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United States Office of Research and EPA/600/R-99/006 Environmental Protection Development January 1999 Agency , DC 20460

Research and Development A Lexicon of and Terminology with Special Reference to Environmental Karst Hydrology EPA/600/R-99/006 January 1999

A LEXICON OF CAVE AND KARST TERMINOLOGY

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO ENVIRONMENTAL KARST HYDROLOGY

National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC 20460 DISCLAIMER

The document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

ii CONTENTS

PREFACE ...... iv

AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS ...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ...... 3 A ...... 4 B ...... 14 C ...... 24 D ...... 50 E ...... 61 F ...... 66 G ...... 73 H ...... 81 I ...... 88 J ...... 94 K ...... 95 L ...... 101 M ...... 107 N ...... 115 O ...... 118 P ...... 121 Q ...... 135 R ...... 136 S ...... 145 T ...... 171 U ...... 180 V ...... 183 W ...... 186 Y ...... 191 Z ...... 192

REFERENCES ...... 193

iii PREFACE

The National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division (NCEA-W) has prepared this document for the benefit of the regional offices and general public to satisfy the need to understand the terminology common to the field of karst. This document is a glossary of most terms that have some relationship to the field of environmental karst, as as specific karst terms. It includes many foreign terms because much karst research is conducted in foreign countries and published using local terminology. In many instances common environmental terms are defined in such a way as to specifically reference karstic phenomena. The purpose of this document is to serve as a technical guide to regional offices and the public in general who must read the karst literature or hold discussions with karst researchers. It is intended that this document remove much of the confusion surrounding many karst terms. The literature search supporting this lexicon is to 1998.

iv AUTHOR AND REVIEWERS

The National Center for Environmental Assessment-Washington Division within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Research and Development was responsible for the preparation of this document and provided overall direction and coordination during the production effort.

Author/Compiler

Malcolm S. Field, Ph.D. National Center for Environmental Assessment-W U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC

Reviewers

Stephen R. Kraemer, Ph.D. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Exposure Research Laboratory Ecosystems Research Division Athens, GA

Arthur N. Palmer, Ph.D. Department of Sciences State University of New York Oneonta, NY

v INTRODUCTION

Several attempts to classify karst terminology in an organized manner have been made in the past. The last few glossaries of karst terminology were organized in the late 1960s and published in the early 1970s. Since that time, many new terms related to karst have come into use, while other, older karst terms are seldom used nowadays. In the mid 1990s the British Cave Research Association (BCRA) published an updated dictionary that covers the general area of karst and , but did not focus on environmental issues. Many of the more recent karst terms are related to the upsurge in environmentalism and the recognition among karst cognoscenti that karst terranes are much more sensitive to -induced effects on the environment than are other types of landscapes. In an attempt to be as broad as possible in this glossary, terms related to general hydrology and hydrogeology, common karst and types, and many of the descriptive terms used in , even where they relate to specific localities, have been included. No attempt was made to exclude foreign karst terms, although many are no doubt missing. This has led to a much larger manuscript than was originally intended when this project was initiated, but it has provided for a more comprehensive document. Because many non-karst professionals, whether working on basic research or on environmental problems, need to have a general working knowledge of karst terminology, this glossary was developed to provide an up-to-date reference for more modern definitions of karst terms both currently in usage and now defunct. As with any undertaking of this sort, numerous omissions will be evident. In other instances, disagreements regarding definitions will arise. In the event that readers of this glossary find omissions or incorrect definitions, it would be greatly appreciated if the necessary corrections be forwarded to this office so that the glossary may be updated in the future. As a final note, it should be pointed out that a list of references for the definitions is included at the back of this glossary and citations provided when appropriate. In many instances duplication of definitions from previous glossaries was employed to avoid changing the original definitions. However, efforts were not always attempted to cite the exact source for each definition, as this would have greatly lengthened this already excessively long manuscript; secondary citations have been provided. Exact citations would also have resulted in confusion where several previous definitions

1 were utilized in the writing of a single clear definition for any particular term. In no instance was it intended that the work of others be appropriated, only that this glossary be as comprehensive and clear as possible while avoiding excessive clutter. Also, where definitions were deemed to be incorrect or poorly worded, alternatives were written.

2 GLOSSARY OF TERMS

3 A Acids lower the pH. Examples of acids or acidic substances are hydrochloric acid, abîme. (French.) 1. An abyss. 2. A wide, tannic acid, and acid [6] deep shaft, in , the walls of which pyrophosphate . are vertical or overhanging[10]. acidity. The property of having a pH . The wearing away of or snow below 4.5 that is caused by the presence of through the process of evaporation[16]. mineral acids. Usually expressed in equivalent amounts of [16]. abris sous roche. (French.) See . See also alkalinity; pH.

absorption. The process by which substances acid mine drainage. Acid originating in gaseous, liquid, or solid form dissolve or from surface or underground mine [16] mix with other substances[22]. workings .

abyss. Extremely great depth[16]. acoustic log. Geophysical log measuring the speed of sound in rocks to [16] accelerated corrosion. A localized determine porosity . of intensity, produced by factors favoring greater acoustic resistance. The product of wave aggressivity of the water in certain parts of velocity and rock density indicating the the karstland creating differential solution reflective power of a boundary between two [16] rates and thereby a marked unevenness in strata . the overall of the karstland[19]. See also corrosion; alluvial corrosion. activated charcoal, activated carbon. A granular material usually produced by the accessory mineral. Mineral constituents of a roasting of cellulose base substances, such rock occurring in very small amounts[16]. as wood or coconut shells, in the absence of air. It has an extremely porous structure acclivity. Ascending a slope[16]. and is used in water conditioning as an adsorbent for organic matter and certain [6] accretion. Land addition by dissolved gases . It is especially useful for of a [16]. adsorbing tracer dyes.

accumulation. Building of new land by active cave. 1. Cave containing a running addition of sedimentary deposits[16]. stream. 2. Cave in which are growing. (Less common and less desirable [10] acid. Any chemical compound containing usage.) Compare live cave . capable of being replaced by positive elements or radicals to form salts. active . Glacier in the stage of actively In terms of dissociation theory, it is a enlarging and moving as a result of compound which, on dissociation in accumulation of precipitation that exceeds solution, yields excess hydrogen ions. the rate of ablation.

4 active water. Water with corrosive aerobic. A property of aquatic life forms that properties[16]. can exist only in the presence of . See also anaerobic. adiabatic. The property of thermodynamic process with no heat exchange[16]. age of caves. The ages of individual caves may vary enormously. In most regions the adjusted stream. Stream flowing parallel to youngest cave passages have reached their the strike of underlying beds[16]. present dimensions during the past 10,000 years, or since the last glacial adsorption. Adherence of gas molecules, retreat. In higher latitudes most caves can ions, or molecules in solution to the surface be related to erosion during the later of solids[22]. Pleistocene climatic variations of the past million years, and older caves have largely adsorption isotherm. A graphical been removed by continuing surface representation of the relationship between lowering. In tropical regions less the bulk activity of adsorbate and the interrupted erosion conditions have amount adsorbed at constant encouraged survival of older caves; the [22]. Mulu caves of Sarawak include large passages at least two million years old. advection. 1. The process whereby solutes Relict caves hundreds of millions of years are transported by the bulk mass of flowing old may survive in some buried , fluid[6]. 2. Phenomenon of a cool air mass but are commonly filled with younger intruding and interrupting evaporation and (see neptunian deposits), causing condensation due to heat loss[16]. or, very rarely, igneous rocks. See also convective transport. These fill materials may themselves be dateable, either on the basis of contained aeolianite. See eolian calcarenite. material (including pollen), by comparison with similar rock types that aeration. The process of bringing air into occur at the surface, or by isotopic age intimate contact with water, usually by determination methods identical to those bubbling air through the water to remove applied to suitable surface rock materials. dissolved gases such as and See also dating of cave sediments[9]. hydrogen sulfide or to oxidize dissolved materials such as compounds[6]. . Land addition through sediment deposition[16]. aeration, zone of. See zone of aeration. aggrading . A river that is actively aerial photograph. Photograph of the elevating its bed by deposition of landscape taken from an airplane. Synonym sediments[16]. air photo. See also stereo aerial photographs. aggregate. Grain mixture loosely held together[16].

5 aggregation. The formation of aggregates. air separating tank. A tank in which In drilling fluids, aggregation results in the desorbed gases are separated from a liquid stacking of the clay platelets face to face; as and evacuated by pumping[16]. a result, viscosity and gel strength decrease[6]. air-space ratio. The ratio of (a) the volume of water that can be drained from a aggressive water. 1. Water having the ability saturated soil or rock under the action of to dissolve rocks. In the context of of gravity to (b) the total volume of limestone and , this term refers voids[22]. especially to water containing dissolved carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid or, aisle. An elongated high narrow traversable rarely, other acids. 2. Quality of waters passage in a cave[10]. See also crawl, that attack metals and concrete chemically crawlway; corridor; passage. Synonyms: by dissolution[10]. (French.) aisle, aîle; (German.) Kluft; (Greek.) farangothes ipoyios thiavasis; aggressiveness. A measure of the relative (Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) laminador capacity of water to dissolve rock material. vertical; (Turkish.) dar geçit; In the context of karstification and (Yugoslavian.) nis˜ a. this usually concerns the dissolution of limestone or dolomite by the albedo. The ratio of reflected radiation to action of dissolved carbon dioxide total radiation on a natural surface[16]. (carbonic acid), though other acids may also be involved[9]. algal limestone. Type of limestone formed by calcium-secreting algae[16]. aguada. (Spanish for “watering place.”) In Yucatán, shallow generally alkali . A salt-covered or heavily saline covering several hectares used for water depression in an arid environment[16]. supply[10]. alkaline. Any of various soluble mineral salts A-horizon. The topmost eluviated horizon of found in natural water and arid soils having a soil profile[16]. a pH greater than 7. In water analysis, it represents the carbonates, bicarbonates, aîle. See aisle. hydroxides, and occasionally the borates, silicates, and in the water[6]. air pocket, air bell. 1. An enclosed air space between the water surface and the roof of a alkalinity. The property of water to cave[10]. 2. Part of a flooded passage where neutralize acids. Usually expressed in terms the ceiling rises above the water level to of calcium carbonate equivalents[16]. See create an air pocket isolated from the rest also acidity; pH. of the cave[9]. allochthonous. Said of material originating from a different locality than the one in

6 which it has been deposited[16]. See also alluvial. Pertaining to or composed of autochthonous. alluvium or deposited by a stream or running water[6]. Also applies to material allochthonous drainage. Less common lining the floor of a cave and deposits at the synonym for allogenic drainage[9]. mouth of a . allogene stream. A surface-water course alluvial apron. A fanlike from the flowing over a karst terrane, but fed by a deposition of glacial outwash[16]. spring (or springs) issuing from a nonkarst terrane[20]. Synonyms: (French.) rivière alluvial . River or stream channel bed allogène (cours d’eau); (German.) composed of unconsolidated alluvial allochthoner Fluss (all. Waßerlauf); material[16]. (Greek.) allothigenes ryax, or potamos; (Italian.) corso d’acqua allogeno; alluvial corrosion. Greater intensity of (Spanish.) río alóctono; (Turkish.) karst solution, caused by the passage of water disi kökenli akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) alogena through unconsolidated deposits rich in rijeka, alogena . carbon dioxide, thus increasing aggressivity[19]. See also corrosion, allogenic. Formed or generated elsewhere, accelerated corrosion. usually at a distant place[1]. See also autogenic; recharge, allogenic; recharge, . A fanlike deposit of detrital autogenic. material from steep slopes[16]. allogenic drainage. Underground karst alluvial plain. A plain formed by the drainage that is derived entirely from deposition of waterborne sediments[16]. that originates on adjacent nonkarstic, generally impermeable rocks. alluvial veneer. A very thin cover of Also allochthonous drainage. See also waterborne sediments[16]. autogenic drainage[9]. alluvium. A general term for clay, silt, sand, allogenic . A karst valley incised by a gravel, or similar unconsolidated material watercourse originating on impervious rock deposited during comparatively recent with a volume sufficient for it to traverse a geologic time by a stream or other body of limestone area on the surface. The valley is running water as a sorted or semisorted incised from the limestone contact, and with sediment in the bed of the stream, or on its the passage of time the river is increasingly or delta, or as a cone or fan at likely to pass underground as the waters the base of a mountain slope[6]. enlarge joints. Occasionally such a valley may represent the large-scale collapse of alpine karst. 1. Karst formed at high latitude, the cavern system along a subterranean or in polar regions regardless of altitude. 2. stream or the enlarging of a series of karst Almost synonymous with glaciokarst, but windows[19]. restricted to areas of high altitude and

7 relief[9]. Synonyms: glaciokarst; nival karst. boring a hole in rock with the intention of producing a core of rock as opposed to alternative. Adjective used to designate an chips[16]. intake or resurgence operating only during rainy seasons; in some areas reversible; analysis, morphometric. A geodetic and equivalent to intermittent. Also used as a geometric description of basin, stream noun[10]. network, or plain, the purpose of which is to determine the frequency and alveolar. 1. Consisting of a honeycomb hierarchy of occurrences[16]. shape[16]. 2. A specific erosional pattern resulting in a cellular structure[16]. See also analysis, sieve. Mechanical grain size analysis alveolization. by sieving an unconsolidated material through a series of sieves[16]. alveolization. (From the Latin word “alveolatus,” meaning hollowed out.) anastomosis. 1. The development of a Pitting of a rock surface produced by wind network of branching, intersecting, and loaded with sand, by water charged with rejoining channels in a two-dimensional carbonic acid, or by plant roots[10]. See also system. Anastomosing tubes, or cave alveolar. Synonyms: (French.) anastomoses, which are generally formed alvéolisation; (German.) Aeolisation due to dissolution by slow, poorly directed Wabenverwitterung; (Greek.) kypselothis phreatic flow along a bedding-plane parting epiphania; (Italian.) alveolizzazione; or fracture in limestone, represent an (Spanish.) alveolizacion; (Turkish.) important element in the early stages of çukurlaÕma; (Yugoslavian.) alveolizacija. cave development. Individual anastomoses most commonly have a diameter of ammeter. A meter used to measure the flow approximately 100 mm, and networks may of water in a stream channel. Synonym: contain hundreds of tubes. Most current meter[16]. anastomoses are abandoned when one channel offers preferential flow conditions amorphous silica. Silica with no definite so that it increases in size at the expense of crystalline structure[16]. others. Such abandoned or relict anastomoses are commonly exposed only by analysis, chemical. Laboratory procedure in subsequent wall or roof collapse[32]. 2. A water quality determination to identify network of tubular passages or holes in a chemical constituents[16]. cave or in solution-sculptured rock. A complex of many irregular and repeatedly analysis, complete chemical analysis. connected passages[9, 21]. Synonym: Chemical analysis of a water sample for labyrinth; (French.) anastomose; (German.) physical, chemical, and bacteriological Labyrinth; (Greek.) anastomosis; (Italian.) constituents[16]. anastomosi; (Russian.) labirint; (Spanish.) anastomosís; (Turkish.) geçit Õebekesi; analysis, core. Petrophysical analysis of a (Yugoslavian.) splet kanala. rock core acquired through the process of

8 anastomotic cave pattern. A type of maze anion exchange. Ion exchange process in cave consisting of tubular passages or holes which anions in solution are exchanged for in a cave or in a solution-sculptured rock. other anions from an ion exchanger[6]. A complex of many irregular and repeatedly connected passages. Synonym: labyrinth. anisotropic. The property of systems displaying different hydrological properties anchor ice, ground ice. Ice that is in different directions[16]. See also temporarily attached to the bottom of a anisotropy; anisotropic mass. river[16]. anisotropic mass. A mass having different anemolite. A in which the properties in different directions at any eccentricity is ascribed to the action of air given point[22]. currents[10]. The word is derived from wind-control theory of helictite formation[9]. anisotropic steering. Anisotropic structures (anisotropies) in rock, such as schistosity, anemometer. A device used to measure wind inclusions, and fractures, which can deviate speeds[16]. or “steer” the direction of fractures subsequently developed. angle of contact, wetting angle. The angle between the liquid phase and solid anisotropy. The condition of having different boundary measured through the liquid properties in different directions[22]. phase[16]. annual frost zone. The top layer of ground angle of repose. The natural slope of subject to annual freezing and thawing[16]. unsupported granular material[16]. annual mean. The mean value taken over all [11] anglesite. A cave mineral — PbSO4 . events that have occurred during a year, such as precipitation, river stages, or water- angular. The property of unconsolidated levels[16]. grains with sharp edges[16]. annulus. The annular space between drill pipe angular unconformity. A geological and casing or between casing and the unconformity with marked difference in dip borehole wall[16]. of the superimposed series[16]. anomaly. The deviation from normally anhydride. Anhydrous calcium sulfate, expected findings, especially in exploration [16] CaSO4 . geophysics, indicating a change in subsurface environmental conditions[16]. anion. A negatively charged ion that migrates to an anode, as in electrolysis[6]. antecedent precipitation index. A precipitation index that is based on the amount of previous precipitations[16].

9 antecedent-soil moisture. The degree of approach segment. That part of a water saturation in the soil prior to a curve before onset of precipitation event[16]. precipitation[16]. See also hydrograph. antecedent stream. A stream having apron. A smooth bulging mass of established its course before occurrence of covering sloping projections from walls of orogenic events that would later alter the caves or limestone cliffs[10]. general drainage pattern[16]. . A conduit to convey water, usually . 1. Radiating crystals of , above ground[16]. mostly sharp needles 1-20 mm long. They occur sporadically in some caves but may aquiclude. A formation which, although also be spectacularly abundant, with clean porous and capable of storing water, does white crystals growing all over the rock and not transmit it at rates sufficient to furnish surfaces. Carlsbad Caverns (USA) an appreciable supply for a well or spring. and Grotte de Moulis (France) have fine See also confining unit[22]. anthodite displays[9]. 2. A cave formation composed of feathery or radiating masses of aquifer. 1. A formation, group of formations, long needlelike crystals of or or part of a formation that contains aragonite, which radiate outward from a sufficient saturated permeable material to common base[10]. See also cave flower. yield significant quantities of water to and springs[6]. 2. A ground-water . anthropocentric definitions. Definitions of 3. Pervious rock that is completely caves or parts of caves that include saturated and will yield water to a well or accessibility by human explorers as one of spring. Historically the term has been their limiting conditions. Most well known applied to beds favoring early cave among these is the definition published by development, probably synonymous with the International Speleological Union, that some inception horizons[18]. “A cave is a natural underground opening in rock that is large enough for human entry” aquifer, artesian. A confined aquifer where (see proto-caves)[9]. the potentiometric surface rises above the top of the aquifer bed[16]. anticlinal valley. A valley that is established along the axis of an eroded anticline[16]. aquifer, coastal. An aquifer in a coastal region open to salt-water intrusions[16]. anticline. Upfolded stratum[16]. aquifer, flowing artesian. An artesian aphthitalite. A cave mineral — aquifer in which the water, under [11] (K,Na)3Na(SO4)2 . hydrostatic , rises above the land surface. apparent ground-water velocity. See specific . aquifer, karst. An aquifer in which the flow of water is or can be appreciable through

10 one or more of the following: joints, faults, aquitard. A confining bed that retards but bedding-plane partings, and cavities, any or does not prevent the flow of water to or all of which have been enlarged by from an adjacent aquifer; a leaky confining dissolution[18]. bed. It does not readily yield water to wells or springs, but may serve as a storage unit aquifer, leaky. An aquifer overlain or for ground water[22]. See also confining underlain by semipermeable strata from or unit. into which water will flow[16]. aragonite. 1. A relatively rare form of

aquifer stimulation. A type of development calcium carbonate (CaCO3), chemically that is done in semiconsolidated and identical to the more common calcite but of completely consolidated formations to alter orthorhombic crystal form. Its pure form is the formation physically to improve its metastable in the cave environment, where hydraulic properties[6]. calcite forms preferentially. It is relatively abundant in some caves owing to the aquifer storage. Gas storage in an aquifer[16]. presence of impurities, notably strontium, that distort the carbonate lattice and favor aquifer system. A body of permeable and aragonite growth. The commonest form poorly permeable material that functions seen in caves is small radiating crystals regionally as a water-yielding unit; it () that develop in humid caves, comprises two or more permeable beds where surfaces are covered by a moisture separated at least locally by confining beds film but not by flowing water. 2. A mineral

that impede ground-water movement but do composed of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, not greatly affect the regional hydraulic like calcite but differing in crystal form[10]. continuity of the system; includes both 3. An unstable orthorhombic carbonate [16] saturated and unsaturated parts of mineral, CaCO3 . permeable material[22]. ardealite. A cave mineral — [11] aquifer test. A test to determine hydrologic Ca2(SO4)(HPO4)"4H2O . properties of the aquifer involving the withdrawal of measured quantities of water area of influence of a well. The area from or addition of water to a well and the surrounding a pumping or recharging well measurement of resulting changes in head in within which the potentiometric surface has the aquifer both during and after the period been changed[22]. of discharge or additions[6]. and pinnacle karst. A landscape of aquifere epikarstique. See epikarst zone. naked reticulated raw-topped having almost vertical slopes and a relief of as aquifuge. A formation that has no much as 120 meters. The ridges rise above interconnected openings or interstices and forest- covered corridors and depressions. therefore neither stores nor transmits Found in New Guinea at elevations of 2,000 water[22]. See also confining unit. meters and more[10]. Both pinnacle karst and arête karst are varieties of limestone

11 landscape formed under equatorial rain artificial discharge. The discharge of ground forest cover. They are characterized by water by pumping wells[16]. vertical-sided blades of bare rock fretted by dissolution[9]. artificial recharge. Recharge at a rate greater than natural, resulting from deliberate or argillaceous. The property of rocks incidental human activities[6]. containing clay in non-negligible proportions[16]. ascender. A mechanical device, used by cavers who are ascending or descending argillaceous limestone. Limestone containing through a vertical opening in a cave (e.g., considerable amounts of clay[16]. vadose shaft), that uses a cam to grip a rope while downward pressure is being applied arid. The property of dry climates and to the device[13]. See also mechanical regions with a net deficiency of moisture[16]. ascender; prusiking; prusik knot.

arrival time. 1. In subsurface flow tracing, atmometer. An instrument used to measure the time for the first tracer pulse to arrive at evaporation intensities[16]. a discharge location. 2. In geophysics, the time of arrival for the first seismic wave to atmosphere. A gaseous envelope of the earth arrive at a geophone[16]. that contains and transports air and water in vapor and condensed form[16]. artesian. Synonymous with confined. attapulgite clay. A colloidal, viscosity- artesian aquifer. Synonymous with confined building clay consisting of hydrous aquifer. See aquifer, artesian. magnesium aluminum silicates and used principally in salt-water drilling fluids[6]. artesian flow. Flow through a confined aquifer where the elevation of the overlying attrition. The wearing away of rocks by aquiclude is locally depressed so that the friction[16]. entire aquifer is saturated and the flow is under hydrostatic pressure. Some maze auger. A rotary drilling device where the dry cave development in cavernous limestones cuttings are removed continuously by may be due to artesian flow, which is helical grooves on the drill pipe[16]. commonly related to synclinal fold structures[9]. aurichalcite. A cave mineral —

(Zn,Cu)5(CO3)2(OH)6. artesian spring. See spring, artesian. autochthonous. Property pertaining to artesian well. A well deriving its water from sedimentary material originating and a confined aquifer in which the water level deposited at about the same location[16]. stands above the ground surface[6]. See also allochthonous. Synonym: flowing artesian well.

12 autochthonous drainage. Less common average interstitial velocity. See velocity, synonym for autogenic drainage[9]. average interstitial. autogenic, authigenic. Formed or generated azonal soil. Soils without distinct layering in in place[1]. See also allogenic; recharge, horizons[16]. autogenic; recharge, allogenic. azurite. A cave mineral — [11] autogenic drainage. Underground karst Cu(CO3)2(OH)2 . drainage that is derived entirely from absorption of meteoric water into the karst rock surface[9]. Synonym: autochthonous drainage. See also allogenic drainage. available water. The water available to plants in the soil zone as defined by the interval between field capacity and wilting point[16]. aven. 1. A hole in the roof of a cave passage that may be either a rather large blind roof pocket or a inlet shaft into the cave system. A feature described as an aven when seen from below may equally be described as a shaft when seen from above, and the naming of such a feature commonly depends purely upon the direction of exploration. Many avens close upwards to impenetrable fissures but may still be important hydrological routes; few caves are without them. In parts of France, aven is equivalent to the British term pothole[9]. 2. (French.) A vertical or highly inclined shaft in limestone, extending upward from a cave passage, generally to the surface; smaller than an abîme. Commonly related to enlarged vertical joints. Compare ; natural well; pothole. 3. (British.) A vertical extension from a shaft in a passage or chamber roof that tapers upward rather like a very elongated cone[10]. Compare dome pit.

13 B bailing line. Cable operating a bailer[16]. Synonym: sand line. backflooding. 1. Temporarily rising water level in a cave caused by a downstream balcony. Any projection on the wall of a cave passage being too small to pass an large enough to support one or more abnormally high discharge. The excavation persons[10]. and reexcavation of some caves is ascribed to the enlargement of a passage at or near . Ascending slope bordering a river[16]. the water table by gravity flow alternating with periods of calcite precipitation[10]. 2. bank erosion. Erosion of a river bank[16]. Flooding due to backup of excess flow behind a constriction in a major conduit. bank storage. 1. Subsurface conduit water Water that is ponded in tributary passages that has been driven back up into older, and proto-caves upstream of the higher karst levels and into the surrounding constriction may contribute to the rock matrix during a high flow period. 2. enlargement of maze caves[9]. River water that has infiltrated river banks during a high flow period and been retained background noise. The level of intensity of in temporary storage[16]. signals due to normal activities other than the specific signal emission[16]. bare karst. A type of karst landscape lacking soil cover and where dissolution of backwater. The accumulated water above the carbonate rocks to form karst normal level of a water course due to occurs primarily on the exposed bedrock impoundment at a point downstream[16]. surface[9]. See naked karst.

backwater curve. Water surface profile in a barite. 1. A cave mineral — BaSO4. 2. A stream or channel above a constriction or natural finely ground barium sulfate used impoundment[16]. for increasing the density of drilling fluids[6].

bacon. Thin, elongated, translucent flowstone barograph. A pressure recorder[16]. having parallel colored bands on or projecting from roofs and walls of some barometer. An indicator of barometric caves[10]. See also blanket; curtain; pressure[16]. drapery. barometric efficiency. The ratio of water bactericide. A substance used to destroy level change to bacteria (e.g., iron bacteria)[6]. change in a well[16].

bailer. 1. A cylindrical container used to barrier. A geological formation or part of a withdraw a sample of water from a well. 2. formation having become impervious to A cylindrical container with a bottom valve ground-water flow because of a facies for the clearing of drill cuttings from the change[16]. bottom of a borehole[16].

14 barrier, freshwater. Barrier of freshwater conditions that will be compared with future injected into an aquifer to stop the inflow of observations[22]. seawater into a coastal aquifer[16]. base of karstification. Level below which barrier, hydrologic. Lithologic formation karstification has not occurred. See also preventing horizontal movement of ground karst base level. water[16]. base width. The width of the hydrograph as barrier, permeability. A geologic or determined by a line parallel to the time axis petrographic feature in a bed obstructing cutting through the points where the rising free flow[16]. limb starts and where the recession curve ends[16]. barrier spring. See spring, barrier. basin. Hydrogeographic unit receiving base exchange. The displacement of a cation precipitation and discharging runoff in one bound to a site on the surface of a solid, as point[16]. in silica-alumina clay-mineral packets, by a cation solution[6]. basin characteristics. The physiographic, geologic, and ecologic characteristics of a base flow. 1. That part of the stream basin[16]. discharge that is not attributable to direct runoff from precipitation or melting snow; basin, closed. with no surface it is usually sustained by ground-water flow outlet[16]. discharge[22]. 2. Sustained fair-weather runoff[16]. basin, drainage. The area contributing to runoff which sustains streamflow[16]. See base level. Lowest level of erosion by a also drainage basin. stream[16]. basin, experimental. A basin chosen for the base level of erosion. The lowest theoretical thorough study of hydrological level of surface to be achieved by phenomena[16]. erosion[16]. basin, ground-water. The area throughout base level, karst. See karst base level. which ground water drains towards the same point. It can be larger than the base line. 1. An arbitrary line from which associated drainage basin if permeable deflections of self potential are read[16]. 2. layers extend outside of the topographical Shale line[16]. divide[16]. In karst terranes, the ground- water basin often does not resemble the baseline monitoring. The establishment and drainage basin. operation of a designed surveillance system for continuous or periodic measurements basin, . Basin in which water is and recording of existing and changing spread for recharge[16].

15 basin, intermontane. A basin lying between relatively small thickness and great areal two mountain ranges[16]. extent, separated by bedding planes from over- and underlying deposits[16]. basin method. A recharge method in which water is spread in shallow basins[16]. . See bedload. basin mouth. The point at which runoff bed, lower confining. An impermeable bed leaves a basin[16]. underlying an aquifer[16]. basin perimeter. The circumference of a bed, marker. Bed with characteristic features basin following the divide[16]. that can be followed over large areas for identification purposes[16]. basin relief, maximum. The elevation difference between basin mouth and the bed, mortar. Secondary calcium carbonate highest point within a basin perimeter[16]. cementations in the lower part of a soil profile[16]. Synonym: hardpan. basin, settling. A basin used for the settling out of solids from suspension[16]. bed, river. The channel of a river covered by water[16]. bathyphreatic zone. See phreas. bed roughness. The roughness of a channel bathometer. An instrument for measuring or river bed[16]. water depths in wells[16]. bed, stream. The bottom of a stream covered . A shore consisting of sand or gravel by water[16]. deposits[16]. bed, upper confining. Impermeable bed beachrock. 1. Rock composed of sand overlying an aquifer[16]. grains and/or sand-sized shell fragments cemented by calcium carbonate, commonly bedding. Applies to rocks resulting from formed very rapidly on some in consolidation of sediments and exhibiting tropical and subtropical areas. Beachrock surfaces of separation (bedding planes) generally occurs as thin beds between between layers of the same or different bedding planes that dip seawards at angles materials (e.g., shale, , limestone, similar to those of the beach slope[9]. 2. A etc). friable to indurated rock consisting of sand grains of various minerals cemented by bedding cave. See bedding-plane cave. calcium carbonate; occurs in thin beds dipping seaward at less than 15E. Also bedding grike. Term used to describe the known as beach sandstone[10]. occurrence of the dissolution and widening (similar to that which occurs in joints) of bed. 1. A layer in sedimentary rocks; a nearly vertical bedding in karst terranes[8]. stratum[10]. 2. A sedimentary deposit of Synonym: (German.) Schichtfugenkarren.

16 bedding joint. A joint in rocks that runs especially when there is a difference in parallel to or on a bedding plane[16]. susceptibility to corrosion in the two beds[10]. 3. A cave whose location is bedding plane. 1. A primary depositional controlled by the bedding of the enclosing lamination in sedimentary rocks that may be formation or formations[20]. Synonyms: preserved, though possibly with different (French.) grotte de stratification; (German.) properties, in metamorphic rocks. These schichtgebundene Höhle; (Greek.) laminations may be clearly visible where strosigenes speleon; (Italian.) grotta di lithologies change or where depositional interstrato; (Russian.) pescera v ploakosti cycles were completed/initiated, or they naplastovanija; (Spanish.) cueva adaptada may be effectively invisible to the naked a planos de estratificación; (Turkish.) eye, marking subtle changes in depositional tabakalanma ma™aras2; (Yugoslavian.) conditions. Most bedding planes were slojna peƒina. originally horizontal or very slightly inclined, but more steeply inclined bedding bedding-plane parting. See bedding plane planes developed in rocks deposited in and parting. deltaic or sand environments or in marine reefs. When rocks are folded the bedeckter karst. See covered karst. bedding planes provide an indication of the degree of deformation. Bedding planes bedload. The part of the total stream load play a crucial role in the inception and that is moved on or immediately above the ongoing development of most caves and , such as the larger or heavier many surface karst features[3]. 2. A plane particles (boulders, pebbles, gravel) that separates two strata of differing transported by traction or along characteristics[10]. See also parting. the bottom; the part of the load that is not continuously in suspension or solution[6]. bedding-plane cave. 1. Bedding planes are widespread and very significant features bedrock. Solid rock underlying within most carbonate rocks, and cave unconsolidated material[16]. passages are commonly guided by them. Their structure, their distribution, and the bench mark. A relatively permanent mark, chemical contrasts that some bedding natural or artificial, furnishing a survey planes provide may be the major influence point at a known elevation in relation to an during the earliest phases of development of adopted datum[16]. Bench marks, or marked a cave system. The term bedding-plane points, connected by precise leveling, cave is strictly applied to a passage that has constitute the control of land-surface not enlarged by growth into a major tube or settlement in studies[21]. , but has remained almost entirely on the bedding plane. A famous example is bend. Curve in a water course[16]. Hensler’s Passage, in Gaping , Yorkshire, which is over 400 m long, nearly bentonite. A colloidal clay, largely made up 5 m wide and nowhere higher than 1 m[9]. of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, a 2. A passage formed along a bedding plane, hydrated aluminum silicate[6].

17 B-horizon. Illuvial horizon in which soluble biyospeleoloji, ma™ara canl2lar2 bilimi; material from the overlying A-horizon has (Yugoslavian.) biospeleologija. been deposited[16]. biphosphammite. A cave mineral — [11] belay. A safety rope tied around a caver that NH4H2PO4 . is played out or taken in by a second person as the caver moves. The purpose of the birnessite. A cave mineral — [11] belay is to prevent the caver from falling (Na,Ca)Mn7O14"3H2O . more than a few feet[13]. blade. In a cave, a thin sharp projection beudantite. A cave mineral — jutting out from roof, wall, or floor, of [11] PbFe3(AsO4)(SO4)(OH)6 . which it is an integral part; generally the remains of a partition or [10]. bicarbonate. A salt containing the radical -1 [10] HCO3 , such as Ca(HCO3)2 . blanket. A thick layer of dripstone, not translucent[10]. See also bacon; curtain; bifurcation. The forklike separation of a drapery. water course into two arms[16]. blind chimney. See chimney. bifurcation ratio. The ratio of the number of stream segments of a given order to the blind valley. 1. A karst valley abruptly number of segments of next higher order[16]. terminated by the passage underground of a watercourse that has hitherto resisted the biomicrite. A microscopic-textured limestone karst processes and remained at the surface. composed of skeletal grains in a matrix of An intermediate type, the half-blind valley, micrite; micrite is a finely crystalline exists in which the valley form continues carbonate sediment with the upper downstream from the sinkhole used under crystalline diameter being 4 microns[20]. conditions of normal river flow. The Synonyms: (French.) biomicrite; (German.) watercourse only flows here intermittently Biomicrite; (Greek.) micrite; (Italian.) and the valley may (except for its use as a biomicrite; (Spanish.) biomicrita; conduit) be fossil in that it represents (Turkish.) biyomikrit; (Yugoslavian.) the section abandoned by the river as it biomikrit. See also micrite; peloid. sought progressively higher swallow holes[19]. 2. A karst valley with no evident . The study of subterranean downstream continuation, and one in which living organisms, particularly in karst caves the water drains and disappears and other openings in rock formations[9, 21]. underground into one or more [20]. 3. Synonyms: (French.) biospéléologie, A valley that terminates abruptly at a point biospéologie; (German.) Biospeläologie; where its stream sinks, or once sank, (Greek.) biospeleology; (Italian.) underground. As sinks develop higher up biospeleogia; (Russian.) biospeleologija; the blind valley, the original valley (Spanish.) biospeleología; (Turkish.) termination may be dry under most flow conditions[9]. Related to marginal .

18 Synonyms: (French.) vallée aveugle; ope; (Italian.) pozzo soffiante; (Russian.) (German.) Blindtal (Kesseltal); (Greek.) dujuÑcij kolokec; (Spanish.) sondeo kliste karstike kilas; (Italian.) valle cieca, soplador; (Turkish.) üfleç kuyu. See also valle chiusa; (Russian.) slepaja dolina; steam hole. (Spanish.) valle ciego; (Turkish.) kör vadi; (Yugoslavian.) slijepa dolina, sepa dolina. blowout. An uncontrolled escape of drilling See also half-blind valley; marginal polje. fluid, gas, oil, or water from a well caused by the formation pressure being greater than bloedite. A cave mineral — the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the [11] [6] Na2Mg(SO4)2"4H2) . hole .

blowhole. 1. Opening in the roof of a cave or hole. 1. Deep resurgence pool, notably cavern through which air is expelled in Jamaica and , that may have a blue vigorously. In coastal areas the color due to the presence of algae. Also, a phenomenon is usually due to compression deep submarine cave of . The of air within the cave by incoming or latter type are large flooded shafts cut into waves[20]. 2. Clifftop entrance to a sea the limestones of the shallow reefs and cave, also known as a geo, gloop, or floors. Many are 100 m in diameter gloup[9]. 3. (Australian.) A small hole in the and some are 100 m deep. Opening from surface of the through the shafts are flooded cave passages at which air blows in and out with observable various depths, some of which have been force, sometimes audibly[10]. Related to explored subhorizontally for more than 1 hole. Synonyms: (French.) trou km. Their origins are complex. Extensive souffleur; (German.) Windhöhle; (Greek.) deposits show that large old ope ekphysosa; (Italian.) bocca soffiante; caves were drained when sea levels were (Spanish.) soplador; (Turkish.) üflenme low during the Pleistocene (when water was a™z2; (Yugoslavian.) vjetrenica, veternica, held in ice sheets). They are now being puhaljka, pihalnik, dihalnik. See also modified by marine dissolution, notably at steam hole. the interface between fresh and salt waters (sea littoral zone) and by powerful tidal blowing cave. A cave out of which or into flows between connected holes[9]. 2. which a current of air flows (Jamaican.) A major emergence where intermittently[10]. water (artesian spring) rises from below without great turbulence. 3. (Bahamas.) A blowing well. A well or borehole into which drowned solution sinkhole[10]. 4. Caribbean air is sucked and from which air is blown expression for a major quiet up-welling (often with considerable velocity) because inland or along the . The of changes in barometric pressure or in blue color is due to the scattering of water level. The phenomenon indicates that sunlight by water molecules, although in the well or borehole is in communication some cases it may be attributed to the with an underground air-filled cavity. presence of calcareous algae[20]. Synonyms: Synonyms: (French.) puits souffleur; (French.) source bleue (Jura), bleu-fon (German.) Windkamin; (Greek.) ekphysosa (South of France); (German.) Blaue ;

19 (Greek.) galapo speleo. See also boiling USA. A third, and most important, type of spring. bone cave is the ancient animal den, into which scavengers such as hyaenas dragged Bodenbedeckter karst. See subsoil karst. the remains of many other animals, as for example at Kirkdale Cave in North bog. [16]. Yorkshire[3].

bogaz. 1. (Slavic.) An elongated depression in borehole. 1. Boring into unconsolidated and limestone or karst terrain; thus it embraces consolidated materials for the purpose of a defile, a blind valley, or a leading to subsurface hydrogeological investigations. a . It can be considered as a giant 2. Synonym for a well-developed phreatic grike. This meaning is based on the Serbian tube passage[9]. use[20]. 2. A variable-discharge artesian spring in which hydrostatic pressure is great botryoid, botryoidal . 1. enough to cause a turbulent or even Generally sub-spherical or globular calcium fountain-like discharge. 3. A long narrow carbonate deposits ranging in size between chasm enlarged by solution of the tiny beads and masses up to 1 m across. limestone[10]. 4. Large linear fissure or box Botryoidal describes a form resembling a valley through a karst block. Effectively a bunch of grapes[9]. 2. A grapelike deposit giant grike, perhaps 50 m deep and 1 km of calcium carbonate generally found on long, formed by dissolution on a fault or walls of caves[10]. Synonyms: clusterite; joint in very massive limestone[9]. grape formation. See coralloid Synonyms: (French.) défilé, bogaz; speleothem. (German.) Doline, Karstgasse, Blindtal, Zangön; (Greek.) faragothis doline; bottom hole. The lowest part of a drilled hole (Spanish.) zanjón; (Turkish.) bog ˜az; where the drilling bit cuts into the rock[16]. (Yugoslavia.) bogaz. See also canyon; gorge; grike; corridor; struga; zanjón. bottomland. A lowland along an plain[16]. boiling spring. See spring, boiling. boulder clay. See glacial till. bone-. Cave breccia including much bone[10]. boundary spring. See spring, boundary. bone cave. A cave recognized particularly for . (British.) 1. A stream that appears in its contained deposits of animal bones. The a normally dry valley, particularly on the bones may be the remains of animals that Chalk outcrop in southern England, during fell into the cave, as in the Joint Mitnor wet conditions[9]. 2. Intermittent stream in Cave, Devon, or in many other pitfall or a normally dry valley in chalk country[10]. fissure sites. Alternatively the bones may be of animals that originally lived in the . 1. A three-dimensional network of cave - and these may include man, as at thin sheets of mineral projecting from a Niah Cave, Sarawak, or at Russell Cave, cave wall. The boxwork is vein fillings

20 etched from the cave wall by dissolution of breakthrough curve. 1. A plot of relative the host limestone and consists mostly of concentration versus time, where relative calcite and . It is not common, but concentration is defined as C/Co with C as spectacular displays occur in Wind Cave, the concentration at a point in the , USA[9]. 2. Network of thin flow domain and Co as the blades of calcite or gypsum etched out in source concentration[22]. 2. A plot of tracer relief on the limestone walls and ceiling of concentration, C, versus time, t, for a a cave[10]. groundwater tracing study in karst conduit for the purpose of quantitatively brackish water. Water containing from 1000 determining how much tracer mass was to 10,000 ppm of total dissolved solids[16]. recovered, mean time of travel, mean tracer flow velocity, and related hydraulic flow braided stream. A stream that divides into or and geometric parameters. Synonyms: follows an interlacing or tangled network of recovery curve; tracer-breakthrough curve; several small branching and reuniting tracer-recovery curve. shallow channels separated from each other by branch or channel bars, breakthrough time. The time required to resembling in plan the strands of a complex develop a conduit large enough (usually 5- braid[6]. 10 mm in diameter) to support turbulent flow[9]. brake . A round bar approximately 2½ x ¾ inches that is placed on rappel racks or breathing cave. Air movement through a so that rope can be threaded cave is described as breathing when it through the rack or carabiners for reverses more frequently than the seasonal rappelling[13]. reversal of a through-draught in a cave with higher and lower entrances. Slow breathing branchwork cave pattern. 1. A cave system occurs in response to barometric pressure that has been formed by the intersection of changes when the volume of cave air is tubular or canyonlike conduits as forced to change. It is notoriously strong in in the downflow direction. 2. A dendritic large caves of the Australian Nullarbor cave system of subterranean watercourses Plain. More rapid wind reversals or having many incoming branches and no oscillations, as in Breathing Cave, , visible outgoing ones[10]. are a resonance phenomenon, similar to the effect produced by air passing over the neck breakdown. See cave breakdown. of a bottle. In the cave environment the resonant frequency is relatively low and breakthrough. A quantum jump in erosional periodic air flow reversals occur, rather activity that is associated with the transition than the sound waves observed at the from dominantly laminar to dominantly higher frequencies met in the bottleneck turbulent flow conditions[9]. See turbulent example[9]. threshold. breathing hole. Opening in the roof of a cave, cavern, or other underground void

21 through which air is sucked in and expelled brine. Water containing more than 100,000 in a rhythmic manner similar to inhalation ppm of total dissolved solids[16]. and exhalation of breath[20]. Related to blow hole and steam hole. Synonyms: brittle deformation. The sudden failure of a (French.) trou souffleur; (German.) rock with complete loss of cohesion across Luftloch; (Greek.) anapnéousa opí spiléou; a plane. (Spanish.) respirador; (Turkish.) esintili delik. brochantite. A cave mineral — [11] Cu4(SO4)(OH)6 . breccia. 1. Angular fragments of rock, commonly but not inevitably cemented by brushite. A cave mineral — [11] finer-grained materials including silica, iron CaHPO4"2H2O . minerals, and calcite to form a new rock. Many fault planes are marked by zones of bubble gage. A stage recorder based on the broken rock, either loose or re-cemented, principle of equating a gas pressure to forming a fault breccia[9]. 2. Rock water level[16]. composed of angular fragments[16]. bucket. A measuring reservoir in liquid bridge. 1. May be a natural bridge of bedrock gaging instruments[16]. normally formed outside a cave entrance by partial collapse leaving an isolated roof buffered solution. A solution that resists segment, as in the famous examples of changes in the pH value upon addition of Rakov Škocjan, . Rock acids or bases[16]. may also occur inside caves through either surrounding phreatic dissolution or collapse buildup. The vertical distance the water table between superimposed passages. Another or potentiometric surface is raised, or the common type inside a cave is a span of false increase of the pressure head due to the floor where sediment is washed from addition of water[22]. below, as at The Bridge in GB Cavern in the Mendip [9]. 2. In a cave, a residual buried karst. Karst topography entirely rock span across a passage[10]. 3. In water buried by relatively younger post-rock or wells, an obstruction in the drill hole or sediments and not part of the contemporary annulus. A bridge is usually formed by landscape[17]. Synonyms: fossil karst; of the wall of the well bore, by the (French.) karst couvert, karst fossile, intrusion of a large boulder, or by filter paleokarst; (German.) bedeckter Karst, pack materials during well completion. Urkarst; (Greek.) kaymeno paleokarst; Bridging can also occur in the formation (Italian.) carso sepolto; (Spanish.) karst during well development[16]. See also soterrado; (Turkish.) gömülü karst; natural bridge. (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krs˜. See also cov- ered karst; paleokarst; subsoil karst. bridging effect. The forming of arches in a packing of materials[16]. buried valley. An ancient valley buried by recent, often glacial deposits[16].

