable to use the term, found in the vadose zone; usually vadose vadose zone, so as to avoid confusion caves have been abandoned by the ground regarding chemical saturation. Synonym: water except in times of extreme aquifer unsaturated zone. See also zone of recharge. Passages are usually appear as aeration. canyons and keyholes. valley fill. Unconsolidated debris vadose flow. Water flowing in free-surface accumulated on a valley bottom[16]. streams in caves[25]. valley sink. (American.) An elongated vadose seepage. See percolation, closed depression or series of percolation water. interconnecting depressions forming a valley-like depression. Compare karst [10] vadose shaft. A vertical tube in the vadose valley; uvala . zone that may be a few inches to several feet in diameter and may be a few feet valley spring. See spring, valley.

203 vanadinite. A cave mineral — velocity, average interstitial. The average [11] Pb5(VO4)3Cl . rate of ground-water flow in interstices expressed as the product of hydraulic vaporization. The process by which liquid conductivity and hydraulic gradient or solid water changes into the gaseous divided by the effective porosity. state[16]. Synonymous with average linear ground-water velocity or effective variable-temperature zone. The area of a velocity. cave where air temperature fluctuates with the seasons. See also zonation. vermiculation. Pattern of thin, worm-shaped coatings of clay or silt on variance. The square of the standard cave surfaces[25]. deviation[16]. vertebrate. An animal with a backbone. variscite. A cave mineral — The group includes fishes, amphibians, [11] AlPO42H2O . reptiles, birds, and mammals. Some amphibians and fishes live permanently in varve. The alternating of coarse and fine caves. See also invertebrate. grained layers in sediments[16]. vertical angle. The angle in a vertical plane vasque. A large, shallow solution pan between a line of sight and the horizontal, formed in the intertidal zone of warm seas positive above the horizontal and negative by the action of brine and marine below[25]. organisms[19]. vertical cave. A vertical passage within a vauclusian spring; vauclusian rising. See cave system, formed along joints by spring, vauclusian. which underground watercourses are transferred from a higher to a lower vegetation cover. The cover living bedding plane[19]. They may become vegetation on top of the upper soil transformed into vertical shafts by horizon[16]. sufficiently uniform dissolution as to create a rounded vertical passage. See vein. A mineral filled fracture cutting also fissure cave; vertical shaft. through a host rock. The mineral filling may be derived from the host rock, as is vertical shaft. These are formed by the case with many calcite veins in underground water dripping of flowing limestone (e.g. at Marble Showers in straight downward through the limestone Ogof Ffynnon Ddu) or derived from along vertical cracks. Uniformly other, generally deeper, sources, such as distributed dissolution of the rock results the many veins containing lead and zinc in a silo- or well-shaped passage so that ore minerals in the Derbyshire Peak most of them appear roughly circular in District, England[9]. cross section when viewed straight up and

204 down. They form above active tubular viscosity. 1. The resistance of liquid to passages although they may intersect a flow[16]. 2. The property of a real fluid limited number of passages along their creating shear forces between two fluid length. At Mammoth Cave, they range in elements and giving rise to fluid size from 30 feet across to 200 feet from friction[16]. Specifically, it is the ratio of top to bottom[15]. Synonym: dome-pit. the shear stress to the rate of shear See also canyon passage; fissure cave; strain[6]. keyhole passage; passage; tubular passage; vadose shaft; vertical cave. void. See interstice.

vertical caver. A caver who enjoys and is void ratio. The ratio of (a) the volume of competent doing vertical caving[13]. See void space to (b) the volume of solid also vertical caving. particles in a given soil mass[22].