22 burst. 1. Periods of heavy rainfall[16]. 2. An explosive breaking of brittle rock material (e.g., rock burst in a deep mine ).

23 C calcareous. 1. Containing calcium carbonate[10]. 2. Descriptive of a rock that [9] caballing. The mixing of two water masses to contains calcium carbonate . produce a blend that sinks because it is denser than its original components. This calcareous . See sinter. occurs when two water masses have the same density but different and calcification. Replacement of the original salinities. hard parts of an animal or plant by calcium carbonate[10]. cable ladder. A ladder used in vertical caving that is made of two parallel cables with calcilutite. 1. Clastic limestone or dolomite in metal rungs held in place with metal tubes which the grains have an average diameter crimped to the cables[13]. of less than 1/16 millimeter; calcareous mudstone[10]. 2. A carbonate rock that cable way. A cable stretched across a river consists predominantly (>50%) of silt from which a cable car is suspended to and/or clay size calcite (or dolomite) allow for stream discharge particles[9]. measurements[16]. calcirudite. A fragmental limestone in which caisson. A protective chamber for the the particles are generally larger than 2 excavation of water-submerged millimeters[10]. unconsolidated sediments[16]. calcite. 1. The commoner, more stable

calanque. (French.) 1. Cove or small . 2. mineral form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3. A valley excavated in limestone or formed It is the dominant component of all by collapse of the roof of a cave and limestones and, owing to its dissolution and subsequently submerged by a rise in sea reprecipitation by natural waters at normal level[10]. temperatures, it is also the dominant mineral of chemical cave deposits, including calc-. Prefix meaning “limy”; containing and . It is white or calcium carbonate[10]. colorless when pure but may be stained, most commonly to yellows and browns, by calcarenite. 1. Limestone or dolomite included impurities such as iron oxides. Its composed of coral or shell sand or of grains uninterrupted growth in a pool may allow derived from the disintegration and erosion development of good crystals, shaped as of older limestones. Size of particles ranges elongate scalenohedral pyramids of trigonal from 1/16 to 2 millimeters[10]. 2. A habit. Growth in stalactites and stalagmites carbonate rock that consists predominantly is either in masses of fine parallel or (>50%) of sand-sized calcite (or dolomite) radiating needles, or in a mosaic of larger particles. Many of the particles are the rhombic crystals, easily identified by their angular or degraded fragments of fossil well-developed cleavage surfaces. Calcite shells[9]. is also the dominant vein mineral in limestones[9]. 2. A mineral composed of

24 calcium carbonate (CaCO3), like aragonite capillary action. 3. In some areas, refers to but differing in crystal form; the principal hardpan resulting from concentration of constituent of limestone and other carbonate in the soil by downward leaching speleothems[10]. and reprecipitation[10]. 4. A deposit of precipitated minerals, mainly calcite or calcite bubble. A hollow sphere formed by gypsum or both, formed in the soil or near- the deposition of calcite around a gas surface layers in arid and semi-arid zones at bubble; the interior is smooth and the the horizon where ascendant capillary water exterior consists of small jagged crystals[10]. evaporates and salts held in solution are deposited. 5. A similar deposit, formed by calcite flottante. (French.) See floe calcite. precipitation of salts leached from near- surface material and reprecipitated at calcite raft. A veneer of reprecipitated calcite shallow depths from downward moving forming a sheet over all or part of the waters[20]. Synonyms: (French.) croûte; surface of a static cave pool in conditions (German.) Kalkkruste, Ca-Horizont; favoring the release of carbon dioxide[19]. (Greek.) apóthema oriktón aláton; (Italian.) caliche; (Spanish.) caliche; (Turkish.) calc-sinter. See sinter. kaliçi. See also hardpan; havara; kafkalla; kankar; kunkar; nari; calcrete. calcium carbonate. Naturally occurring compound with the chemical formula callow. (English.) Top or rubble bed of a

CaCO3. It occurs commonly as the mineral quarry. calcite and less commonly as aragonite, and is the major component of carbonate rocks seepage loss. Water lost to the including limestone and marble. It also subsurface by seepage through the channel forms the matrix or cement that holds bottom or walls[16]. together many and other sedimentary rocks[9]. See also dolomite. canale. (Italian.) Long drowned valley on the Dalmatian coast. Some canali may be calcrete. (South African.) See caliche. drowned [10]. calibration. The experimental evaluation of cáno. (Spanish.) Stream. See also stream. the scale readings of an instrument against an absolute standard[16]. canopy. 1. Overhanging flowstone that projects from a cave wall. It may be a caliche. 1. (Chilean and Peruvian.) A natural remnant of a once continuous false floor or deposit of nitrates and other salts a mass of flowstone that has built steadily precipitated at the soil surface. 2. (Mexico outwards to create its own overhang[9]. 2. and Southwestern .) Indurated A compound cave formation consisting of calcium carbonate and other salts found in flowstone hanging from a sloping wall the soil at the surface in arid and semiarid projection and forming a fringe of shawls or regions, generally formed by evaporation of stalactites on the outer edge[10]. lime-bearing waters drawn to the surface by

25 canyon. 1. A steep-walled chasm, gorge, or important influences of flow rate and ravine cut by running water. 2. A chasm erosional capacity. Vadose that has been formed by a cave stream. 3. commonly twist and sharply, while A valley formed by collapse of the roof of a maintaining roughly parallel vertical sides. long fairly straight cave; a karst valley[10]. In contrast to some in surface Related to corridor. Synonyms: (French.) , underground meanders must canyon, gorge, cañon; (German.) Schlucht, generally be imprinted on a bedding plane Canyon; (Greek.) pharangi; (Italian.) forra, before entrenchment of the canyon begins. gola, orrido, canyon; (Russian.) kanjon; Narrow canyon passages, commonly less (Spanish.) cañón;, garganta; (Turkish.) than 1 m wide and more than 20 m high, are bo™az; (Yugoslavian.) klanac, sutjeska, a particular feature of deep alpine caves. soteska, vintgar. See also bogaz; chasm; Perhaps the largest canyon passage in the gorge; ravine. world is that in Škocjanske Jama, Slovenia, which is over 100 m high and 50 m wide[9]. canyon passage. 1. A tubular passage (cave) See paragenetic cave. See also keyhole that is formed by underground streams passage; passage; tubular passage; vertical following gently tilted bedding-plane shafts. partings or fractures and are eroding channels downward through the rock. capacity. The ability to contain a certain Their ceiling heights are greater than their volume or mass[16]. widths. They are similar to surface canyons, but they possess roofs and are capacity, carrying. The capacity of a generally the same distance apart at the top watercourse to transport solids[16]. as they are at the bottom. In Mammoth Cave, most are narrow and winding and capacity curve. A graphic presentation of the may achieve dimensions of 50 feet wide by rate of discharge in a pipe or conduit or 100 feet high. If a canyon passage begins through porous material[16]. forming on an old tube passage, then a keyhole passage may result[15]. 2. Also capacity, entrance. The property of a soil to known as vadose canyons, these are cave let water infiltrate[16]. passages, most commonly formed by continued floor entrenchment or incision, capacity, field; field-carrying; capillary. by a free-flowing vadose stream. The Soil moisture retained by capillarity and not passage width at any particular level is removable by gravity drainage[16]. determined by the flow of the formative Synonym: specific retention. stream, the rate of its , and the effects of any subsequent collapse. Canyon capacity, ground-water. 1. The ability of soil height reflects the stream’s downcutting or rock materials to hold water. The yield history. It depends upon the vertical of a pump, well, or reservoir. distance available for erosional descent to the local base level and the time that capacity, hydraulic. The ability of a current erosional downcutting has been active, as of water or wind to transport detritus, as well as upon the more obvious but less

26 shown by the amount measured at a point contacts of grains, when the rings around per unit of time. adjacent contacts become large enough to touch. capacity, infiltration. The maximum rate at which a soil can absorb precipitation for capillary conductivity. 1. The property of an given conditions[16]. unsaturated porous medium to transmit liquid[22]. 2. Coefficient that expresses the capacity, self-cleaning. The capacity of a extent to which an unsaturated permeable river to clean its water from pollutants over medium allows flow of water through its a given length of water course[16]. interstices, under a unit gradient of capillary potential[22]. capacity, specific. The ratio of well discharge to corresponding discharge[16]. capillary fringe. The lower subdivision of the unsaturated zone immediately above the capacity, storage. 1. The ability of an aquifer water table in which the interstices are filled to store water[16]. 2. The capacity of with water under pressure less than that of to store water in their own channels[16]. the atmosphere, being continuous with the water below the water table but held above capacity, total. The maximum rate of yield of it by capillary [22]. a well[16]. capillary fringe zone. The zone above the capacity, transmission. The property of a free water elevation in which water is held porous medium to conduct fluid[16]. by capillary action.

capacity, well. The rate at which a well will capillary head. The potential, expressed in yield water[16]. head of water, that causes the water to flow by capillary action[22]. capillarity. The action by which a fluid, such as water, is drawn up (or depressed) in capillary interstice. An interstice small small interstices or tubes as a result of enough to hold water by at surface tension. an appreciable height above a free water surface, yet large enough to prevent capillary action. The movement of water in molecular attraction from extending across the interstices of a porous medium due to the entire opening. capillary forces[22]. Synonymous with capillarity, capillary flow, and capillary capillary migration. See capillary action. migration. capillary movement. The rise of water in the capillary attraction. The adhesive force subsoil above the water table by capillarity. between a liquid and a solid in capillarity. capillary percolation. See imbibition. capillary condensation. The formation of rings of pendular water around point

27 capillary potential. The scalar quantity that mines. Some cavers still prefer carbide represents the work required to move a unit lights over electric lights. See also carbide mass of water from the soil to a chosen lamp. reference location and energy state[22]. carbide lamp. A carbide lamp, also known as capillary pressure. The difference in pressure a miners’ carbide lamp or acetylene lamp across the interface between two immiscible was introduced into mine use in about fluid phases jointly occupying the interstices 1897. It consists of two chambers, a water of a porous medium caused by interfacial tank above and a removable carbide canister tension between the two phases[22]. below with a connection valve to permit controlled seepage of water into the calcium capillary rise. The height above a free water carbide. The carbide and water react to

surface to which water will rise by capillary generate calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] and action[22]. Synonymous with height of acetylene gas. The gas is passed through a capillary rise. filter into a tube and through a tiny burner- tip orifice designed for the optimum mixture capillary stalagmite. Hollow stalagmite of air and acetylene. Once ignited, it burns formed by saturated karst water pushed up with a brilliant yellow-white flame produced through capillaries and small cracks in a by the incandescence of tiny carbon sinter crust covering permeable fluvial particles. A reflector concentrates the light deposits on the floor of a cave; first in a particular direction[13]. reported from Cuba, where such stalagmites are composed of aragonite[10]. carbonate. 1. A salt or ester of carbonic acid; -2 a compound containing the radical CO3 , capillary tension. See moisture tension. such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3. 2. A rock consisting mainly of carbonate capillary water. 1. Water held in the soil minerals, such as limestone or dolomite[10]. above the phreatic surface by capillary forces[22]. 2. Soil water above hydroscopic carbonate-. A cave mineral — [22] [11] moisture and below the field capacity . Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F . . An oval of steel or aluminum with carbonate hardness. Hardness of water due a movable spring-loaded gate on one side. to presence of dissolved bicarbonates of A locking carabiner is one where the gate is calcium and magnesium that can be threaded and has a ring that can be threaded removed by boiling, hence the term over the gate to prevent it from opening[13]. “temporary hardness.” Synonyms: (French.) dureté temporaire; (German.) carbide, calcium carbide. A compound temporäre Härte, Carbonathärte; (Greek.)

(CaC2) of grayish color that reacts with parothiki sklipotis anthrakiki sklirotis; water to produce acetylene gas and calcium (Italian.) durezza temporanea; (Russian.) [13] hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] . Commonly used karbonatnaja zestkostj; (Spanish.) dureza by cavers and miners earlier in this century temporal; (Turkish.) karbonat sertli™i; as a means of providing light in caves or (Yugoslavian.) turdoóa, trdota.

28 carbonate-hydroxylapatite. A cave mineral depression that collects rainwater (e.g., [11] — Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH) . reservoir). carbonate rock. A rock that consists of one cation. An ion having a positive charge and, or more carbonate minerals. Carbonate in electrolytes, characteristically moving rock successions (or sequences) are those in towards a negative electrode[6]. which carbonate rock is dominant, but which also contain rocks of other cation exchange. Ion exchange process in lithology[9]. which cations in solution are exchanged for other cations from an ion exchanger[6]. carbonic acid dissolution. Dissolution of calcium carbonate by carbon dioxide in cation exchange capacity. The sum total of aqueous solution, loosely termed carbonic exchangeable cations that a porous medium acid, is the dominant reaction in karst can absorb. Expressed in moles of ion processes, including speleogenesis. The charge per kilogram of soil (or of other reaction can be considered in several ways exchanges such as clay)[22]. but it is most simply represented as: causse. (French.) A limestone in the

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O º Ca(HCO3)2 southeastern part of the central massif of France characterized by closed depressions, cascading water. In reference to wells, caves, and avens (jamas); a number of such ground water that trickles or pours down in and around the basin of the river the casing or uncased borehole above the constitute Les Grandes Causses. This water level in the well through cracks or region was considered by Cvijiƒ to perforations[22]. exemplify karst development intermediate - between holokarst and merokarst[10]. casing. Permanent liner of a well[16]. Synonym: (French.) causse; (German.) Kalkstein Plateau, Causse; (Greek.) casing joint. Welded or threaded connection karstikón oropédion; (Italian.) altopiano for tubular casing[16]. carsico; (Russian.) izvestnjakovoje karstovoje plato; (Spanish.) altiplano casing, surface. That part of a well casing carstico; (Turkish.) kireçtaÕi düzlügü; that extends above land surface[16]. (Yugoslavian.) krs˜ki plato, kras˜ ki plato. catch basin. 1. A reservoir or basin into cave. 1. “A natural hole in the ground, large which may drain. 2. A basin enough for human entry” is probably the to collect and retain material from a street most useful definition. This covers the gutter that would not readily pass through enormous variety of caves that do occur but a sewer system. eliminates the many artificial and galleries incorrectly named caves. The size catchment. (Great Britain.) 1. An area into criterion is arbitrary and subjective, but which surface water may drain. 2. A practical, as it eliminates narrow openings irrelevant to explorers but very significant

29 hydrologically, that may be better referred cave breakdown. 1. Enlargement of parts of to as proto-caves, sub-conduits, or fissures. a cave system by fall of rock masses from A cave may be a single, short length of walls and ceiling. 2. Heaps of rock that accessible passage, or an extensive and have collapsed from the walls and ceiling of complex network of tunnels as long as the a cave, generally called cave breccia[10]. 3. hundreds of kilometers in the Synonym for the collapse of caves, or, in Mammoth Cave System. Most caves are American usage, for the debris produced by formed by dissolution in limestone, but collapse[18]. sandstone caves, lava caves, glacier caves and tectonic caves also occur. Marginal cave breathing. A resonance phenomenon in candidates for use of the name “cave” which air currents throb back and forth include riverbank undercuts and rock through constricted passages in a cave with shelters of various origins. In some periodicity of a few seconds to a few countries a cave is regarded as being a minutes. Synonyms: (French.) passage horizontal opening, as opposed to a respirant; (German.) Grotte mit Resonanz; pothole, which is a vertical opening. This (Greek.) anapneousa ope; (Italian.) grotta usage is common in England but is not a soffio alterno; (Spanish.) gruta resonante; ubiquitous[9]. 2. A natural opening formed (Turkish.) ma™ara esintisi. See also in the rocks below the surface of the ground blowing cave. large enough for a human to enter. It may consist of a single connected opening or a cave breccia. Angular fragments of rock series of small or large chambers connected forming a fill in a cave, either cemented by galleries[20]. 3. A similar artificial together by dripstone or in a matrix of cave opening[10]. Related to cavern. Synonyms: earth[10]. See also solution breccia. (French.) grotte, caverne; (German.) Höhle, Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) caverna, cave bubble. A nonattached hollow sphere, grotta; (Russian.) pescera; (Spanish.) usually of calcite, that has formed around a cueva; (Turkish.) ma™ara; (Yugoslavian.) gas bubble on the surface of a cave pool. pec˜ ina. pec˜, pes˜ tera, spilja, zijjalka, jama. See also active cave; bedding cave; cave cave coral. A rough, knobby growth of cal- system; grotto; . cite resembling coral in shape, generally small; found on the floor, walls, or ceiling cave balloon. See cave blister. of a cave[10]. Synonym: botryoid; coral for- mation; . See also knobstone. cave blister. 1. A small pimplelike cave for- mation, roughly oval in shape, generally cave cotton. Thin flexible filaments of loose, and having a core of mud[10]. 2. A gypsum or epsomite projecting from a cave partly or completely hollow hemispherical wall. Synonym: gypsum cotton. See also to nearly spherical speleothem, usually of gypsum flower. gypsum or hydromagnesite, attached to a cave wall. Synonym: cave balloon. cave development. The inception of cave development in carbonate rocks begins if water can move through the bedrock and

30 commence dissolution. The earliest water phreatic conditions, but the overall passage movement may be due to mechanisms morphology is modified during later growth (including ground-water pumping and ionic into vadose or phreatic caves, enlarged effects) unrelated to those from the original phreatic imprint, above or dominating later development. Similarly, below the water table. Ultimately, cave inception may include physical and chemical development evolves toward efficient dissolution (involving removal of drainage close to the water table. Passage carbonates and mineral impurities by water enlargement then becomes regressive as and by strong acids), as well as by the collapse increases. The stage of a cavernous carbonic acid dissolution that dominates karst collapsing extensively is relatively later cave growth. Initial water movement rare, being overtaken at high latitudes and can be along primary pores in the rock (in high altitudes by surface lowering, but such coarse raffle limestones, oolites, or chalk), collapse can contribute to the chaotic along relatively thin noncarbonate beds landforms of tropical karst[9]. within the succession, or along incipient or open fissures (joints, faults, and bedding cave earth, cave fill. Insoluble deposits of planes). These potential water routes are clay, silt, sand, or gravel flooring or filling initially very narrow and water movement a cave passage. In a more restricted sense, is severely restricted and laminar, allowing cave earth includes only the finer fractions: only very slow dissolutional growth (see clay, silt, and fine sand deposits[10]. gestation), until enlargement beyond the Synonym: cave soil. turbulent threshold (breakthrough) permits faster flow and accelerated cave growth. cave flower. An elongate curved deposit of After establishment of turbulent flow gypsum or epsomite on a cave wall in which conditions, the effects of dissolution are growth occurs at the attached end[10]. augmented by mechanical and Synonyms: gypsum flower; oulopholite. collapse, which expose new rock. During See also anthodite; cave cotton. the early development stages a network of narrow openings is formed. Subsequently, cave formations. 1. Secondary mineral de- geological factors guide the preferential posits formed by the accumulation, drip- expansion of favorable routes, which ping, or flowing of water in a cave[10]. 2. capture more of the local flow and enlarge, Unsatisfactory term used to include all at the expense of less favorable openings, to varieties of calcite, gypsum and other, rarer, form caves. The less favorable fissures are mineral cave deposits; therefore a synonym relegated to a subordinate role in for the equally unwieldly “speleothem” or transmitting percolation water or, more the colloquial term “stall”[9]. See also rarely, in carrying elements of overflow sinter; speleothem. water during . Also during the early stages, all voids are water filled, but as cave group. A number of caves or cave permeability increases and true hydraulic systems, not interconnected but geo- flow conditions are establish ed, the upper graphically associated in some relief feature voids drain freely, forming a water table. or particular geological outcrop[10]. See Almost all caves therefore originate under also cave series.

31 cave . Accumulations of dung in caves, . 1. Carbonate concretion, usually generally from bats; in some places partially of calcite, that is spherical or irregular in mineralized[10]. shape, with an internal structure of concentric banding round a central grain. cave ice. Ice formed in a cave by natural Pearls form in pools of saturated water freezing of water. Loosely but incorrectly disturbed by dripping water, so that they are applied to calcium carbonate dripstone and commonly found beneath high avens. flowstone[10]. Individual pearls may be 1 mm or many centimeters in diameter. Movement of the cave-in. 1. The collapse of the ceiling or side larger ones may become impossible and walls of a cave or of the land surface into a they can then become cemented to the pool subterranean passage as a result of floor. Some caves contain spectacular undermining or of pressure from above[10]. displays of cave pearls; in Jackson’s Bay 2. The partial or complete collapse of earth Cave, Jamaica, they cover large areas of material into a large underground opening, passage floor behind low gour barriers[9]. 2. such as an excavation or a mine. 3. The Small concretion of calcite or aragonite sudden slumping of wall material into a pit. formed by concentric precipitation around 4. A place where material has collapsed or a nucleus[10]. Synonyms: pisolite; pisolith; fallen in or down. (French.) perle des cavernes; (German.) Höhlenperlen; (Greek.) speleomargarites; cave-in . A shallow whose (Italian.) perle di grotta; (Russian.) basin is produced by collapse of the ground pescernij zemcug; (Spanish.) perla de following thawing of ground ice in regions caverna; (Turkish.) ma™ara incisi; underlain by . Synonym: (Yugoslavian.) peƒinski biseri, jamski lake. biseri.

cave lake. Any . The water cave pisolite. See cave pearl. can be in a partially drained phreatic cave, and may then be the entrance to a , or cave popcorn. See cave coral. it can be open over its entire surface. In vadose caves are most commonly caver. (American.) 1. A slang term for one formed by ponding behind banks of who engages in the hobby of cave sediment or, in rarer cases, behind very exploration, or caving[9, 21]. 2. A person large gour barriers[9]. who explores caves in a safe manner while showing respect for the cave (all aspects of cave marble. Banded deposit of calcite or the cave), other cavers, and the land above aragonite capable of taking a high polish[10]. the cave[13]. Synonym: spelunker; (British.) See also flowstone; marble. potholer. See also speleologist.

cave of debouchure. Outflow cave. cave raft. A thin mineral film, usually of calcite, floating on a cave pool. cave onyx. See onyx marble.

32 (CRF.) An cavernous karren. Pitted, rubbly limestone organization of cavers united primarily for most commonly found in relatively recent scientific exploration and study of caves[13]. and limestones of the humid tropics[3]. See also covered karren; karren. cavern. 1. Underground opening in soluble rock similar to a cave. When used as a cavernous permeability. See conduit noun, it refers to large openings, but when permeability. used as an adjective it tends to refer to rock texture and so to small openings. However, cavernous rock. Any rock that has many in some countries (e.g., Russia) “cavern” cavities, cells, or large interstices (e.g., a refers to small openings in a rock[20]. 2. A face pitted with shallow holes resulting synonym of “cave” with the implication of from cavernous ). large size. 3. A system or series of caves or cave chambers. 4. A cave, often used cavernous weathering. Chemical and poetically or to connote larger-than-average mechanical weathering on a cliff face, in size[10]. Synonyms: (French.) caverne; which grains and flakes of rock are (German.) Höhle, Kaverne; (Greek.) loosened so as to enlarge hollows and speleon; (Italian.) caverna, grotta; recesses. (Russian.) kaverna; (Spanish.) caverna, cueva; (Turkish.) kovuk; (Yugoslavian.) cavern porosity. A pore system having large, kaverna. See also cave. cavernous openings. The lower size limit, for field analysis, is practically set at cavern breakdown. The process of cave approximately the smallest opening that an enlargement, which depends upon the adult person may enter. mechanical failure and eventual collapse of sections of the cavern walls and ceiling[22]. cavern system. See cave system. cavern flow. Movement, often turbulent, of cave series. A group of caves of similar ground-water flow through caves, coarse morphology in a particular district[10]. See sorted gravel, or large open conduits, either also cave group. by gravity or under pressure. cave shield. A semicircular plate of cavernous. Adjective used to describe a rock reprecipitated calcite located beneath joints texture in which the rock contains openings in a cavern ceiling and believed to be generally of a small size[20]. Synonyms: formed by the seepage of hydrostatic water (French.) caverneux; (German.) kavernös; along the joint. Two shields form beneath (Greek.) speleothes; (Italian.) con grotte; one joint, descending from each side of the (Russian.) kavernoznij; (Spanish.) opening[22]. cavernoso; (Turkish.) kovuklu; (Yugoslavian.) kavernozan. See also cave soil. See cave earth. cavern. cave spring. See spring, cave.

33 cave system. 1. An underground network of ceiling of a cave[10]. See also cave passages, chambers, or other cavities. 2. breakdown; ceiling slab. The caves in a given area related to each other hydrologically, whether continuous or ceiling cavity. Solutional concavity in the discontinuous from a single opening[10]. ceiling of a cave. The orientation is Synonyms: (French.) réseau souterrain; determined by joints or a bedding plane[10]. (German.) Höhlensystem; (Greek.) speleothes systema, thiction; (Italian.) ceiling channel. Sinuous channel developed sistema carsico sotterraneo; (Russian.) in the ceiling of a cave, presumably during sistema podzemnih pescer; (Spanish.) the phreatic phase of cave development[10]. sistema de cavidades; (Turkish.) ma™ara sistemi, serisi; (Yugoslavian.) peƒinski ceiling meander. A winding upside-down (spiljski) sistem, amski sistem. See also channel in a cave ceiling[10]. cave; cave group; cave series; cavern. ceiling pocket. See pocket. caving. The sport of exploring caves. Synonyms: (British.) potholing; spelunking. ceiling slab, roof slab. A thin but extensive 2. A method of in which the ore is piece of rock that has fallen from the ceiling allowed to cave or fall[10]. of a cave in roughly horizontal limestone[10]. See also cave breakdown; ceiling block. cavings. Rock fragments that fall from the walls of a borehole and contaminate the ceiling tube. A half tube remaining in the well cuttings or block the hole. These ceiling of a cave[10]. fragments must be removed by drilling or [11] circulation of drilling fluids before the celestite. A cave mineral — SrSO4 . borehole can be deepened. cement. A microscopic textured nonskeletal cavitation. 1. The collapse of bubbles in a void-filling material precipitated on an fluid, caused by static pressure being less intragranular or intrasedimentary free than the fluid vapor pressure. 2. A surface that holds the material together[20]. phenomena of cavity formation, or Synonyms: (French.) ciment; (German.) formation and collapse, especially in regard Zement; (Greek.) tsiménto; (Italian.) to pumps, when the absolute pressure cemento; (Spanish.) cemento; (Turkish.) within the water reaches vapor pressure çimento; (Yugoslavian.) vezivo cement. causing the formation of vapor pockets[6]. cementation. The process of binding granular cavity. A solutional hollow in a limestone material together by deposition of cave. cementing material at contact points of grains[16]. cavity dweller. A coelobitic organism. cement grout. Cement slurry of pumpable ceiling block. Roughly cubical joint-bounded consistency[16]. large block, which has fallen from the

34 cement slurry. Liquid cement suspension[16]. and relict caves, which extend for many hundreds of meters[9]. 2. Soft poorly cementing. See grouting. indurated limestone, generally light in color; commonly composed of the tests of floating cenote. (Spanish, after Mayan tzonet or microorganisms in a matrix of very finely dzonot.) 1. Steep-walled natural well that crystalline calcite[10]. extends below the water table; generally caused by collapse of a cave roof. Term chalcanthite. A cave mineral — [10] [11] used only for features in Yucatán . 2. CuSO4"5H2O . Steep or vertical-sided collapse doline floored by a lake whose surface is at the chamber. (American.) 1. An enlargement in regional water table. The term originates a cave passage or system, commonly from the many in the low karst formed at a junction of passages, or locally plateau of Mexico’s Yucatan, but has been in a single passage, where erosion has been applied to flooded dolines in Florida and enhanced by collapse exposing more rock elsewhere. Probably the most famous to dissolution. Maximum chamber size is cenote is the sacred well of Chichen Itza, controlled by the strength and shape of the Yucatan; it has vertical sides and is 60 m in limestone ceiling. The largest chamber diameter, 30 m deep, and half full of currently known, Sarawak Chamber in water[9]. Synonyms: (French.) cenote; Lubang Nasib Bagus, at Mulu, Sarawak, is (German.) cenote; (Greek.) voulismeno over 700 m long, up to 400 m wide, and speleven. See also jama; natural well. nowhere less than 70 m high. It has formed where a large stream eroded sideways as it centrifuge moisture equivalent. See cut obliquely across the included bedding in moisture equivalent. unusually massive limestone. It is doubtful whether a much larger chamber could exist [11] [9] cerussite. A cave mineral — PbCO3 . without collapse of its roof . 2. The largest order of cavity in a cave or cave chain gage. Water level measuring device[16]. system; it has considerable length and breadth but not necessarily great height. 3. chalk. 1. Used as a proper noun, “chalk” (British.) A room in a cave[10]. Synonyms: describes a rock unit of Cretaceous age that (French.) salle; (german.) Halle, Kammer, consists predominately of relatively soft, Dom; (Greek.) ypoyios aethousa; (Italian.) white, porous limestone with beds of marl sala; (Russian.) zal; (Spanish.) sala, salón; and bands or nodules of flint. The term is (Turkish.) oda; (Yugoslavian.) dvorana. used without its initial capital to describe See also room; passage. any rock with similar appearance and properties. Generally chalk has a relatively chandelier. Large variety of gypsum flower, high primary permeability and so rarely with branching that may develops caves of explorable size, though hang many meters from a cave ceiling. conduit-water flow does occur. Some Very rare, except in of harder chalks in northern France and [9]. southeastern England hold explorable active

35 channel. Natural or artificial watercourse chemical oxygen demand (COD). The bounded by banks[16]. measure of readily available oxidizable material contained in a water sample[16]. channel characteristics. Hydraulic properties of stream channel[16]. , chert nodule. 1. Black, brown, or gray rock, consisting of very fine-grained silica, chasm. 1. A deep, fairly narrow breach in the that occurs as horizons of nodules and earth’s surface; an abyss; a gorge; a deep discontinuous bands, generally less than 200 canyon. 2. A deep, wide, elongated gap in mm thick, within many limestones. It is the floor of a cave[10]. Related to canyon, very hard and almost insoluble in water, so corridor. Synonyms: (French.) gouffre, it commonly projects from cave walls where fracture ouverte; (German.) Kluft; (Greek.) it forms passage or shaft ledges and chasma; (Italian.) fattura beante, canyon; lips[9]. 2. Light-cream or gray to (Spanish.) cañon, taso; (Turkish.) derin black rock composed of silica, found as yar2nt2; (Yugoslavian.) provalija. See also nodules or layers in limestone, or as a ravine. replacement of limestone[10].

chemical carbonate rock. Carbonate rock Chézy equation. An equation used to formed by the precipitation of mineral compute the velocity of uniform flow in an matter in situ by chemical or biological open channel: mean velocity of flow (V) processes. equals the Chézy coefficient © times the square root of the product of hydraulic chemical deposit. A sediment precipitated radius in feet (R) times the slope of the out of solution by chemical action[16]. channel[1]. See also Froude number; Manning equation; Reynolds number. chemical erosion. Processes partially synonymous with chemical dissolution, but chimney. 1. Nearly circular shaft rising including any other form of rock upwards from the ceiling of a cave towards breakdown accelerated by chemical changes the surface of the ground; if it does not of the constituent minerals[9]. reach the surface it is termed a blind chimney. If the chimney is formed mainly chemical equivalent. The expression of by solution, it is related to a dome-pit; if water characteristics such as hardness or formed mainly by collapse of the roof along alkalinity resulting from several ions in bedding planes, it is related to a cenote[20]. solution in terms of only one equivalent 2. A narrow vertical shaft in the roof of a concentration[16]. cave, generally smaller than an aven; a dome pit[10]. Synonyms: (French.) cheminée chemical mobility. The tendency of an (aven); (German.) Schlot, Kamin; (Greek.) element to move in a given kapnothochos; (Italian.) camino; (Russian.) hydrogeochemical environment[16]. truba; (Spanish.) chimenea; (Turkish.) baca; (Yugoslavian.) dimnjak.

36 chockstone. A rock wedged between the Rijeka, mainly in Slovenia with some parts walls of a cave passage[10]. in and [9]. choke. 1. A blockage of inwashed mud, clastic. Pertaining to a rock or sediment sand, or boulders in a cave passage. Most composed principally of broken fragments boulder chockes are formed by collapse of that are derived from pre-existing rocks or a passage roof and may have an open minerals and that have been transported chamber or shaft above them; others are some distance from their places of origin[6]. formed by collapse and inwashed debris where a large old passage is cut by a clastic carbonate rock. Carbonate rock that hillside. A passable route through a choke is made up of carbonate grains (e.g., shells, may be opened by excavation, and thereby shell fragments, oolites). lead to discovery of new passage, as was done so successfully in Ogof Agen clastic rock; detrital rock. A sedimentary Allwedd[9]. 2. Rock debris or cave fill rock derived from fragmentated other completely blocking a passage[10]. preexisting rock or organic structures[16].

C-horizon. Zone of weathered parent clastokarst. Karst phenomena in clastic rocks material in a soil profile[16]. composed of detrital carbonate material[20]. Synonyms: (French.) clastokarst; (German.) chute. An inclined channel or trough in a Klastokarst; (Greek.) clastokarst; (Italian.) cave[10]. carsismo clastico; (Russian.) klastokarst; (Spanish.) clastokarst; (Turkish.) klastik ciénaga. (Spanish.) Wetland. See also karst; (Yugoslavian.) klastokrs˜, klastokras, wetland. klastokarst. cimolite. A cave mineral — clay. 1. A rock or mineral fragment or a [11] Al4(SiO2)9(OH)12 . detrital particle of any composition smaller than a very fine silt grain, having a diameter cistern. A small water reservoir used to less than 1/256 mm (4 microns, or 0.00016 collect surface and rain water[16]. in., or 8 phi units.) This size is approximately the upper limit of particles classical karst. Originally the region called that can show colloidal properties. 2. A Kras in Slovenia, which gave its name to loose, earthy, extremely fine-grained natural the karst landscape. Used in this sense, sediment or soft rock composed primarily about 95% of classical karst lies in of clay-size or colloidal particles and Slovenia, with the remaining 5% extending characterized by a considerable content of to Italy. A slightly different area was clay minerals and subordinate amounts of covered by descriptions of early finely divided quartz, decomposed feldspar, investigations of karst phenomena, when carbonates, ferruginous matter, and other the name classical karst was applied to a impurities. It forms a plastic, moldable region between , , and mass when finely ground and mixed with water, but retains its shape on drying, and

37 becomes firm, rocklike, and permanently clay loam. A soil containing 27%-40% clay, hard on heating or firing. 3. A term that is 20%-45% sand, and the remainder silt. commonly applied to any soft, adhesive, fine-grained deposit (such as loam or clay marl. 1. A whitish, smooth, chalky clay. siliceous silt) and to earthy material, 2. A marl in which clay predominates. particularly when wet (such as mud). 4. A term used by the International Society of clay mineral. One of a complex and loosely Soil Science for a rock or mineral particle in defined group of finely crystalline, the soil, having a diameter less than 0.002 metacolloidal, or amorphous hydrous mm (2 microns). silicates, essentially of aluminum. clay ball, clayball. A chunk of clay released clupein. A dense, heavy, relatively by erosion of a clayey bank and rounded by impervious subsurface soil layer that owes wave action. its hardness to a relatively higher clay content than that of the overlying material clay boil. A mud circle that suggests a from which it is separated by a sharply welling-up or heaving of the central core. defined boundary.

clay colloid. 1. A clay particle having a clay parting. 1. Clayey material between a diameter less than 1 micron (0.001 mm). 2. vein and its wall. 2. A seam of hardened A colloidal substance consisting of clay-size carbonaceous clay between or in beds of particles. coal, or a thin layer of clay between relatively thick beds of some other rock clay fill. Dry or wet clay that fills a cave (e.g., sandstone). passage[10]. clay plug. Fine flood deposits in a cut-off clay filling. Time interval between end of river meander[16]. phreatic solution of a cave and beginning of deposition of flowstone[10]. clean sand. Sand with little or no clay content[16]. clayey sand. 1. An unconsolidated sediment containing 50%-90% sand and having a cleavage. The tendency to cleave or split ratio of silt or clay less than 1:2. 2. An along definite parallel planes, which may be unconsolidated sand containing 40%-75% highly inclined to the bedding. It is a sand, 12.5%-50% clay, and 0%-20% silt. secondary structure and is ordinarily accompanied by at least some clayey silt. 1. An unconsolidated sediment recrystallinization of the rock. containing 40%-75% silt, 12.5%-50% clay, and 0%-20% sand. 2. An unconsolidated climatic factor. A factor influencing sediment containing more particles of silt hydrologic parameters due to the local size than of clay size, more than 10% clay, climate[16]. and less than 10% of all other coarser sizes.