vertical caving. Caving that includes a lot . Substances with relatively large of ascending and descending[13]. See also vapor pressures. Many organic vertical caver. substances are almost insoluble in water so that they occur primarily in a gas phase very fine sand. Grain particles with in contact with water, even though their diameters ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 vapor pressure may be very small[22]. mm[16]. volumetric flowmeter. Apparatus designed vesicular. Containing small circular to measure a volume flow rate[16]. cavities[16]. volumetric moisture content. The victor tube. The single phreatic sub-conduit concentration of water in soil by among the many that potentially exist on volume[16]. a given bedding plane (or fracture plane) that is the first to reach a diameter vrulje. (Yugoslavian.) See submarine capable of establishing turbulent-flow spring. conditions. Following this breakthrough the victor tube tends to enlarge more vug. A small cavity in rock usually lined rapidly than other branching or sub- with crystals. Adjective, vuggy[10]. See parallel alternatives and eventually also geode. captures much of the drainage within its field of influence[9]. vugular pore space. Void space due to solution cavities of small size[16]. virgin flow. Flow unaffected by artificial diversions, impoundments, or channels[16]. vulcanokarst. An area comprised of tubular caves within lava flows and shows virgin passage. A cave passage that has not evidence of mechanical collapse of the previously been entered; a new roof into them. See also lava cave; discovery[13]. pseudokarst.

205 W waste water. Water containing sewage and waste products[16]. wading measurement. Discharge measurement during which a water-balance. An instrument designed to hydrographer takes readings while measure evaporation by gravimetry[16]. standing in a river[16]. water-bearing. Containing water[16]. wall block. A roughly cubical joint-con- trolled large block of limestone or dolo- water-borne disease. Disease spread by mite, which has rotated outward from a organic contaminants contained in the cave wall[10]. See also cave breakdown; water supply[16]. wall slab. water budget. The quantitative accounting wall karren. These are found on vertical of water volumes involved in the walls as a result of water flowing down hydrologic cycle[16]. the walls without any area-wide moistening although area-wide sprinkling water catchment. The intake of water from occasionally influences their an aquifer or a surface reservoir[16]. development[3]. See also meandering karren; humus-water grooves. water conservation. All measures to reduce the quantitative of qualitative wall pocket. See pocket. spoilage of water[16]. wall slab. A thin but large block of rock, water content. The amount of water lost which has fallen outward from the wall of from the soil after drying it to constant a cave in limestone in which the dip is weight at 105NC, expressed either as the nearly vertical[10]. See also cave weight of water per unit weight of dry soil breakdown. or as the volume of water per unit bulk volume of soil[22]. See moisture content. wang. (Malaysian.) Polje[10]. water course. Any channel conveying wash. A small ravine due to outwash by water[16]. flow in desert regions[16]. water equivalent. The depth of water wash load. The incoming load of resulting from the melting of snow[16]. suspended sediment passing through a river network without deposition[16]. water hammer. An abnormally high pressure rise in a pipe when sudden waste load. The content of wastes by changes in flow occur[16]. weight of volume transported by or discharged into a river[16]. water-holding capacity. See specific retention.

206 water invasion. The sudden invasion of sandstone, the water table is a smoothly water into a well or borehole[16]. contoured surface intersecting the ground at rivers and lakes, but in limestone it is water level. The level of free surface of a more complex. Individual cave conduits water body or water column[16]. may be above or below the water table, and therefore either vadose or phreatic, water logged. Water saturated[16]. and the water table cannot normally be related to them. The water table concept water logging. Water accumulation on top does, however, apply to the diffuse of soil where the water table and ground drainage of percolation water in the surface coincide[16]. micro-fissure network of limestone, but its detailed structure may be complicated water of constitution. Chemically bound by the presence of conduits. The water- water[16]. table slope (hydraulic gradient) is low in limestone due to the high permeability, water of crystallization. Water embodied and the level is controlled by outlet in crystal structure[16]. springs or local geological features. High flows create steeper hydraulic gradients water of dehydration. Water freed from and hence rises in the water level away hydrous minerals by chemical changes[16]. from the spring. In France’s Grotte de la Luire, the water level in the cave (and water pot. See kamenica, solution pan. therefore the local water table) fluctuates by 450m[9]. 2. The upper surface of a water quality. The physical, chemical, and zone of saturation except where that biological characteristics of water[16]. surface is formed by a confining unit[22]. 3. The upper surface of the zone of water requirement. The quantity of water saturation on which the water pressure in needed for crops regardless of the the porous medium equals atmospheric source[16]. pressure[22]. 4. The upper boundary of an unconfined zone of saturation, along . The total supply of which the hydrostatic pressure is equal to [10] surface, ground, and reclaimed water that the atmospheric pressure . See also can be used[16]. potentiometric surface. water stage. The height of the water water-table aquifer. See unconfined level[16]. aquifer. water table. 1. The top surface of a body of water-table cave. In theory the water table slowly moving ground water that fills the offers the prime environment for cave pore spaces within a rock mass. Above it development as it provides the shortest lies the freely draining vadose zone, and route through the phreas and is potentially below it lies the permanently saturated more active chemically due to the phreas. In uniform aquifers, such as presence of the air/water interface.

207 However, geological factors determine (although water samples are more the details of cave inception and desirable and beneficial). Lycopodium enlargement, and passages most spores are usually collected in fine nets, commonly form just below the water along with other stream-borne sediment, table as a shallow phreatic variety of cave and must then be identified under the development. Development of this type microscope. If chemical tracers are used, is believed to be responsible for the regular water samples must be collected ‘levels’ of cave passage found in some for subsequent analysis, or the resurgent areas, as in the flint Mammoth Cave waters must be monitored with suitable System, Kentucky. True water-table electronic detectors and recorders. caves are rare except on a limited scale as Flowpaths can also be confirmed by extensions to cliff foot notches margined transmission of artificial or natural flood to tropical swamps. Also under these pulses, which provide additional data on conditions, the water table may adjust the nature of conduits, as a pulse is down to the level of a mature phreatic transmitted instantaneously through cave and then modify the passage with flooded passages. The longest successful horizontal dissolution notches — as is water trace was from Beysehir Golu to the common in the caves of Mulu and Niah, Manavgat springs, in Turkey, over a Sarawak[9]. distance of 130km; 390kg of fluorescein was used and the dye reappeared after 366 water-table divide. See divide. days[9]. water-table map. A map showing the upper surface of the phreatic zone of a water trap, watertrap. A place where the water-table aquifer by means of contour roof of a chamber or passage of a cave lines[1]. See also phreatic zone; dips under water but lifts again farther potentiometric-surface map; water-table on[10]. Synonym: trap. aquifer. water works. A plant where water is water tracing. Underground drainage links treated and prepared for municipal through unexplored caves confirmed by consumption[16]. labeling input water and identifying it at points downstream. The common water year. A 12 month period for labeling techniques involve the use of streamflow computation[16]. fluorescent dyes (fluorescein, rhodamine, leucophor, pyranine etc.), lycopodium waterlogged. Water saturated. spores, or chemicals such as common salt. Detection of dye downstream may waterlogging. Water accumulation on top be purely visual, but if the dye is used at a of soil where the water table and ground subvisible (environmentally acceptable) surface coincide. dilution, suitable detectors must be placed in all potential risings and collected for subsequent fluorometric examination

208 watershed. 1. A drainage basin[16]. 2. A well. 1. A shaft or hole sunk into the earth divide separating one drainage basin from to obtain water, oil, gas, or minerals[10]. 2. another[16]. A deep vertical rounded hole or shaft in the floor of a cave or at the bottom of a waterway. An artificial or natural closed depression[10]. 3. A bored, drilled watercourse fit for navigation. or driven shaft, or a dug hole, whose depth is greater than the largest surface wave karren. Wavy karren surfaces that dimension[22]. appear similar to corrugated tin. When denuded they are a disposition for the well function. An exponential integral as formation of Rinnenkarren[3]. See also used in Theis’ nonequilibrium covered karren; Rinnenkarren; root equation[16]. karren. well hydrograph. A graph of water level wayboard. One of many thin beds of fluctuations in a well[16]. volcanic clay that occur at intervals within the Carboniferous carbonate well loss. Head loss caused by flow through succession of the Peak District, England; a screen and inside a well[16]. a term formerly used by lead miners (see toadstone). Wayboards have potential well-sorted grains. An assortment of grains significance during speleogenesis when having the same diameter[16]. they may act as local aquicludes, inception horizons or providers of strong well yield. The volume of water discharged acid formed by oxidation of sulfide from a well in gallons per minute or cubic minerals[9]. meters per day. weathering. The process of disintegration wet line. That portion of line of submerged and decomposition as a consequence of under water in stream measurements[16]. exposure to the atmosphere, to chemical action and to the action of frost, water and wet suit. A diving garment of foam heat. neoprene designed to insulate from the cold but which allows a thin film wedge storage. 1. Water storage in the of water to penetrate between the suit and form of a wedge overlying a prism[16]. 2. the body[25]. storage in a flooded river segment[16]. wetland. A general term used for a group of weir. A dam across a water course to wet habitats, in common use by control, raise, or measure water flow[16]. specialists in wildlife management. It includes areas that are permanently wet weir coefficient. A coefficient used in and/or intermittently water-covered, transforming water depths into discharge especially coastal marshes, tidal swamps volumes in weir measurements[16]. and flats, and associated pools, sloughs, and [1].