38 clint. (British.) 1. Flat or sloping bare clusterite. See botryoid. limestone outcrops (limestone pavements) weathered into straight-sided or furrowed coarse. Composed of or constituting blocks and ridges of limestone which are relatively large particles. separated by deep clefts or solutionally widened joints (grikes) that often coarse sand. 1. A geologic term for a sand crisscross[20]. 2. Slabs of limestone, parallel particle having a diameter in the range of to the bedding, forming a pavement. 0.5-1 mm (500-1000 microns, or 1 to zero Widened joints, or grikes, isolate individual phi units.) 2. An engineering term for a sand clints[10]. Synonym: (French.) lapiaz; particle having a diameter in the range of 2 (German.) Flachkarren, Karrenfeld; mm. 3. A soil term used in the U.S. for a (Greek.) pethion amaxotrochion sand particle having a diameter in the range thactyloglyphon; (Italian.) campo of 0.5-1 mm (the diameter range recognized carreggiato; (Russian.) karrovoe pole; by the International Society of Soil Science (Spanish.) campo de lapiaz, lenar; is 0.2-2 mm). (Turkish.) pürtüklü, oluklu; (Yugoslavian.) škrapari, škraplje. See also grikes; coarse silt. A geologic term for a silt particle karrenfeld; lapies; limestone pavement. having a diameter in the range of 1/32 to 1/16 mm (31-62 microns, or 5 to 4 phi clog, to. The action of blocking fluid flow units). paths, especially around a well bore[16]. cockpit. (Jamaican.) 1. Any closed depression closed depression, closed basin. 1. Any having steep sides. 2. A star-shaped karst hollow with internal drainage, depression having a conical or a lightly including dolines, uvalas, poljes, cockpits, concave floor. The surrounding slopes and all varieties of blind karst valleys of are steep and convex. Cockpits are the both small and large scales[9]. 2. A general common type of closed depressions in a term for any enclosed topographic basin kegelkarst[10]. having no external drainage, regardless of origin or size[10]. cockpit karst. (Jamaican.) 1. Term describing an area containing numerous scattered, yet closed karst. A karst terrane that is covered closely spaced dolines; generally a tropical by sediments. Synonyms: (Russian.) skryty0 karst land form. The corresponding karst or zakryty0 karst. See also buried Yugoslav term may more accurately be karst; interstratal karst; mantled karst. translated as “pock-marked” karst. 2. Tropical karst topography containing many cloud. Large masses of coralloid or closed depressions surrounded by steep- botryoidal calcite, deposited under water, sided conical hills. Divided by French and with each mass reaching 200-800 mm in German geographers into several types diameter. Famous examples hang above the depending on shape of hills[10]. Synonyms: Lake of the Clouds in Carlsbad Cavens, (French.) karst cockpit; (German.) New Mexico[9]. Turmkarst, Kegelkarst; (Greek.) dolinovrithes karst; (Italian.) campo carsico

39 a doline; (Spanish.) karst esponja; cohesion. Shear resistance at zero normal (Turkish.) düdenli karst; (Yugoslavian) stress. An equivalent term in rock boginjavi krÑ, kozavi kras. See also cone mechanics is intrinsic shear strength. karst; Halbkugelkarst; Kegelkarst; Spitzkegelkarst; tower karst. coliform organism. A microorganism, the concentration of which is used as an coefficient of compressibility. indication of the degree of biological Compressibility is the aptitude of the soil to pollution of water[16]. be deformed. It is expressed by means of a coefficient, which is the ratio between a collapse breccia. A mass of rock composed

void ratio decrease from e0 to e and an of angular to rounded fragments of increase in effective stress. The value av = limestone or dolomite that has formed as e0-e)p represents the coefficient of the result of the collapse of the roof of a compressibility for the range p0 to p0 + p. cave, of an underlying cave, or of an Units are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also overhanging ledge[10]. See also solution coefficient of volume compressibility. breccia. coefficient of permeability. An obsolete collapse chamber. An underground chamber term that has been replaced by the term containing notable quantities of collapsed hydraulic conductivity[6]. material. The term is commonly abused in describing the origin of cave chambers coefficient of storage. See storage floored by collapse debris. Though wall coefficient. and roof collapse are common modifying processes in larger chambers, it is important coefficient of transmissivity; coefficient of to remember that such collapse cannot form transmissibility. An obsolete term a chamber, as it can only take place into a replaced by the term transmissivity. pre-existing cavity[9].

coefficient of volume compressibility. The collapse sink; collapse sinkhole. 1. A variety compression of a clay (aquitard) per unit of closed depression that forms by collapse thickness, due to a unit increase of effective of the rock above an existing cave passage stress, in the load range exceeding or chamber[9]. 2. A closed depression preconsolidation stress. It is expressed by formed by the collapse of the roof of a the equation cave[10]. See also doline. a m ' v collapse of caves. Collapse and breakdown of v % 1 e0 cave walls and ceilings are continuing aspects of cave development and

in which e0 is the initial void ratio. Units modification. Massive unfractured are usually cm2/kg[21]. See also coefficient limestone can easily span a void of over 100 of compressibility. m, but thinly bedded, closely jointed, faulted, or poorly lithified limestone may collapse into very small passages. Collapse

40 is a significant component of cave erosion. stress, and is synonymous with “one- As well as simple falls of unsupported rock dimensional consolidation,” as used by forming connections between passages, the engineers. The term “compaction” is collapse process exposes more rock surface applied both to the process and to the area for potential dissolution. As rates of measured change in thickness. In thick fine- collapse are measured on a geological time grained beds, compaction is a delayed scale, collapse in natural caves offers a process involving the slow escape of pore negligible threat to explorers, in comparison water and the gradual transfer of stress to the dangers of roof collapse in mines[9]. from neutral to effective. Until sufficient time has passed for excess pore pressure to collector well. A central well with horizontal decrease to zero, measured values of sections of screened collector pipe arranged compaction are transient[21]. See also radially to increase yield[16]. compaction, residual; compaction, specific. colloid. Extremely small solid particles, compaction, residual. Compaction that 0.0001 to 1 micron in size, that will not would occur ultimately if a given increase in settle out of solution. It is intermediate applied stress were maintained until steady- between a true dissolved particle and a state pore were achieved, but had suspended solid, which will settle out of not occurred as of a specified time because solution[6]. excess pore pressures still existed in beds of low diffusivity in the compacting system. It column. 1. A subsurface dripstone formation can also be regarded as the difference produced by the union of a and a between (1) the amount of compaction that stalagmite in a cave[20]. 2. A flowstone will occur ultimately for a given increase in formation, generally cylindrical, formed by applied stress, and (2) that which has the union of a stalactite and stalagmite[10]. occurred at a specified time[21]. See also Not to be confused with “pillar.” compaction; compaction, specific. Synonyms: (French.) colonne, pillier stalamitique; (German.) Tropfstein-Säule; compaction, specific. The decrease in (Greek.) stalaktitike stele; (Italian.) colonna thickness of deposits, per unit of increase in (stalagmitica o stalattitica) (Russian.) applied stress, during a specific period of kolonna; (Spanish.) columna; (Turkish.) time[21]. See also compaction; compaction, sütun; (Yugoslavian.) stup, steber, stolpic˜. residual. See also pillar. complete well penetration, fully comminution. The reduction of a substance penetrating. 1. The property of a well that to a fine powder; pulverization; trituration. penetrates an aquifer completely from the upper confining bed or water table to the compaction. A decrease in the volume of a lower confining bed[16]. 2. A well that is mass of sediments from any cause. In completed over the whole thickness of the general, compaction may be regarded as the aquifer to allow radial production over its decrease in the thickness of sediments, as a entire completed length[16]. result of an increase in vertical compressive

41 compressibility. The relative change in water-filled. Conduits may include all voids volume with pressure of water or aquifer greater than 10 mm in diameter, but another matrix[16]. classification scheme places them between arbitrary limits of 100 mm to 10 m. compressive stress. Normal stress tending to Whichever value is accepted in a particular shorten the body in the direction in which it context, smaller voids are commonly termed acts. subconduits[9]. Synonyms: (French.) conduite forcée; (German.) Druckleitung compromise boundary. 1. A plane interface (Leitung); (Greek.) ; (Italian.) between two crystals that evolved by condotta forzata; (Spanish.) conducto mutual interference of their respective saturado; (Turkish.) yeralt2su yolu, mecra. growing faces. This interface is a face of See also pressure flow tube; stream tube; neither crystal. 2. A microscopic texture[20]. siphon. concentration gradient. The change in conduit flow; karst conduit flow. solute concentration per unit distance in Underground water flow within conduits. solute. Concentration gradients cause Conduit flow is generally turbulent, but can Fickian diffusion (spreading) of solutes also be laminar[9]. from regions of highest to regions of lowest . In slowing moving ground conduit permeability. Sometimes referred water, this is the dominant mixing to as cavernous permeability, this is a process[22]. measure of the efficiency with which a particular aquifer transmits water through concretion. The localized deposition of conduits (see permeability)[9]. mineral matter going out of solution in sediments or tuffs, usually nodular or conduit porosity. That part of the porosity irregular in shape[16]. within an aquifer (usually a karst aquifer) that is a function of the presence of condensation. The transition from vapor to conduits [9]. liquid state[16]. cone of depression. A depression of the condensation nucleus. A small solid particle potentiometric surface in the shape of an around which condensation occurs[16]. inverted cone that develops around a well that is being pumped. It defines the area of condensation water. Atmospheric moisture influence[6]. Synonym: cone of pressure deposited inside caves when the surface relief (applied to artesian only). temperature of the exposed rock falls below the dew point of circulating air[19]. cone of impression. A rise of the potentiometric surface in the shape of a conduit; karst conduit. Relatively large cone that develops around an injection dissolutional voids, including enlarged well[22]. fissures and tubular tunnels; in some usage the term is restricted to voids that are

42 cone karst. 1. A karst landscape dominated confined aquifer is subject to pressure by low conical (or hemispherical) hills that greater than atmospheric[6]. forms only in wet tropical climates. The type example is Gunung Sewu in Java. confined water. Water separated from the Individual hills are remarkably uniform, atmosphere by impermeable rock each some few hundred meters in diameter stratum[16]. and around 50 m high. Between them lie broken valleys, dolines, or cockpits, confining bed. A body of impermeable or draining into . Erosion that seems distinctly less permeable material to be initiated in valley systems develops in stratigraphically adjacent to one or more such a way that the valleys break up into aquifers[22]. Synonymous with confining dolines, but the mechanisms leading to unit. uniform shaping of the hills are not fully understood. The widespread cone karst in confining unit. 1. A hydrogeologic unit of China is mostly known as fengcong, and its impermeable or distinctly less permeable hills are generally more conical than material bounding one or more aquifers and hemispherical in profile[9]. 2. A type of is a general term that replaces aquitard, karst topography, common in the tropics, aquifuge, aquiclude[22]. 2. Means a body of characterized by star-shaped depressions or impermeable or distinctly less permeable dolines at the feet of many steep-sided material stratigraphically adjacent to one or cone-shaped hills; narrow steeply-walled more aquifers[22]. Synonymous with valleys may be present[10, 20]. A variety of confining bed. Kegelkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst à pitons; (German.) Kegelkarst, Turmkarst; confining zone. A geological formation, (Greek.) konoethes karst; (Italian.) carso di group of formations, or part of a formation torri, carsismo con forme residuali that is capable of limiting fluid movement coniche; (Russian.) karst s koniceskimi above an injection zone[22]. See confining ostancami; (Spanish.) karst de conos; unit. (Turkish.) konili karst; (Yugoslavia.) stoñasti krš, …okasti kras stoñ…sti, kras. See . Junction point of streams[16]. also cockpit karst. Compare: cupola karst, pinnacle karst, and tower karst. conformal mapping. The transposition and solution of plane flow problems in a confined. A modifier that describes a complex plane[16]. condition in which the potentiometric surface is above the top of the aquifer[22]. conglomerate. Rock consisting of large well Synonymous with artesian. rounded waterworn particles[16]. confined aquifer. 1. An aquifer bounded conical wall niche. See meander niche. above and below by confining units of distinctly lower permeability than that of the conjugate joints or faults. Two sets of joints aquifer itself. 2. An aquifer containing or faults that are formed under the same confined ground water. Generally, a stress conditions (usually shear pairs).

43 conjunctive use. The use of both surface half of the sample’s thickness when the water and ground water[16]. odometric test is performed[21]. connate water. Water entrapped in the consolidated rock. Rock that has become interstices of a sedimentary or extrusive hard and coherent through compression and at the time of its deposition[22]. lithification[16].

consequent river. A river flowing down the constructive waterfall. A large original slope of geologic beds or general on a surface stream[10]. See rimstone dam. slope of topography[16]. Synonyms: (French.) chute incrustante; (German.) Waßerfall, inkrustierender, consolidation. 1. The binding of grains by Sinter, Sinterbecken; (Greek.) katarráktis; cementing material to solid matrix[16]. 2. (Italian.) (vasche d’incrostazione); The gradual reduction in the (Spanish.) dique travertínico; (Turkish.) (void ratio) of a saturated soil, as a result of düÕüm; (Yugoslavian.) slap, prec˜ aga. an increase in the pressure acting on it, because of the addition of overlying consumptive use. The quantity of water used sediments or the application of an external annually by crops or natural vegetation due load. A laboratory test commonly known to transpiration, tissue building, and as a one-dimensional consolidation test evaporation from adjacent soil[16]. (odometric test) is performed on soil samples to evaluate consolidation. From contact load. The solid material in sliding or such a test, the coefficient of consolidation, rolling contact with a stream bed[16]. 2 cv, usually expressed in cm /sec, is calculated as the ratio contact spring. See spring, contact. K @ l c ' contaminant. 1. An undesirable substance v m @ ( v w not normally present or an unusually high concentration of a naturally occurring [22] where K is the hydraulic conductivity, mv is substance in water or soil . 2. Any the coefficient of volume compressibility, physical, chemical, biological, or [22] and (w is the unit of water. The radiological substance or matter in water . theory of consolidation leads to a relation See also pollutant. between degree of consolidation and time: c @ t contaminant plume. An elongated body of U% ' v ground water containing contaminants, H 2 emanating and migrating from a point source within a hydrogeologic unit(s)[22]. In this expression U is the degree of consolidation or the percentage of total contaminate. To introduce a substance that

consolidation occurring in some time t, cv is would cause (a) the concentration of that the coefficient of consolidation, and H is substance in the around water to exceed the maximum contaminant levels; or (b) an

44 increase in the concentration of that convection. The process whereby heat is substance in the ground water where the carried along with the flowing ground existing concentration of that substance water[22]. exceeds the maximum contaminant levels[22]. See also pollutant. convergence. Net horizontal inflow of moisture per unit area[16]. contamination. The addition to water of any substance or property preventing the use or cooling water. Water used only for cooling reducing the usability of the water. There is purposes[16]. no specific limits, since the degree of permissible contamination depends upon the cool spring. Spring water temperature below intended end use, or uses, of the water[6]. mean annual surface temperature[16]. Sometimes considered synonymous with pollution. coprolite. The fossilized excrement of vertebrates such as fishes, reptiles, and continuous stream. A stream that is mammals, larger than a fecal pellet, continuous in space from source to measuring up to 20 cm in length, discharge point[16]. characterized by an ovoid to elongate form, a surface marked by annular convolutions, contributing region. That region which and a brown or black color, and often contributes to well discharge in inclined composed largely of calcium ; water-table flow[16]. petrified excrement[1]. control. The combined effect of channel coquina. Porous limestone composed of characteristics (area, shape, slope, broken shell fragments[16]. roughness) on rating curve[16]. coralloid speleothem. Any variety of conulite. A hollow, cone-shaped speleothem microcrystalline, coralloid or botryoidal formed when a conical depression is drilled calcite deposit that is distinguished by in cave mud by falling water. Subsequent curved outer surfaces and curved internal erosion may remove the mud, isolating the structures. Large examples, including calcite lining of the depression[10]. clouds, are formed under water. Smaller varieties, also known as cave coral and cave convective diffusion. See mechanical popcorn, are splash deposits, or are dispersion, coefficient. precipitated onto cave passage walls from mists or thin surface films of saturated convective transport. The component of water[9]. movement of heat or mass induced by thermal gradients in ground water[22]. See corrasion. Abrasion of the rock floor and also advection. walls of a stream channel by rock debris carried in the water[9], or mechanical erosion performed by such moving agents as water, ice, and wind, especially when

45 armed with rock fragments[10]. See also coupole. (French.) Cupola or hemispheric corrosion. hill[10]. corridor. 1. Long, narrow chasm enlarged by cove. (Southern Appalachians.) Narrow action of water and into which surface steep-sided karst valley flanking limestone runoff or stream may flow; may be located plateaus[10]. along a fault plane, fissure, joint or between two beds. Struga (Slavic) refers to such a covered karren. Any karren that is covered corridor along a bedding plane in a by soil. Draining water is oversaturated [20] carbonate formation . 2. Relatively with respect to CO2 so that corrosion is narrow passageway permitting travel extensive[3]. See also wave karren; root between two larger areas. 3. A fairly level karren; cavernous karren. and straight passage that links two or more rooms or chambers in a cave. 4. Inter- covered karst. 1. A fossil or currently secting linear depressions on the surface of developing karst in karst limestone which the land, related to joints or dikes[10]. See underlies superficial deposits or other rock, also bogaz; struga; zanjón. Related to and which may produce landforms at the chasm; bogaz. Synonyms: (French.) surface which reflect subsurface gouffre absorbant; (German.) Karstgasse; karstification[19]; contrasted with naked (Greek.) apocheteftikos karstikos agogos; karst, which is soil free. See also buried (Italian.) dolina allongata; (Russian.) karst; interstratal karst; mantled karst; coridor, hod; (Spanish.) callejón; (Turkish.) subsoil karst; sulfate-reduction karst. 2. A koridor; (Yugoslavian.) struga, bogaz. generally subdued karst landscape developed where carbonate rocks are corrosion. 1. Chemical action of water affected by dissolutional processes beneath containing carbonic acid (also humidic, a soil cover (see bare karst)[9]. Synonyms: nitric, and other acids) on limestones and (French.) karst couvert; (German.) dolomites causing partial solution and Bedeckter karst; (Greek.) kekalymenon related chemical changes in the rocks[20]. 2. karst; (Italian.) carso coperto; (Russian.) Erosion by solution or chemical action[10]. pokryty0 karst, pokritij karst; (Spanish.) 3. The act or process of dissolving or karst cubierto; (Turkish.) örtülü karst; wearing away metals[6]. See also (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krš, pokriti kras. accelerated corrosion; alluvial corrosion; corrasion; solution. Compare aggressive crack. 1. Tight joint[16]. 2. A small fracture water. Synonyms: (French.) corrosion; (i.e., small with respect to the scale of the (German.) Korrosion; (Greek.) chemeke feature in which it occurs). thiavroses; (Italian.) dissoluzione, corrosione; (Russian.) korrozija; (Spanish.) crandallite. A cave mineral — [11] corrosión; (Turkish.) eritme, yenme, CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5"H2O . kemirilme; (Yugoslavian.) korozija. crawl, crawlway. A cave passage that is corrosive. Property of aggressive water. large enough to be negotiated on hands and

46 knees[10] or so small as to require a caver to cross bedding. Oblique deposition of thin squeeze through on his/her back or belly[13]. beds with respect to the main planes of stratification[16]. creek, brook. Watercourse of lesser volume than a river. cross fault. A geologic fault that is oblique or at right angles to the strike direction of the crescentic wall niche. See meander niche. beds.

crest line. Line connecting crests[16]. cross section. Vertical section of a geologic profile[16]. crest segment. The top part of a hydrograph[16]. crust stone. A fragile layer of flowstone covering portions of walls of caves; looks crest-stage indicator. A mechanical gage like a flaky crust. Found in some that preserves the indication of highest caves[10]. water level rise[16]. cryokarst. 1. A nonkarstic term. Land crevice. Opening in a rock formation or surface with closed depression (usually glacier[16]. small and shallow) formed by alternate freezing and thawing of permafrost or crevice karst. An intricate irregular crevice ground-ice overlying different rock, system that has formed by solution including limestone. The term “cryokarst” widening of closely spaced joints. Crevices is more common in Europe while the term may be as much as 6 meters across and 20 “thermokarst” is used in America[20]. 2. A meters deep. Especially well developed karstlike periglacial, or formerly periglacial, near rivers in lowland New Guinea[10]. landscape superimposed upon unconsolidated, superficial deposits. critical depth. The depth of flow in open Cryokarst is characterized by small channels when specific energy is depressions or pits that develop through minimum[16]. settlement of overlying deposits into voids formed by the melting of entrapped ice. critical depth . Venturi or Parshall Also known as thermokarst[9]. Synonyms: flume for discharge measurements[16]. (French.) cryokarst, thermokarst; (German.) Thermokarst, Cryokarst; critical flow. Open channel flow with Froude (Greek.) thermokarst; (Italian.) number equal to unity[16]. See also Froude criocarsismo; (Russian.) temokarst, number. criokarst; (Spanish.) criokarst, thermokarst; (Turkish.) don karst2; (Yugoslavian.) crooked hole. Borehole deflected from the toplotni krs˜, temokarst. vertical[16]. cryptokarst. A karst term used to describe (a) the result of subsurface removal of limestone taking place beneath permeable

47 resulting in a loss of limestone and cupola karst. A type of karst topography subsequent slow subsidence of the loess common in the tropics in which the residual without noticeable surface expression, (b) hills rise in hemispherical or dome-capped the initial effects of intergranular solution of mounds from intervening depressions or rock when there is practically no movement sinkholes[20]. See also cone karst; cupola; of water from microcavity to microcavity, pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms: (c) the karst that develops in chalk beneath (French.) karst à cupules, coupole; a mantle of its residual clay and chert, and (German.) Kegelkarst; (Greek.) konoidhes (d) pockets in limestone that are filled with karst; (Italian.) carsismo con forme terra rossa or other residual material and residuali a cupola; (Spanish.) karst de that may be actively forming, arrested in cupulas; (Turkish.) kubbeli karst; development, or “inherited.” Because this (Yugoslavian.) kupolni krs˜ (kras). term has been used for at least four different meanings, it is recommended that current marking. Shallow asymmetrical it be abandoned[17]. hollows, caused by turbulent waterflow, that are distributed in rather regular fashion crystal cave. A cave in which much of the over limestone surfaces[10]. See also surface of the roof, walls, and floor is scallop. covered with well-formed mineral crystals[10]. current meter, current counter. A device used to measure the current velocity crystal pool. In caves a pool, generally directly at a given point[16]. Synonym: having little or no overflow, containing ammeter. crystals[10]. curtain. 1. Sinuous, thin sheet (or sheets) of cuesta, hogback. A nonsymetrical due dripstone formed on the roof or walls of a to a gently dipping stratum[16]. cave or behind a waterfall[20]. 2. A wavy or folded sheet of flowstone hanging from the cueva. (Spanish.) Cave, especially one that is roof or projecting from the wall of a cave; horizontal or nearly so[10]. often translucent and resonant[10]. See also bacon; blanket; drapery. Related to cul-de-sac; dead end. A subterranean pas- helictite and speleothem. Synonyms: sage having only one entry[10]. (French.) draperie stalagmitique; (German.) Sinterfahne; (Greek.) cumulative production. The sum total of parapetasma stalaktitikon; (Italian.) cortina volumetric discharge of a well since stalattitica; (Russian.) zanavesj; (Spanish.) production began[16]. bandera, cortina; (Turkish.) perde; (Yugoslavian.) sigasta zavjesa, sigasta cupola. A hemispheric hill of limestone[10]. zavesa. See also cone karst; cupola karst; mogote; pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms: curve, backwater. A water surface profile in (French.) cupole; (German.) Halbkugel. a stream or channel above a constriction or impoundment[16].

48 curve, concentration. The rising limb on a hydrograph curve[16].

curve, desorption. Curve of moisture content versus soil moisture tension[16]. curve, drawdown. A plot of drawdown with radial distance from a well[16]. curve fitting. The fitting of experimental data points to a theoretical type curve[16]. cutter. 1. (Tennessee.) Solution crevice in limestone underlying residual phosphate deposits. 2. A karren-like groove formed beneath the soil, more commonly referred to as subsoil karren[10]. See also karren.

cuttings. Rock chips loosened from the bottom of a borehole by drilling[16]. cyanotrichite. A cave mineral — [11] Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)12"2H2O . cycle. Regular periodic occurrence of an event[16].

49 D flow is directly proportional to the square root of the driving force and that the [5] dam. A structure across a watercourse that friction loss is equal to the hydraulic head . impounds water; may be natural or Note: Q=discharge, A=cross-sectional area, artificial[16]. R=hydraulic radius of the conduit, g=gravitational acceleration, f=some damping. The process of gradually reducing friction factor, dh/dL=gradient, and I have amplitude of a periodic event such as attached a negative sign to indicate that acoustic oscillations in velocity logging[16]. ground-water flow occurs in the direction of decreasing head. In most instances, a dar geçit. See aisle. negative sign is not included because it is not possible to take the square root of a Darcian velocity; seepage velocity. See negative number. specific discharge. dating of cave sediments. Determination of Darcy’s law. An empirical law given as the age of development of caves is normally impossible. Only the sediments they contain dh Q ' &KA can be dated, and these must necessarily be dL younger than the containing passage. Geomorphological correlations may allow which states that the average volumetric more accurate dating of the cave erosion. discharge of flow through a porous medium The most useful dating method in current is directly proportional to the hydraulic use is based upon a knowledge of the rates gradient assuming that the flow is laminar of decay of radioactive isotopes of uranium and inertia can be neglected. Note: to thorium in stalagmites. This technique Q=discharge, K=hydraulic conductivity, allows measurement of ages in material up A=cross-sectional area, dh/dL=gradient, to 350,000 years old. Dating of stalagmites and a minus sign is attached as a convention has confirmed that many cave ages lie to indicate that flow occurs in the direction beyond this range. Electron spin resonance of decreasing head[5]. (ESR) measures the cumulative effects of radiation that are partly a function of time Darcy unit. A practical unit for the measure and can give stalagmite ages back to about of intrinsic permeability[16]. 900,000 years. Palaeomagnetism may recognize events up to 2 million years old, Darcy-Weisbach equation. An empirical but a sequence of palaeomagnetically dated equation given as sediments is required to allow identification of the actual ages[9]. 8Rg dh Q ' &A f dL datum plane. A reference level to which topographic or water levels in wells are related[16]. which states that in contrast to laminar flow, the average volumetric discharge of

50 daylight hole. A hole in the roof of a cave, deep percolation. The drainage of soil water reaching the surface[10]. downward by gravity below the maximum effective depth of the root zone toward dead cave. A dry cave in which all solution storage in subsurface strata[22]. and precipitation has ceased[10]. deflocculation. The breakup of flocs of gel dead end. See cul-de-sac. structures by use of a thinner[6]. dead water. Standing, stagnant water[16]. deformation. Changing of form, volume, and relative position of rock masses[16]. debris. 1. Any material found to have been washed into a cave from some other degradation. 1. Geological action of wearing locality. 2. Coarse rock fragments resulting down a surface[16]. 2. The process of from erosion and disintegration of degrading water quality in an aquifer by the bedrock[16]. addition of contaminants, either naturally or artificially. 3. The process by which various debris karren. These are pinnacles that form chemicals are altered to form new in limestones with a thin sheet structure that chemicals; breakdown. soon fall into smaller fragments[3]. See also pinnacles. degree of cementation. The degree to which a rock has been solidified through decalcification. Removal by solution of the cementation[16]. calcium carbonate constituents from a rock or sediment, leaving a residuum of degree of karstification. The ratio of the noncalcareous material[9, 21]. Synonyms: volume of openings to the total volume of (French.) décalcification; (German.) a soluble massif, expressed as a percentage. Lösungsrückstand (Entkalkung); (Greek.) It is the sum of the activity indices from the exasvestoses; (Italian.) decalcificazione; initiation of karstification, and so is (Russian.) dekaljcifikacija; (Spanish.) normally applied only to carbonate rocks decalcificación; (Turkish.) karbonat2n2 with little or no primary porosity[20]. giderme; (Yugoslavian.) dekalcifikacijâ. Related to corrosion and solution. Synonyms: (French.) taux de karstification; Deckenkarren. (German.) Solutional pendant (German.) Ausmass (Grad) der features in cave ceilings[10]. Verkarstung; (Greek.) vathmos karstikiiseos; (Italian.) grado di declogging. The cleaning of clogged well carsificazione; (Spanish.) grado de surface or screens[16]. karstificación; (Turkish.) karstlaÕma derecesi; (Yugoslavian.) stupanj krs˜ kog decoration. Cave features due to secondary procesa, stopnja zakrasevanja, stepen precipitation of calcite, aragonite, gypsum, karstifikacijé. and other rarer minerals. degree of saturation. See percent saturation.

51 delay. The lapse time between signal emission temperature, salinity, and concentration of and signal reception in seismic logging[16]. suspended particles. delta. A triangular deposit of sediments at the denudation. The wearing away of overlying inflow of a river into an ocean or lake[16]. loose rock to top of bedrock[16]. demand. The rate of draft from an aquifer or denuded karst. Subsoil karst or interstratal reservoir to meet a certain demand[16]. karst that has been exposed by erosion of its cover[17]. See also exposed karst; demineralization. The removal of mineral interstratal karst; subsoil karst. Synonyms: matter from water[16]. (French.) karst dénudé; (German.) nackter Karst, oberflächlicher Karst; (Greek.) dendritic. Treelike pattern[16]. apogymnomenon karst; (Italian.) carso denudato, carso nudo; (Russian.) golij dendritic drainage pattern. A drainage karst, otkritij karst; (Spanish.) karst pattern in which the streams branch denudado; (Turkish.) belirgin karst; randomly in all directions and at almost any (Yugoslavian.) ogoljeli krs˜ (krãs), goli krs˜ angle, resembling in plan the branching (krãs), razkriti kras. habit of certain trees. It is produced where a consequent stream receives several depletion. The withdrawal of water at a tributaries which in turn are fed by smaller greater rate than replenishment[16]. tributaries. It is an indicative of insequent streams flowing across horizontal and deposition factor. The factor that describes homogeneous strata or complex crystalline the settling of suspended solids within pore rocks offering uniform resistance to space[16]. erosion. This pattern may form on top of the land surface or below the land surface in depression. A small hollow in a surface[16]. karst aquifers with anastomoses forming the smaller tributaries. depression spring. See spring, depression. density. The mass of water per unit volume, depth gage. 1. Any device used to measure usually stated in grams per cubic centimeter depths such as water level in wells[16]. 2. (gm/cm3), but may also be measured in Specific gage for measuring river stage[16]. pounds per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), and kilograms per cubic meter depth of penetration. In electrical resistivity (kg/m3.) Density of fresh water is taken to surveys, it is the depth to which an electrical be 1.0. field penetrates into the subsurface as a function of electrode spacing[16]. density current. A gravity-induced flow of one current through, over, or under desalinization. The process of salt another, owing to density differences. removal[16]. Factors affecting density differences include

52 desander. A device used to separate sand are of lake origin but the largest are from well water[16]. marine[6]. . 1. Region where precipitation is less differential water capacity. The absolute than 10 inches per year. 2. Region where value of the rate of change of water content the net moisture inflow is too small to with soil water pressure. The water support vegetation[16]. capacity at a given water content will depend on the particular desorption or desiccation. The removal of moisture by adsorption curve employed. Distinction evaporation or drying[16]. should be made between volumetric and specific water capacity[22]. desiccation crack. A crack formed in soil as a result of shrinkage to a drying volume[16]. diffuse circulation; diffuse flow. Circulation of ground water in karst aquifers (or other desorption. The reverse process of aquifers) under conditions in which all, or sorption[22]. See also sorption. almost all, openings (primary and secondary) in the karstified rock detritus. Loose material originating from intercommunicate and are full of water but disintegrated and weathered rock[16]. have not been selectively enlarged in specific zones by dissolution, and so no development. The act of repairing damage to concentration of ground water occurs in the formation caused by drilling procedures restricted conduits[9, 21]. The ground-water and increasing the porosity and permeability flow is generally slow-moving, may be of the materials surrounding the intake laminar, and have a uniform discharge and portion of the well[6]. slow response to storms. It is being replaced by the term “slow flow” because of deviation. Deflection of a recording from a significant confusion regarding its usage, base line (e.g., the deviation from vertical of especially when thought of in terms of a borehole)[16]. porous-media flow. Synonyms: (French.) circulation diffuse; (German.) Diffuse dew-point. The point at which dew formation Grundwaßerbewegung; (Greek.) starts for given temperature and humidity thiacheomenon ydhor; (Italian.) conditions[16]. circolazione carsica diffusa; (Spanish.) circulación saturada difusa; (Turkish.) D-horizon. The zone of bedrock in a soil yayg2n dolaÕ2m; (Yugoslavian.) difuzno horizon[16]. te…enje.

diagenesis. Postdepositional physical and diffusion. Process whereby ionic or chemical changes in sediment[16]. molecular constituents move under the influence of their kinetic activity in the diatomaceous earth. A light-colored, soft, direction of their concentration gradient[22]. siliceous earth composed of the shells of diatoms, a form of algae. Some deposits

53 diffusion coefficient. See molecular strike[9]. 2. Maximum plunge of sloping diffusion, coefficient. planar features (e.g., bedding, fractures) within a geological formation measured diffusion, convective. See mechanical perpendicularly to the strike of the features. dispersion, coefficient. See also strike; hade. diffusivity, soil water. The hydraulic dipmeter survey. A geophysical borehole conductivity divided by the differential logging method where the dip of the water capacity (care being taken to be penetrated strata is measured[16]. consistent with units), or the flux of water per unit gradient of moisture content in the diphenyl brilliant flavine 7GFF, direct absence of other force fields[22]. yellow 96. A yellowish dye initially developed to color tennis balls and diffusivity, hydraulic. The ratio of subsequently shown to be useful in transmissivity divided by the storage environmental tracing studies. Dye type: coefficient or the hydraulic conductivity Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes. divided by the specific storage[22]. discharge. The volumetric flow of water dike. 1. A wall or embankment protecting through a given cross section[16]. lowlands from being flooded[16]. 2. A subsurface sheet-like igneous intrusion into discharge area. An area in which ground bedrock fractures[16]. water is discharged to the land surface, surface water, or atmosphere[22]. Dinaric Karst. The extensive expanse of karst landscape stretching from Italy, across discharge, evaporation. The direct discharge the whole of southern Slovenia and Croatia, of ground water to the atmosphere by into parts of south-west and across evaporation[16]. , ultimately extending into and [9]. discharge, hydraulic. The discharge of ground water through springs or wells[16]. dip. 1. The angle between an inclined bedding plane in a rock sequence and the horizontal. discharge, maximum. The maximum The dip value includes an inclination and a discharge of a river or spring during high direction and the two components are flow conditions[16]. generally quoted in this order and in the format 10E ENE or 10E towards 025E discharge, natural. The discharge of water magnetic (etc). The dip direction is down into surface water bodies or springflow[16]. the slope. True dip is the maximum dip value of a given bedding plane; other, lesser discharge hydrograph. A graph showing the values, obliquely down the same bedding discharge of water as a function of time[16]. plane, are referred to as apparent dips. The direction at rightangles to the true dip, discharge pipe. A pipe through which a where the dip value is zero, is known as the pump discharges[16].

54 discharge pressure. The pressure at which a dispersion, longitudinal. Process whereby certain discharge takes place[16]. some water molecules and solute molecules travel more rapidly than the average linear discharge velocity. The rate of discharge of velocity and some travel more slowly, water through a porous medium per unit of which results in spreading of the solute in total area perpendicular to the direction of the direction of the bulk flow[22]. flow. dispersion, mechanical. See mechanical disconformity. A geological unconformity dispersion. between parallel beds, often with some series missing[16]. dispersion, transverse. Spreading of the solute in directions perpendicular to the discontinuity. 1. A point where a bulk flow[22]. mathematical function becomes nondefined[16]. 2. An unconformity in which dispersion zone. A zone of intermixing in the bedding planes above and below the miscible flow or in sea water encroachment. break are basically parallel, indicating a See also transition zone[16]. significant hiatus in the orderly sequence of sedimentary rocks. 3. A surface at which dispersivity. A geometric property of a seismic-wave velocities abruptly change. porous medium that determines the dispersion characteristics of the medium by discontinuity surface. Any surface across relating the components of pore velocity to which some property for a rock mass is the dispersion coefficient[22]. discontinuous. This includes fracture surfaces, weakness planes, and bedding displacement. 1. The process of replacing planes, but the term should not be restricted one fluid in a porous medium by another[16]. to mechanical continuity. 2. A change in position of a material point. See also miscible displacement. dispersion. The spreading and mixing of chemical constituents in ground water disposal well. A well used for the disposal of caused by diffusion and mixing due to waste into a subsurface stratum. See also microscopic variations in velocities within injection well[22]. and between pores[6]. dissociation. A chemical process that causes dispersion coefficient. 1. A measure of the a molecule to split into simpler groups of spreading of a flowing substance because of atoms, or ions. For example, the water

the nature of the porous medium, with its molecule (H2O) breaks down spontaneously interconnected channels distributed at into H+ and OH- ions[6]. random in all directions[22]. 2. The sum of the coefficients of mechanical dispersion dissolution. See solution. and in a porous medium[22]. dissolution of limestone. The of calcite (and hence of limestone) in pure

55 water is very low, but is vastly increased in distortion. A change in shape of a solid body. the presence of carbon dioxide. This gas, dissolved in water to produce carbonic acid, distribution coefficient. The quantity of the permits dissociation of calcium carbonate, solute, chemical, or radionuclide sorbed by and dissolution rates and loads are therefore the solid per-unit weight of solid divided by directly related to carbon dioxide content. the quantity dissolved in the water per unit This accounts for the importance to volume of water[22]. limestone dissolution of plant growth; soil water contains much more carbon dioxide distribution, frequency. Distribution of the than stream waters. Further dissolution number of occurrences of a variate. occurs through mixing of saturated waters of different carbon dioxide content (see disturbance. In , any change of the Mischungskorrosion), because of a original position of rocks by folding[16]. nonlinear relationship between carbonate saturation and carbon dioxide content. This disturbed sample. A sample disturbed with process is of major significance to respect to its original mode of packing and continued dissolution within the phreas. sedimentation (e.g., a drill core)[16]. Cold water can dissolve more carbon dioxide but, with respect to cave divide. 1. A line connecting the highest development, this climatic factor is topographic elevations or ground-water overwhelmed by the higher organic activity crests that separate one drainage basin from producing more carbon dioxide in warmer another[16]. 2. A ridge in the water table or environments. Loss of carbon dioxide, by potentiometric surface from which the diffusion into open air, causes water to ground water represented by that surface precipitate calcite as speleothems. moves away in both directions. Water in Limestone dissolution may also be achieved other aquifers above or below, and even in by organic acids or by strong acids, the lower part of the same aquifer, may particularly sulphuric acid, though such have a potentiometric surface lacking the effects are normally far less than that of ridge, and so may flow past the divide. See carbon dioxide. Strong acid dissolution is also ground-water divide; water-table probably involved in the inception of most divide. Synonyms: ground-water divide; underground drainage. Dissolution by ground-water ridge; water-table divide. 3. sulphuric acid formed by oxidation of (a) The line of separation, or the ridge, sulfide minerals or gases may be a major summit, or narrow tract of high ground, cave-forming process in some regions, and marking the boundary between two was largely responsible for the enlargement adjacent drainage basins or dividing the of Carlsbad Caverns and Lechuguilla Cave, surface waters that flow naturally in one New Mexico[9]. direction from those that flow in the opposite direction; the line forming the rim dissolution zone. A laterally extensive zone of or enclosing a drainage basin; a line where extensive dissolution of bedrock has across which no water flows. 3. (b) A tract occurred. of relatively high ground between two

56 streams; a line that follows the summit of an also formed by large-scale subsidence interfluve[1]. See also drainage divide. caused by cave roof-collapse of near- surface caverns; in this instance, the DNAPL. Abbreviation for dense nonaqueous collapse doline, the sides are clifflike and phase liquid. Liquids falling into this the floor composed of the irregular blocks category have specific gravities greater than from the fragmented roof. Cave roof water (the specific gravity for water is collapse is considered a relatively rare usually taken to be 1), are relatively phenomenon. Closed depressions receiving immiscible with water, and tend to migrate a stream are known as swallow holes or downwards through the vadose and stream sinks. A doline that is largely phreatic zones in a relatively unimpeded dependent upon snow for solution manner. See also LNAPL; immiscible; enlargement is known as a kotlici or NAPL. Schneedoline[19]. In America most dolines are referred to as sinks or sinkholes. See dog-tooth crystal; dog-tooth spar. A variety also jama; pit; ponor; sink, sinkhole; stream of calcite in the form of sharp-pointed sink; swallet; swallow hole; sumidero. crystals[10]. Synonyms: (French.) doline; (German.) Dolinen, Karsttrichter; (Greek.) tholene; doline; sinkhole. A basin- or funnel-shaped (Italian.) dolina, pozzo naturale; (Russian.) hollow in limestone, ranging in diameter karstovaja voronka, karstovaja kotlovina; from a few meters up to a kilometer and in (Spanish.) dolina; (Turkish.) düden, depth from a few to several hundred kokurdan, huni; (Yugoslavian.) vrta…a, meters. Some dolines are gentle grassy ponikva, dolac, do, duliba, kotli…, konta. hollows; others are rocky cliff-bounded basins. A distinction may be made by direct doline lake. A small karst lake occupying a solution of the limestone surface zone doline or closed depression in limestone. (solution dolines), and those formed by The term implies that the doline is at or near collapse over a cave (collapse dolines), but the ground-water table and in hydrological it is generally not possible to establish the continuity with it, or that the base of the origin of individual examples[10]. Solutional doline is sealed with an impermeable layer enlargement is either circular in plan, if such as clay[20]. See also sinkhole . there is one dominant vertical joint, or Synonyms: (French.) lac de doline; otherwise irregular if there are several, and (German.) Dolinensee; (Greek.) limni can achieve dimensions of up to 1,000 dholina; (Italian.) lago di dolina, lago meters in diameter and 100 meters deep. carsico; (Russian.) karstovoe ozero; Where a karst bedrock is covered by (Spanish.) dolina laguna, torca laguna; superficial deposits, solutional enlargement (Turkish.) obruk gölü; (Yugoslavian.) permits the latter to subside into vertical krs˜ko jezero, kras˜ko jezero. fissures, creating subsidence cones or alluvial dolines, whose slopes are unstable dolomite. 1. The pure mineral dolomite has

because of the unconsolidated nature of the the composition CaMg(CO3)2 and has surface material. The bedrock remains properties very similar to those of calcite. covered in the first instance. Dolines are The rock dolomite consists mainly of the

57 mineral dolomite, with subordinate calcite, dome pit. 1. American term defined by Davis and has properties very similar to those of (1930): “Mammoth Cave possesses several limestone. The natural dissolution of extraordinary vertical cavities of which the dolomite is generally slower than that of arched tops are called domes and the deep limestone. Hence, dolomite karst is bottoms are called pits. The combined generally less well developed than limestone name, dome pits, is here used for them.” 2. karst, though exceptions do occur in areas A deep shaft in a cave, intersected by a such as northwest Canada. Large, deep passage at or near its mid-section[20]. See caves can form in dolomite, as in the Rand aven. Synonyms: (French.) évorsion, of South Africa[9]. 2. A mineral composed marmite inversée; (German.) Deckenkolk; of calcium magnesium carbonate, (Greek.) vathís lákkos me thólon; (Italian.)

CaMg(CO3)2. 2. Rock chiefly composed of marmitta inversa; (Spanish.) marmita the mineral dolomite[10]. Also called inversa; (Turkish.) kemerli obruk. dolostone. double brake bars. A rappel device used by dolomitic limestone. A limestone containing cavers that consists of two carabiners with a significant proportion of the mineral a brake bar on each and connected together dolomite but in which calcite is more with another carabiner or a metal ring[13]. abundant (e.g., 10%-45% dolomite, 90%- 55% calcite). Many dolomitic limestones downwarping. A down bending of stratum to originate as calcite limestone that is form a depression or syncline[16]. subsequently affected by magnesium-rich water that replaces part of the calcite with drag. The resistance force of flowing fluid on dolomite[9]. a solid boundary[16]. dolomitic flour (sand). A loose mealy rock drainage area. A horizontal projection of an or residuum, produced by the disintegration area drained by a particular river system[16]. of dolomitic limestones under the processes of karstification[20]. Synonyms: (French.) drainage basin. The land area from which sable dolomitique; (German.) Dolomitsand, surface runoff drains into a stream channel Dolomitasche; (Greek.) dholomitikon or system of stream channels, or to a lake, alevron; (Spanish.) arena dolomítica; reservoir, or other body of water[6]. In a (Turkish.) dolomit kumu; (Yugoslavian.) karst setting, subsurface drainage (internal dolomitni pijesak, d. pesak, d. pesek. drainage) may have boundaries defined on the basis of comprehensive ground-water dolomitization. The process whereby tracing studies. See also ground-water limestone becomes dolomite by the sub- basin. stitution of magnesium carbonate for part of the original calcium carbonate[10]. . A ratio of total channel segment length cumulated for all orders to dome. A high shaft in a room or passage basin area[16]. formed by solution[13]. See also dome pit.

58 drainage ditch. A small channel through drawdown curve. A plot of drawdown with which surface water can drain[16]. radial distance from a well[16].

drainage divide. The rim of a drainage driphole. 1. Hole in rock or clay produced by basin[16]. See also divide; ground-water fast-dripping water. 2. Hollow space divide; water-table divide. surrounded by precipitated material, such as the bottom of a stalactite[10]. drainage network. A system of streams and rivers draining a given basin[16]. dripstone. Calcium carbonate deposited from water dripping from the ceiling or wall of a drainage pattern. A geometric arrangement cave or from the overhanging edge of a of stream segments in a drainage system[16]. rock shelter; commonly refers to the rock in stalactites, stalagmites, and other similar drainage ratio. A ratio of runoff to speleothems; in some places composed of precipitation[16]. aragonite or gypsum[10]. Synonyms: (French.) concrétions; (German.) drainage system. A network of streams and Tropfstein, Stalagmit, Stalaktit; (Greek.) tributaries[16]. stalaktitis, stalagmitis; (Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.) kapeljnik; drainage well. 1. A well installed to drain (Spanish.) concreción (estalagmitjca o surface water, storm water, or treated estalactítica); (Turkish.) damlataÕ2; waste water into underground strata[22]. 2. (Yugoslavian.) sige, smugori. See also A water well constructed to remove flowstone. subsurface water or to reduce a hydrogeologic unit’s potentiometric drowned karst. Karst topography that is surface[22]. submerged by a change in sea level or lake level. Synonym: karst noyé. See also drain tile; french drain. A porous pipe used subaqueous karst. for collection of excess ground water[16]. drowned spring. See spring, drowned. drapery. A thin sheet of dripstone, equivalent to curtain[10]. See also bacon; blanket; drought. A period of moisture deficiency and curtain. absence of water for plant growth[16].

draw. A natural depression or small valley[16]. dry cave. A cave without a running stream[10]. See also dead cave. drawdown. 1. The vertical distance the water elevation is lowered, or the reduction of the dry hole. A hole not obtaining any pressure head due to the removal of production. A nonproducing well[16]. water[22]. 2. The decline in potentiometric surface at a point caused by the withdrawal dry valley. 1. Valley that lacks a permanent of water from a hydrogeologic unit[22]. surface stream. Dry valleys are common on carbonate rocks with good primary

59 permeability and occur on other permeable Dupuit’s assumption. A simplifying rocks such as sandstone. Dry valleys on assumption for the solution of a free surface cavernous limestone were formed when well flow problem[16] (e.g., a water-table streams flowed on the surface, either before aquifer.) It is based on the assumption that secondary permeability and cave systems the slope of the phreatic surface is developed, or when caves were blocked by negligibly small so that the equipotential ground ice in periglacial climates. The lines are vertical and flow is essentially valleys became dry when underground horizontal. drains formed or were reopened, capturing first part and then all of the surface duration curve. A cumulative frequency drainage[9]. 2. A valley that lacks a surface curve of a continuous time series of water channel; common in the chalk of hydrologic parameters[16]. southern England[10]. 3. Elongated recesses and valleys at the bottom of which are Durchgangshöhle. (German.) See through dolines, jamas, and caves. 4. A valley form cave. of fluvial or periglacial origin in which surface drainage is intermittent or totally dye test. Determination of direction and rate absent. Fossil, usually with steep of flow of streams by marking them with slopes, it is variously identifiable as a dye at the infiltration area and then product of nival processes or higher water identifying and timing the reappearance of tables subsequently lowered by allogenic color at lower-lying springs, in river beds, valley[19]. Synonyms: (French.) vallée and elsewhere in a cave system[20]. sèche; (German.) Trockental; (Greek.) xera Synonyms: (French.) coloration; (German.) kilas; (Italian.) valle morta, valle asciutta; Färbung, Färbversuch; (Greek.) chrostike (Russian.) suhaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle ichnithetesis; (Italian.) tracciamento con seco; (Turkish.) kuru vadi; (Yugoslavian.) colorante; (Russian.) method krasjascih, suha dolina. indikatorov; (Spanish.) coloración; (Turkish.) boya deneyi; (Yugoslavian.) duck; duck-under. 1. A place where water bojenje, barvanje. See also tracer. reaches the cave roof for a short distance and can be passed by quick submergence dynamic similarity. A scaling procedure of without swimming. 2. In cave , a model and prototype where the relationship longer stretch of passage where the water is of dynamic parameters is retained[16]. so close to the roof that crawling or swimming beneath the water surface is dynamometer. A device used to measure the needed to pass[10]. momentum force of a stream velocity[16]. dug well. A hand-excavated well[16]. dune limestone. (Australian.) See eolian calcarenite.

60 E partially or completely treated, that discharges into the environment[6]. ebb-and-flow spring; ebbing-and-flowing well. See spring, ebb-and-flow. cave. See outflow cave. eccentric. Adjective or noun implying effluent stream. See gaining stream. abnormal shape in speleothems, such as [10]. elastic limit. The point on a stress/strain curve at which transition from elastic to eccentric well. A well that is not in the center inelastic behavior takes place. of the radius of influence[16]. elastic properties. The properties describing [16] eddy. A nonlaminar circulation of fluid at deformation of a solid . boundaries of flow separation[16]. elasticity. The property of a material that effective abstractions. The difference allows the material to return to its original between total precipitation and effective form or condition after the applied force has precipitation[16]. been removed.

effective diameter. A 10 percentile size (i.e., electric lamp. As used in caving, generally a 10% diameter smaller than this diameter)[16]. helmet-mounted headpiece (bulb, reflector, and lens) with a wire running to a battery [13] effective hydraulic conductivity. See carried elsewhere on the person . hydraulic conductivity, effective. electro-chemical gaging. Flow measurement effective porosity. See porosity, effective. based on electric detection of electrolyte tracer flow[16]. effective precipitation. That part of precipitation that contributes entirely to electrolyte. A chemical that dissociates into direct runoff. positive and negative ions when dissolved in water, increasing the electrical [6] effective rainfall. Effective precipitation conductivity . when only rainfall is involved[16]. elutriation. A washing process by [16] effective size. The 90%-retained size of a decantation with water . sediment as determined from a grain-size analysis; therefore, 10% of the sediment is embankment. A natural or artificial lateral [16] finer and 90% coarser[6]. boundary of a river .

effluent. 1. The discharge of water or other emergence. A general term for the fluids from a spring. 2. A waste liquid outflowing water, for the opening or for the discharge from a manufacturing or area of outflow of a karst spring; includes [20] treatment process, in its natural state or exsurgence and resurgence . Synonyms:

61 (French.) émergence; (German.) entrenchment. Erosion of an existing cave Ausflu$telle, Karstquelle; (Greek.) floor by a freely flowing stream to form a pigházon ýthor (or kephalari); (Italian.) canyon passage that is commonly narrower risorgenza; (Russian.) vihod karstovih vod; than the original passage. Where the (Spanish.) fuente, manantial, surgencia; stream entrenches an originally tubular (Turkish.) yüzeye eriÕim; (Yugoslavian.) phreatic passage a characteristic keyhole- krško vrelo, krs˜ ki izvor, obrh. See also shaped profile develops. Also known as exsurgence; resurgence; rise. vadose entrenchment or incision[9].

encroachment. 1. The landward entropy. The degree of thermodynamic advancement of saline waters into coastal disorder[16]. aquifers[16]. 2. The displacement of clean water by pollutants[16]. eolian calcarenite. A terrestrial limestone formed by the cementation by carbonates of end effect. A disturbance introduced by the calcareous coastal dune sand. Often inflow and outflow sections in a flow shorted to “eolianite.” Synonym: experiment[16]. dune-limestone; aeolianite. Compare beachrock. endellite. A cave mineral — [11] Al2Si2O5(OH)4"2H2O . eolian deposit. Sediment material deposited by wind action[16]. endogenic. 1. Pertaining to, or living in, the zone immediately beneath the earth’s ephemeral stream. A stream flowing only in surface (see epigean and hypogean)[9]. 2. direct response to precipitation[16]. Pertaining to geological process originating within the earth[16]. epigean. Pertaining to, or living on, the surface of the earth. See endogean and endokarst. The part of a vertically layered hypogean. karst system that is beneath the surface. Endokarst includes the full spectrum of epikarst; epikarst zone. A relatively thick underground voids and the dissolutional (the thickness may vary significantly, but 15 features that are present on the rock to 30 meters thick is a good generalization) surfaces surrounding them[9]. See also portion of bedrock that extends from the exokarst. base of the soil zone and is characterized by extreme fracturing and enhanced solution. energy head. Hydraulic head plus velocity It is separated from the phreatic zone by an head[16]. inactive, relatively waterless interval of bedrock that is locally breached by vadose enthalpy. Heat content[16]. percolation. Significant water storage and transport are known to occur in this zone. entrance capacity. The property of a soil to Synonym for subcutaneous zone. allow water to infiltrate (the maximum value of this property)[16]. epikarstic flow. See subcutaneous flow.

62 epilimnion. Upper layer of stratified water[16]. escarpment. A steep slope, often the result of faulting[16]. epiphreas, epiphreatic zone. The zone in a cave system, immediately above the estavelle. (French.) An intermittent phreatic zone, affected morphologically and resurgence or exsurgence, active only in hydrologically by floods too large for the wet seasons. May act alternatively as a cave to absorb at once[10]. swallow hole and as a rising according to ground-water conditions[10]. Opening in epsomite. A cave mineral — karstic terrane that acts as a discharge [11] MgSO4"7H2O . spring during high potentiometric surface and as a swallet during low potentiometric equation of hydrologic equilibrium. A mass surface. Sea estavelles are known to balance for a ground-water basin[16]. exist[20]. Synonyms: (French.) estavelle; (German.) Estavelle; (Greek.) estavella; equipotential line or surface. 1. A contour (Italian.) estavella; (Russian.) estavella; line on the potentiometric surface along (Spanish.) estavela; (Turkish.) su batar which the pressure head of ground water in ç2kar2; (Yugoslavian.) estavela, ponor- the aquifer is the same. Fluid flow is rigalo. normal to these lines in the direction of decreasing fluid potential[6]. 2. Line (or . A stratified fluvioglacial deposit in the surface) along which the potential is form of a winding ridge[16]. constant[22]. etched pothole. See solution pan. equivalent per million. The number of equivalent in a million parts per . The lower course of a river weight solution[16]. discharging into the sea and subject to tidal currents[16]. erodible. Susceptible to erosion[16]. evaporate. A formed by erosion. 1. The general process or group of evaporation and precipitation of saline processes whereby the materials of the waters[16]. earth’s crust are moved from one place to another by running water (including evaporation. The changing or water from the rainfall), waves and currents, glacier ice, or liquid or solid states into the gaseous state wind[6]. 2. The sequence of processes of through heat exchange[16]. disintegration and transportation of rock material[16]. evaporation loss. The loss of precipitated water that is discharged to the atmosphere erosion surface. The land surface resulting by evaporation[16]. from the action of erosion[16]. evaporation opportunity. The amount of erosiveness. The capacity to erode[16]. water made available for discharge into the atmosphere[16].

63 evaporation pan. An open tank used to (Turkish.) dev kazan2 aÕ2nd2rmas2; measure evaporation[16]. (Yugoslavian.) vrtloñna erozija. evaporation reduction. The rate control of exchange capacity. 1. The amount of escape of water vapor from an open exchangeable ions measured in moles of ion surface[16]. change per kilogram of solid material at a given pH. Synonymous with ion exchange evaporation suppression. The complete capacity[22]. 2. The total ionic charge of the prevention of evaporation by mechanical or adsorption complex active in the adsorption physico-chemical means (e.g., of ions[22]. See also cation-exchange monomolecular layer)[16]. capacity.

evaporite. Rock formed by precipitation of exhumed karst. A karstic outcrop that has minerals from evaporating water, usually been exposed by the erosion of an from sea water. As sea water evaporates allochthonous cover; there is an implication the least soluble mineral contents that karstification (partial or complete) had precipitate first; these include calcium preceded the removal of the cover[20]. carbonate that is deposited as fine-grained Mantled karst or buried karst that has been limestone. If evaporation continues, first divested of its cover. It is the reexposed gypsum, then halite, and finally a number of portion of a former landscape[17]. See also other sulfates and chlorides are deposited[9]. buried karst; exposed karst; mantled karst. Synonyms: (French.) karst dénudé; evaporativity. Evaporative power[16]. (German.) wiederaufgedeckter Karst; (Greek.) gymnothen karst; (Italian.) carso evapotranspiration. 1. The combined loss of riesumato; (Spanish.) karst exhumado; water from a given area and during a (Turkish.) aç2k karst; (Yugoslavian.) specified period of time, by evaporation ogoljeli krš (kras). from the land and transpiration from plants[22]. 2. The return of water in vapor exogenic. Pertaining to processes on or near form to the atmosphere through the the surface of the earth[16]. combined actions of evaporation, plant transpiration, and sublimation[16]. exokarst. All features that may be found on a surface karst landscape, ranging in size evorsion. Mechanical erosion by whirling between tiny karren forms and extensive water that may carry sand and gravel; projes, belong to the exokarst[9]. See also pothole erosion[10]. Mechanical erosion by endokarst. rotating or whirling water carrying sand, gravel, cobbles, or boulders in suspension experimental basin. A basin chosen for the or as bedload[20]. Synonyms: (French.) thorough study of hydrological évorsion; (German.) (Auswaschung), phenomena[16]. Auskolkung; (Greek.) mihanikí diávrosis; (Italian.) evorsione; (Spanish.) evorsión; exposed karst. A general term for bare karstic rocks outcropping at the surface of

64 the ground. It embraces karst areas without any initial cover (naked karst) or exposed by erosion of the residuum and soil (denuded karst) or of the allochthonous cover (exhumed karst)[20]. Karst topography in which cover is absent[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst exposé; (German.) nackter Karst, oberflächlicher Karst, wiederaufgedeckter Karst; (Greek.) akalypton karst; (Italian.) carso denudato; (Russian.) golij karst, otkritij karst; (Spanish.) karst subaéro; (Turkish.) belirgin karst; (Yugoslavian.) ljuti krš. See also denuded karst; exhumed karst; naked karst. extensometer. An instrument used for measuring vertical deformation of fine- grained beds in the subsoil under stress. Vertical extensometers commonly are installed when land subsidence follows ground-water withdrawal. Extensometers also are used to measure small horizontal displacements[21]. external loads. External loads causing water level fluctuations in wells. exsurgence. 1. A term used to explain the reemergence at the surface, as a stream, of meteoric water that has fallen entirely upon and percolated through a calcareous massif[19]. 2. A spring or seep in karstic terrane not clearly connected with swallets at a higher level. Synonyms: (French.) exsurgence; (German.) Karstquelle, Austrittßtelle; (Greek.) karstiki pighi; (Italian.) risorgente carsica; (Russian.) karstovij istoƒnik; (Spanish.) exsurgencia; (Turkish.) yüzeyde blirme; (Yugoslavian.) vrelo, obrh. See also emergence; resurgence.

65 F sides relative to one another parallel to the fracture[6]. This displacement may be of a fabric. The orientation in space of the few centimeters or many kilometers. See elements composing a rock substance. also joint fault set; joint fault system. facet. See scallop. fault breccia. The assemblage of broken rock fragments frequently found along faults. facies. The lithologic appearance of a rock[16]. The fragments may vary in size from inches to feet. facies change. The change in appearance that occurs when one lithologic unit ends and a fault cave. A cave developed along a fault or [10] new one is encountered. fault zone .

failure. In rocks, failure means exceeding the fault gouge. A claylike material occurring maximum strength of a rock or exceeding between the walls of a fault as a result of the stress or strain requirement of a specific the movement along the fault surfaces. design. fault line. The intersection of a fault with the fall. The gross slope of a river[16]. surface of the earth or any other plane of reference[16]. false floor. A remnant of a sheet of flowstone, originally deposited on clastic fault plane. A plane on which dislocation and [16] sediments that were subsequently washed relative movement has taken place . out from beneath. False floors may survive as a complete bridge between passage walls fault scarp. An elevation formed by [16] or just as projecting ledges. They may be movement of blocks along a fault plane . thin and easily broken or thick and very strong[9]. fault zone. A zone with numerous small parallel faults[16]. farangothes ipoyios thiavasis. See aisle. feeding tube. In karst terrane, a more or less fathometer. A water depth measuring straight and waterbearing underground device[16]. gallery of regular cross-section. Synonyms: (French.) tunnel; (German.) Stro4 mungsrohr , fault. 1. A fracture in the earth’s crust, Karstgerinne; (Greek.) karstikos ypoyios across which relative rock movement has agogos; (Spanish.) tubo; (Turkish.) akarsu taken place, or continues to take place. mecras2; (Yugoslavian.) vodonosni rov. Fault planes commonly guide vertical or See also stream tube. subvertical shafts in caves, as well as guiding subhorizontal or oblique passages feldspars. A very common group of rock- [16] within the confines of the fault plane[9]. 2. forming minerals . A fracture or fracture zone along which there has been displacement of the two

66 fengcong; fengcong karst. (Chinese.) 1. A ratio greater than four. The limestone hills karst, conspicuous in China, that is rise above level, alluviated , and the identified by its clustered limestone hills. finest fenglin karst around Yangshuo, Fengcong (pronounced “fungston”), which Guangxi, in southern China, is one of the translates as “peak cluster,” is a mature world’s most dramatic landscapes. The karst normally developed during long classification by hill density means that low uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution in residual cones scattered across a plain are wet tropical environments with high levels also referred to as fenglin by the Chinese[9]. of biogenic soil carbon dioxide. The 2. Tower karst characterized as peak forest Chinese classify karst by the hill or peak because the individual towers appear as density, in contrast to the isolated groups on a plain. Dry valley classification by hill shape. Fencong is networks separate individual towers[4]. See almost the equivalent of cone karst; its also fengcong; fungling; mogote; tower closely packed hills are conical rather than karst. hemispherical, with intervening dolines and disjointed valleys. The major occurrences ferghanite. A cave mineral — [11] are in Guizhou and Guangxi, in southern U3(VO4)2"6H2O . China. Some cones in Guangxi are so steep [16] that they have been termed fengcong tower ferric oxide. Rust; hematite (Fe2O3) . karst, but this concept is best avoided[9]. 2. Tower karst characterized as peak cluster ferrito zone. Zone of iron oxide accumulation because the individual karst towers appear in soil under humid climate conditions[16]. to be grouped together in clusters. Closed depression among the peaks are common[4]. Fickian diffusion. The spreading of solutes See also fenglin; fungling; mogote; tower from regions of highest to regions of lower karst. concentrations caused by the concentration gradient. In slow moving ground water, fenglin; fenglin karst. (Chinese.) 1. A karst, this is the dominant mixing process[22]. conspicuous in China, that is identified by its isolated limestone hills. Fenglin field capacity; field moisture capacity. See (pronounced “funglin”) translates from specific retention. Chinese as “peak forest,” and is distinguished from fengcong. Both fenglin field survey. Measurements taken in the and fengcong are mature karst normally field[16]. developed only by long uninterrupted periods of rapid dissolution in wet tropical field test. A test run in the field under normal environments with high levels of biogenic field conditions[16]. soil carbon dioxide. The Chinese classify karst by the hill or peak density, in contrast field velocity of ground water. Actual to the Western classification by hill shape. interstitial velocity of ground water[16]. Fenglin is therefore almost the equivalent of tower karst; its hills have very steep or fill terrace. An elevated valley surface formed vertical walls, and may have a height/width by aggregation[16].

67 fine gravel. Rock aggregates of 1 - 2 mm flattener. A cave passage, which though diameter[16]. wide, is so low that movement is only possible in a prone position[10]. See also fine sand. A material with a crawl. grain diameter of 0.1 - 0.25 mm[16]. flexure. A bend in a stratum with one flank or finite difference method. A numerical limb only[16]. method used to approximate the solution of partial differential equations[16]. flint. A concretionary form of silica, similar to chert, that occurs in chalk as tabular sheets finite element method. A numerical method and layers of irregularly shaped nodules. used to approximate the solution of partial Being very hard and relatively insoluble, differential equations. flint tends to stand out from chalk cliffs. Flint-rich horizons may also influencer the . Compacted granular snow[16]. inception of bedding-related dissoluational conduits in chalk[9]. firstkarren. (Austrian.) See Rillenkarren. float gage. A device that indicates or records fissure. Any discontinuity within the rock water levels with a float[16]. mass that is either initially open or capable of being opened by dissolution to provide a floating pan. An evaporation pan floating in route for water movement. Fissures in this a water body with drum floats[16]. sense, applied generally in karst, therefore include the primary sedimentary bedding floe calcite. Very thin film of pure calcium planes as well as tectonic faults and joints. carbonate floating on the surface of a More specifically, the term has been used to subterranean pool of very calm water[10]. describe voids with average dimensions from 10 to 100 mm[9] (an open joint or flood. A high river flow overtopping banks. crack in rocks)[16]. See also conduit; fracture. flood crest. The peak of a flood wave[16]. fissure cave. A narrow vertical cave or cave flooding method. A recharge method by passage along a fissure. Fissures widen out flooding a recharge area[16]. to become wells or vertical shafts[10]. See also vertical shaft. floodmarks. The marks left on fixed objects by flood waters[16]. Flachkarren. (German.) See clint. flood plain. The surface or strip of relatively flank. A limb of a fold[16]. smooth land adjacent to a river channel, constructed by the present river and . A relatively short but very intense covered with water when the river flood[16]. overflows its banks. It is built of alluvium carried by the river during floods and

68 deposited in the sluggish water beyond the two-dimensional, steady-state ground-water influence of the swiftest current[6]. flow[22]. 2. A net of orthogonal streamlines and equipotential lines applied in the flood profile. A continuous line representing graphical solution of Laplace’s equation[16]. the water surface for a given rate of flow[16]. flow path. The subsurface course a water flood water. Water that has overflowed its molecule or solute would follow in a given confines; the water of a flood[1]. ground-water velocity field.

flood-water zone. See epiphreas. flow rate. Volumetric rate of flow[16].

flood wave. A rise in the stage of a stream flow, steady. A characteristic of a flow that culminates in a crest before receding[1]. system where the magnitude and direction of specific discharge are constant in time at floor pocket. See pocket. any point[22]. See also flow, unsteady. flow, base. See base flow. flow, uniform. A characteristic of a flow system where specific discharge has the flow, creep. Flow with a creeping motion same magnitude and direction at any where inertial terms have been dropped[16]. point[22].

flow, critical. See critical flow. flow, unsteady. A characteristic of a flow system where the magnitude and/or flow duration curve. A curve of cumulative direction of the specific discharge changes streamflow versus the corresponding per with time. Synonymous with nonsteady cent of time[16]. flow. See also flow, steady.

flow gage. A gage used to measure flow flow velocity. See specific discharge. rate[16]. See also gage. flower. A cave flower is a group of crystals, flow-mass curve. 1. A mass curve with commonly of gypsum or mirabilite, that runoff discharge as a hydrologic quantity[16]. grow by accretion at their bases on a cave 2. The integral of the curve of a wall. As the crystals grow, curve and splay, hydrograph[16]. their form mimics that of a flower[9].

flow line. The general path that a particle of flowing artesian well. A well with its water follows under laminar flow potentiometric surface above the ground conditions[22]. Flow lines are usually drawn surface[16]. perpendicular to equipotential lines. See also equipotential lines. flowmeter. An instrument for measuring volumetric flowrate[16]. flow net. 1. A graphical representation of flow lines and equipotential lines for

69 flowstone. Deposits of calcium carbonate, flushed zone. In geophysical well logging, the gypsum, and other mineral matter that have zone around the well bore completely accumulated on the walls or floors of caves invaded by the mud filtrate[16]. at places where water trickles or flows over the rock[10]. Layered deposits of calcium flute. See scallop. carbonate precipitated on rocks from water trickling over them[20]. (French.) coulée fluviokarst. 1. A karst landscape where the stalagmitique; (German.) Sinterfall, Sinter; dominant landforms are valleys cut by (Greek.) asvestolithikon epiphlioma; surface rivers. Such original surface flow (Italian.) colata stalagmitica, deposito, may relate either to low initial permeability concrezione, stalagmite; (Russian.) nateki; before caves (and hence underground (Spanish.) colada estalagmítica; (Turkish.) drains) had developed, or to reduced akmataÕ2; (Yugoslavian.) kaskade. See also permeability due to ground freezing in a dripstone. periglacial environment. In both cases the valleys become dry as karst development fluid potential. The mechanical energy per improves underground drainage[9]. 2. unit mass of a fluid at any given point in Mixed terranes characterized by both space and time with regard to an arbitrary shallow karst and erosional landscape[20]. 3. state and datum[22]. A predominantly karst landscape in which there is much evidence of past or present fluorapatite. A cave mineral — fluvial activity[10]. Synonyms: (French.) [11] Ca5(PO4)3F . fluviokarst; (German.) Fluviokarst; (Greek.) fluviokarst; (Italian.) [11] fluorite. A cave mineral — CaF2 . fluviocarsimo; (Spanish.) fluviokarst; (Turkish.) akarsu karst2; (Yugoslavian.) flume. A channel supported on or above fluviokrš, fluviokras, fluviokarst. ground[16]. flux. See specific discharge. fluorescein. A reddish-yellow crystalline compound that imparts a brilliant green foaming agent. See . fluorescent color to water in very dilute ; used to label underground water . (Italian.) 1. A deep wide vertical cavity for identification of an emergence[10]. Also or the swallow point of a river at the commonly known as uranine. Dye type: beginning of its underground course. 2. A Xanthene. natural vertical shaft in soluble rock, tending toward cylindrical shape; it may or fluorescent dyes. Material used in may not reach the surface. A dome pit[10]. environmental tracing studies that may be detected and measured in small fold. A bend in a geologic stratum with two concentrations (.10-12 mg/L). Such dyes flanks, often in anticlinal and synclinal are inexpensive, relatively nontoxic, and sequence. relatively miscible with the water being traced.

70 formation. The fundamental unit in across it. Faults, thrusts, and joints are all rock-stratigraphic classification, consisting fractures, but bedding planes, which are of a distinctive mappable body of rock[10]. primary features, are not. In a more strictly See also cave formation; speleothem. hydrogeological context the term has been used to classify voids in the size range 0.1 formation stabilizer. A sand or gravel placed to 10 mm[9]. 2. Breakage of rock strata[16]. in the annulus of the well between the 3. The general term for any mechanical borehole wall and the well screen to discontinuity in the rock; it is, therefore, the provide temporary or long-term support for collective term for joints, faults, cracks, etc. the borehole[6]. See also conduit; fissure. formation temperature. The prevailing fracture pattern. The spacial arrangement of temperature in a given subsurface a group of fracture surfaces. formation[16]. fracture spring. See spring, fracture. form factor. A factor indicating the shape and form of mineral aggregates influencing fracturing. A formation of breaks in a rock their hydrodynamic properties[16]. due to folding or faulting[16]. . A fossil cave is an underground francoanellite. A cave mineral — [11] cavity that formed when a carbonate H6K3Al5(PO4)8"13H2O . succession was undegoing karstification but subsequently buried. Most fossil caves free-surface stream. In a cave, a stream that have been infilled by younger sediments. does not completely fill its passage[10]. See neptunian deposits, palaeokarst, and relict cave. free water. See gravitational water. fossil karst. See paleokarst. free water elevation. See water table. fossile karst. (French.) See buried karst. freezing point. The point at which a liquid solidifies[16]. fouling. The process in which undesirable foreign matter accumulates in a bed of filter fresco. A half-section of a stalactite on the media or ion exchanger, clogging pores and wall of a cave. coating surfaces and thus inhibiting or retarding the proper operation of the bed[6]. fresh water. Water that contains less than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of fountain. A free-flowing well or spring[16]. dissolved solids; generally more than 500 See also artesian well; spring, artesian. mg/L is undesirable for drinking and many industrial uses[22]. fracture. 1. A break or secondary discontinuity in the rock mass, whether or freshwater lens. 1. Body of fresh ground not there has been relative movement water found typically beneath permeable

71 limestone islands or peninsular land masses similar to mogote[10]. See also fencong; in the tropics. The lens-shaped water body fenglin; mogote; tower karst. is bounded above by a water table and below by a mixing zone between fresh and funicular regime. The distribution of saline ground water along the . In continuous liquid phase along pore walls the center of the lens freshwater extends with gaseous phase at the pore center[16]. below sea level, and another set of springs exists where dissolutional conduits associated with the lower limit of the lens intersect the rock surface below sea level[9]. 2. A lenticular form of a freshwater body under oceanic [16]. friction head. Head loss due to energy dissipation by friction[16].

Froude number. A dimensionless numerical quantity used as an index to characterize the type of flow in a hydraulic structure that has the force of gravity (as the only force producing motion) in conjunction with the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, and is equal to the square of a characteristic velocity (mean, surface, or maximum velocity) of the system divided by the product of a characteristic linear dimension (e.g., diameter or depth) and the gravity constant, acceleration due to gravity, all of which are expressed in consistent units in order that the combinations will be dimensionless. The number is used in open-channel flow studies or where the free surface plays an essential role in influencing motion[1] such as in karst conduits that are not necessarily flowing at pipe-full conditions. See also Chézy equation; Manning equation; Reynolds number. fullflow spring. See spring, fullflow. fungling; fungling karst. (Chinese.) Isolated limestone hill in alluvial plain, probably

72 G affect ground-water flow within or among those units[22]. See also ground-water gage well. A stilling well in which stage system. measurements are performed[16]. geohydrologic unit. An aquifer, a confining gage station. The point at which stage unit, or a combination of aquifers and measurements are performed[16]. confining units comprising a framework for a reasonably distinct geohydrologic [22] gaining stream. A stream or reach of a system . stream whose flow is being increased by inflow of ground water[22]. geohydrology. The branch of hydrology relating to the quantitative treatment of [16] galena. A cave mineral — PbS[11]. ground-water occurrence and flow .

gallery. A rather large, nearly horizontal geological column. A vertical cross section [16] passage in a cave[10]. through a sequence of formations .

galvanometer. A sensitive current meter[16]. geological organ. A cylindrical or funnel- shaped cavity in relatively soluble bedrock gas-expansion method. The measurement of that typically has a vertical orientation and porosity based on the Boyle-Mariotte’s gas is partly or wholly filled with material laws[16]. similar to the overlying sediment cover. They are produced by solution of bedrock geo. See blowhole. and concomitant subsidence of its sedimentary cover. Most have a diameter geochemistry. The science of the qualitative of 25 cm to 7 m and a depth of 2 to 30 m, and quantitative identification of the but some may be much larger. A elements and their distribution in the depth/diameter ratio of 5 to 20 may be earth[16]. considered representative. In actuality, geological organs are a type of subsidence geode. Hollow globular bodies varying in size doline that develops under a cover of [17] from a few centimeters to several younger rock or sediment . Synonyms: decimeters, coated on the interior with (French.) Orgue géologigue, poche de crystals[10]. dissolution, puits naturel; (Belgian.) abannet, cavité de dissolution; (German.) geodesy. The science of measuring the geologische Orgel, Orgel, unterirdische geometrical properties of the earth[16]. Doline, Verwitterungssacke, naturlicher Schacht, Erdorgel, Erdpfeife, Riesentoph, geohydrologic system. The geohydrologic Bodenkarren; (British.) sand pipe, sand- units within a geologic setting, including gall, gravel-pipe, pipe, pocket deposit, gull; any recharge, discharge, interconnections (Italian.) organo geologico; (Roumanian.) between units, and any natural on orgile geologice; (Czech.) geologické man-induced processes or events that could varhany; (Polish.) organy geologiczne;

73 (Russian.) organ truba, kamin; (Serbo- glacial deposit. Sedimentary deposits due to Croatian.) geološke orgulje; (Slavic) transport by [16]. geološke orglje, zapolvje jaški; (Dutch.) geologische orgelpijp, aardpijp. glacial drift. Sediment material contained, transported, and deposited by glaciers[16]. geological section. A vertical section through a sequence of rock masses or strata[16]. glacial groove. A groove cut into bedrock by rock fragments at the bottom of a moving geologic control. The influence of geologic glacier[16]. factors on hydrogeologic features[16]. glacial till. An unassorted mixture of glacial geologic correlation. The correlation of drift[16]. Synonym: boulder clay; till. geologic formations as shown in geologic logs over a given area[16]. glaciation. A covering of the land surface by glacier ice[16]. geologic log. A vertical cross section of the lithologic column indicating geologic and glacier. An extensive body of ice covering the petrographic data[16]. land surface[16]. geologic similarity. A model-prototype . 1. A cave carved out of the ice length ratio[16]. inside a glacier, not to be confused with an . Passages are formed by meltwater geomorphic process. The process descending from the glacier surface via responsible for the formation and alteration , or by melting on the glacier base. of the earth’s surface[16]. Through caves may connect sinkholes (sometimes called moulins) to glacier snout . The science of the origin resurgences, but due to ice movement most and evolution of land forms[16]. glacier caves are ephemeral. The most extensively explored glacier caves were the gestation. The gestation phase of Paradise Caves on , USA, speleogenesis follows the inception phase, whose passages extended for many and the two in combination are essentially kilometers, before the glacier wasted away equivalent to the more commonly used term and the caves were destroyed[9]. 2. Cave in “initiation.” The transition from inception ice formed within or at the base of a to gestation may correspond to the glacier[10]. establishment of gravitational laminar flow conditions, and gestation is complete when glaciofluvial. Pertaining to the meltwater turbulent flow is achieved[9]. streams flowing from wasting glacier ice and especially to the deposits and landforms Ghyben-Herzberg conditions. Equilibrium produced by such streams[6]. condition at the interface of immiscible freshwater bodies and saltwater bodies in glaciokarst. 1. A karst landscape that was coastal aquifers[16]. glaciated during the cold periods of the

74 Pleistocene and displays major landforms of goose. Normally found as part of an relict glacial origin. Bare rock scars, locally entrenched meander[1]. with glacial striations, and limestone pavements are characteristic, due to the gorge. A narrow passage or canyon in a lack of rapid soil formation on the mountain system[16]. See also canyon. limestones since glacial stripping. Dolines within a glaciokarst are mostly small and gour. Flowstone deposit, normally of calcite, immature, as are caves, except where pre- built up along the edge of a pool due to glacial passages are intercepted. precipitation from a thin film of overflow Glaciokarst is almost synonymous with water. Once initiated, by calcite-saturated alpine karst, and some of the finest is water overflowing from floor hollows, developed on the high plateaus of the development is self-enhancing, and the Calcareous , south of , gours can grow into large many Austria[9]. 2. A glaciated limestone region meters high and wide. Inside the gour pool, possessing both glacial and karst more calcite may be precipitated as crystals characteristics[10]. (French.) karst glaciaire; or pearls. Large flights of gours occur in (German.) Gebiet mit karst und Glazial- many caves, with spectacular and well Formen; (Greek.) pagheto-karst; (Spanish.) known examples around the Hall of glaciokarst; (Turkish.) buzul karst2; Thirteen in the Gouffre Berger, France. (Yugoslavian.) glaciokrs˜, glaciokras, Large , gours can form in the open glaciokarst. See also alpine karst; nival air, as at Band-i-Amir, Afghanistan[9]. See karst. also rimstone barrage; rimstone barrier; rimstone dam. glade. 1. (Jamaican.) An elongate depression, having steep sides, in which a generally flat graben. A depression formed by a fault block floor is divided into small basins separated moving downward on the two bounding by low divides. 2. (Tennessee.) Limestone faults[16]. pavement having extensive growth of cedar trees[10]. See also . gradation. The leveling of a surface to a common level[16]. globularite. Small crystals of calcite tipped with spheres composed of radiating grade. Inclination or slope[16]. fibers[10]. graded. An engineering term pertaining to a gloop. Synonym for blow hole. Also spelled soil or an unconsolidated sediment gloup. consisting of particles of several or many sizes or having a uniform or equable goethite. A cave mineral — FeO(OH)[11]. distribution of particles from coarse to fine[6]. goly0 karst. (Russian.) See naked karst. gradient. The change in hydraulic head over gooseneck. The part of a winding valley some given distance (dh/dL) with ground- resembling in plan the curved neck of a water flow usually occurring in the direction

75 of decreasing hydraulic head which requires gravity component. The component acting in by convention, the attaching of a minus sign the direction of gravitation[16]. to any equation utilizing a gradient for flow. The maximum value of the directional gravity drainage. The flow of water towards derivative[16]. a well under its own weight[16]. grain packing. The spatial arrangement of gravity spring. See spring, gravity. grains forming porous medium[16]. grike. (British.) 1. A solutionally enlarged grain per gallon (gpg.) A common basis for vertical or steeply inclined joint in the reporting water analyses in the water- surface of a karstland, extending for up to a treatment industry in the United States and few meters into the limestone[10]. 2. A Canada. One grain per U.S. gallon equals vertical or subvertical cleft in a limestone 17.12 milligrams per liter[6]. pavement developed by solution along a joint or system of crisscrossing joints[20]. grain shape. The geometrical aspect of Grikes separate clints from one another. grains[16]. Synonyms: (British.) gryke; (French.) lapiaz; (German.) Kluftkarren. See also granular. Of structure clearly showing grain clint; bogaz; limestone pavement. shape[16]. grotto. 1. Hole in small cave or cavern that granule. Small rounded grain or rock has eroded in the wall of a main cave. 2. fragment[16]. Widely open and shallow cave within a vaulted roof. 3. A cave or chamber grape formation. See botryoid. preceded by a narrower passage[20]. 4. A small cave, natural or artificial. 5. A room, gravel. Waterworn rounded rock grains and in a cave system, of moderate dimensions fragments[16]. but richly decorated[10]. A grotto is often intricately decorated, and may occur above, gravimetric moisture content. The ratio of at, or below sealevel[20]. Synonyms: water weight to the weight of solid (French.) grotte, baume, balme; (German.) particles[16]. Höhle, Grotte; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) grotta; (Russian.) grot; (Spanish.) gruta; gravitational head. The component of total (Turkish.) ma™arauk; (Yugoslavian.) nis˜a. hydraulic head related to the position of a given mass of water relative to an arbitrary ground air. See soil air. datum[22]. ground slope. The inclination of the land gravitational water. Water that moves into, surface with the horizontal[16]. through, or out of the soil or rock mass under the influence of gravity[22]. ground water, phreatic water. 1. The part of the subsurface water that is in the phreatic zone[10]. Its lower limits are the

76 zone of rock flowage or the lowest fully bottom of a confining unit[22]. See also confining bed; its upper limits are the confined; confining unit; confined aquifer. uppermost fully confining bed or the water table[16]. 2. Used loosely and incorrectly by ground-water dam. A geological stratum some to refer to any water beneath the serving as a subsurface dam[16]. surface. See also phreas; phreatic water; phreatic zone. ground-water discharge. 1. Flow of water from the zone of saturation[22]. 2. The ground-water artery. A tubular body of water released from the zone of permeable water-filled material surrounded saturation[22]. by confining beds[16]. ground-water divide. 1. A ridge in the water ground-water barrier. Rock or artificial table or other potentiometric surface from material that has a relatively low which ground water moves away in both permeability and that occurs below the land directions normal to the ridge line[22]. 2. A surface, where it impedes the movement of dividing line between two ground-water ground water and consequently causes a basins. 3. In well hydraulics, the streamline pronounced difference in the potentiometric with no flow representing the boundary of surface on opposite sides of it[22]. the aquifer region contributing to well discharge[16]. See also divide. Synonyms: ground-water basin. 1. A general term used divide; water-table divide. to define a ground-water flow system that has defined boundaries and may include ground-water flow. The movement of water permeable materials that are capable of in the zone of saturation[22]. storing or furnishing a significant water supply; the basin includes both the surface ground-water flux. The rate of ground-water area and the permeable materials beneath flow per unit area of porous or fractured it[22]. 2. The area throughout which ground media measured perpendicular to the water drains toward the same point; it can direction of flow[22]. See also specific be larger than the accompanying surface discharge. water drainage basin if permeable layers extend outside of the topographic divide[16]. ground-water inventory. The complete See also drainage basin. quantitative accounting for all volumes of ground water[16]. ground-water cascade. The flow of ground water over a subsurface barrier[16]. ground-water mound. A raised area in a water table or other potentiometric surface ground-water cement. A cementing material created by ground-water recharge[22]. precipitating at the water table[16]. ground water, perched. Unconfined ground ground water, confined. Ground water water separated from an underlying body of under pressure significantly greater than ground water by an unsaturated zone. Its atmospheric and whose upper limit is the water table is a perched water table.