209 wettability. The property of a solid window. 1. In speleology, a natural opening substance to be wetted by a liquid such as above the floor of a passage or a room, water[16]. giving access to an adjoining cavity or to the surface; larger and less symmetrical wetted area. The cross sectional area of than a porthole. 2. The opening under the that portion of a channel that is filled with arch of a small natural bridge[10]. See water[16]. karst window.

wetted perimeter. The perimeter over windypit. Open fissure, widened by which flowing water is in actual contact landslip, common in valley side situations with the channel walls and bottom[16]. where limestone overlies weaker rocks such as clays or shales. The term is wetting period. The period of contact commonly used to describe gulls and between a liquid and a solid surface tectonic caves in the Jurassic limestones during which wetting occurs[16]. of north-east Yorkshire, England[9].

whaletail. A descender consisting of an withdraw, to. To draw water from an aluminium block with slots, knobs and a aquifer or reservoir[16]. safety gate[25]. workover. The reworking of a well that has whitlockite. A cave mineral — declined in yield[16]. [11] Ca9(Mg,Fe)H(PO4)7 .

width of contribution. The width of the contributing region between the ground- water divide from which water enters a well. This usually occurs with an inclined piezometric surface[16].

wilt, to. The shrinking of cell walls due to loss in turgor as a result of water deficiency in the plant[16].

wilting coefficient, wilting point. The soil moisture content at which plants wilt[16].

wind factor. The factor containing a monthly mean wind velocity in evaporation[16].

wind field. The air velocity field above ground due to wind action[16].

210 Y yield. The quantity of water discharged from an aquifer[16] (e.g spring or well.) See also well yield.

211 Z zone of investigation. The zone over which a given measuring device is able to obtain [16] zadernovanny karst. (Russian.) See information . subsoil karst. zone of leaching. The top horizon of a soil zakryty karst, skryty karst. (Russian.) profile (A) that is most intensely [16] See closed karst. weathered .

zanjón. (Spanish.) In Puerto Rico, solution zone of saturation. The zone in permeable trench in limestone. Zanjónes range from soil or rock that is saturated with water; [10] a few centimeters to about 8 meters in the phreatic zone . See also phreatic width and from about 1 to 4 meters in zone. depth. Apparently they form by the widening and deepening of joints by zones of karstification. Cvijig (1926, 1960) solution[10]. See also bogaz; corridor; distinguishes three zones of karstification: struga. (1) dry zone in the upper part of the karst with caves almost completely dry; (2) zero adjustment. The adjustment of a scale transition zone where water flows or a measuring circuit to an original point downstream almost permanently; and (3) of departure[16]. deep zone with slow downstream flow and local siphons[20]. Synonyms: zonal soil profile. The normal horizontal (French.) zones de karstification; distribution of soil zone[16]. (German.) Zone der Verkarstung; (Greek.) zoni karstikopiiseos; (Italian.) zonation. The organization of a habitat into zone idrogeologiche; (Spanish.) zona de a more or less orderly series of distinctive karstificación; (Turkish.) karstla·ma plant and animal associations as a result ku·a{; (Yugoslavian.) zone of variations in environmental conditions. karstifikacije. Zones in a cave are the twilight zone, the variable-temperature zone, and the Zwischenhöhle. (German.) Cave in which constant-temperature zone[23]. a river passage, or former river passage, is entered from above or laterally and which zone of accumulation. The second horizon can be followed upstream and downstream some distance but not to of a soil profile (B), usually the zone of [10] clay accumulation subjacent to zone daylight . (A)[16].

zone of aeration. The zone in permeable soil or rock that is above the zone saturated with water; the zone of vadose water[10]. See also vadose zone.