77 Perched ground water is held up by a to travel between two locations. The travel perching bed whose permeability is so low time is the length of the flow path divided that water percolating downward through it by the velocity, where velocity is the is not able to bring water in the underlying average ground-water flux passing through unsaturated zone above atmospheric the cross-sectional area of the geologic pressure[22]. See also perched ground medium through which flow occurs, water. perpendicular to the flow direction, divided by the effective porosity along the flow ground-water pumping. 1. Directed or path. If discrete segments of the flow path oscillatory ground-water movement, along have different hydrologic properties, the incipient fissures in the rock, that occurs total travel time will be the sum of the travel due to very small but significant relative times for each discrete segment[22]. movements of the rocks themselves, maybe as a diurnal, tidal process. It may be one of ground water, unconfined. Water in an the driving mechanisms of the earliest, aquifer that has a water table. Synonymous inception, phase of speleogenesis[9]. The with phreatic ground water[22]. pumping of a water well to provide water for drinking, irrigation, and manufacturing. grout. A fluid mixture of cement and water but may also be conducted for dewatering (neat cement) of a consistency that can be purposes. forced through a pipe and placed where required. Various additives, such as sand, ground-water recharge. The process of bentonite, and hydrated lime may be water addition to the saturated zone or the included in the mixture to meet certain volume of water added by this process[22]. requirements. Bentonite and water are sometimes used for grout[6]. ground-water reservoir. A reservoir in the void space beneath the water table[16]. grout curtain. The filling of void spaces in rocks to prevent the flow of water into and ground-water system. A ground-water through the rock; most commonly reservoir and its contained water. Also, the associated with dams. collective hydrodynamical and geochemical processes at work in the reservoir[22]. grouting. The operation by which grout is placed between the casing and the sides of ground-water table. The surface between a well bore to a predetermined height above the zone of saturation and the zone of the bottom of the well. This secures the aeration. Also, the surface of an casing in place and excludes water and unconfined aquifer[6]. Synonym: water other fluids from the well bore[6]. table. grünkarst. See subsoil karst. ground-water travel time. 1. The time-required for ground water to travel gryke. See grike. between two locations[22]. 2. The time required for a unit volume of ground water

78 guano. An accumulated deposit of animal referred to as selenite, commonly occurs as excrement. In caves it is most commonly transparent crystals, blades, needles, or associated with bat colonies, but cave- fibers in cave clay deposits. A more dwelling birds such as swifts may also spectacular form is as fibrous or curved contribute. Guano is abundant only in crystals that may develop into cave flowers tropical regions and may be dry and on cave walls and ceilings, as for example in powdery, or a foul, wet sludge — as in the parts of the Flint Mammoth Cave System, Niah Caves of Sarawak. It is a vital food USA, or grow into large, hanging source for many troglobites. Consisting chandeliers, as in Lechuguilla Cave, New mainly of phosphates and nitrate, it is Mexico[9]. 2. A mineral composed of [10] valued as a or an ingredient of hydrous calcium sulfate , CaSO4"2H2O. explosives and has commonly been mined. Over 100,000 tons of bat guano have been gypsum cave. Both vadose and phreatic extracted from Carlsbad Caverns, USA[9]. caves can form in gypsum, which is very See also cave guano. soluble in water, but they are uncommon because gypsum rock rarely survives total guano cave. A cave containing large amounts dissolution in the near-surface environments of guano[13]. See also cave guano. associated with explorable caves. Gypsum caves certainly exist at depth within buried gulf. Steep-walled closed depression having a evaporate sequences. In areas of wet flat alluviated bottom; in some gulfs a climate, gypsum caves are generally seen stream flows across the bottom[10]. only if encountered by man-made excavations. In contrast, gypsum caves are gull. A widened fissure formed by land more common and more extensive in areas slipping along valley sides, generally where that have experienced a long period of massive beds such as limestone overlie dominantly arid climate. The most weaker rocks[9]. See also tectonic cave; spectacular gypsum caves are in the Podolie windypit. region of the Ukraine, where joint guided maze-cave systems are very extensive — . A deep erosional channel[16]. Optimisticeskaja has around 180 km of passsage[9]. gushing spring. See spring, vauclusian. gypsum flower. See cave flower. gypsum. 1. White or colorless mineral or rock composed of hydrated calcium sulfate, gypsum karst. A karst landscape developed

CaSO4.2H2O. Gypsum rock is an evaporite on, or perhaps above, gypsum or similar precipitated from sea water and is therefore evaporite rock sequences. Dissolution of soluble in water and may contain gypsum by ground water in buried dissolutional caves. Mineral gypsum is interstratal situations is common, and the formed in some caves by reactions between effects of such dissolution may be expressed the host limestone and sulfates (including at the land surface in the form of subsidence sulphuric acid) derived from oxidized depressions. There are extensive areas of sulfide minerals (see pyrite). Gypsum, also gypsum karst in North America and the

79 Ukraine, but British examples are limited to rare caves exposed by quarrying, and subsidence depressions above dissolved gypsum beds, such as those around Ripon, Yorkshire[9].

80 H half-exposed karren. Patches of soil on otherwise bare limestone that attack the [3] hade. The angle of inclination of a fault (or rock by means of biogenic CO2 . joint) plane measured relative to the vertical[9]. See also dip. half-blind valley. Blind valley in which the stream overflows in floodtime when the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The equation swallow hole can not accept all the [10] used to define the laminar flow of water in water . either fractures or tubes and is given as half tube; half-tube. 1. An inverted channel w 3b( dh Q ' & with semicircular cross section seen in cave- 12F dL passage ceilings, most clearly where the ceiling is an uneroded bedding surface. The for laminar flow in fractures half tube originates as part of a phreatic tube guided by the bedding plane, and the and lower half is subsequently removed by vadose enlargement. The presence of half Br 4( dh Q ' & tubes provides important evidence of early 8F dL phreatic-cave development[9]. 2. Trace of a tube remaining in the roof or wall of a cave[10]. See also tube. for laminar flow in tubes which states that the average volumetric discharge of flow halite. The mineral form of sodium chloride through either type of opening is directly (NaCl), or rock salt. Halite occurs, proportional to the type, shape, and sometimes to considerable thicknesses, in dimensions of a particular pore and the many buried-rock successions, from which hydraulic gradient[5]. Note: Q=discharge, it has been extracted both by mining and by w=width of the fissure, b=open portion of redissolving it in water pumped from and the long dimension of the fissure, r=radius back to the surface. The existence of brine of the tube, ( and F are the specific weight springs indicates that natural water and dynamic viscosity of water respectively, movement occurs through buried halite dh/dL=gradient, and a minus sign is sequences, presumably through voids that attached to the equations to indicate that could be thought of as caves. Although flow occurs in the direction of deceasing distinctive halite (or salt) karst features are hydraulic head. known in some arid areas, a range of features analogous to those found on Halbhöhle. (German.) See rock shelter. karstic rocks such as limestone are unlikely to form, and less likely to be preserved, Halbkugelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst because of halite’s relative weakness and topography containing dome-shaped very high solubility. In Britain expressions residual hills surrounding depressions, a of salt karstification are limited to relatively kind of Kegelkarst. Also called subdued surface features. The “flashes” of Kugelkarst[10]. the Cheshire area are hollows, sometimes

81 transformed into water-filled meres, formed havara. Name given in Cyprus to a soft by subsidence of overlying rocks and porous carbonate formation, up to several superficial deposits where salt has been meters thick, found capping many dissolved from buried halite beds of Triassic formations and containing fragments and age[9]. minerals derived from older rocks; it is probably a type of hardpan or caliche[20]. hall. In a cave, a lofty chamber which is much See also caliche; kafkalla. longer than it is wide[10]. See also gallery. haystack hill. (Puerto Rican.) In the tropics, halocline. A locally steep salinity gradient rounded conical hill of limestone developed along the interface between fresh ground as a result of solution. Term replaced by water and saline ground water, such as is mogote[10]. Synonyms: (French.) mogote; found at the base of the fresh-water lens (German.) Mogote; (Italian.) mogote, common beneath many limestone islands in rilievo carsico residuo; (Spanish.) mogote; the tropics. Water mixing and microbial (Turkish.) konik kireçtaÕ2 tepesi; activity are important influences on (Yugoslavian.) hum. See also mogote. dissolution along the halocline, as shown for instance in blue holes[9]. head. The energy contained in a water mass, produced by elevation, pressure, or halomorphic soil. Saline and alkali soils. velocity[6]. hanging blade. A blade projecting down head loss. That part of head energy which is from the ceiling[10]. See also blade. lost because of friction as water flows[6]. hannayite. A cave mineral — head, static. The height above a standard [11] (NH4)2Mg3H4(PO4)4"8H2O . datum of the surface of a column of water (or other liquid) that can be supported by hardening. The process of induration[16]. the static pressure at a given point. The static head is the sum of the elevation head hardness. 1. Property of water that prevents and the pressure head[22]. lathering because of the presence of cations, mainly calcium and magnesium, which form head, total. The total head of a liquid at a insoluble soaps[10]. 2. The sum of calcium given point is the sum of three components: and magnesium ions expressed as the (a) the elevation head, which is equal to the equivalent amount of calcium carbonate elevation of the point above a datum, (b) [16] (CaCO3) . 3. The property to form the pressure head, which is the height of a insoluble salts of fatty acid (soap)[16]. column of static water that can be supported by the static pressure at the hardpan. This develops when there are point, and (c) the velocity head, which is the secondary calcium carbonate cementations height to which the kinetic energy of the in the lower part of the soil profile[16]. liquid is capable of lifting the liquid[22]. Synonym: mortar bed. See also caliche; havara; nari. head water. The upper reach of a stream[16].

82 heat of condensation. The heat released in heligmite. An eccentric growing upward transforming a substance from its vapor to from a cave floor or from a shelf in a cave. its liquid state[16]. A curved or angular thin stalagmite[10].

[11] heat of vaporization. The heat necessary to hematite. A cave mineral — Fe2O3 . change water from the liquid to the gaseous state[16]. hemimorphite. A cave mineral — [11] Zn4Si2O7(OH)2"H2O . heel-print karren. See Trittkarren. heterogeneity. A characteristic of a medium helictite. 1. Generally small variety of in which material properties vary from point stalactitic calcite growth that is twisted and to point[22]. contorted with no apparent regard for gravity. Helictites form on cave walls, heterogeneous. The unequal spacial ceilings, and stalactites. The growth distribution of aquifer properties[16]. develops as seepage water loses carbon dioxide from near its tip, having been hexahydrite. A cave mineral — [11] supplied to that point by capillary action MgSO4"6H2O . through a fine central canal. The helictite shape is created by crystal lattice distortion hibbenite. A cave mineral - [11] and crystal form changes within the calcite, Zn7(PO4)4(OH)2"7H2O . but what causes these is uncertain. Impurities may play a role, and rare groups hod. See aisle. of parallel growing helictites may be wind- guided[9]. 2. Irregular, twiglike, crystalline holokarst. 1. Karst area with little or no growths with varying orientations but often surface runoff or streams; it is underlain by in crystal continuity, formed in caves by thick carbonate rocks and is characterized precipitation from bicarbonate solutions[20]. by well-developed karst surface topography 3. A curved or angular twiglike lateral from karren to poljes and extensive projection of calcium carbonate having a subsurface karst features like caves, tiny central canal, found in caves[10]. Also caverns, galleries, chimneys, etc[20]. 2. known as eccentric anemolite[20]; eccentric Cvijiƒ’s term for a karst area like that of the stalactite. Synonyms: (French.) Dinaric Karst of Slovenia. Such areas have excentrique; (German.) exzentrisch bare surfaces on thick deposits of limestone gekrümmter, Tropfstein, Excentriques; that extend below sea level, well-developed (Greek.) stalaktits akanonistos; (Italian.) karren, dolines, uvalas, poljes, deep ponors, stalattiti anomale, eccentiche; (Spanish.) and extensive cave systems; they have little estalactita excentrica; (Turkish.) düzensiz or no surface drainage[10]. Synonyms: sark2t; (Yugoslavian.) heliktit. Related to (French.) holokarst; (German.) Holokarst; curtain, dripstone, speleothem. (Greek.) holokarst; (Italian.) olocarsismo, carsismo, maturo; (Spanish.) holokarst; (Turkish.) tam karst; (Yugoslavian.)

83 potpuni krs˜ (kras), holokarst. Contrast polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.) butte témoin; causse, merokarst. (German.) (Karstinselberg), Hum; (Greek.) karstiki martyree lophi; (Italian.) testimoni homogeneity. A characteristic of a medium in carsici; (Russian.) karstovij ostanec; which material properties are identical (Spanish.) hum; (Turkish.) karst adatepesi; everywhere[22]. (Yugoslavian.) hum. See also karst ; mogote. homogeneous. The even spacial distribution of aquifer properties[16]. humidity, absolute. The moisture content by weight per unit volume of air[16]. homogeneous fluid. A fluid that occurs in a single phase[16]. humus-water grooves. This is a special type of meandering karren or wall karren in hook gage. A gage for the precise position which the water originated in humus measurement of liquid levels[16]. covering. Water originating from a humus

cover has an excess of CO2 and is therefore hopeite. A cave mineral — very aggressive and can dissolve large [11] Zn3(PO4)2"4H2O . amounts of limestone. Thus humus-water grooves can be very deep but after horst. A block having been uplifted along its approximately 2-3 meters, the grooves boundary faults[16]. flatten out and continue as normal meanders or wall karren[3]. See also meander karren; Horton number. Expresses the relative wall karren. intensity of erosion process in a drainage [16] [11] basin . huntite. A cave mineral — CaMg3(CO3)4 . hot-seat rappel. A method of rappelling in a hydration. The act by which a substance cave with the rope running under one leg, takes up water by absorption and/or up across the opposite shoulder and adsorption[6]. controlled with a hand. The friction of the rope on the body creates a lot of heat, hydraulic barrier. A general term referring hence its name[13]. to modifications of a ground-water flow system to restrict or impede movement of hoya, hoyo. (Spanish.) A very large closed contaminants[22]. depression. Used in for doline, in Cuba for polje[10]. hydraulic conductivity. 1. A proportionality constant relating hydraulic gradient to hum. 1. Karst inselberg. Residual hill of specific discharge, which for an isotropic limestone on a fairly level floor, such as the medium and homogeneous fluid equals the isolated hills of limestone in poljes. In some volume of water at the existing kinematic tropical areas, used loosely as synonym for viscosity that will move in unit time under a mogote[10]. 2. Yugoslavian term for an unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area isolated residual hill on the bottom of a measured at right angles to the direction of

84 flow[22]. 2. The volume of water that will hydraulic head is equal to the distance move through a medium in a unit of time between the water level in the well and the under a unit hydraulic gradient through a datum plane[22]. unit area measured perpendicular to the direction of flow[22]. 3. The ability of a rock hydraulic jump. 1. A standing of unit to conduct water under specified water passing from below critical depth in conditions[10]. It is typically expressed as open channel flow[16]; often occurs in caves. gpd/ft2, ft/day, or m/day. 2. An abrupt depth variation in rapidly varying channel flow[16]. hydraulic conductivity, effective. The rate of flow of water through a porous medium hydraulic profile. A vertical section of the that contains more than one fluid, such as potentiometric surface[16]. water and air in the unsaturated zone, and which should be specified in terms of both hydraulic radius. The ratio of the filled the fluid type and content and the existing cross-sectional area to [16]. pressure. hydrochemical facies. Distinct zones that hydraulic diffusivity. See diffusivity, have cation and anion concentrations of hydraulic. diagnostic chemical character of water solutions in hydrologic systems that are hydraulic discharge. The discharge of describable within defined composition ground water through springs or wells[16]. categories[22].

hydraulic fracturing. The formation of hydrocompaction. The process of volume artificial fractures in rock systems around a decrease and density increase that occurs well by high pressure fluid injections[16]. when moisture-deficient deposits compact as they are wetted for the first time since hydraulic gradient. 1. The change in static burial[21]. Synonym: shallow subsidence. head per unit of distance in a given direction. If not specified, the direction hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with generally is understood to be that of the subsurface waters and related geologic maximum rate of decrease in head[22]. 2. aspects of surface waters. Slope of the water table or potentiometric surface[22]. 3. A chance in the static hydrograph, characteristic. A hydrograph pressure of ground water expressed in based on the unit step process. terms of the height of water above a datum, per unit of distance in a given direction[22]. hydrodynamic dispersion. 1. The spreading (at the macroscopic level) of the solute hydraulic head. The height above a datum front during transport resulting from both plane (such as sea level) of the column of mechanical dispersion and molecular water that can be supported by the diffusion[22]. 2. The dynamic dispersion of hydraulic pressure at a given point in a fluid particles in flow through a porous ground-water system. For a well, the

85 medium due to velocity changes in the pore hydrologic budget. The quantitative channels[16]. accounting of all water volumes and their changes over time for a given basin or hydrodynamic dispersion, coefficient of. province[16]. See dispersion coefficient. hydrologic properties. Those properties of a hydrogeochemistry. The geochemistry of rock that govern the entrance of water and water as related to the occurrence of the capacity to hold transmit, and deliver subsurface water[16]. water, such as porosity, effective porosity, specific retention, permeability, and the hydrogeologic. Those factors that deal with directions of maximum and minimum subsurface waters and related geologic permeabilities[22]. aspects of surface waters[6]. hydrology. The study of atmospheric, hydrogeologic unit. 1. Any soil or rock unit surface, and subsurface waters and their or zone which by virtue of its hydraulic connection with the water cycle[16]. properties has a distinct influence on the storage or movement of ground water[22]. hydromagnesite. A cave mineral — [11] 2. Means a soil or rock unit or zone which Mg5(CO3)4(OH)2"4H2O . by virtue of its porosity or permeability, or lack thereof, has a distinct influence on the hydrometeorology. Meteorology dealing storage or movement of ground water[22]. with water in the atmosphere[16]. hydrogeology. The study of subsurface hydrometric station. A station at which waters in their geological context[16]. there usually are a number of hydrometric measurements being performed[16]. hydrograph. 1. A graph relating stage, flow, velocity, or other characteristics of water hydrometry. The science of water with respect to time[22]. 2. A time record of measurements[16]. stream discharge at a given cross section of the stream or of the stream surface hydrophilic. Having a great affinity for elevation at a given point[16]. water[16]. hydrograph separation. The separation of a hydrophobic. The repelling of water[16]. hydrograph into its different components to analyze flow contributions[16]. hydrophyte. A plant requiring large amounts of moisture for growth[16]. hydrography. The geographical description of water bodies on the earth’s surface[16]. hydroscopic coefficient. The amount of absorbed water on the surface of soil hydrologic barrier. See barrier, hydrologic. particles in an atmosphere of 50% relative humidity at 25EC[16].

86 hydroscopic water. Condensed water at a solid surface[16].

hydrosphere. That part of the earth that contains liquid or solid water[16].

hydrostratigraphic unit. See hydrogeologic unit.

hydroxylapatite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca5(PO4)3(OH) .

hydrozincite. A cave mineral — [11] Zn(CO3)2(OH)6 . hyetograph. A graph of rainfall intensity against time[16].

hygrometer. Apparatus for the direct measurement of the relative humidity in the atmosphere[16].

hygroscopic nucleus. Small solid particles around which water condensates (cloud formation)[16].

hypolimnion. A deep layer in stratified water[16].

hypogean. Pertaining to, or living in, regions deeper than the endogean zone. See also epigean.

87 I Absorption of water by plants. Synonym: capillary percolation. ice. Crystallized water formed below the [16] immiscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are freezing point (H2O) . not readily soluble[22]. 2. The chemical ice cave. 1. Any cave in rock that is partly property of two or more phases that, at filled with ice. The term should not be mutual equilibrium, cannot dissolve applied to glacier caves. The ice may form completely in one another, e.g., oil and [22] in massive icicles and flows, when water . 3. The quality of liquids percolation water from unfrozen rock seeps exhibiting a clear interface where they are in [16] into a cave containing freezing air drawn in contact; not miscible . from outside. This is a seasonal situation in many alpine caves, and if winter freezing impermeable. A characteristic of some exceeds summer melting the ice may geologic materials that limits their ability to become permanent, as in Austria’s transmit significant quantities of water Dachstein and Eisriesenwelt caves. under the pressure differences ordinarily [22] Alternatively water vapor may crystallize found in the subsurface . out as hoar frost, commonly forming large hexagonal ice crystals that line the walls of impervious. Not permitting the flow of a freezing cave, as in Grotte Valerie, water[16]. northern Canada[9]. 2. A cave, generally in lava or limestone, in which the average tem- impervious lens. An impermeable, lens- perature is below 0EC., and which shaped body of sediment in an otherwise ordinarily contains perennial ice. Ice may permeable aquifer[16]. have the form of stalactites, stalagmites, or flowstone[10]. (French.) glacière; (German.) imported water. Water coming from outside Eishöhle; (Greek.) paghoménon spíleon; the ground-water basin under (Italian.) ghiacciata naturale, grotta consideration[16]. ghiacciata; (Russian.) ledjanaja pescera; (Spanish.) cueva helada, cueva de hielo; impound. The collecting of water by (Turkish.) buz ma™aras2; (Yugoslavian.) damming[16]. ledena peƒina, ledenjac˜ a, ledena jama. See glacier cave. inception. The earliest stage of speleogenesis. The start of the inception phase marks the illite. A clay mineral. transition from “rock with no caves” (in the widest sense) to “rock with caves,” and imbibition. 1. The absorption of a fluid, extends through whatever time interval is usually water, by a granular rock or other required for gravitational laminar flow porous material, under the force of capillary conditions to be established in a given attraction, and in the presence of pressure. situation (see gestation and initiation)[9]. 2. Fluid displacement in porous media as a result of capillary forces only[16]. 3. inception horizon. A part of a rock succession that is particularly susceptible to

88 the effects of the earliest cave-forming induced infiltration. An increase in processes and hence is critical to the origin infiltration from a surface water body by the of most nontectonic caves. By virtue of lowering of the original water table[16]. physical, lithological, or chemical deviation from the predominant carbonate facies induced recharge. A method of withdrawing within the sequence, it passively or actively ground water at strategic points to induce favors the localized inception of natural recharge[16]. dissolutional activity[9]. See also inception. indurated rock. A rock that has been incision. See entrenchment. hardened and solidified by diagenetic processes[16]. initiation. The early parts of speleogenesis, generally up to the point of breakthrough infiltrability. The ease of infiltration[16]. from laminar to turbulent flow, at an average conduit diameter of 10 mm. infiltration. The downward entry of water Initiation includes, but is not the same as, into the soil or rock[22]. inception[9]. . A basin in which water is inclinometer. An instrument to measure the spread for recharge. inclination of surfaces[16]. infiltration capacity. The maximum rate at incoherent material. Unconsolidated which a soil or rock is capable of absorbing material[16]. water or limiting infiltration[22]. incrustation. 1. Deposition of a crust (of infiltration gallery. A horizontal conduit for calcite, etc.) upon an object by precipitation the purpose of intercepting ground water[16]. from water oversaturated with salts (calcium bicarbonate, etc.)[20]. 2. The infiltration index. The average rate of deposition of mineral matter by water[16]. infiltration throughout a given rain storm[16]. Synonyms: (French.) incrustation; (German.) Krustenbildung; (Greek.) infiltration rate. 1. The rate at which a soil epiphlioma; (Italian.) incrostazione; or rock under specified conditions absorbs (Russian.) obrazovanie natecnih kor; falling rain, melting snow, or surface water, (Spanish.) incrustción; (Turkish.) kabuk expressed in depth of water per unit time[22]. ba™lama, kabuklaÕma; (Yugoslavian.) 2. A characteristic describing the maximum inkrustacija. rate at which water can enter the soil or rock, under specified conditions, including induced activity. The activity or response of the presence of an excess of water. It has a system that has been subjected to an the dimensions of velocity[22]. artificial excitation[16]. infiltrometer. Apparatus for measuring the amount of infiltration[16].

89 inflow cave, influent cave. Cave into which sandstone aquifer) or where water utilizes a a stream flows or formerly entered[10]. fracture system to pass through otherwise relatively impermeable beds and into the influent stream. See . carbonate aquifer[9]. initial abstraction. The maximum amount of in-situ density. The density of water rainfall absorbed without producing measured at its actual depth[22]. See also runoff[16]. potential density. inject, to. 1. The introduction of pressurized insulated stream. A stream neither receiving fluids into a porous subsurface formation[16]. nor abstracting water from a ground-water 2. The introduction of tracer materials (e.g., body because of an impermeable bed[16]. fluorescent dyes) into the subsurface. insurgence. A term proposed to describe a injection head. A swivel head connector point of inflow for surface water into through which drilling fluid is injected into subsurface conduits. It has not gained wide the drill pipe[16]. usage and is not recommended for use. Diffuse insurgence may be used to describe injection well. Well used for emplacing fluids the slow percolation of water through into the subsurface[22]. overburden and tight pores in the rock. Confluent insurgence may be applied to injection zone. A geological “formation,” water entering the rock via identifiable group of formations, or part of a formation streams sinking into the subsurface while a receiving fluids through a well. confluent insurgence complex would apply to a cluster of insurgences. Abandoned injectivity. The capacity of a well or insurgences is the term applied to inflow formation to accommodate pumped-in points no longer used by infiltrating water. liquid[16]. An overflow insurgence is the term used to describe insurgences utilized only during inlet cave. A cave developed beneath a periods of high flow[12]. swallow hole where a surface watercourse first passes underground in karst intake area, recharge area. The surface area limestone[19]. in which water is absorbed into an aquifer, eventually to reach the zone of input point. Points where water enters an saturation[10]. underground drainage route or aquifer. An obvious type of input point is a surface sink interaquifer flow. The flow that occurs or swallow hole, where allogenic drainage between aquifers through fracture openings has direct access to a conduit system within or through the wellbore[16]. a carbonate aquifer. Less obvious are points where drainage enters a potential interbedded. Pertaining to beds or carbonate conduit-system from adjacent sedimentary material intercalated in a noncarbonate strata (such as a porous parallel fashion into a main stratum[16].

90 interbedding. A bed between layers of discharge of a spring; not confined to karst different material[16]. areas, but not uncommon in them[20]. 2. A stream or river that flows at irregular interception. The abstraction of direct intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) cours rainfall on vegetation cover[16]. d’eau intermittent; (German.) intermittierender Fluss, episodischer interception loss. That part of rainfall periodischer Fluss; (Greek.) dialípon retained by the aerial portion of vegetative potamós; (Italian.) torrente intermittente; cover[16]. (Spanish.) corriente intermitente; (Turkish.) kesintili akarsu; (Yugoslavian.) sus˜ ica, interdigitation. The lateral interlocking of suvaja. Contrast with interrupted river. sedimentary series[16]. intermontane basin. A basin lying between interface. 1. The contact zone between two two mountain ranges[16]. materials of different chemical or physical composition[22]. 2. The contact plane of internal drainage. Drainage in a closed basin two immiscible liquids[16]. and not reaching the sea[16]. It is common in maturely karsted terranes where surface interference. The condition occurring when water bodies are relatively nonexistent. the area of influence of a water well comes into contact with or overlaps that of a interrupted river, interrupted stream. 1. A neighboring well, as when two wells are river that flows for part of its course on the pumping from the same aquifer or are surface, and part underground in caves[20]. located near each other[6]. 2. A stream interrupted over space[16]. 3. A discontinuous stream[16]. Synonyms: interflow. Subsurface runoff[16]. (French.) rivière interrompue; (German.) periodischer Fluss, Karstfluss, intergranular stress. The stress between versickernder Fluss; (Greek.) grains in a solid matrix[16]. thiakekoménos potamós; (Russian.) peresihauchaj reka, syhaja reka; (Spanish.) intergranular voids. Generally primary or rio sumente; (Turkish.) yer yer akan nehir; secondarily enhanced voids within rocks, (Yugoslavian.) sus˜ ica, suvaja, periodiƒka with average dimensions of 0.001 to 0.1 rijeka (reka). See also lost river; mm. Such voids, or pores, may provide intermittent stream. interconnected porosity in many karst rocks and allow early water movement under interstice. 1. An opening in a rock or soil that laminar flow conditions[9]. is not occupied by solid matter[22]. 2. An opening or space that may be occupied by intermittent spring. See spring, intermittent. air, water, or other gaseous or liquid material[22]. Synonymous with void, pore. intermittent stream, intermittent river. 1. See also pore; pore space; porosity; A stream or river that flows only in direct porosity, effective; porosity, primary; response to precipitation or to intermittent porosity, secondary.

91 interstitial ice. Ice occurring below the (Italian.) carso coperto; (Spanish.) karst surface in soil pores[16]. interstradal; (Turkish.) tabakalar aras2 karst. See also buried karst; denuded karst; interstitial water. Water held in small wedge covered karst. like interstices at grain contact[16]. inter-permafrost karst. See permafrost interstratal karst; interstratal karst; sub-permafrost karst. karstification. 1. Features formed by the dissolutional removal of all or part of a intrinsic permeability. See permeability, buried rock unit. Interstratal-karst features intrinsic. are common within highly soluble evaporite rocks such as gypsum and halite, and may inundation. The covering of an area by flood be equally common, but less readily waters[16]. recognized, within the preserved remnants of carbonate successions. Interstratal karst invaded zone. In geophysical well logging, should not be confused with buried karst. the zone in which an appreciable amount of The finest interstratal karst in Britain is the mud filtrate has penetrated[16]. extensive cave development in the limestones beneath the Namurian Millstone invasion. In geophysical well logging, the Grit plateaux of South Wales, where the penetration of a fluid into the porous large collapse dolines in the Millstone Grit medium[16]. are interstratal-karst landforms[9]. 2. The process of karstification of highly soluble invasion depth. The depth to which drilling rocks (e.g., gypsum, anhydrate, and salt) mud filtrate penetrates into a formation[16]. that are overlain by less soluble rocks (e.g., shales), but are still selectively dissolved by inverted siphon. See water trap. circulating ground water[10]. ion. An element or compound that has gained interstratal karst. Karst topography that is or lost an electron so that it is no longer covered by and developed beneath pre-karst neutral electrically and now carries a rock or sediment and may or may not be charge[6]. part of the contemporary landscape. It is younger than its cover and is formed by the ion mobility. The ease with which ions move solution of soluble rock in the subsurface, in an electrolytical solution[16]. most commonly beneath relatively insoluble rock such as sandstone or chert. The term irreducible saturation. The lowest water refers to areal solution rather than to cave saturation obtainable by mechanical development but is also applicable to reduction methods[16]. rejuvenated mantled karst and rejuvenated buried karst. Subsoil karst is transitional to irrigation. The artificial watering of fields for interstratal karst[17]. Synonyms: (French.) crop production[16]. karst sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches Karstphänomen; (Greek.) kalyménon karst;

92 irrigation requirement. The water needed isotropic. Equal properties in all directions. for crop production exclusive of precipitation[16]. isotropic mass. A mass having the same property or properties in all directions[22]. irrigation return flow. The part of artificially applied water that is not consumed by isotropy. The condition in which the property evapotranspiration and that migrates to an or properties of interest are the same in all aquifer or surface water body[22]. directions[22].

irrotation flow. Potential flow or flow with izdan. A general Yugoslavian term for a no rotational component[16]. ground-water reservoir from which ground water may readily be extracted; it is not isobath. A line of equal depth[16]. specifically a karst term[20]. isochrone. A line connecting water levels in observation wells for a given instant in time[16]. isohyet. A line of equal rainfall[16]. isopiestic line. A contour on a piezometric surface connecting points of equal static level[16]. isopleth. A line of equal distance from the point of outflow of a basin[16].

isopotal line. A line of equal infiltration capacity[16].

isotherm. A line of equal temperatures[16].

isotope tracer. Tracer that is an isotope of an element present in the water; it may be artificial (added to water) or natural (present in the water)[20]. Synonyms: (French.) traceur isotopique; (German.) Markierung durch radioaktive Isotopen; (Greek.) isotopicos ichnithetis; (Italian.) tracciante isotopico; (Russian.) izotopnij indikator; (Spanish.) trazador isotópico; (Turkish.) izotop izleyicisi; (Yugoslavian.) izotopni traser.

93 J that can vary considerably from one location to another within the same jama. 1. (Slavic.) Vertical or steeply inclined geologic formation. shaft in limestone, known as abîme or aven in France and as pothole in England. 2. joint-plane cave. A cavity high in relation to Any cave[10]. Synonyms: (French.) jama; width developed along steeply dipping joint [10] (German.) Abgrund, Schacht, Schlund; planes . (Greek.) karstikon phrear; (Italian.) abisso, foiba, pozzo, voragine; (Russian.) karstovij juvenile water. Water that has not been part kolodec, karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima, of the hydrosphere before and is derived pozo, avenc; (Turkish.) obruk; from the earth’s interior[16]. (Yugoslavian.) bezdan, japaga, zvekara, pekel, brezno, prepad, propast. Related to cenote, doline, obruk, pit, shaft, shake hole.

jarosite. A cave mineral — [11] KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 .

joint. 1. A break of geological origin in the continuity of a body of rock occurring either singly, or more frequently in a set or system, but not attended by a visible movement parallel to the surface of the discontinuity. 2. A junction or connection of mechanical elements such as drill pipe[16]. See also fracture.

joint diagram. A diagram constructed by accurately plotting the strike and dip of joints to illustrate the geometrical relationship of the joints within a specified area of geologic investigation. joint or fault set. A group of more or less parallel joints or faults. joint or fault system. A system consisting of two or more joint or fault sets or any group of joints or faults with a characteristic pattern (e.g., radiating, concentric, etc.). joint pattern. A group of joints that form a characteristic geometrical relationship, and

94 K the terms are general, describing the total complex of superficial solution forms found kafkalla. A term used in Cyprus for the on compact pure limestone. Classified into hardened upper portion of crust of several kinds, the most common of which havara[20]. See also caliche; havara. are: Rillenkarren - shallow channels sepa- rated by sharp ridges 2-3 centimeters apart; . A stratified glacial sand and gravel Rinnenkarren - flat-bottomed grooves deposit forming a small, conical hill[16]. several centimeters apart; Kluftkarren - joints enlarged by solution; Spitzkarren - Kamenica, Kamenitza. (German, possibly of large deep grooves extending down from Slavic origin; plural, Kamenice.) A small steep spires or pinnacles; meandering karren depression (a few meters in diameter and (Mäanderkarren) - small winding or several centimeters deep) in a level meandering channels; round karren calcareous surface, enlarged by the solution (Rundkarren) - karren having rounded effect of water collecting between slight channels and intervening rounded ridges, undulations. It is developed vertically at probably reexhumed after formation under first by stagnant water; the steep sides thus soil or peat; Flachkarren - equivalent to the evolved then induce the flow of water, English clint; Bodenkarren - karren formed [10] which flutes the slope and so eventually beneath the soil . Synonyms: (French.) widens the basin. Sediments and low lapiés; (German.) Karren, Schratten; orders of plant life frequently collect on the (Greek.) thaktyloglyphae, amaxotrochiae; even floor, the latter aiding further solution (Italian.) campo solcato; (Russian.) karri; by reactivating the pH of the water[19]. (Spanish.) lapiaz; (Turkish.) erime olu™u; Synonyms: (French.) kamenice; (German.) (Yugoslavian.) škrape, škripovi, griñine, Opferkessel; (Greek.) lakouva, ythrolakkos; ñlebici, s˜ kraplje. (Russian.) bljudoe; (Spanish.) cuenco, tinajita; (Turkish.) erime tavas2; Karren, free. Bare karst; water flows [3] (Yugoslavian.) kamenica, skalne kotlice, unhindered over the limestone surface . scalba, skalnica. See also solution pan; water pot. Karrenfeld; Karren field. (German.) An area of limestone dominated by karren[10]. kankar; kunkar. (Australian.) See caliche. These appear as bare karst and consist of the sum of exposed and half-exposed Kannelierungen. (German.) See karren, occasionally also of covered karren Rillenkarren. that have become exposed. They range in size from a few hectares to a few hundred [3] kaolin. A common clay mineral[16]. square kilometers . Synonym: (Turkish.) erime olu™u alan2. See also clint; grike. Karren. (German.) Channels or furrows, caused by solution on massive bare karst. (Internationally used term, originally limestone surfaces; they vary in depth from the German form of the Slavic word “kras” a few millimeters to more than a meter and or “krš,” meaning a bleak waterless place; it are separated by ridges. In modern usage, is the German name for a district east of

95 having such terrane.) A terrane, (Greek.) phragmenon karst; (Spanish.) generally underlain by limestone or karst cerrado; (Turkish.) setli karst; dolomite, in which the topography is chiefly (Yugoslavian.) zagaceni krs˜ (kras), zajezeni formed by the dissolving of rock, and which kras. may be characterized by sinkholes, sinking streams, closed depressions, subterranean karst base level. Level below which drainage, and caves[10]. The term karst karstification does not or has not taken unites specific morphological and place[10]. Synonyms: base level of hydrological features in soluble (mostly karstification[20]; (French.) niveau de base carbonate) rocks. Morphological features karstique; (German.) Korrosionsniveau; include karren, dolinas (sinkholes), jamas, (Greek.) basis apokarstoseos, or better ponors, uvalas, poljes, caves, caverns, etc. “patoma apokarstoseos”; (Italian.) livello di Hydrological features include basins of base della attività carsica; (Spanish.) nivel closed drainage, lost rivers, estavelles, de base kárstico; (Turkish.) karstlaÕma vauclusian springs, submarine springs, more tabani; (Russian.) bazis karsta; or less individualized underground streams, (Yugoslavian.) baza krškog procesa, baza and incongruity of surface and underground karstifikacije, baza zakrasevanja. divides. Karst is understood to be the result of natural processes in and on the earth’s karst breccia. See collapse breccia; solution crust caused by solution and leaching of breccia. limestones, dolomites, gypsum, halite, and other soluble rocks[20]. Synonyms: karst bridge. A natural bridge or arch in (French.) karst; (German.) Karst; (Greek.) limestone[10]. karst; (Italian.) carso, carsismo; (Russian.) karst; (Spanish.) karst; (Turkish.) karst; karst couvert. (French.) See covered karst. (Yugoslavian.) krš, kras. See also buried karst; cone karst; covered karst; exhumed karst fens. 1. Marshes developed in sinkhole karst; Halbkugelkarst; Holokarst; terrain; swampy solution fens[10]. 2. Marsh Kegelkarst; Merokarst; microkarst; naked or swamp formed by plants overgrowing a karst; paleokarst; pseudokarst; relict karst; karst lake or seepage. Synonyms: (French.) Spitzkegelkarst; subjacent karst; syngenetic marais karstique; (German.) Karstsumpf; karst; thermokarst; tower karst. (Greek.) karstikon elos; (Italian.) palude o acquitrinio carsico; (Russian.) karstovoje karst aquifer. See aquifer, karst. boloto; (Spanish.) laguna karstica; (Turkish.) karst batakl2™2; (Yugoslavian.) karst barré. (French.) 1. A karst terrane of lokva, kal. limited area completely surrounded by rocks of low permeability[10]. 2. Term for karst fenster. See karst window. karst areas whose lower part is enclosed and bordered by more or less impervious karst fossile. (French.) See buried karst. rocks which impedes ground-water flow out of the karst area. Synonyms: (French.) karst hydrology. 1. The branch of hydrology karst barré; (German.) Riegelkarst; dealing with hydrological phenomena on

96 and in regions and areas composed totally karst nu. (French.) See exposed karst. or in part of rocks that are soluble in water, such as limestones, dolomites, gypsum, and karst plain. 1. Large flat surface in karst halite[20]. 2. The drainage phenomena of formed by erosion and corrosion[20]. 2. A karstified limestones, dolomites, and other plain on which closed depressions, slowly soluble rocks[10]. Synonyms: subterranean drainage, and other karst (French.) hydrologie karstique; (German.) features may be developed. Also called Hydrologie des ; (Greek.) karstike “”[10]. Synonyms: (French.) hydrologia; (Italian.) idrologia carsica; plateau karstique; (German.) Karstebene, (Russian.) gidrologija karsta; (Spanish.) Karstrandebene, Korrosionsfläche; hidrología kárstica; (Turkish.) karst (Greek.) karstikon pedhion; (Italian.) piano hidrolojisi; (Yugoslavian.) krška (kraska) carsico; (Russian.) karstovaja ravnina; hidrologijâ. (Spanish.) llanura kárstica; (Turkish.) karst ovas2; (Yugoslavian.) krs˜ka zaravan, površ, karst inselberg. A residual hill of soluble kras˜ ki ravnik. See also marginal polje. rock in a polje[20]. Synonyms: (French.) inselberg karstique; (German.) karst polje. See polje. Karstinselberg (Hum, Mogote); (Greek.) karstiki martyres lophi; (Italian.) rilievo karst pond. Closed depression in a karst area carsico residuo; (Russian.) karstovij containing standing water[10]. ostanec; (Spanish.) relieve kástico residual; (Turkish.) karst tepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. karst river. 1. A river (or stream) flowing in a karstic area, either on the surface of the karst lake. 1. Lakes on karst surface, ground or through an underground cave frequently connected with ground water; system[20]. 2. A river that originates from a lakes in subterranean hollows (caves and karst spring[10]. Synonyms: (French.) caverns)[20]. 2. A large area of standing rivière karstique; (German.) Karstfluss; water in extensive closed depression in (Greek.) karstikós potamós; (Italian.) corso limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) lac de d’acqua carsico; (Russian.) karstovaja karst; (German.) Karstsee; (Greek.) karstiki reka; (Spanish.) río kárstico; (Turkish.) limni; (Italian.) lago carsico; (Russian.) karst nehiri; (Yugoslavian.) krs˜ ka rijeka, karstovoe ozero; (Spanish.) lago kãrstico; kraska reka. (Turkish.) karstik gölü; (Yugoslavian.) krško (krasko) jezero. karst seep. Place where karst ground water oozes out at the surface of the ground; karst margin plain. A plain generally on sometimes overgrown and then forming a limestone between higher country of karst fen[20]. Synonyms: (French.) suitement limestone on one side and of less pervious karstique; (German.) Karstgrundwaßer- rocks on the other, but having a cover of Austritt; (Greek.) karstiki thiaroi; impervious detritus, which allows surface (Russian.) visacivanie karstovih vod; drainage[10]. (Spanish.) zona de absorción; (Turkish.) karst s2z2nt2s2; (Yugoslavian.) mo…ilo. karst noyé. (French.) See drowned karst.