212 REFERENCES Series Number 6. British Cave Research Association. , Britain. 41 pp.

1. Bates, R. L. and J. A. Jackson. 1980. 10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. A . American Glossary of Karst Terminology. Geological Institute. Falls Church, Va. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 751 pp. 1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, 2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater. D.C. 26 pp. McGraw-Hill Inc. New York, NY. 569 pp. 11. Moore, G. W. and G. N. Sullivan. 1978. Speleology: The Study of Caves. Cave 3. Bögli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology and Books. 2nd Edition. St. Louis, Missouri. Physical Speleology. Springer-Verlag. 150 pp. Berlin, West . 284 pp. 12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologic 4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New Observations on classification of caves and karst. Tower Karst. Paper presented at the 1st Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R. International Conference on G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc. Geomorphology (Manchester, England). Boston, Mass. pp. 157–172. 14 pp. 13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of caving terms 5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in Karst used in this manual. Caving Basics. J. Systems: Physics, Chemistry, and Hassemer, Editor. National Speleological Geology. Springer-Verlag. New York, Society. Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124–125. N.Y. 288 pp. 14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of a 6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater and sinking stream system: Onesquethaw Wells. Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minn. Cave, New York. National Speleological 1089 pp. Society Bulletin. 34. pp. 89–110.

7. Ford, D. C. and P. W. Williams. 1989. 15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guide Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. to Mammoth Cave National Park. Unwin Hyman Inc. Lakeland, Fla. 601 pp. Zephyrus Press. Teaneck, N.J. 196 pp.

8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. Karst 16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier’s Geomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc. Dictionary of Hydrogeology. American New York, N.Y. 293 pp. Elsevier Publishing Company. Inc. New York, N.Y. 168 pp. 9. Lowe, D. and T. Waltham. 1995. A Dictionary of Karst and Caves: A Brief 17. Quinlan, J. F. 1978. Types of Karst with Guide to the Terminology and Concepts Emphasis on Cover Beds in their of Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies Classification and Development.

213 Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. The Group. Ground-Water Subcommittee. University of Texas at Austin. 323 pp. Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data. Dept. of the Interior. U.S. 18. Quinlan, J. F., P. L. Smart, G. M. Geological Survey. Office of Water Data Schindel, E. C. Alexander, A. J. Edwards, Coordination. 38 pp. and A. Richard Smith. 1991. Recommended administrative/regulatory 23. William R. Elliott, Ph.D. of the Natural definition of karst aquifer, principles for History Division of the Missouri classification of carbonate aquifers, Department of Conservation. The list of practical evaluation of vulnerability of definitions were obtained directly from karst aquifers, and determination of the Biospeleology web site: optimum sampling frequency at springs. Hydrology. Ecology. Monitoring. and www.utexas.edu/depts/tnhc/.www/biospel Management of Ground Water in Karst eology Terranes Conference (3rd. Nashville. Tenn. 1991). J. F. Quinlan and A. which is based on The Life of the Cave by Stanley, Editors. National Ground Water Charles E. Mohr and Thomas L. Poulson Association. Dublin, . pp. 573–635. (1966, McGraw-Hill) with additions from Dr. Elliott. 19. Sweeting, M. M. 1973. Karst Landforms. Selected Glossary. Compiled 24. Clark, I. and P. Fritz. 1997. by K. Addison. Columbia University Environmental Isotopes in Hydrology. Press. New York, N.Y. 362 pp. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fla. p. 174. 20. UNESCO. 1972. Glossary and Multilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms. 25. Australian Speleological Federation. United Nations Educational. Scientific. 1996. Cave and Karst Terminology. The and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. list of definitions were obtained directly 72 pp. from the Western Australia Speleology web site: 21. UNESCO. 1984. Guidebook to Studies of Land Subsidence due to Ground-Water http://wasg.iinet.net.au/terminol.html withdrawal. Prepared for the International Hydrological Programme. Working which contains a listing of terminology Group 8.4. J. F. , Editor. United commonly used in Australia. Nations Education. Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. 305 pp. (plus appendices).

22. USGS. (date ?). Federal Glossary of Selected Terms: Subsurface-Water Flow and Solute Transport. Prepared by the Subsurface-Water Glossary Working

214