97 karst shaft. A vertical or steeply sided collapse of a cavern roof[10]. Synonyms: natural opening a few tens to a few hundred (French.) vallée karstique; (German.) meters deep, formed by solution or erosion Karsttal, Karstgasse; (Greek.) Karstik2 of vertical or subvertical fractures or kilás; (Italian.) valle carsica; (Russian.) fissures by downflowing surface water. karstovaja dolina; (Spanish.) valle kárstico; Such a pit, formed from above, may (Turkish.) karst vadisi; (Yugoslavian.) connect with a chimney formed from below. krška (kraska) dolina. Synonyms: (French.) karst shaft; (German.) Schacht, Schaft; (Greek.) karstikós lákkos; karst vert. See subsoil karst. (Italian.) voragine, inghiottitoio; (Russian.) karstovaja sahta; (Spanish.) sima; karst water. Water discharged from karst (Turkish.) karst bacas2; (Yugoslavian.) springs that possesses characteristics, jama. Related to dolina, jama, obruk, pit. primarily that of calcium content, indicating solution during the passage of that water karst sous-jacent. (French.) See interstratal across and through karst limestone. That karst. part of karst spring water which is derived from watercourses sinking into the rock karst spring. See spring, karst. (and therefore originates mainly on impermeable rock) is said to be allogenic; karst topography. Topography dominated that which derives from precipitation over by features of solutional origin[10]. the karst area alone is said to be Geomorphically, the dominant features autochthonous - the distinction between usually but not always obviously present are resurgence and exsurgence waters[19]. sinkholes and caves. In tropical regions, karst towers (e.g., mogotes) may also karst well. Term applied to features that dominate the landscape. result from the solution enlargement and rounding of joints (grikes) to produce karst valley. 1. Valleys in karst are normally cylindrical pits[8]. See also grike; joint. distinctive because of the lack of integrated surface drainage. Most are either blind karst window. 1. Depression revealing a part (due to being closed where the drainage of a flowing across its sinks underground), headless or pocket floor, or an unroofed part of a cave. 2. A (where a river emerges from a spring), or small natural bridge or arch that can be seen dry (where surface flow has been lost through[10]. 3. A through opening in natural through underground capture). The limestone walls, formed by the joining of exception is the allogenic valley, where a karst as a result of dissolution river completely traverses a karst, normally processes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) fenêtre because underground conduits at or below karstique; (German.) Karstfenster; (Greek.) valley floor level are immature. Fine karstikon parathyron; (Italian.) finestra examples of allogenic karst valleys are carsica; (Russian.) karstovoe okno; Dove Dale in the and France’s (Spanish.) dolina en ventana; (Turkish.) Tarn Gorge[9]. 2. Elongated solution valley karst penceresi; (Yugoslavian.) krsko in limestone[20]. 3. Valley produced by (krasko) okno.

98 karstic. Occasionally used as the adjective karst characterized by numerous, closely form of karst[10] and pertaining to karst spaced cone-, hemispherical-, or landforms or processes[19]. tower-shaped hills having intervening closed depressions and narrow steep-walled karst karstification. 1. The processes of solution valleys or passageways[10]. See also cockpit and infiltration by water, mainly chemical karst; cone karst; Halbkugelkarst; tower but also mechanical, whereby the surface karst. features and subterranean drainage network of a karstland are developed to form a karst keld. See rising. topography, including such surface features as dolines, karren, and mogotes and such keyhole passage; keyhole. 1. This very subsurface features as caves and shafts. An descriptive name derives from the cross- area currently or formerly undergoing sectional shape of a cave passage that karstification, and thus characterized by consists of a phreatic tube with a vadose karst landforms, is said to be karstified[19]. canyon cut in its floor. It is the classic 2. The process by which karst is formed. example of a two-phase cave passage that The term has been given a wide range of originated and began its development in the meaning, from almost a synonym for phreas and was then modified by vadose corrosion of soluble rocks by water to a entrenchment. As this sequence is the result term comprising all processes responsible of water table lowering by normal surface for the development of karst features erosion, keyholes are common. Some including, besides corrosion, such keyholes are so small that the lower slot is phenomena as mechanical erosion, jointing, impassable and the caver has to squeeze and faulting[20]. Synonyms: (French.) along the upper tube; others are very large. karstification; (German.) Verkarstung; Spectacularly long is the 5 km of keyhole (Greek.) apokarstosis; (Italian.) forming the Fissures in , carsificazione; (Russian.) Canada. A tube 6m in diameter tops an karstoobrazovanie; (Spanish.) irregular tapering canyon 15 m deep that karstificación; (Turkish.) karstlaÕma; must be traversed on sloping ledges at mid- (Yugoslavian.) okršavanje, zakrasevanje, level[9]. 2. A small passage or opening in a karstifikacija. cave; in cross section, rounded at the top, constricted in the middle, and rectangular or karstland. A region characterized by karst flared out below[10]. They appear as topography[10]. keyholes when viewed in cross section. They are formed when underground Karstrandebene. (German.) See karst streams flowing in a tubular passage begin margin plain. downcutting to form a canyon passage[15]. See also canyon passage; passage; tubular katavothron. (Greek.) A closed depression passage; vertical shaft. or swallow hole[10]. klinkenberg effect. The slip of gas molecules Kegelkarst. (German.) A general term used at the pore wall giving apparently higher to describe several types of tropical humid

99 permeability than would be obtained by liquid measurements[16].

Kluft. See aisle.

Kluftkarren. (German.) See grike. knobstone. Speleothem, larger, more pronounced, and more widely separated than cave coral[10]. knots. Various methods of securing or tying ropes or webbing material together by cavers[13]. See also prusik knot; prusiking. kras; krš. A slavic word meaning “bleak, waterless place,” from which the term “karst” is derived[10]. See also karst.

Kugelkarst. See Halbkugelkarst. kunker. See caliche.

100 L land pan. An evaporation pan used to measure evaporation from a land surface; laboratory coefficient of permeability, the pan is usually mounted at the land [16] standard coefficient of permeability. surface . Permeability defined for controlled temperature conditions (60EF) as gallons landslide. The sliding down of earth and rock per day per square foot (gpd/ft2) under a on a slope[16]. unit gradient[16]. See also Meinzer unit. land subsidence. The subsidence of a surface labyrinth. See network; maze cave. due to a loss of support[16]. Often occurs as a result of overpumping underlying aquifers lacustrine formation. A sedimentary or as a result of mining activities. In karst formation of lacustrine origin. terranes, subsidence can occur as a result of man-made changes to the natural lag time. A time lapse between the onset of a hydrologic system (ground-water given event and the produced results[16]. withdrawals or storm-water injection) or as a consequence of the natural dissolution lagoon. A body of relatively shallow water process. Subsidences may be sudden or near a sea shore, with or without a direct progress slowly over time. connection to the sea[16]. land surface. That part of the lithosphere [16] lake. 1. As used in speleology, a body of usually not covered by water . standing water too deep to walk across[10]. 2. A body of fresh inland water[16]. land-use. A particular utilization of a land surface especially with respect to its [16] laminar flow. Flow in which the head loss is influence on the hydrologic cycle . proportional to the first power of the velocity[22]. Water flowing in a laminar lapiés. (French; sometimes spelled lapies or manner will have streamlines that remain lapiaz.) Term for a region with outcrops of distinct and the flow direction at every small regular pillars, cones, or blocks of [20] point remains unchanged with time. carbonate rock . Synonyms: (French.) Synonymous with streamline flow, viscous lapies; (German.) Karren; (Greek.) lapiaz, flow. lenar; (Italian.) lapia, solcato, carregiato; (Russian.) karri; (Spanish.) lenar; lamination. The layering or very thin bedding (Turkish.) erime olu—u, lapya; of sedimentary rocks[16]. (Yugoslavian.) škrapa, griñine, bridine, ñlebici. See karren, rock-, grikes. landfill. A general term indicating a disposal site for refuse, dirt from excavations, junk[6], and hazardous wastes. lateral . A glacial deposit at the flank of a glacier, often constituted by debris [16] land-form. A topographic feature of the from valley walls . earth’s surface[16].

101 laterite. A tropical ferruginous clay soil[16]. solution of the rock by circulating water and thus is not a true karst[20]. Synonyms: lateritic soil. A red-colored soil with high (French.) pseudo-karst; (German.) iron oxide content[16]. (Vulkanischer Karst), Lava-Karst, Pseudokarst; (Greek.) pseudokarst; lava bed. A lava flow of considerable areal (Italian.) pseudocarsismo vulcanico; extent and relatively small thickness[16]. (Spanish.) volcanokarst (general), tubo volcanico (tube, tunnel), jameo (collapse , . 1. A cave that formed structure), malpaís (topographic feature in a partly cooled, broadly basaltic or similar to lapiés); (Turkish.) lav karst2, a phonolitic lava, not by erosion but by ldat2c2 karst. See also lava cave; molten material flowing away. In most pseudokarst. cases, an initial active lava conduit is formed when a flowing surface lava stream layer. A sheetlike deposit of sediment[16]. has a roof grow over it by accretion of Bed or stratum of rock[16]. chilled solidified material. Insulated inside its conduit, the lava can continue to flow leachate. 1. Materials removed by the process and develop an airspace above it, which is of leaching[22]. 2. A liquid that has preserved as an explorable cave when percolated through soil rock or waste and completely cooled. Most lava caves are has extracted dissolved or suspended just very long tubes, though branching and materials[22]. multiple levels may occur as dictated by flow patterns and re-invasions of older leaching. 1. The removal of materials in tubes. On Kilauea , Hawaii, the solution from soil, rock, or waste[22]. 2. is 47 km long and descends Separation or dissolving out of soluble 888m, but its tubes, mostly 5m in diameter, constituents from a porous medium by lie less than 20 m beneath the sloping percolation of water[22]. surface of the lava[9]. 2. A cave in a lava flow, generally formed by gas blistering the leak. An opening in an aquiclude that permits surface or by lava flowing out from beneath penetration of water from other formations a solidified crust, forming a tube or tun- into the main aquifer[16]. nel[10]. 3. An empty tubular supply channel from which liquid lava has drained[16]. See leakage. 1. The flow of water from one also lava karst; pseudokarst. hydrogeologic unit to another. The leakage may be natural, as through semi-impervious lava karst. A nonkarst term. Subsurface confining layer, or manmade, as through an openings formed in lava flows due to uncased well[22]. 2. The natural loss of outflow of liquid lava from beneath a water from artificial structures as a result of solidified crust or due to gas blisters. hydrostatic pressure[22]. Tubes or tunnels are formed with such pseudokarst features as lava stalactites and leakage factor. The factor describing leakage also collapse structures and basins of closed flow into or out of a leaky aquifer[16]. drainage. Lava karst does not arise through

102 leakance. 1. The ratio K’/b’, in which K’ and lime. Calcium oxide, CaO; used loosely and b’ are the vertical hydraulic conductivity incorrectly in referring to limestone[10]. and the thickness, respectively, of the confining beds[22]. 2. The rate of flow lime sink. See sinkhole. across a unit (horizontal) area of a semipervious layer into (or out of) an limestone. Sedimentary rock containing at aquifer under one unit of head difference least 50% calcium carbonate by weight. across this layer. Synonymous with The purer limestones consist almost entirely coefficient of leakage[22]. of calcite; less pure rocks may be referred to as, for example, muddy limestone. Some leaky aquifer. Aquifers, whether artesian or limestones are porous with diffuse water-table, that lose or gain water through permeability; these rarely become truly adjacent less permeable layers[22]. cavernous, though some fissure flow may occur. Where ground-water flow in less lecontite. A cave mineral — porous rocks is restricted to bedding-related [11] (NH4,K)Na(SO4)"2H2O . fissures and secondary fractures it can, even when moving very slowly, corrode the leucophor. One of a family of optical almost entirely soluble rock and lead to true brightening agents that have been used with cave development[9]. some degree of success in water-tracing experiments. It has no color, but is readily limestone pavement. 1. A level, or gently detected by its distinctive fluorescence inclined, bare limestone surface scored and under ultraviolet light[9]. fretted by karren. The stripping of soil or cover rocks to expose the bare rock . An artificial bank to prevent overbank pavement is a glacial process, and the flow of a river[16]. development of the karren — both the dissolutional enlargement of the joints and level. 1. Within a cave, a group of passages also the dissolutional carving of runnels — developed in the same horizontal plane[10]. is largely postglacial. Limestone pavements 2. The altitudinal relation of a cave floor to are characteristic features of glaciokarst and an outside surface[10]. 3. The surface of occur extensively in the north of England, in water in a well or standing reservoir[16]. of in Ireland, and on many high alpine limestones[9]. 2. A bare lift. The vertical pumping distance between plane surface of limestone, parallel to the the water level in a well to the land bedding, commonly divided into blocks surface[16]. (clints, Flachkarren) by solutionally widened joints (grikes, Kluftkarren), and pitted by light hole. (Jamaican.) 1. A hole in the roof solution pans[10]. 3. A glaciokarstic of a cave through which light enters; landform, produced on a glacially planed sometimes a nonfunctioning swallow limestone surface that has subsequently hole[20]. 2. Fossil or abandoned swallow become dissected into blocks (clints or hole[10]. dalles) by solution enlargement of vertical joints[19]. 3. Horizontal or sloping platforms

103 of bare limestone whose surface usually lithostratigraphy. A formal naming system coincides with bedding-plane partings of the that allows the description of rock rock; often eroded into clint and grikes rock successions in terms of recognizable defined forms[20]. Synonyms: (French.) plateforme units on a local scale. The units, which calcaire; (German.) Kalk Plattform, comprise supergroups, groups, formations, Limestone Pavement; (Greek.) karstikon members, and beds in decreasing order of lithostroton; (Spanish.) lapiaz size, are described on the basis of entrecruzado; (Turkish.) kireçtaÕ2 observable characteristics[9]. döÕemesi. See also clints; grikes; Karrenfeld. littoral zone. The coastal strip where rocks that are above sea level are in contact with limestone sink. See sinkhole. rocks that are generally below sea level. Where suitable aquifer conditions occur . The study of lakes[16]. across the littoral zone, notably around relatively young carbonate islands, fresh line of seepage. See seepage line. ground water interfaces with saline ground water at the halocline and dissolutional lineation. The parallel orientation of processes are enhanced by mixing water structural features that are lines rather than and, possibly, by microbial effects[9]. planes. Some examples are parallel orientation of the long dimensions of live cave. Cave in which there is river action minerals, long axes of pebbles, striae on or active deposition of speleothems. slickensides, and cleavage-bedding plane Compare active cave[10]. intersections. LNAPL. Abbreviation for light nonaqueous liquid. An incompressible or nearly phase liquid. Liquids falling into this incompressible fluid. category have specific gravities that are less than water (the specific gravity for water is lithologic factor. The factor influencing usually taken to be 1), are relatively composition, texture, and sequence of rock immiscible with water, and tend to migrate types[16]. downwards through the vadose and to float on top of the water table. See also LNAPL; lithology. 1. The physical characteristic of a immiscible; NAPL. rock, including composition, grain size, texture, degree of cementation (or loam. Calcareous clay[16]. lithification) and structure, that determine the rock type[9]. 2. The physical properties localized circulation. Circulation in karst and aspect of a rock[16]. aquifers in which the water moves in certain preferred zones and does not occupy all or lithosol. A rocky soil[16]. most of the openings below this level[10]. Synonyms: (French.) circulation lithosphere. That part of the earth’s crust préfèrentielle; (German.) Örtlich begrenzte containing solid rocks[16]. Karstwaßer-Zirkulation; (Italian.)

104 circolazione carsica parziale; (Spanish.) subsurface voids that are sometimes circulación localizada; (Turkish.) yersel intersected during a drilling program. dolaÕim; (Yugoslavian.) lokalizirana (lokalna) cirkulacija. Compare diffuse lost river. 1. A surface river or stream circulation. flowing onto or over karst that then disappears completely underground through lodgement till. Glacial till deposited from a swallow hole (ponor) and which may or slowly melting ice at the base of a may not rise again and flow as a resurgent glacier[16]. surface river or stream[20]. 2. In a karst region, a surface stream that enters an loess. Fine-grained and poorly consolidated underground course[10]. Synonyms: windblown sediment, mainly of silt. Great (French.) perte de rivière; (German.) thicknesses of loess are found in areas Flußversickerung, Flußchwinde; (Greek.) marginal to hot and cold , where the chanomenos potamos; (Russian.) prevailing wind deposits fine dust particles iscezajuscaja reka; (Spanish.) rio sumente; blown from the desert basins or out of (Turkish.) kay2p nehir; (Yugoslavian.) glaciofluvial sediments. Loess is a common ponornica, ponikalnica. See also allogenic component of soils on limestones. ponornica; sinking stream. Compare Large numbers of artificial caves have been intermittent river. excavated in the hillsides of soft loess in central China[9]. lower confining bed. An impermeable bed underlying an aquifer[16]. longitudinal fault. A fault having the same direction of strike as the surrounding lower course. The part of a water course near strata[16]. a discharge point[16].

loosest packing. The three-dimensional low flow. The lowest sustaining flow during arrangement of particles with the highest base runoff conditions of a river[16]. possible void volume per unit cell[16]. Lycopodium spores. 1. The spores of a club losing stream. A stream or reach of a stream moss, with individual structures about 0.03 in which water flows from the stream bed mm in diameter. Easily transported by and into the ground[22]. In karst terranes, losing almost indestructible in cave water, the streams may slowly sink into fractures or spores can be dyed a variety of colors, and completely disappear down a ponor. offer a valuable water-tracing technique. Synonym: influent stream. See also ponor; Preparation and collection of the spores is stream sink. very tedious, and the method lacks the convenience of using simple dyes[9]. 2. lost circulation. The result of drilling fluid Spores of Lycopodium clavatum, which can escaping from a borehole into the formation be used in natural or dyed color as a label in by way of crevices within the formation[6]. studying ground-water movement in karst It is a common occurrence in most karst areas[10]. aquifers because of the existence of large

105 lysimeter. A device for measuring percolation and leaching losses from a column of soil under controlled conditions[22].

106 M manometer. A pressure measuring device for determining the hydraulic head developed [16] Ma. Internationally accepted abbreviation for by a flowing fluid . million years, commonly applied to measurements of geological time. This mantled karst. Karst topography that is abbreviation is currently used in preference wholly or partly covered by a relatively thin to My[9]. veneer of post-karst rock or sediment and is part of the contemporary landscape[17]. See macrokarst. Karst area with large also buried karst; covered karst. morphological features. The term is not easily defined because it lacks limits[20]. marble. 1. Metamorphosed and recrystallized Synonym; (Italian.) merocarsismo. carbonate rock that is generally capable of Compare microkarst. supporting cave development. For example, much of the Antro del Corchia in macropore. A pore with dimensions such that Italy and many caves in the South Nordland [9] capillary forces become less important area of Norway have formed in marble . 2. during flow[16]. Limestone recrystallized and hardened by heat and pressure. 3. Commercially, any [10] magnesian limestone. Common but loose limestone that will take a high polish . synonym for dolomitic limestone or dolomite rock. The magnesian limestone of marginal polje. 1. Flat plain surrounded by northern England is a rock sequence of higher limestone country on all except one Permian age that includes a locally variable side, which consists of impermeable ridges number of beds of dolomitic limestone[9]. or hills. Such a feature is normally found on the edge of a karst area or region[20]. 2. [11] Flat limestone plain that is surrounded by magnesite. A cave mineral — MgCO3 . higher country but is bordered on one side [10] malachite. A cave mineral — by impervious rock . Synonyms: [11] (French.) polje marginal; (German.) Cu2(CO3)(OH)2 . Randpolje, Semipolje; (Greek.) manatial. (Spanish.) Spring. See also spring. perithoriakón ‘polje’; (Italian.) polje marginale; (Spanish.) polje marginal; Manning equation. An equation used to (Turkish.) kenar gölova; (Yugoslavian.) compute the velocity of uniform flow in rubno polje, robno polje. See Randpolje. open channel: V=1.486/n R2/3 S1/2, where V Compare blind valley. is the mean velocity of flow (in cfs units), R is the hydraulic radius in feet, S is the slope marine water. Ocean water having invaded [16] of the channel or sine of the slope angle, coastal aquifers . and n is the Manning roughness coefficient[1]. See also Chézy equation; marker bed. A bed with characteristic Froude number; Reynolds number. features that can be followed over large areas for identification purposes[16].

107 marl. Unconsolidated sedimentary rock to a depth of over 1000 m, down the consisting largely of calcium carbonate and dipping limestone beds, thus emphasizing clay; usage varies from calcareous clay to the local dominance of stratigraphical over earthy limestone, and in some parts of the topographical factors[9]. United States, the term has been used for any unconsolidated sedimentary rock match point. A common point in the containing fossil shells[10]. superposition of a type curve over measured data in aquifer test analyses. mass curve. A graph of cumulative values of a hydrological quantity against time[16]. matric potential. The energy required to extract water from a porous medium to mass density. Mass per unit volume of a overcome the capillary and adsorptive substance[16]. forces[22]. mass flowmeter. A measuring device for matrix. The solid framework of a porous mass flow rates[16]. system[22]. massive structure. A homogenous structure maximum basin relief. The elevation without any oriented features[16]. difference between basin mouth and highest point within a basin perimeter[16]. master cave. Best defined as a low-level trunk streamway cave with many maze cave. A cave with an essentially tributaries. The old concept of the master horizontal network of interconnecting and cave being formed at the water table should mainly contemporaneous passage loops. be disregarded. The Leck Fell Master Three broad types of maze cave have been Cave, in the Yorkshire Dales, is 2 km long, described — anastomotic, network, and partly a vadose canyon, partly a drained spongework — and these may be phreatic tube, and partly a submerged tube. subdivided on the basis of how they Part of it therefore lies below the water developed: by slow-moving water, table while elsewhere its presence controls restricted to a confined artesian aquifer, or the water table. The French equivalent, by water that is ponded from backflooding. “collecteur,” is more descriptive of the A mechanism of potentially great master cave’s true role. The depth to a importance, particularly in the context of currently active master cave is dictated by the inception of network maze caves, is interactions among local topography, multiple, diffuse input from adjacent, stratigraphical factors, and geological permeable but noncavernous rocks. structure. In the low hill karst of England Spectacular joint-guided maze caves such and Kentucky, active master caves lie at as Knock Fell Caverns and the Devis Hole depths of around 100 m, but in Monte Mine Caverns occur in the thin Yoredale Canin, Italy, and the Hautla Plateau, limestones of the northern Pennines, but the Mexico, they lie at depths of 1000 m. The most extensive mazes are in the Black Hills collecteur of the Gouffre Berger, France, is of Dakota, USA (including Jewel Cave) and met just 250 m down but can be followed in the Ukrainian gypsum karst (including

108 Optimisticeskaja)[9]. See also maze cave meander belt. A zone within which pattern. meandering of a stream occurs[16].

maze cave pattern. A cave system that meandering karren. These are small grooves consists of a labyrinth of intersecting cut directly into the rock surface, generally passages of rather uniform character that a few centimeters wide and deep. Their form closed loops. See also anastomotic size remains the same or decreases cave pattern; maze cave; network cave downslope and they usually exhibit small pattern; spongework cave pattern. meanders with typical undercut slopes and slip-off slopes. They frequently appear in mean deviation. A linear mean of absolute the bottom of larger grooves such as deviations[16]. rinnenkarren[3]. See also wall karren; humus-water grooves. Synonym: mean value. The statistical average or (German.) Mäanderkarren. measure of central tendency[16]. meander niche. A conical or crescent-shaped meander. 1. Overdeveloped and self- opening in the wall of a cave, formed by the exaggerated bend in a stream course either downward and lateral erosion of a stream on the surface or underground, caused by on the floor of a passage[10]. more erosion on the outside than on the inside of a bend through natural wash of the measuring flume. An artificial channel used flow. Undergound meanders commonly for discharge measurements. originate within bedding-plane-guided elements of the phreas, where a single measuring . A device used to measure dominant tube has gathered drainage from flow rates indirectly through a weir head. the surrounding area. Following uplift and the onset of vadose conditions, any stream mechanical ascender. A mechanical device that utilizes the meandering tube incises that is the same as an ascender, but is used rapidly and the imposed meander course is to clarify the use of a mechanical device entrenched into the underlying rocks. Such instead of a rope ascender knot[13]. See also incision or entrenchment produces ascender. characteristic tall, narrow, twisting vadose canyons, to such an extent that the French mechanical cover. A mechanical covering of describe them as “meandres.” Canyons may a free water surface to prevent evaporation. meander more at their lower levels because of enlargement during incision[9]. 2. A mechanical dispersion. The process whereby loop-like bend in a river due to lateral solutes are mechanically mixed during erosion activities[16]. 3. In a cave, an advective transport caused by the velocity arcuate curve in a channel formed by lateral variations at the microscopic level. shifting of a cave stream[10]. See ceiling Synonymous with hydraulic dispersion[22]. meander; meander niche. mechanical dispersion, coefficient. The component of mass transport flux of solutes

109 caused by velocity variations at the in addition to some karstic features[10]. 2. microscopic level. Synonymous with Karst developed in soluble rocks retaining convective diffusion[22]. considerable surface drainage. Synonyms: (French.) merokarst; (Turkish.) yar2 karst. median. A value dividing frequency of Contrast perfectly formed Holokarst. varieties into two equal portions[16]. Compare causse.

medicinal spring. See spring, medicinal. mesh. 1. An opening in a sieve screen[16]. 2. Number of openings per inch[16]. medium sand. Grain particle with a diameter of 0.25 to 0.5 mm[16]. mesophyte. A plant growing under intermediate moisture conditions[16]. Meinzer unit. A measure of hydraulic conductivity as gpd/ft2 under a unit meteoric water. Water recently involved in hydraulic gradient[16]. atmospheric circulation[16]. melanterite. A cave mineral — meteorology. The science dealing with all [11] FeSO4"7H2O . physical phenomena occurring in the atmosphere[16]. melting. The passage from the solid to the liquid state due to temperature increases[16]. Mexican onyx. See onyx marble. melting point. The temperature at which a micrite. A microscopic texture. An solid substance is transformed into its liquid abbreviation of “microcrystalline calcite state[16]. ooze,” which refers to precipitated finely crystalline carbonate sediments in grains meltwater. Water derived from the melting of from 1 to 4 microns in diameter[20]. snow pack or of a glacier[16]. Synonyms: (French.) micrite; (Greek.) micrite; (Italian.) micrite; (Spanish.) meniscus. A free surface or interface formed micrita; (Turkish.) mikrit; (Yugoslavian.) by liquid in a capillary tube[16]. mikrit. See biomicrite, peloid. mercury column. A cylindrical bore in a microkarren. Very small dissolutional manometer filled with mercury[16]. channels, commonly 1-3 mm across; parallel, convergent, or randomly mercury injection method. A measurement intersecting on a limestone surface. Though of porosity by mercury injection into a found in all climatic regions, they are most sample[16]. conspicuous in semiarid and periglacial environments, where dissolutional processes merokarst. 1. Defined by Cvijiƒ to indicate are minimal and very slow. The random imperfect karst topography as found on patterns of some microkarren may be due to thin, impure, or chalky limestone where the effects of condensation water[9]. surface drainage and dry valleys are present

110 microkarst. 1. Karst area with small mirabilite. The natural white mineral form of [9] morphological features. This term is not hydrated sodium sulfate, Na2SO4"10H2O , easily applied because it lacks limits[20]. 2. which may grow as cave flowers or in Karst topography in which all surficial various other forms similar to those of features are small; an area dominated by gypsum. minor karst features[10]. Compare macrokarst. Mischungskorrosion. (German.) Dissolution of calcite (and hence of limestone) by microspar. A microscopic texture. Mosaic ground water that is derived from the of tiny (4 to 10 micron diameters) clear mixing of two different waters that were calcite crystal[20]. Synonyms: (French.) originally saturated with carbon dioxide but microsparite; (Greek.) mikrosparítis had reached saturation under differing (mikroskopikón, mosaikón kristállon); carbon dioxide partial pressures. The (Italian.) microsparite; (Spanish.) resultant mixture is undersaturated and microesparita; (Turkish.) mikrospar. capable of further calcite dissolution, because the relationship between calcite middens. Accumulations of animal droppings solubility and carbon dioxide partial other than guano and often found in caves; pressure is nonlinear[9]. may be solidified[13]. See also cave guano; guano cave; coprolite. miscible. 1. Two or more liquids that are mutually soluble (i.e., they will dissolve in migration. The movement of water, each other)[22]. 2. The chemical property of contaminants, or other fluids in the geologic two or more phases that, when brought substratum, mostly by natural causes[16]. together, have the ability to mix and form one phase[22]. mine drainage. Waters coming from or passing through surface or subsurface mine miscible displacement. 1. The mutual mixing workings[16]. and movement of two fluids that are soluble in each other[22]. 2. The displacement of a mine water. Water accumulating in a mine. fluid saturating a porous medium by another fluid completely miscible with the first minerals. Mineral components of a rock, fluid[16]. Synonymous with miscible-phase often in macrocrystalline form[16]. displacement. . See spring, mineral. mixing length. The length over which mixing occurs, especially of momentum in turbulent mining of ground water. The permanent flow[16]. depletion of ground-water reserves[16]. mixture corrosion. See Mischungskorrosion. minor karst features. See karren; rill; solution pan. mode. The most frequently occurring variate in a frequency distribution[16].

111 model. 1. A conceptual, mathematical, or solid particles expressed as moisture physical system obeying certain specified volume percentage in a given volume of conditions, whose behavior is used to porous medium[22]. 2. The gravimetric understand the physical system to which it water vapor content of air[16]. See also is analogous in some way[22]. 2. A water content. conceptual description and the associated mathematical representation of a system, moisture deficiency. The quantity of water subsystem, components, or condition that is required to restore moisture to field used to predict chances from a baseline capacity in a desiccated soil[16]. state as a function of internal and/or external stimuli and as a function of time moisture equivalent. The percentage of and space[22]. 3. A simplified system water retained in a soil sample 1 cm thick bearing some physical similarity to a after it has been saturated and subjected to prototype[16]. a centrifugal force 1000 times gravity for 30 min. Centrifuge moisture equivalent is the model technique. A method of solving water content of a soil after it has been complex physical problems through the saturated with water and then subjected for application of simplified models[16]. 1 hour to a force equal to 1000 times that of gravity[22]. mogote. A steep-sided hill of limestone, generally surrounded by nearly flat moisture tension. The equivalent negative alluviated plains: karst inselberg. Originally pressure of water in an unsaturated porous used in Cuba in referring to residual hills of medium equal to the pressure that must be folded limestone in the Sierra de los applied to the medium to bring the water to Organos but now used internationally for hydraulic equilibrium through a porous karst residual hills in the tropics[10]. Differs permeable material with a pool of water of from cone, cupola, pinnacle, and tower the same composition. Synonym: capillary karst in its shape which reflects its tension[22]. karstification history[20]. Synonyms: (French.) mogote; (German.) moisture volume percentage. The ratio of (Karstinselberg), Mogote; (Greek.) the volume of water in a soil to the total “moghotis” (apókrimnos, asvestólofos bulk volume of the soil[22]. perikliómenos apó proschomatikas pediadas); (Italian.) mogote, rilievo carsico moisture weight percentage. The moisture residuo; (Spanish.) mogote; (Turkish.) karst content expressed as a percentage of the kal2nt2 tepesi; (Yugoslavian.) hum. See oven-dry weight of a soil[22]. also hum; karst inselberg; pepino hill. molecular diffusion (diffusion.) The process moisture content. 1. The ratio, expressed as whereby solutes are transported at the a percentage, of either (a) the weight of microscopic level because of variations in water to the weight of solid particles the solute concentrations within the fluid expressed as moisture weight percentage or phases[22]. The kinetic energy generated by (b) the volume of water to the volume of the transport of ionic or molecular

112 constituents results in some dispersion of a calcium and magnesium carbonate chemical. precipitated from water in caves and caverns. When in suspension, they give the molecular diffusion, coefficient of. The water the appearance of milk. Name component of mass transport flux of solutes originated in 1714 by M. B. Valentini (at the microscopic level) due to variations (Fénelon)[20]. 3. consists of a in solute concentrations within the fluid variety of hydrocarbonates, some of which phases. Synonymous with diffusion are associated with particular species of coefficient[22]. bacteria. A common mineral in moonmilk from temperate caves is hydromagnesite; molecule. A stable configuration of atomic cold caves yield moonmilk of calcite after nuclei and electrons bound together by hydrocalcite[20]. Synonyms: (French.) electrostatic and electromagnetic forces. It mondmilch; (German.) Bergmilch, is the simplest structural unit that displays Montmilch; (Greek.) speleogala; (Italian.) the characteristic physical and chemical latte di monte; (Russian.) kamennce properties of a compound[6]. moloko; (Spanish.) mondmilch, leche de luna; (Turkish.) dik karstik kal2nt2; mollisol. A soil layer subject to annual (Yugoslavian.) gorsko mlijeko (mleko). thawing and freezing, often becoming Also mountain milk. mobile upon thawing[16]. moor. A wet peat bog[16]. [11] monetite. A cave mineral — CaHPO4 . . The French word for “mill,” moulin monohydrocalcite. A cave mineral — has been used to describe partially [11] CaCO3"H2O . dissolutional, partially scoured pockets cut in rock, particularly the potholes formed in monomolecular film. A layer of the beds of surface and underground monomolecular thickness of a polar streams. In some areas sinkholes in the substance spread over a free water surface surface of glaciers, which may provide to prevent evaporation. access to glacier caves, are also referred to as moulins[9]. montgomeryite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca4MgAl4(PO4)6(OH)4"12H2O . mountain milk. See moonmilk.

montmorillonite. A clay mineral containing moraine. A mound, ridge, or other distinct magnesium oxide (MgO) in its structure[16]. accumulation of unsorted, unstratified glacial drift, predominantly till, deposited moonmilk. 1. A white plastic calcareous cave chiefly by direct action of glacier ice[6]. deposit composed of calcite, huntite, or magnesite. From Swiss dialect “moon- morphometric analysis. A geodetic and milch,” elf’s milk. Corrupt spelling geometric description of basin and stream “mondmilch” is common[10]. 2. Deposits network or to a sinkhole plain[16]. consisting mainly of very fine particles of

113 mud. Water-saturated fine clayey earth material[16]. mud crack. Desiccation cracks appearing in drying mud surfaces due to shrinkage[16]. mud stalagmite. 1. Stalagmitic column made of mud or clay with about 30% calcium carbonate cement. There may be some coarse noncalcareous detritus in the core of such a column[20]. 2. Stalagmite composed principally of clay or sandy clay and commonly less than 30% calcium carbonate[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalagmite d’argile; (German.) Stalagmit aus Tonschlamm; (Greek.) pilostagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite di fango; (Spanish.) ostalagmita de barro; (Turkish.) çamur dikiti. Related to stalagmite. mudflow. A flow of water-saturated unconsolidated debris[16]. multiaquifer formation. A formation with several aquifers overlying each other[16]. multiaquifer well. A well completed and tapping several aquifers[16].

My. See Ma.

114 N a—iz geçit; (Yugoslavian.) sutjeska, klisura, soteska. Nackter karst. (German.) See exposed karst. native ground water. Original ground [16] Nacktkarst. (German.) See exposed karst. water .

naked karst, bare karst. Karst topography natural arch. 1. A residual portion of the developed beneath a temporary cover. roof of a subsurface karst cavity that has Some naked karsts develop beneath a not collapsed. Such a natural arch may temporary cover of snow (nival karst) or occur as a surface topographic feature, or [20] water[17]. Synonyms: (French.) karst nu; as a part of a cave system . 2. A rock (German.) oberflächlicher nackter Karst; arch or very short natural tunnel; contrasted (Greek.) gymnon karst; (Italian.) carso with a natural bridge, which spans a ravine [10] nudo; (Russian.) goly0 karst or otkryty0 or valley . Synonyms: (French.) arche karst; (Spanish.) karst desnudo; (Turkish.) naturelle; (German.) natürlisches Gewölbe, ç2plak karst; (Yugoslavian.) goli krš. See Naturbrücke, Felsfenster, Felsbrücke; also exposed karst. (Greek.) physike apsitha; (Italian.) arco naturale; (Russian.) estestvennij arka; NAPL. Abbreviation for nonaqueous phase (Spanish.) arco natural; (Turkish.) do™al liquid. This term is used to describe the kemer; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni svod, luk, physicochemical relationship that exists naravni obok. See also natural bridge. between a bulk hydrocarbon and water which results in the two liquids being natural bridge. 1. A residual portion of the immiscible with one another (i.e., little or roof of a subterranean stream that has not no mixing of the two liquids occurs.) The collapsed and is found bridging a valley. interface is a physical dividing surface Normally a surface feature, but may be used between the bulk phases of the two liquids. to describe a similar occurrence in a cave [20] NAPLs are divided into two categories; system . 2. A rock bridge spanning a [10] LNAPLs and DNAPLs. See also DNAPL; ravine and not yet eroded away . immiscible; LNAPL. Synonyms: (French.) pont naturel; (German.) Naturbrücke, Felsbrücke; nari. Term used in the countries bordering (Greek.) physiki gefyra; (Italian.) ponte the Eastern Mediterranean for caliche or naturale; (Russian.) estestvennij most; hardpan[20]. See caliche, sabath. (Spanish.) puente natural; (Turkish.) do™al köprü; (Yugoslavian.) prirodni most, narrow. A passage of restricted width naravni most. See also natural arch. between two caves or hollows in the karst underground; often not readily natural levee. A river bank raised by the [16] traversable[20]. Synonyms: (French.) river’s own depositions . étroiture; (German.) Enge; (Greek.) steno perasma; (Italian.) strettoia; (Russian.) laz; natural load. Sediment carried by a stable [16] (Spanish.) laminador, gatera; (Turkish.) stream .

115 natural tunnel. A nearly horizontal cave nesquehonite. A cave mineral — [11] open at both ends, generally fairly straight Mg(HCO3)(OH)"2H2O . in direction and fairly uniform in cross section[10]. nested sinkholes. (American.) See uvala.

natural water. Water with a mineral content net radiation. The sum of incident and occurring under natural conditions. reflected sun and sky shortwave radiation plus incident and reflected atmospheric natural well. (Jamaican.) A vertical shaft in long-wave radiation[16]. limestone, open to the surface and having water at the bottom; similar to a cenote[10]. network cave pattern. A type of maze cave Synonym: (Italian.) pozzo carsico. characterized by a complex pattern of repeatedly connected passages in a cave neck. A filled with lava[16]. system. In map view, this type of maze cave appears similar to a city street map. It neomorphism. A microscopic texture. A is typically formed by solutionally complex of processes whereby a mosaic of aggressive water infiltrating through finely crystalline carbonate is replaced by a fractures in an overlying insoluble cap-rock coarser (sparry) mosaic without the thus exhibiting a joint-controlled pattern. development of visible porosity. Dominant Synonym: labyrinth. reactions are the wet transformation of aragonite to calcite and recrystallization. neutrality point. The separation point The process is “porphyroid” where some of between acid and basic solution with a pH the neomorphic crystals are conspicuously of 7.0[16]. larger than those that surround them[20]. Synonyms: (French.) néomorphisme; nip. An undercutting notch in rock, (German.) Neomorphismus; (Greek.) particularly limestone, along a seacoast neomorphismós; (Spanish.) neomorfismo; between high and low levels along sea (Turkish.) neomorfizm. coasts and produced by solution and erosion. Most common along coasts with neptunian deposits. Younger sediment or limited tidal variation[20]. Synonyms: sedimentary rock that infills preexisting (French.) resserrement, étranglement; cavities, such as grikes, dolines, or cave (German.) Kliff, Brandungsmarke; (Greek.) passages, in older rocks. The most káto engopí vráchou; (Italian.) solco di common form is a fissure fill, known as a battigia; (Spanish.) socavación marina; neptunian dike. Neptunian deposits occupy (Turkish.) dalga yar2™2 çenti™i. voids in nonkarstic as well as karstic rocks, and the combination of void and fill may nis˜ a. See aisle. subsequently be buried by still younger rocks. They may thus become part of a niter. A white orthorhombic mineral — [9] paleokarst . KNO3. It is a soluble crystalline salt that occurs as a product of nitrification in most arable soils in hot, dry regions, and in the

116 loose earth forming the floors of some on the wall thickness, the inside diameter natural caves[1]. Synonyms: saltpeter; may be less than or greater than the number nitrate. indicated[6].

[11] nitrammite. A cave mineral — NH4NO3 . nongraded. An engineering term pertaining to a soil or an unconsolidated sediment nitrocalcite. A cave mineral — consisting of particles of essentially the [11] [6] Ca(NO3)2"4H2O . same size .

nitromagnesite. A cave mineral — nonpoint source. 1. Any source, other than a [11] Mg(NO3)2"6H2O . point source, that discharges pollutants into air or water[22]. 2. Source originating over nival karst. Alpine karst[1]. broad areas, such as areas of fertilizer and pesticide application and leaking sewer nivo-karst. A karstlike topography produced systems, rather than from discrete points[22]. by the differential chemical weathering beneath snowbanks from snowmelt nonrecording gage. A standard rain gage (8 containing carbonic acid. It is found mostly is standard in U.S.)[16]. in periglacial areas[1]. normal depth. The depth at which uniform node point. The intersection point on a flow occurs in an open channel[16]. grid[16]. normal fault. A fault in which the upper nodule. A small, irregularly rounded knot, block appears to have moved downward mass, or lump of a mineral or mineral relative to the lower block. aggregate, normally having a warty or knobby surface and no internal structure, noethphreatic flow. A type of conduit flow and usually exhibiting a contrasting that is always laminar[9]. composition from the enclosing sediment or rock matrix in which it is embedded (e.g., a chert nodule in limestone). Most nodules appear to be secondary structures in sedimentary rocks; they are primarily the result of postdepositional replacement of the rock and are commonly elongated parallel to the bedding. Nodules can be separated as discrete masses from the host material[1].

nominal. Used to describe standard sizes for 1 pipe from /8 inch to 12 inches (3.2 mm to 304 mm.) The nominal size is specified on the basis of the inside diameter. Depending

117 O oolite. A type of limestone that is composed largely or partly of ooliths. Also known as . A limited area in a desert supplied with oolitic limestone. The best known water[16]. examples in Britain, within the Jurassic limestone sequence of the Cotswolds, are of obruk. Turkish form for a vertical or only moderate strength, very porous, and steepsided depression or shaft in karst, only weakly cavernous. In contrast, oolites often formed by collapse of the roof of an of early Carboniferous age have hosted underground cave or cavern. When the extensive cave development beneath depression contains a lake of pond, it is Mymydd Llangattwg and in other parts of [9] known as “sulu obruk” or “obruk gölü.” South Wales . When it is dry, it is called “kuru obruk” or just “obruk.” Synonyms: (French.) obruk; oolith. A small ovoid to spherical (German.) Schlot; (Greek.) obruk (káthetos accretionary particle, usually composed of karstikós lákkos); (Italian.) pozzo carsico; concentric layers of calcium carbonate. (Spanish.) torca; (Turkish.) obruk; Such ooliths, cemented together by calcium (Yugoslavian.) jama. See cenote, dolina, carbonate, iron salts or other minerals, are jama, pit, shaft, sinkhole. the major constituent of oolite or oolitic limestone[9]. obsequent river. A river flowing in a [16] direction opposite to that of the dip of the oolitic. Of spherical or ovoidal shape . underlying strata[16]. [11] . A cave mineral — SiO2"nH2O . observation well. A well drilled for the purpose of observations such as water level open system. A system where matter and or pressure recordings[16]. energy may cross a system boundary[16].

oceanic water. Sea water with a total salt Opferkessel. See solution pan. content of about 34,500 ppm[16]. optical brighteners. Material contained in ojo, ojo de agua. (Spanish.) An artesian laundry detergents to make “whites whiter” spring in limestone regions, especially one and used in environmental tracing studies. forming a small pond; a vauclusian Common types are Tinopal CBS-X, Tinopal spring[10]. 5BM GX, and Phorwite BBH Pure. Dye type: Stilbene. See also fluorescent dyes. olivenite. A cave mineral — [11] ore karst. Formation of interstices, caverns, Cu2(AsO4)(OH) . caves, and other karst forms produced by onyx marble. Translucent layers of calcium solution in water from thermal springs and [20] carbonate from cave deposits, often called ore-bearing solutions . Synonyms: Mexican onyx or cave onyx; used as an (French.) karst minier; (German.) ornamental stone[10]. Zwischenräume, Kavernen, Höhlen im Karst, gebildet durch Thermalwässer oder

118 erzhaltige Lösungen; (Greek.) oulopholite. See cave flower. thermometallikon karst; (Italian.) carsismo per dissoluzione idrotermale; (Russian.) outcrop. An open exposure of bedrock or rudnij karst; (Spanish.) karst termomineral; otherwise buried material[16]. (Turkish.) cevher karst2; (Yugoslavian.) rudni krs˜ (kras). outflow cave. Cave from which stream flows out or formerly did so[10]. Synonym: organic deposit. Deposits of calcareous and effluent cave. siliceous remains of animals[16]. outlet cave. A cave developed at the point of organic pollution. Contamination originating re-emergence of an underground karst from organic sources[16]. watercourse[19]. orientation. 1. The assignment or imposition output point. A point where water exists of a definite direction in space; the act of from an underground drainage route or establishing the correct relationship in aquifer. An obvious output point is a direction, usually with reference to the surface resurgence or exsurgence, where points of the . Also, the condition drainage emerges from a conduit system. of being in such relationship. 2. In Less obvious are points where drainage describing crystal form and symmetry, the leaves a carbonate aquifer and enters an placing of the crystal so that its adjacent non-carbonate bed, such as a crystallographic axes are in the sandstone aquifer[9]. conventional position. 3. The direction in which an aerial photograph is turned with outwash. Stratified sand and gravel removed respect to observer or map. A single photo or washed out from a glacier by meltwater is best oriented for study when turned so streams and deposited in front of or beyond that the shadows are cast toward the the end moraine or the margin of an active observer. 4. Directional arrangement of glacier. The coarser material is deposited nonspherical grains in a sand aggregate[16]. nearer to the ice[6]. original dip. Dip due to deposition of outwash gravel. Glacial drift material sediments[16]. deposited by streams from a glacier[16]. original interstice. Interstice formed during . Plain in front of a glacier that rock formation stage[16]. is composed of outwash material[16]. A broad, gently sloping sheet of outwash[6]. orographic precipitation. Precipitation due to mechanical lifting of air over a ground ouvala. (French.) See uvala. relief[16]. oven-dry. The degree of dryness of a porous orthogonal. Perpendicular. sample after drying in an oven at a specified temperature[16]. otkry0 karst. (Russian.) See naked karst.

119 overbank area. An area covered by flood waters overtopping natural or artificial river banks[16]. overburden. 1. The loose soil, sand, silt, or clay that overlies bedrock. In some usages it refers to all material overlying the point of interest. 2. The total cover of soil and rock overlying an underground excavation. overburden pressure. The pressure exerted by weight of the overburden column[16]. overflow spring. See spring, overflow. overland flow. Surface runoff flowing over the land surface towards a channel[16]. overthrust. Upthrust fault with a very low angle of dip and a relatively large net displacement[16]. oxbow. Abandoned loop of a stream course, Original usage, applied to surface rivers, describes short-circuited meander loops, but in caves the term is applied to dry loop passages of any shape and origin[9]. oxidation. The combining of an element with oxygen[6]. oxygen demand. The ability of substances to utilize dissolved oxygen in water.

120 P that during the deposition of the full rock sequence the young rocks were exposed to packing. The three-dimensional arrangement the effects of surface (sub-aerial) erosion. of particles[16]. During such a nondepositional and erosional phase a full suite of karst features, [9] pahoehoe. (Hawaiian.) Lava flows with a including caves, could develop . smooth or billowy surface in which lava tubes are found[13]. See also lava cave; paleomagnetism. Natural remanent pseudokarst. magnetization preserved in rock sequences. During rock deposition magnetic minerals paleokarst. 1. A karstified rock or area that are aligned according to the direction and has been buried by later sediments; in some polarity of the earth’s contemporary places, ancient caves have been completely magnetic field. After movement of the filled by the later sediments[10]. 2. A magnetic poles, or periodic reversals of decoupled contemporary system that has polarity, the remanent magnetization is experienced tectonic subsidence and lie preserved in the rocks and may be measured unconformably beneath clastic cover rocks, to aid identification of stratigraphical units [9] occasionally becoming exhumed and re- and to assess their relative ages . integrated into the active system[17]. 3. A karst formed in the past under an earlier palette. In a cave, a more or less flat erosion cycle and often in remote geological protruding sheet of crystalline calcium times. The karst is preserved by burial or carbonate spared during solution of the [10] suspension of karstification processes[20]. 4. rock on each side of it . See also blade; A karstified surface and the karst features shield. Synonym: shield. associated with it, such as caves, that have been buried by younger rocks. Paleokarstic palygorskite. A cave mineral — [11] features at various scales may be (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)"4H2O . recognized within most carbonate successions. More rarely they may be re- pan coefficient. Coefficient to correlate a exposed (exhumed) by the effects of later high rate of evaporation in a pan to an uplift and erosion[9]. Synonyms: (French.) evaporation rate from larger water paléokarst; (German.) Paläokarst, fossiler bodies[16]. Karst; (Greek.) paleokarst; (Italian.) paleocarsismo, carsismo fossile; (Russian.) panhole. See solution pan. paleokarst; (Spanish.) paleokarst; (Turkish.) eski karst; (Yugoslavian.) paragenesis. A type of cave passage paleokrÑ, paleokras, paleokarst. See also development in which erosion of the buried karst. passage floor is inhibited by the presence of an armoring layer of sediment, such that any paleokarstic surface. A surface, preserved dissolutional enlargement is dominantly within a carbonate succession, that was upwards[9]. Generally, an unproven and formed by the effects of karst erosion. The unsupported theory. presence of a paleokarstic surface indicates

121 paragenetic cave. Cave passage, usually of partitioning function. A mathematical canyon form, believed to be created by relation describing the distribution of a paragenesis. Passage formation by reactive solute between solution and other paragenesis is normally very difficult to phases[22]. prove, as later sediment removal leaves a passage that looks very similar to the far parts per million. An expression of more common vadose canyon. It is thought concentration (ppm.) The weight per weight that some of the larger canyons in the Flint of a solution[16]. Mammoth Cave System, USA, may have formed in this way[9]. passage. 1. Broadly, a passage is any negotiable part of a cave system, though the parahopeite. A cave mineral — usage is commonly restricted to those [11] Zn3(PO4)2"4H2O . elements that tend towards the horizontal rather than vertical or subvertical sections. paraphreatic. A paraphreatic passage has an Cave passages very in size and shape, with air surface under relatively low flow the latter relating to the mode of origin and conditions, when drainage is within the providing evidence of the nature of cave capacity of its downstream continuation, development mechanisms. Perhaps the but reverts to being water-filled (phreatic) largest passage in the world is Deer Cave, under conditions of high flow or when the which is up to 170 m wide and 120 m high, downstream drainage is temporarily in the Mulu karst of Sarawak[9]. 2. A impeded[9]. comparatively small underground opening made along fractures, fissures, and bedding- parent material. Material from which soil or plane partings by running water but through sediment was formed[16]. which it is possible to pass[20]. 3. In a cave, the opening between rooms or chambers[10]. park. (.) Shallow broad solution Synonyms: (French.) galerie; (German.) depression[10]. Gallerie, Stollen; (Greek.) ypohios thiothos; (Italian.) cunicolo, galleria; particle. The smallest individual constituent (Russian.) hod; (Spanish.) galeria; of an aggregate[16]. (Turkish.) geçit; (Yugoslavian.) galerija. See also chamber; room. particulate transport. The movement of particles in subsurface water[22]. pathogenic bacteria. Disease-inducing bacteria[16]. parting. The separation of sedimentary rock along bedding planes[16]. Synonyms: pavement. See limestone pavement. bedding-plane; bedding-plane parting. See also bedding plane. peat. Decomposed matter, mainly vegetable[16]. partition. 1. A nearly vertical residual rock mass in a cave. 2. A continuous rock span pebble. A smooth rounded rock fragment[16]. across a cave[10].

122 Peclet number. A relationship between the pendant, rock pendant. One of a group of advective and diffusive components of isolated similarly proportioned projections solute transport expressed as the ratio of surrounded by a complex of connected the product of the average interstitial cavities in the bedrock ceiling of a cave[10]. velocity, times the characteristic length, Formed by the rapid, differential solution of divided by the coefficient of molecular the surrounding rock[19]. diffusion. Small values indicate diffusion dominance, large values indicate advection pendular regime. A saturation regime where dominance[22]. a porous medium has the lowest possible saturation in the form of pendular rings at pearl. See cave pearl. grain contacts[16]. pediment. An inclined erosion surface peneplain. A degradation surface without covered with thin fluvial deposits[16]. relief[16].

pellicular water. 1. The film of water left pen trace. Ink, magnetic, or photographic around each grain or fracture surface of line traced on the drum of a recording gage water-bearing material after gravity or meter[16]. drainage[22]. 2. Water of adhesion[22]. 3. Water that can be extracted by root pepino hill. (Puerto Rican.) 1. Rounded or absorption and evaporation but cannot be conical-shaped hill resulting from tropical moved by gravity or by the unbalanced film humid karst action. Term generally forces resulting from localized evaporation replaced in Puerto Rico by mogote. 2. and transpiration[22]. Elongate hill or ridge capped by mogotes[10]. See mogote. peloid. A microscopic texture. A sedimentary grain composed of micrite percent saturation. The ratio, expressed as carbonate irrespective of origin[20]. a percentage, of (a) the volume of some Synonyms: (French.) peloïde; (German.) fluid (water, gas, or oil) to (b) the total mikroskopisches, sedimentäres Gefüge; volume of intergranular space (voids) in a (Greek.) piloidís; (Italian.) peloide; given porous medium. Synonymous with (Spanish.) peloide; (Turkish.) peloit. See degree of saturation[22]. micrite, pelsparite. perched ground water. Ground water pelsparite. A microscopic texture. A separated from an underlying body of limestone composed of pellets (peloids) in ground water by an unsaturated zone[6]. a matrix of cement[20]. Synonyms: (French.) See also ground water, perched. pelsparite; (German.) Pelsarite, Kalkstein gefügt aus Kügelchen; (Greek.) pelsparítis; perched karst spring. See spring, perched (Italian.) pelsparite; (Spanish.) pelsparita; karst. (Turkish.) pelsparit. See peloids. perched water table. Unconfined ground water separated from an underlying body of

123 ground water by unsaturated soil or rock. perennial yield. Sustained yield[16]. It may be either temporary or permanent. periodic spring. See spring, periodic. percolate. To flow through saturated void space[16]. The act of water seeping or perforation. Holes or openings in well casing filtering through soil or rock without a to permit water inflow into a well[16]. definite channel[6]. permafrost. Ground that is perennially below percolation; percolation water. 1. Ground the freezing point of water[16]. water moving slowly through the micro- fissure network of a limestone, most of permafrost karst. A nonkarst term. A which eventually joins a major cave conduit pseudokarst developed in areas of and flows more rapidly. In most permafrost because of melting of ice and environments percolation water enters the frozen ground in a manner superficially limestone through a soil cover. It is similar to the solution of carbonate material therefore high in carbon dioxide and has a in water. A general term embracing major influence on limestone dissolution intrapermafrost karst, subpermafrost karst, and later redeposition of calcite and suprapermafrost karst[20]. (French.) speleothems. Percolation water accounts karst de permafrost; (German.) Permafrost for most of the storage in a limestone Karst, Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst aquifer, responds slowly to flooding in monímou paghtoú; (Italian.) pseudo- comparison to sinkhole water, and is carsismo di permafrost; (Spanish.) karst de normally of high enough quality to provide permafrost; (Turkish.) aldat2c2 don karst2; a drinking-water supply[9]. 2. The (Yugoslavian.) permafrost krs˜ (kras, karst). movement in laminar flow under hydrostatic pressure of water through the permafrost table. The upper limit of interconnected, saturated interstices of rock permafrost[16]. or soil, excluding movement through large openings such as caves and solution permanent hardness. Noncarbonate channels. 3. The downward movement of hardness[16]. water through the unsaturated zone[22]. 4. The downward flow of water in saturated permanent wilting point. Saturation at or nearly saturated porous medium at which permanent wilting occurs[16]. hydraulic gradients of the order of 1.0 or less[22]. 5. The movement of water through permeability. See hydraulic conductivity; saturated interior pore space[16]. permeability, intrinsic.

percolation water. Autochthonous karst permeability barrier. See barrier, water that permeates directly through karst permeability. limestone without using a surface watercourse[19]. permeability coefficient. The rate of flow of water through a unit cross-sectional area perennial spring. See spring, perennial. under a unit hydraulic gradient at the

124 prevailing temperature (field permeability permeameter. A device used to measure the coefficient) or adjusted to a temperature of permeability of small samples[16]. 15NC[22]. pervious. Permitting fluids to pass[16]. permeability, effective. The observed permeability of a porous medium to one petrography. The science of describing and fluid phase under conditions of physical identifying rocks[16]. interaction between this phase and other fluid phases present[22]. pH. A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for permeability, intrinsic. 1. A measure of the neutral solutions, increasing with increasing ability of a medium to transmit a fluid alkalinity and decreasing with increasing through a porous medium. It is a function acidity. Originally stood for the words of the medium only and is proportional to “potential of hydrogen”[6]. the mean grain size diameter. 2. A measure of the relative ease with which a porous phonolite. A type of volcanic rock, common medium can transmit a fluid under a as lava flows in some areas, that is capable potential gradient, a property of the of supporting the formation of extensive medium alone[22]. 3. The property of a lava caves, including those on Mount porous medium itself that expresses the Suswa in Kenya[9]. ease with which gases, liquids, or other substances can pass through it[22]. photogeology. The interpretation of aerial photographs for geological purposes[16]. permeability, relative. 1. The ratio of the effective permeability for a given flow photogrammetry. The preparation of maps phase to the intrinsic permeability of the and measurements from stereoscopic aerial porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the photographs[16]. effective and specific permeabilities[22]. 3. The ratio of permeability of one immiscible phreas, phreatic water. (From the Greek phase to intrinsic permeability in multiphase word meaning “well.”) 1. The zone of flow[16]. saturated rock below the water table, within which all conduits and sub-conduits are permeability, specific. The permeability water filled (sometimes referred to as the measured when the rock contains only one flooded, phreatic, or saturated zone). fluid[22]. Commonly the phreatic zone is considered as being subdivided into an upper (shallow permeability tensor. Permeability in an phreatic) zone and a lower stagnant phreatic anisotropic medium[16]. zone[9]. 2. Water in the zone of saturation; water below the water table[10]. See also permeability, transverse. Permeability ground water. measured perpendicular to the axis of a core sample[16]. phreatic cave. 1. Cave conceived and developed by dissolution, usually below the

125 water table, where all voids are water filled phreatic rise. The upward movement of the within the phreas. Phreatic caves may water table[16]. include loops deep below the water table, particularly in dipping limestone with phreatic surface. See water table. widely spaced bedding-related fissures. Higher fissure densities, sub-horizontal phreatic water. That part of the underground geological guidance, or greater karstic water in a karst limestone that lies within maturity encourage shallow phreatic the zone of permanently saturated rock - development just below the water table. the phreatic zone. Caves formed within this Progressive abondonment of phreatic caves zone are known as phreatic caves[19]. is usually in a downward sequence, as erosionally lowered valley floors intersect phreatic zone. 1. Those parts of the earth’s lower levels of the flooded system. Active crust in which all voids are filled with water phreatic cave segments, left perched for under pressure greater than atmospheric[22]. geological reasons after a general water- 2. That part of the earth’s crust beneath the table lowering, are relatively common. regional water table in which all voids, large Characteristics of phreatic caves are blind and small, are ideally filled with water under dissolution pockets on walls and ceilings, pressure greater than atmospheric[22]. When branching and looping of passages, and discussing a karst setting, it is preferable to overall switchback gradients, as phreatic use the term “phreatic zone” so as to avoid flow may be uphill under pressure. The confusion regarding chemical saturation. most common passage form is a tube, Synonym: saturated zone. See also zone of though cross-sectional shape reflects local saturation. geological factors. A classic active phreatic cave is that behind the Fontaine de phreatophyte. Desert plants with deeply Vaucluse in France, while Hölloch, penetrating roots reaching the water table Switzerland, is a major system consisting mainly along stream courses[16]. mostly of relict phreatic passages[9]. 2. Cave passage developed in the phreatic physiography. The science of the origin and zone and still actively forming. Passages evolution of land forms[16]. often appear as tubes. phytometer. A device used to measure the phreatic decline. The downward movement transpiration of plants embedded in soil[16]. of the water table[16]. piedmont plain. A plain extending outwards phreatic fluctuation. The fluctuation of the from the base of a mountain system[16]. water table[16]. piezometer. A device used to measure phreatic lift. An active or abandoned ground-water pressure head at a point in the phreatic conduit that carries or carried subsurface[22]. water upwards in a downstream direction[9]. piezometric head. The sum of the pressure phreatic line. See seepage line. and elevation head[16].

126 piezometric limit. The point within a given have rock blades up to 50 m high projecting flow path below which the flow direction is through the rain forest canopy[9]. 2. A influenced by hydrostatic pressure. In cases tropical landscape of bare reticulated saw- where flow is confined to a planar structure, topped ridges having almost vertical slopes the piezometric limit can be identified as a and a relief of as much as 120 meters. The point where the flow path changes from a ridges rise above forest-covered depressions dip-oriented to a strike-oriented trend. The and corridors. Found in New Guinea at piezometric limit is determined both by elevations or around 2,000 meters[20]. discharge rate and geometry of the Synonyms: (French.) karst à pinacles; openings. Used to describe karst aquifers (German.) Pinnacle Karst; (Greek.) karst with a discontinuous piezometric surface[14]. koriphón; (Italian.) carsismo a pinnacoli; (Turkish.) sivritepeli karst. Compare cone, piezometric surface. 1. The imaginary sur- cupola, tower karst. face to which water from a given aquifer will rise under its full static head[10]. 2. pinnacles. These are a particularly mature Defined by the elevation to which water will form of karren. The side walls are grikes rise in artesian wells or wells penetrating with Rinnenkarren cutting across one confined aquifers[16]. See also another to form sharp edges and peaks that potentiometric surface. can reach several meters in height. Generally, pinnacles need a long time to pillar. 1. Remnant of bedrock joining the form. They are common in the tropics and cave floor and ceiling. Not to be confused can attain great sizes[3]. Often, they are with a column, which is a calcite deposit. covered. See also debris karren. Pillars are common in phreatic caves, formed by complexly looping ground-water pipe. 1. A generally small, subcylindrical, flow, but may also be left as small oxbow vertical hole developed in an unconsolidated cores of vadose origin. A spectacular sedimentary deposit by the washing away of group of pillars occurs in the ill-named all or part of its fines content. Some pipes Chamber of Columns in the Sof Omar cave, develop above points on a carbonate-rock Ethiopia[9]. 2. A column of rock remaining surface, such as joint intersections, where after solution of the surrounding rock. 3. A ground-water seepage is locally stalactite-stalagmite that reaches from roof concentrated. Pipes in chalk include to floor in a cave; more properly termed a cylindrical and conical masses of clay and column. 4. A tall thin stalagmite that does sand that are neptunian fills of dissolutional not reach the roof of a cave[10]. See dolines, shafts and caves; all shapes and column; rock pillar. sizes are commonly referred to as chalk pipes[9]. 2. Small cylindrical hole in uncon- pinnacle karst. 1. Tropical karst solidated sediments, caused by removal of characterized by vertical rock blades fretted fine material by water[10]. 3. A closed sharp by dissolution. It is practically tubular conduit for fluid transport[16]. indistinguishable from arête karst and tsingi, and includes the varieties known as shilin. piping. 1. A process whereby a cavity or The Pinnacles in the Mulu karst of Saraway small conduit is developed in an

127 unconsolidated soil due to progressive plane of weakness. Surface or narrow zone sediment removal by seepage water. The with a shear (or tensile) strength lower than cavity develops headwards, as the fines are that of the surrounding material. removed first and the coarser material is then washed out of the growing cavity[9]. planimeter. An instrument that automatically Definition 1 is often incorrectly applied to determines irregular areas on a map[16]. the formation of sinkhole development — the migration of smaller particles through plateau. An elevated level land surface[16]. openings created by larger particles is of no consequence in terms of sinkhole pocket. Solution cavity in ceiling, floor, or development and should not be confused as walls of a cave, shaped like the interior of a such. 2. Formation of a passage by water round-bottomed ; unrelated to joints under pressure in the form of conduits or bedding[10]. See also spongework. through permeable materials when the hydraulic head exceeds a certain critical pocket valley. 1. The reverse of a blind value[10]. 3. The mechanical washout of valley, extending headwards into the foot of caves in gravels, soils, loess, etc., showing a calcareous massif. The upstream end is evidence of associated collapse. terminated by a cliff, frequently lunate, from whose base emerges a subterranean karst pisanite. A cave mineral — stream meandering across a flat, steep-sided [11] [19] (Fe,Cu)SO4"7H2O . valley below the resurgence . 2. A valley that begins abruptly and has no headwaters, pisolite, pisolith. See cave pearl. having formed from and below the site of a spring[9]. pit. A deep hole, generally circular in outline, having vertical or nearly vertical walls[10]. pocket storage. Water storage in depressions See also jama; pothole (definition 2); shaft. on the land surface[16].

pitch. Vertical or subvertical shaft or cave podzol. A light colored soil, usually found in waterfall that normally requires rope, forest regions[16]. ladder, or equipment to pass; a term used by British cave explorers[9]. point-bar deposit. Sedimentation on the inside of a meander loop of a river or piton. (French.) Limestone hill having sharply stream channel[16]. pointed peak[10]. point of inflection. The point where a curve pitot tube. A device used to measure flow changes slope[16]. velocity via pressure differences[16]. point source. Any discernable, confined, or pitted plain. Plain having numerous small discrete conveyance from which pollutants closely spaced closed depressions[10]. are or may be discharged, including, but not limited to, any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, container, rolling stock,

128 concentrated animal feeding operation, or into wet-season lakes. The form of some vessel or other floating craft[22]. poljes is related to the geological structure, but others are purely the projects of lateral poise. A measure of viscosity. dissolution and planation. The Dinaric Karst has many poljes; the Livansko polje is pokryty0 karst. (Russian.) See covered around 60 km long and 7 km wide. The karst. word is Slovene (common also to other Slav languages) for a field, reflecting the polarization. The migration and separation of agricultural value of the alluvial polje floor ions to the electrodes in a direct current soils[9]. Synonym: interior valley; (French.) electrolyte process giving rise to higher polje; (German.) Polje; (Greek.) polye; overall resistance[16]. (Italian.) polje; (Russian.) polje; (Spanish.) polje; (Turkish.) gölova, polye; polje. (Slavic word for “field.”) 1. A large, (Yugoslavian.) polje. See also karst polje. flat-floored depression in karst limestone, whose long axis is developed parallel to pollutant or contaminant. Includes, but is major structural trends and can reach tens not limited to, any element, substance, of kilometers in length. Superficial deposits compound, or mixture including disease- tend to accumulate on the floor. Drainage causing agents, which after release into the may be by either surface watercourses environment and upon exposure, ingestion, (when the polje is said to be open) or inhalation, or assimilation into any swallow holes (a “closed” polje.) Their organism, either directly from the development is encouraged by any environment or indirectly by ingesting impedance in the karst drainage[19]. 2. Polje through food chains, will or may reasonably or karst polje signifies the flat-bottomed be anticipated to cause death, disease, lands of closed basins which may extend behavioral abnormalities, cancer, genetic over large areas, as much as 1,000 km2. mutation, physiological malfunctions The flat floor of the polje may consist of (including malfunctions in reproduction), or bare limestone, of a nonsoluble formation physical deformation in such organisms or (and so with rolling topography), or of soil. their offspring[22]. The polje will show complex hydrogeological characteristics such as polluted water. Water that has become exsurgences, swallow holes, estavelles, and contaminated by or other lost rivers. In colloquial use, the term polje contaminants such that the water quality has is applied to flat-bottomed lands that are become severely degraded. overgrown or are under cultivation[20]. 3. Large flat-floored closed karst depression, pollution. 1. Specific impairment of water with sharp slope breaks between the quality by agricultural, domestic, or commonly alluviated floor and the marginal industrial wastes (including thermal and limestone. Streams or springs drain into atomic wastes), to a degree that has an poljes and outflow is underground through adverse effect upon any beneficial use of ponors. Commonly the ponors cannot water[22]. 2. The addition to a stored body transmit flood flows, so many poljes turn of water of any material that diminishes the

129 optimal economic use of the water body by (Yugoslavian.) ponor, utok, poñiralnik, the population it serves, and has an adverse pivka. See also swallow hole. effect on the surrounding environment[22]. ponornica. See lost river. pollution abatement. All measures taken to prevent or to protect against pollution[16]. pool deposit. Crystalline material deposited in an isolated pool in a cave[10]. polygonal karst. 1. A karst area where the surface is completely pitted with closed pore. Small void space in rock or depressions, the divides of which form a unconsolidated material of soil particles. crudely polygonal network. Especially See also interstice[16]. common in humid tropical cone-karst terrain, but also found in well-formed pore deposit. Mineral matter deposited on temperate doline-karst terrain[10]. 2. A type the interior of a cave from water entering of karst in which numerous closed the cave so slowly through pores and cracks depressions are separated by dividing ridges that it does not form drops[10]. that impose a crudely polygonal appearance upon the landscape[9]. pore entry radius. The radius of a flow channel at pore entry, usually smaller than pond. A small body of surface water[16]. the average pore radius[16]. ponded water. Water held in a depression by pore pressure. The pressure of water in a barrier[16], such as breakdown in a cave pores of a saturated medium[16]. system. pore space. 1. The total space not occupied ponor. (Slavic.) 1. Hole or opening in the by solid soil or rock particles[22]. 2. The bottom or side of a depression where a space occupied by voids containing gases or surface stream or lake flows either partially liquids in soil or rock samples[16]. See also or completely underground into the karst interstice; porosity; porosity, effective; ground-water system. A sea ponor is porosity, primary; porosity, secondary. where sea-water flows or is drawn into an opening by a vacuum in karstified rock[20]. pore velocity. See velocity, average 2. Hole in the bottom or side of a closed interstitial. depression through which water passes to or from an underground channel[10]. porosimeter. A device used to measure Synonyms: (British.) swallet, swallow hole, porosity[16]. stream sink; (French.) ponor, aven, gouffre, perte; (German.) Schlund, Saugloch, porosity. 1. The ratio of the aggregate Schlinger, Ponor; (Greek.) katavothra; volume of interstices in a rock or soil to its (Italian.) inghittitoio, capovento; (Russian.) total volume; generally stated as a ponor; (Spanish.) sumidero, ponor, percentage[10]. 2. The ratio, usually pérdida; (Turkish.) su yutan; expressed as a percentage, of the total volume of voids of a given porous medium

130 to the total volume of the porous porosity. See also pore; pore space; medium[22]. 3. The volume percentage of porosity; porosity, effective; porosity, the total bulk not occupied by solid primary; porosity, secondary. particles[22]. See also porosity, effective; porosity, primary; porosity, secondary; porous. Having numerous interstices, porosity, tertiary. whether connected or isolated.

porosity, absolute. Porosity established by porous medium. Any medium containing taking into account all interconnected and interdispersed void space[16]. nonconnected or isolated void volumes[16]. porthole. A nearly circular natural opening in porosity, effective. 1. The ratio, usually a thin rock wall in a cave[10]. See also expressed as a percentage of the total window. volume of voids available for fluid transmission to the total volume of the potable water. Water that is suitable for porous medium[22]. 2. The ratio of the human consumption[22]. volume of the voids of a soil or rock mass that can be drained by gravity to the total potamology. The study of streams. volume of the mass[22]. 3. The amount of interconnected pore space and fracture potential. Any of several different scalar openings available for the transmission of quantities, each of which involves energy as fluids, expressed as the ratio of the volume a function of position or of condition; e.g., of interconnected pores and openings to the the fluid potential of ground water[22]. volume of rock. See also porosity; porosity, primary; porosity, secondary; potential density. 1. The density of a unit of porosity, tertiary. water after it is raised by an adiabatic process to the surface, i.e., determined from porosity, primary. Porosity of some in-situ salinity and potential temperature[22]. lithological material that developed while 2. Density that would be reached by a the rock was forming. See also interstice; compressible fluid if it were adiabatically pore; pore space; porosity; porosity, compressed or expanded to a standard effective; porosity, secondary. pressure[22]. porosity, secondary. Porosity of some potential drop. The difference in total head lithologic material, such as joints and between two equipotential lines[22]. fractures, that has developed after the rock was initially formed, and may be capable of potential evapotranspiration. enlargement by dissolution processes. See Evapotranspiration occurring under also pore; pore space; porosity, effective; adequate soil-moisture supply at all times porosity, primary; porosity, tertiary. for given temperature and humidity conditions[16]. porosity, tertiary. Porosity caused by solutional enlargement of secondary

131 potential flow. Irrotational flow occurring in potholer. (British.) Explorer of openings in a conservative force field or potential karst formations with emphasis on vertical field[16]. and steep openings; somewhat of a slang term[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologue; potentiometer. An instrument used to (German.) Speläologe, Höhlenforscher; measure voltage differences[16]. (Greek.) erevna karstikon engelon; (Italian.) speleologo; (Spanish.) potentiometric field. As used in karst espeleólogo, explorador de simas; hydrology, a discontinuous highly irregular (Turkish.) dev kazanc2; (Yugoslavian.) surface representing the static ground-water speleolog, jamar. See speleologist, caver. head as indicated by the level to which water rises in a selected piezometer. In potholing. 1. The process of scouring holes some piezometers, the water-level rise will in rock in stream beds or near the strand be greatly different from other piezometers line by rapid rotation of trapped pebbles or (either higher or lower), or may be cobbles; evorsion[10]. 2. (British.) See nonexistent altogether. caving.

potentiometric surface. An imaginary pozo. (Spanish.) See sima. surface representing the total static head of ground water and defined by the level to precipitation. 1. Water precipitating in liquid which water will rise in a piezometer[22]. or solid form from the atmosphere[16]. 2. Replaces the term “piezometric surface.” The growth and development of crystals from solutions that are supersaturated with pothole. 1. A single shaft, or an entire cave respect to various minerals. system that is dominantly vertical. It is also used to describe a single erosional bowl or precipitation excess. That part of moulin, rounded mainly by the swirling precipitation that contributes directly to current, in a stream bed[9]. 2. A small runoff[16]. rounded hole pipe worn into the bedrock of a streambed, or on the coast, or at a precipitation gage. An instrument used to waterfall, by sand, gravel, and stones spun measure the amount of precipitation per around by the current in evorsion or mill unit area[16]. action[20]. 3. Term used in England for vertical or steeply inclined shaft in pressure. The force exerted across a real or limestone[10]. Synonyms: (French.) marmite imaginary surface divided by the area of de géant, aven; (German.) Kolk, that surface. Strudelloch; (Greek.) strongíli opí is petróthi kítin révmatos; (Italian.) marmitta pressure cell. A pressure measuring and dei giganti; (Russian.) karstovaja sahta; transducing device[16]. (Spanish.) marmita de gigante, pilancón; (Turkish.) dev kazan2; (Yugoslavian.) pressure cell. The pressure difference erozioni kotas. See also pit; shaft. occurring between two points along a stream line in a flow system[16].

132 pressure flow tube. Gallery with water prusik knot. A knot tied by looping a smaller flowing under pressure including differential diameter rope around a larger standing line gravity head and artesian pressure[20]. (rope) that has the property of sliding with Synonyms: (French.) galerie en conduite no load on the knot, but will hold when it is forcée; (German.) Druckströmungsröhre, loaded (e.g., when the weight of a caver is Karstgerinne; (Greek.) ypoghion applied)[13]. See also ascender; mechanical ytnatagogos, ypopiesin; (Italian.) condotta ascender; prusiking; standing line. forzata; (Russian.) karstovij kanal s napornimi vodami; (Spanish.) galería (o pseudokarren. These are karren-appearing tubo) saturada; (Turkish.) bas2nçl2 su features that form mostly on insoluble mecras2; (Yugoslavian.) kanal s vodom pod silicate rocks by means of weathering tlakom. See also conduit; streamtube. processes. They appear as a rounded type of Rinnenkarren and less frequently as an pressure head. Hydrostatic pressure atypical form of solution pan[3]. See also expressed as the height of a column of karren; Rinnenkarren; solution pan. water that the pressure can support at the point of measurement[22]. See also head, pseudokarst. 1. Terrane with features similar static; pressure, hydrostatic. to karst but formed in nonsoluble rocks, as by melting of permafrost or ground ice, pressure, hydrostatic. The pressure exerted collapse after mining, and outflow of liquid by the weight of water at any given point in lava from beneath its solidified crust[20]. 2. a body of water at rest[22]. Karstlike terrane produced by a process other than the dissolving of rock, such as prism storage. The storage of water in a the rough surface above a lava field, where river channel or reservoir in prism above the the ceilings of lava tubes have collapsed. original water level[16]. Features of pseudokarst include lava tunnels, lava tubes, lava stalactites, and lava probe. A sensing instrument used to take stalagmites[10]. 3. A landscape containing measurements at the interior of a relatively karstlike features such as caves and dolines, unaccessible system[16]. but not formed by bedrock dissolution as in true karst. Pseudokarst embraces volcanic proto-cave. Natural void that links a potential landscapes with lava caves, cryokarst, or input point and an output point within an thermokarst formed by ground-ice melting aquifer, but which is still too small to be in a permafrost environment, and situations entered by [9]. where mechanical soil piping has occurred, producing depressions and pipes, as occur prusiking. The art of ascending a standing commonly in areas of loess cover[9]. line (rope) by a caver with prusik knots[13] Synonyms: (French.) pseudokarst; as opposed to the use of a mechanical (German.) Pseudokarst; (Greek.) ascender. See also ascender; knots; psevthokarst; (Italian.) pseudocarsismo; mechanical ascender; prusik knot; standing (Russian.) psevdokarst; (Spanish.) line. pseudokarst; (Turkish.) aldat2c2 karst; (Yugoslavian.) pseudoks˜ , pseudokras,

133 pseudokarst, navidezni kras. See lava pyrrhotite. A cave mineral — FeS[11]. cave, lava karst, pahoehoe. pseudo-breccia. A type of limestone resembling a breccia, in which angular limestone fragments are cemented together by limestones of different composition. Pseudo- are common in many preserved limestone sequences and may owe their origin to the dissolutional removal of originally interbedded and interstitial sulfate minerals followed by breakup and redistribution of the residual carbonate component[9]. psychrometer. Apparatus designed to measure relative humidity indirectly[16]. puddle. Water collecting in very small surface depressions[16]. pumping test. A test designed to determine aquifer characteristics by pumping a well and plotting the drawdown curves of observation wells for comparison with theoretical curves. pycnometer. A bottle with an accurately determined volume for density determinations[16].

pyrite. Iron sulfide mineral (FeS2) also known as iron pyrites and fool’s gold. Pyrite occurs in trace amounts in many sedimentary rocks. It may be locally common in dark carbonaceous limestone and in thin noncarbonate beds such as shales, coals, and wayboards. Pyrite may break down spontaneously, with or without bacterial mediation, to form sulfates, particularly sulphuric acid, that may be involved in early speleogensis[9].

134 Q quagmire. A wet unstable land area[16]. quartz. A crystal form of silicon dioxide [16] (SiO2) . quiet reach. The reach of a river with no features disturbing the flow pattern[16].

135 R or lake. The calcite is precipitated mainly in response to evaporation of the pool water, radial flow. 1. Radial flow into or out of a and rafts are therefore found mainly in well under ideal circular boundary caves in arid regions or caves with powerful conditions[16]. 2. The flow of ground water through draughts. in all directions in response to recharge entering the subsurface at or near the top of rain. Liquid precipitation of atmospheric [16] a ground-water plateau. This condition water in the form of droplets . occurs most often through point recharge entering the subsurface via sinkholes in rainfall excess. That portion of rainfall that karst terranes. contributes directly to runoff[16]. radioactive tracer. A tracer used in rainfall intensity. The volume or depth of hydrological direction and velocity rainfall per unit time[16]. determinations[16]. The two most common types are tritium and deuterium. rain gage. An instrument used to measure the height of rainfall[16]. radioactivity log. A log measuring radioactivity in a borehole[16]. rain gage network. An areal distribution of rain gages[16]. radioisotope. An unstable isotope of an element that decays or disintegrates rain intensity. The intensity of rainfall spontaneously, emitting radiation[22]. expressed in depth per time (in/hr)[16]. radionuclide. A radioisotope[22]. randpolje. An enclosed plain at the edge of a karst area receiving surface water from the radionuclide retardation. The process or nonkarstic area. The water drains out processes that cause the time required for a through underground passages in the karst given radionuclide to move between two area. The plain is thus completely enclosed locations to be greater than the ground- by higher ground. Compare blind valley; water travel time, because of physical and karst margin plain[10]. chemical interactions between the radionuclide and the geohydrologic unit rappel. The art of descending a rope using through which the radionuclide travels[22]. some sort of friction between the rope and the rappeller to control the rate of radius of influence. The radial distance from descent[13]. See also carabiner. the center of a well bore to the point where there is no lowering of the water table or rappel rack. A long U-shaped steel bar that potentiometric surface (the edge of its cone holds several brake bars and is used for of depression)[6]. rappelling[13]. See also rappel. raft. A thin sheet of crystalline calcite rappel spool. One of the devices used to supported by surface tension on a cave pool create friction between a rappeller and the

136 rope, consisting of a spool on which the receiver. That part of a remote measuring rope can be wrapped around several system that receives incoming data or times[13]. See also rappel. impulses[16].

rapid. A stream section with a notably higher receiving surface. A surface receiving flow velocity than in adjoining parts[16]. precipitation or radiation[16]. rapid flow. Open channel flow with a Froude recessional moraine. A moraine deposited by number greater than unity[16]. See also a retreating glacier[16]. Froude number. recession curve. The falling limb of a rate of draft. The rate at which water is hydrograph curve[16]. required for use (demand)[16]. recession flow. The flow that occurs after rate of infiltration. The maximum rate at rainfall has ended[16]. which soil can absorb water[16]. recession segment. That part of a hydrograph rating curve. The graphic relationship of that represents the withdrawal of water stage to discharge[16]. from storage[16].

rational formula. An equation relating runoff recharge. 1. The process of addition of water intensity and area to a runoff coefficient[16]. to the saturated zone[22]. 2. The artificial replenishment of a depleted aquifer by ravine. A small erosional depression[16]. See injection or infiltration of water from the chasm. surface[16].

raw sewage. Untreated sewage. recharge, allogenic. Recharge derived from runoff of neighboring or overlying nonkarst raw water. Untreated water[16]. rocks that drains into a karst aquifer. Diffuse allogenic recharge is used to reaction path modeling. A simulation describe the slow percolation of recharge approach to studying the chemical evolution when runoff into direct input points is of a (natural) system[22]. reduced in magnitude, whereas concentrated allogenic recharge is used to rebound. An upward movement of soil as a describe the concentrated recharge that consequence of a decrease in effective occurs by runoff into large fractures, stress. In fine-grained soils, rebound is sinkholes, and sinking streams. usually much less than the amount of compaction, since compaction is mostly recharge area. An area in which water irreversible[21]. reaches the zone of saturation by surface infiltration[22]. See also intake area.

137 recharge, autogenic. Recharge derived from recovery. The water-level rise in a well precipitation directly onto the karst occurring upon the cessation of discharge landscape. Diffuse autogenic recharge is from that well or an observation well. used to describe the slow percolation of recharge through a myriad of small recovery method. A pumping test analysis openings, whereas concentrated autogenic method in which both drawdown and recharge is used to describe the recovery of head after cessation of pumping concentrated recharge that occurs by flow are observed and plotted for the same into large fractures, sinkholes, and sinking observation well[16]. streams. recrystallization. A new formation of recharge capacity. The ability of the soils crystals from solid rock material[16]. and underlying materials to allow precipitation and runoff to infiltrate and reculée. See pocket valley. reach the phreatic zone[22]. redox. A chemical reaction in which an atom recharge line. A series of recharge wells or molecule loses electrons to another atom arranged in linear fashion to approximate a or molecule. Also known as oxidation- line source[16]. reduction. Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of recharge pit. A large diameter well or shaft electrons[6]. for recharge under gravity[16]. redox potential (Eh.) Oxidation-reduction recharge water. Water used for potential[16]. replenishment of a depleted aquifer[16]. . A dissected ridge of rocks totally or recharge well, absorbing well, diffusion partially submerged in sea water; often of well, inverted well. A well that is used to organic origin[16]. recharge water back into an aquifer. Commonly used when aquifer depletion, regelation. The melting of ice under pressure saltwater intrusion, and contaminant and subsequent freezing[16]. migration are problems. region of dispersed water. The diffuse recipient. A vessel receiving liquids in interface between fresh water and sea water volume measurements[16]. caused by mixing in a coastal aquifer[16]. See also transition zone. reclamation. To reclaim land after abusive effects such as strip mining. regolith. A general term for the layer of fragmental and unconsolidated rock recorder. An instrument designed to material that nearly everywhere forms the continuously or intermittently record surface of the land and overlies or covers measurements[16]. the bedrock[6].

138 regosol. Dry sandy soil[16]. developed, usually as a result of base-level changes. regression line. A curve fitted to all mean values of one variable[16]. relief. Elevation differences in topography of a land surface[16]. rejuvenation. A process that interrupts an active erosional or development cycle and relief intensity. The average altitude initiates a new cycle. Rejuvenation is most difference between the highest point of a commonly achieved in the karst and basin and the valley bottom[16]. speleogenesis context by erosional base- level changes caused by relative uplift (or replenishment. The restoration of water in a sea-level fall) or by local water-table depleted aquifer[16]. changes caused by downcutting of surface valleys intercepting deeper drainage lines[9]. resequent river. A river flowing according to a consequent drainage pattern but at a relative humidity of atmosphere. The ratio lower level than the original slope[16]. of absolute humidity to the maximum possible saturation at given conditions[16]. reservoir. 1. A recipient for the collection of small amounts of liquid[16]. 2. A surface relative permeability. See permeability, water impoundment[16]. relative. reservoir evaporation. Evaporation from the relict cave. Abandoned, inactive cave free surface of impounded water bodies[16]. segment, left when the water that formed it is diverted elsewhere, normally through reservoir lake. A lake obtained by the rejuvenation, continuing cave development impoundment of water for storage and increasing karstic maturity. Relict purposes[16]. unmodified phreatic passage segments are abandoned in the , where they residual clay. Clay or sandy clay remaining may remain dry, retaining a typical phreatic on a rock surface after removal of calcium morphology, or be invaded and modified to carbonate by solution. Compare terra a keyhole profile by new streams. Ages of rossa[10]. relict caves vary greatly and because of a lack of stream-flow breakdown and residual drawdown. The rise in water level speleothem deposition may become the in a well in response to cessation of dominant processes. Relict caves are pumping. commonly referred to incorrectly as fossil caves[9]. residual hill. See emergence. relict karst. A karst area that exists within residue. Solids remaining after the contemporary system, but has been evaporation[16]. removed from the situation in which they

139 resurgence. 1. Re-emergence of karst ground diameter or depth, divided by the kinematic water, a part or all of whose waters are viscosity of the liquid; all expressed in derived from surface inflow into ponors at consistent units in order that the higher levels[20]. Point at which an under- combinations will be dimensionless. The ground stream reaches the surface and number is chiefly applicable to closed becomes a surface stream. In European systems of flow, such as pipes or conduits literature, the term is reserved for the re- where there is a free water surface, or to emergence of a stream that has earlier sunk bodies fully immersed in the fluid so the free upstream; the term “exsurgence” is applied surface need not be considered[1]. See also to a stream without known surface Chézy equation; Froude number; Manning headwaters[10]. Synonyms: (French.) equation. résurgence; (German.) Karstquelle; (Greek.) kephalari; (Italian.) risorgenza; rhodamine dye, sulpho rhodamine dye. (Russian.) vihod karstovih vod; (Spanish.) Orange dyes used in environmental tracing resurgencia; (Turkish.) suç2kan; studies that fluoresce red when held under (Yugoslavian.) krs˜ki izvor (vrelo), obrh. a black light. See also fluorescent dyes. See emergence. Compare exsurgence. rice paddy. In a cave, a terraced rimstone retardation factor. The ratio of the average pool[10]. linear velocity of ground water to the velocity of the retarded constituent at ridge. An elongated narrow elevation[16]. [22] C/Co=0.5 . rift. 1. A cave passage that is relatively high retention. 1. The detention of water on and narrow. Generally rifts are straight or surface depressions or in subsurface void nearly so, reflecting that they are commonly space. 2. The retention of water in pores guided by, and developed along, vertical or against gravity[16]. subvertical fissures, joints, and faults[9]. 2. A long narrow high cave passage controlled reverse fault. A fault where relative by joints or faults[10]. movement of the hanging wall has occurred in the upward direction[16]. rift valley. A surface depression due to the formation of graben block faulting[16]. Reynolds number. A numerical quantity used as an index to characterize the type of rill. 1. Small solution groove on surface ex- flow in a hydraulic structure in which posures of limestone; most common in arid resistance to motion depends on the or semiarid areas[10]. 2. Small channel cut viscosity of the liquid in conjunction with by flowing water in the floor, wall, or the resisting force of inertia. It is the ratio ceiling of a cave[20]. 3. The smallest of inertia forces to viscous forces, and is category of stream in any terrane[20]. equal to the product of a characteristic Synonyms: (French.) traces de velocity of the system (e.g., the mean, ruissellement; (German.) Rinne, Kerbe; surface, or maximum velocity) and a (Greek.) riákion; (Italian.) solchi di characteristic linear dimension, such as

140 ruscellamento; (Spanish.) arroyuelo; rimstone barrage, rimstone barrier, rim- (Turkish.) küçük dere, oluk, ark. stone dam. A wall-shaped deposit that impounds pools of water in caves, around Rillenkarren. (German.) Solution flutes that springs, and in of streams occur only in places where fresh unspent saturated with calcium bicarbonate[10]. precipitation is active and end where the Synonym: (French.) gour. See also water attains too high a content of lime or rimstone; rimstone pool. where water is added. Their length increases with slope, temperature, and rimstone pool. A pool sited on a cavern floor rainfall; eventually reaching 1 m and more and enclosed by a rim of carbonate in the tropics, up to 50 cm, and as an reprecipitated from the karst water in the exception, 100 cm in the Alps. Their width pool at points locally favoring the release of extends from 1 to 3 cm. They lie together carbon dioxide[19]. See also rimstone; in rows with no space between, with sharp rimstone barrage. intermediary ridges of no more than 1 cm in height. They increase at all freely exposed Rinnenkarren. (German.) Solution grooves peaks and ridges where fresh rainwater that form where runoff water is collected in alone is at work. The grooves gradually streams. If the whole surface is moistened, flatten out to a smooth surface. Their the amount of water increases downwards, theory of origin is unknown.[3]. Synonyms: with the result that the grooves are widened (German.) Kannelierungen; solution flute; and deepened at the bottom. This and firstkarren. distinguishes them from other similar forms. When the slope is slight they are coiled, but Rillenstein. (German.) Microsolution become straighter with increasing grooves and pitting on rock surface[10]. inclination. They are sometimes interpreted to be subcutaneous forms that develop rimstone. 1. A wall-shaped deposit around below soil cover, but this is believed to be a springs and below cascades which rare occurrence. They are found in all impounds water in pools. Its formation is climates. In arid zones, they exist as relics due to precipitation from saturated of the past when the climate was damper[3]. bicarbonate waters[20]. 2. Calcareous deposits formed around the rims of ripple mark. A wavelike sculpture on water overflowing basins, especially in caves[10]. covered sand surfaces obtained by wave Synonyms: (French.) gour; (German.) action[16]. Sinterbecken; (Greek.) frágma, epiphliomatos; (Italian.) vasche rise. (Jamaican.) Spring rising from fractures d’incrostazione; (Russian.) natecnaja in limestone. Point at which an plotina; (Spanish.) dique travertínico; underground stream comes to the (Turkish.) sedde, kenartaÕ2. See surface[10]. constructive waterfall, rimstone barrage, rimstone pool. rise pit. An artesian spring rising up through alluvium accumulated in an earlier surface valley phase and often fringed, except on

141 the outlet side, by a minor levee deposited river bed. The channel of a river covered by as the force of the vertical discharge water[16]. dissipates at the surface[19]. river reach. A particular segment of a riser. A pipe through which liquid rises in a river[16]. well[16]. river swamp. A swamp in lowlands adjoining riser pipe. A pipe through which water is a river[16]. raised in a production well[16]. river system. The system of a main river that rising. 1. The resurgence of an underground includes all its branches and tributaries[16]. watercourse, usually at the base margin of the calcareous massif, although in the river terrace. A level land terrace formed in instance of a blind valley the rising has a valley by fluviatile erosion or eroded headwards for some distance. Each aggradation[16]. rising accounts for the collective discharge of several sinks and in this way has a rivulet. A very small stream[16]. relatively high discharge as the sole drainage outlet for a large area. If the rock. Consolidated mineral matter of igneous, water issues freely, the rising is said to be sedimentary, or metamorphic origin[16]. “free-flowing,” but if it issues under pressure, the terms “artesian,” “forced,” or rock fall. See cave breakdown. “vauclusian spring” are used (after the type- example of the resurgence of the Sorgue rock formation. A lithologically or river at Vaucluse in France)[19]. 2. An issue structurally distinct part of the of water from massive limestone that lithosphere[16]. cannot be classed with certainty as either a resurgence or a spring[20]. Synonyms: rock-hill. See karren, rill. (French.) émergence; (German.) Ausflußtelle, Karstquelle; (Greek.) rock milk. Less common synonym for kephalari; (Italian.) sorgente; (Russian.) moonmilk[9]. See moonmilk. vihod karstovih vod; (Spanish.) emergencia; (Turkish.) yüzeye yükseliÕ; rock pendant. See pendant. (Yugoslavian.) krs˜ ko vrelo, krs˜ki izvor, obrh. See also emergence; exsurgence; re- rock pillar. A residual isolated mass of surgence. bedrock linking the roof or overhanging wall and floor of a cave, in contrast with a rising segment. That part of a hydrograph column, which to composed of dripstone or curve that represents a rise in water level as flowstone[10]. See column; pillar. a result of precipitation[16]. rock pinnacle. A tall sharp projection of river. A natural water course through which bedrock rising from the floor of a cave[10]. runoff reaches the sea[16].

142 rock shelter. 1. Shallow cave under an over- roof drainage. Precipitation runoff from hanging rock ledge. Many sea caves are roofs. rock shelters. Also found in limestone and other rock types where streams have roof pocket. Blind upward extension into the undercut their banks at bends, or where ceiling of a cave passage, commonly there has been abrasion by blowing sand. enlarged by dissolution along a transverse Common in tropical areas at places where a fracture, and less extensive than an aven or secondarily hardened layer of limestone chimney[9]. forms a ledge that projects over unindurated limestone[10]. 2. A wide but roof slab. See ceiling slab. shallow cavity in any rock; in carbonate rock often formed below a noncarbonate room. A part of a cave system that is wider layer[20]. Synonyms: (French.) abri sous than a passage[10]. Synonym: (British.) roche, balme, baume; (German.) chamber. Halbhöhle, weite aber flache Höhle; (Greek.) kataphyion; (Italian.) riparo sotto root karren. These are small, relatively flat roccia, androne; (Spanish.) abrigo, balma; karrens that are formed beneath compact (Turkish.) kaya si™ina™i; (Yugoslavian.) soils where roots etch into the limestone[3]. potkapina, okapina, polupeƒina, spodmol, See also covered karren; wave karren. zijalka. root zone. The zone in a soil profile rock system. Rocks deposited during a given penetrated by plant roots[16]. geological time period[16]. rotating meter. A stream velocity meter that rock terrace. A terrace formed by erosional transforms stream momentum into angular action and denudation[16]. momentum by vanes and rotor[16]. rock texture. The geometrical aspects and roughness. An unevenness of surfaces giving arrangement of the component particles of rise to high flow resistances[16]. a rock[16]. roughness coefficient. A coefficient that rockfall. The falling of bedrock from a cliff or describes roughness of a channel bed[16]. steep slope[16]. round karren. See Rundkarren. romanechite. A cave mineral — [11] BaMn9O16(OH)4 . roundness. The degree to which a sand grain approaches spherical shape[16]. roof crust. Flowstone deposited on ceilings of caves from thin films of water, which rout, to. The action of predicting and have crept over the rock from pore or crack directing of flood waves through a channel sources[10]. system[16].

143 run dry, to. The cessation of flow from a well or spring[16].

Rundkarren. (German.) 1. Karren forms with rounded edges; formed by soil water than cannot flow freely because of the tightness of soil pores and thus corrodes away all edges and points. The small karren forms disappear; grooves and grikes are widened and deepened. One or two centuries after being laid bare, the earlier rounded edge is only just recognizable, so round karren and their remains provide evidence of an earlier soil covering[3]. 2. Karren form comprising rounded channels, commonly 50-500 mm deep and wide and separated by rounded ridges. Rundkarren are the characteristic dissolutional form created beneath superficial material such as sandy till, peat or other soil, or beneath a cover of plants or lichen[9]. Synonym: round karren. See also Karren. runoff. 1. The discharge of water through the surface streams of a drainage basin[16]. 2. The sum of surface runoff and ground- water flow that reaches a stream[16]. runoff coefficient. A dimensionless coefficient to estimate runoff as a certain percentage of storm rainfall[16]. rupture. That stage in the development of a fracture where instability occurs. It is not recommended that the term “rupture” be used in rock mechanics as a synonym for “fracture.”

144 S salt lake. A lake containing high salt concentrations and usually not having any [16] sabath. See hardpan, nari. outflow . safe yield. The amount of water that can be salt tolerance. The resistance of crops to salt [16] safely withdrawn from an aquifer without concentration . causing undue effects such as aquifer depletion. saltation. Solid matter transported by a stream by the action of leaping movement safe yield of stream. The lowest dry weather over the stream bed. See also saltation flow of a stream[16]. load. saline spring. See spring, saline. saltation load. The solid matter transported by streams[16]. saline water. Water that generally is considered unsuitable for human saltwater intrusion. The movement of salt [22] consumption or for irrigation because of its water into fresh water aquifers . high content of dissolved solids. Generally expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) of sampling. The taking of small quantities of dissolved solids, with 35,000 mg/L defined water or porous media for analysis[16]. as sea water, slightly saline is 1,000-3,000 mg/L, moderately saline is 3,000-10,000 sand. Unconsolidated detrital rock mg/L, very saline is 10,000-35,000 mg/L, material[16]. and brine is more than 35,000 mg/L[22]. sand pipe. See solution pipe. salinity stratification. The stratification of water in because of salinity- sand stalagmite. A stalagmite formed on density differences[16]. sand and made of calcite-cemented sandstone[10]. salt dome. A domelike intrusion of a mobile salt core into sedimentary rock[16]. sandstone caves. Most natural sandstone caves are surface river-cut notches at the salt karst. Areas in which karst landforms are foot of rock cliffs, or left partway up the developed upon halite or halite-rich rock, cliff by later downcutting. This origin which are generally small and limited to arid accounts for most of the caves once regions, are referred to as salt karst. inhabited by the Pueblo Indians in the Except in desert regions, dissolution of rock sandstone cliffs of the western USA. True salt occurs in buried, interstratal, situations, caves do occur in sandstone, and some of and the effects of such dissolution at the these appear to be at least partially of surface include subsidence pipes or wider dissolutional origin. Their existence subsidence areas, such as those represented probably reflects matrix leaching by ground by the meres and “flashes” in the Cheshire water moving through zones of especially Plain, England[9]. high primary porosity and permeability.

145 Though sandstones with a calcite matrix scale. 1. A very thin and flat rock fragment[16]. cement are more prone to such 2. The accumulation of precipitated solid development, even siliceous cement, which material. 3. The ratio of prototype to has a very low solubility in water, may be model dimensions. removed during a sufficiently long time span. The sandstone caves of the scaling chip. A thin, small, rather irregular Sarisarinama Plateau, , may be a piece of limestone, commonly crumbly, that special case of this type of development. has fallen from the ceiling or wall of a cave. These include shafts 300 m in diameter and A form of cave breakdown[10]. 200 m deep, and passages up to 500 m long. They were probably cut in the quartz scaling factor. The ratio of characteristics of sandstone by underground streams, after a model to those of the prototype[16]. early leaching of the cement by hydrothermal solutions, and the shafts have scaling plate. A small flat piece of rock of been modified by later collapse[9]. rectangular or polygonal shape that has fallen to the floor of a cave. A form of cave saturated flow. Single-phase flow when all breakdown in thin-bedded impure limestone voids are filled[16]. Not to be confused with cut by closely spaced joints[10]. chemical saturation. scallop. 1. A spoon-shaped hollow carved in saturated water. Water that is in chemical a cave wall, floor, or ceiling through equilibrium with its enclosing media and is erosion by eddies in flowing water. thus nonagressive. Water, at about 25"C, Scallops are commonly closely packed, in contact with calcite and the normal leaving sharp ridges at the intersects. They atmosphere, will contain approximately 30 range from 10 mm to 1 m in length, and as to 50 ppm of Ca when saturated, variations a general rule the smaller they are the faster being due mainly to differing pH. flowing was the water that carved them. Determination of the saturation point of The scallops are generally asymmetrical, natural waters is complex[20]. Synonyms: with their upstream end steeper than the (French.) eau saturée; (German.) downstream end — a useful indicator of gesättigtes Waßer; (Greek.) koresménon paleo-flow direction in abandoned ýdor; (Italian.) acqua satura; (Spanish.) passages[9]. 2. Oval hollow having an agua saturada; (Turkish.) doygun su; asymmetric cross-section along its main (Yugoslavian.) zasiƒena voda. axis. Scallops form patterns on the walls of caves and in streambeds and may be used to saturated zone. See phreatic zone and zone determine direction of flow of turbulent of saturation. water, since they are steeper on the upstream side. Commonly called “flutes” in saturation regime. A flow regime in America[10]. Synonyms: (French.) completely saturated porous medium[16]. cannelure, vague d’érosion; (German.) in Fließrichtung des Waßers ausgezogener saturation, zone of. See phreatic zone and Kolk; (Greek.) kílon o-oïthés; (Spanish.) zone of saturation.

146 huella de corriente; (Turkish.) de™irmi, due to wave action. Caves of this type on tarak. See also flute. the coast of Tongatapu, Tonga, have pools that connect with active dissolutional scar. (Northern England.) Steep rock cliff in cavities below sea level that might be limestone country often indicating outcrop related to the mixing zone[9]. 2. A cave or of relatively bare and massively bedded cleft in a sea cliff or coastal karst outcrop limestone[20]. Synonyms: (French.) eroded by waves or currents or dissolved by cicatrice, griffure; (German.) Klippe; circulating ground water[20]. Synonyms: (Greek.) oulí; (Spanish.) ceja (in central (French.) grotte marine; (German.) ); (Turkish.) kireçtaÕ2 dik yar2. Küstenhöhle, Meereshöhle; (Greek.) thalassion spelson - paraktion speleon; Schichtfugenkarren. (German.) See bedding (Italian.) grotta marina; (Russian.) grike. morskaja pescera; (Spanish.) cueva marina; (Turkish.) deniz ma—aras2; (Yugoslavian.) scholzite. A cave mineral — morska peƒina (spilja). See cave. Compare [11] CaZn2(PO4)2"2H2O . nip. See also littoral zone. scour. The erosive action of running water in sea estavelle. Submarine or seashore opening streams[16]. in karst formations that at one season or period discharges round water (fresh or screen, screen pipe. Slotted well casing that brackish) from the aquifer into the seabed is positioned within the producing horizon and at another season or period draws sea to prevent the inflow of detrital particles water into the aquifer by a vacuum[20]. into a well while allowing the inflow of Synonyms: (French.) estavelle marine; water. See also well screen. (German.) submarine Estavelle; (Greek.) estavelle thalassia (estavella); (Italian.) sea cave. 1. A cave cut in any rock type Estavella sottomarina, sorgente where a geological weakness is exploited by sottomarina a flusso alterno; (Spanish.) the highly selective erosion power of wave estavela marina; (Turkish.) sahil batar action. Fingal’s Cave, cut in the of ç2kar2. Staffa, Scotland, is a famous example. True sea caves should not be confused with sea level. The average height of the surface of dissolutional caves that pre-dated the wave the sea, used as a datum for elevations[16]. action but were then intersected and revealed as a cliff line was eroded back, sealing-grout, grout. Cement grout injected such as caves in the Chalk at Beachy Head between a well casing and the borehole wall in southeast England. In some young (annular space) to seal off an aquifer from tropical islands, dissolutional voids have external contamination. formed below sea level in the mixing zone between fresh and saline ground water. sea-mill. A mill whose motive power is Some have subsequently been tectonically derived from the flow of water into (or uplifted into a shoreline position, to give the possibly out of) a sea estavelle; the classical misleading impression of having developed example is on the Vinaria Peninsulas, at

147 Argostolion, Kephallinia[20]. Synonyms: surface and usually restricted to the very (French.) moulin de la mer, moulin slow movement of ground water. 2. The d’Argostoli; (German.) Meermühle; fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 3. The (Greek.) thalassomylos; (Spanish.) molino amount of fluid discharged at a seep[22]. 4. de mar; (Turkish.) deniz suyu de™irmeni; The slow flow of water through a porous (Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica. See sea medium. 5. The movement of water in estavelle. unsaturated soil[16]. sea ponor. A submarine opening in karst seepage face. A boundary between the formations where seawater flows or is saturated flow field and the atmosphere drawn by a vacuum into the aquifer[20]. along which ground water discharges, either Synonyms: (French.) perte sous-marine; by evaporation or movement “downhill” (German.) submariner Ponor; (Greek.) along the land surface or in a well as a thin ypothalassia katavothra; (Italian.) film in response to the force of gravity[22]. inghiottitoio sottomarino; (Spanish.) sumidero marino; (Turkish.) denizalte seepage force. The frictional drag of water suyutan2; (Yugoslavian.) morska vodenica, flowing through voids or interstices in rock, morski ponor. See ponor. causing an increase in the intergranular pressure (i.e., the hydraulic force per unit sea water intrusion. See saltwater intrusion. volume of rock or soil that results from the flow of water and that acts in the direction secondary interstices. Voids formed in a of flow). rock after the rock had been formed[16]. seepage line. 1. The uppermost level at which secondary porosity. Porosity created after flowing water emerges along a seepage rock formation through fracturing, leaching, face[22]. 2. The upper free water surface of etc. the zone of seepage. Synonymous with line of seepage, phreatic line[22]. sedimentation. The deposition of solid disintegrated rock material by water, wind, seepage path. The trajectory of fluid particles or gravity transport[16]. in seepage flow[16]. . The transport of eroded seepage rate. The rate of seepage flow[16]. rock material by moving water or wind[16]. seepage spring; filtration spring. See seep. 1. An area, generally small, where water spring, seepage. or oil percolates slowly to the land surface. See seepage and spring[22]. 2. To move seepage surface. The outflow surface slowly through small openings of a porous between water level and the intersection of material[22]. the phreatic surface in a well[16]. seepage. 1. The infiltration or percolation of seepage velocity. See specific discharge. water through rock or soil to or from the

148 selenite. Bladelike crystals of gypsum[9]. and (or) collapse[10]. 3. A vertical passage in a cave[10]. 4. A vertical and usually large self-cleaning capacity. The capacity of a diameter hole penetrating geologic river to clean its water of pollutants over a formations for access of subsurface given length of water course[16]. points[16]. See jama, karst shaft. See also pit; pothole (definition 2). selenite needles. A sulfate speleothem having the shape of a needle that grows from shake; shakehole. (England; sometimes gypsiferous cave soils[13]. See also spelled shackhole.) 1. Term used mainly by speleothem. cavers to indicate a doline, especially one formed by subsidence. 2. Hole formed by semiconfined aquifer. See leaky aquifer. solution, subsidence, and compaction in loose drift or alluvium overlying beds of sepiolite. A cave mineral — limestone[10]. 3. Small subsidence or [11] Mg4Si6O15(OH)2"6H2O . doline formed in the glacial till overlying limestones in the northern series. A subdivision of rock according to age Pennies. See jama. at which they were laid down in a geologic epoch[16]. shall sand. Sand containing considerable amounts of clay and shale[16]. setting of cement. The process of hardening of cement[16]. shawl. Simple triangular-shaped curtain[10]. settling basin. A basin used for the settling shear plane. A plane along which failure of out of solids from suspension[16]. material occurs by shearing. settling velocity. The terminal velocity at shear stress. See stress, shear. which a particle will fall through a fluid[16]. sheet. A thin coating of calcium carbonate sewage. Domestic and municipal wastes[16]. formed on walls, shelves, benches, and terraces by trickling water[10]. shaft. 1. Vertical, or steeply inclined, sections of a cave passage, of enormously varied sheet erosion. Erosion occurring over size. The world’s deepest known shaft is widespread tabular sedimentary or effusive the entrance shaft of Brezno pod Velbom rock[16]. on the Kanin plateau, Slovenia; it is 501 m deep, with no ledges. Much debate sheet jointing. Fracturing of tensile surrounds statistics on the depths of fully character, mostly in granitoid rocks, parallel underground shafts, which may be broken to the land surface. Sheet jointing is by ledges, but among the deepest is a shaft developed either by load release or about 430 m deep in Italy’s Abisso di temperature differences. Monte Novegno[9]. 2. A cylindrical tube, generally steep sided, that forms by solution

149 [16] shield; cave shield. 1. A thin circular disc of silicic acid. H4SiO4 monomeric acid . calcite projecting from a cave wall at any

upward inclination, commonly a meter or silicon dioxide. Silica (SiO2.) See also quartz. more in diameter and with the underside draped with stalactites and curtains. The Silikatkarren. (German.) Granites and shield is actually a double disc with a thin related rocks that possess small outcrop central crack that acts as the continuation of sculpturing such as rounded runnels. They a wallrock fracture. It grows by water are best developed in the humid tropics moving up the crack under pressure and such as [8]. depositing calcite on both sides of its outer rim. Shields are rare, but Lehman Cave, silt. A grain particle with a diameter that , has more than a hundred of ranges between 0.005 to 0.05 mm[16]. them[9]. 2. A disk-shaped speleothem standing edgewise at a high angle[10]. 3. A silting. The deposition of silt in wells, caves, geologically stable and undisturbed or [16]. continental block[16]. sima. (Spanish.) Natural well that has vertical shilin. A type of pinnacle karst formed on sides[10]. low plateau of gently dipping limestone; it is distinguished by densely packed pinnacles similarity criteria. The conditions indicating up to 25m high, fluted by sharp under what circumstances a model and Rillenkarren. Known only in southern prototype are similar[16]. China, shilin (pronounced sherlin) translates as “stone forest”[9]. simple hydrograph. A single-peaked hydrograph[16]. shore. The zone of separation between land and moving water[16]. single outlet. A stream cutting through a divide (tributary basin) or outflow to the sea sieve analysis. The determination of the (major basin)[16]. particle-size distribution of a soil, sediment, or rock by measuring the percentage of the sink; sinkhole. (American.) 1. A point where particles that will pass through standard a stream or river disappears underground. sieves of various sizes[6]. The sinking water may filter through a choke that excludes cavers, or may flow sieve opening. The opening between the into an open horizontal cave or vertical mesh wires of a sieve[16]. shaft, and while active all of these may be termed sinkholes. The flow of water may sieve retention. The material retained on a be very small, but in full flood many sieve[16]. sinkholes swallow flows of tens of cubic meters per second. The character of sink silicate rock. Rock containing silica in water (or swallet water, as it is commonly predominant proportions[16]. termed by hydrologists), flowing directly and rapidly into an open cave, distinguishes

150 it from percolation water[9]. 2. General travertin, sedra, bigar, lehnjak. Related to terms for closed depressions. They may be travertine. basin, funnel, or cylindrical shaped[10]. See also closed depression; doline; ponor; siphon. 1. Synonym for a sump, or a section stream sink; sumidero; swallet; swallow of flooded cave passage, in common hole. parlance. True , where water flows first up and then down, are rare in caves, as sinkhole plain. (American.) Plain on which the fractures in limestone tend to disrupt the most of the local relief is due to closed required hydraulics. They are, however, the depressions and nearly all drainage is origin of such intermittent springs as the subterranean[10]. Fontestorbes spring in France and the Ebbing and Flowing Well at Giggleswick, sinkhole pond. (American.) Small lake in Yorkshire. Both flow in regular pulses closed depression in limestone, due to an when the siphon is full and working, only to impervious clay floor or to intersection of cease when the siphon input is broken by depression with the water table[10]. See air, as the upstream reservoir level drops. doline lake. Their operation depends on critical flows, and both operate only in favorable weather sinking river, sinking stream. A small conditions[9]. 2. Gallery in form of an stream that disappears underground[10]. See inverted U with water moving only under also lost river; doline; ponor; sink; pressure when the siphon has completely sinkhole; stream sink; sumidero; swallet; filled up; the water head at the input end swallow hole. being higher than at the drainage point[20]. 3. In speleology, a cave passage in which sinter. 1. A rock or deposit formed by the ceiling dips below a water surface[10]. precipitation from natural water, often from Synonyms: (French.) siphon; (German.) a hot or cold spring. Calcareous sinter is Siphon; (Greek.) siphon; (Italian.) sifone; calcium carbonate and is also known as (Russian.) sifon; (Spanish.) sifon; (Turkish.) tufa, travertine, and onyx marble. Siliceous sifon; (Yugoslavian.) sifon, smrk. See also sinter is silica and is also known as water trap. and [20]. 2. A mineral precipitate deposited by a mineral spring, either hot or site characterization. Means the program of cold. Siliceous sinter, consisting of silica, exploration and research, both in the may be called geyserite and fluorite; cal- laboratory and in the field, undertaken to careous sinter, consisting of calcium establish the geologic conditions and the carbonate, may be called tufa, travertine, ranges of those parameters relevant to a and onyx marble[10]. Synonyms: (French.) particular site. Site characterization concrétion; (German.) Sinter, Kalktuff, includes borings, surface excavations, Travertin; (Greek.) asvestolithikos toffos; excavation of exploratory shafts, limited (Italian.) concrezione; (Russian.) otlozenija subsurface lateral excavations and borings, istocnikov; (Spanish.) concreción; and in situ testing at depth needed to (Turkish.) kaynak tüfü; (Yugoslavian.) determine the suitability of the site for a geologic repository, but does not include

151 preliminary borings and geophysical testing snow cover; snowpack. The accumulated needed to decide whether site height of snow covering a given area[16]. characterization should be undertaken[22]. snow line. A line connecting elevations above skin effect. The effect of the zone of reduced which snowpack remains throughout the permeability immediately around the year[16]. borehole on transient flow phenomena in pumping tests[16]. snow sampler. A tube used for the taking of cylindrical snow samples through a snow skryty0 karst, zakryty0 karst. (Russian.) See profile[16]. closed karst. snowdrift. Snow accumulation due to wind skylight. A hole in the roof of a cave passage transport[16]. through to the ground surface. It may be an inlet shaft, a section of collapse, or a sod. Root system in a soil[16]. breach due to surface lowering[9]. . 1. Proto-stalactite in which water slickenside. 1. A polished, commonly striated flows down through the center of the straw. rock surface within a fault plane, produced Upon entering a vadose cave passage, the by friction during fault movement. The change in the of carbon

striae give an indication of the fault dioxide causes CO2 degassing and the slow [9] movement direction . 2. A polished fault precipitation of CaCO3. The straw grows plane with grooves from relative motion of downwards as a result; water also flows fault blocks[16]. down the outside of the straw, causing the stalactite to grow outwards around the sliding. 1. The relative displacement of two straw. 2. American name for straw bodies along a surface, without loss of stalactite[9]. contact between the bodies. 2. The downslope movement of rock and earth soddy karst. See subsoil karst. material[16]. sodium. A naturally occurring element (Na). slocker. Local term used in the eastern , England, for a swallet or soil aggregate. Loosely cemented cluster of stream sink[9]. soil particles[16].

slope. The inclination of a surface[16]. soil air. The air that fills soil and rock interstices above the zone of saturation[10]. slump pit. A hollow in the clay fill of a cave floor caused by erosion beneath the fill[10]. soil bulk density. The mass of dry soil per unit bulk soil[22]. [11] smithsonite. A cave mineral — ZnCO3 . soilcover. A layer of soil material covering snow. Solid crystalline form of water[16]. bedrock[16].

152 soil-covered karst. See subsoil karst. solid volume. The volume of solid particles in a porous sample[16]. soil mechanics. The science of dealing with the mechanical properties of soils[16]. . The slow flowage of mud streams in arctic regions. soil moisture. Subsurface liquid water in the unsaturated zone, expressed as a fraction of solubility. The total amount of solute species the total porous medium volume occupied that will remain indefinitely in a solution by water. It is less than or equal to the maintained at constant temperature and porosity[22]. pressure in contact with the solid crystals from which the solutes were derived[22]. soil-moisture meter. A device used to record soil moisture in situ[16]. solum. The top layers of a soil profile[16]. soil-moisture suction. The negative pore solute. The substance present in a solution in pressure exerted by capillary forces[16]. the smaller amount. For convenience, water is generally considered the solvent soil profile. A vertical section of the soil even in “concentrated” solutions with water mantle, usually with distinguishable soil molecules in the minority[22]. horizons[16]. solute transport. The net flux of solute soil sample. A sample of soil on which soil through a hydrogeologic unit controlled by properties are to be determined[16]. the flow of subsurface water and transport mechanisms[22]. soil swelling. The volume increase of soil due to swelling of unsaturated clay particles solution. 1. Synonym for dissolution, except when in contact with water[16]. that the product of the solution (or dissolution) process is also termed a soil water. See soil moisture. solution, this being a combination of liquid and nonliquid (solid or gaseous) soil-water pressure. The pressure (positive components that exists as a liquid[9]. 2. A or negative), in relation to the external gas homogeneous mixture of two or more pressure on the soil water, to which a components. In ideal solutions, the solution identical in composition with the movement of molecules in charged species soil water must be subjected in order to be are independent of each other; in aqueous in equilibrium through a porous permeable solutions charged species interact even at wall with the soil water[22]. very low concentrations, decreasing the activity of the solutes[22]. 4. The change of soilwater zone. The upper portion of the matter from a solid or gaseous state to a zone of aeration containing soil water[16]. liquid state by combination with a liquid[10]. 5. The result of such change; a liquid solid matrix. An assembly of interconnected combination of a liquid and a nonliquid solid mineral grains surrounded by voids[16]. substance[10]. See corrosion.

153 solution breccia. A mass of rock composed solution scarp. Escarpment formed by more of angular to rounded fragments of rock active solution of lower area or by that have accumulated by solution of corrosional undercutting of the base of the surrounding or underlying carbonate. See escarpment[10]. also collapse breccia. solution subsidence. 1. Any subsidence due solution flutes. See rillenkarren. to solution of underlying rock, but par- ticularly the subsidence of parts of a solution lake. A lake whose origin is formation into hollows or pockets of an attributed largely to solution of underlying immediately underlying soluble rock. formation[10]. 2. A craterlike doline in rock other than karst limestone, formed by solution notch. These form wherever humic surface subsidence above solutionally soil borders on a very steep or vertical enlarged fissures in a subsurface karst limestone surface. The rock becomes limestone stratum[19]. Synonyms: (French.)

undercut by water rich in biogenic CO2. In affaissement par dissolution; (German.) the cone karst of the humid tropics, foot Lösungstaschen, Lösungstrichter; (Greek.) caves occur, which are oversized katakáthisma thiá thialíseos; (Italian.) enlargements of solution notches[3]. subsidenza per dissoluzione, subsidenza per suberosione; (Russian.) prosedanie solution pan. Shallow solution basin or vsledstvie rastvorenija; (Spanish.) closed depression formed on bare subsidencia por disolucion; (Turkish.) limestone, generally characterized by flat erime alçal2m2; (Yugoslavian.) korozivno bottom and overhanging sides[10]. The urus˜ avanje. initial form is a closed hollow created by a humus patch. It may have overhanging side sorption. 1. A general term used to walls and a flat floor covered by algae and encompass the process of absorption and small pieces of broken rock. Diameters are adsorption[22]. 2. All processes that remove rarely greater than 15 cm[3]. Synonyms: solutes from the fluid phase and concentrate (German.) Kamenitza or Kamenica, then on the solid phase of the medium[22]. opferkessel; (British.) panhole; (Spanish.) tinajita. See Kamenica. sótano. (Spanish for cellar or .) Term used in Mexico for deep vertical solution pipe. A vertical cylindrical hole shafts in limestone, which may or may not attributable to solution, often without lead to a cave[10]. surface expression, filled with debris, such as sand, clay, rock chips, and bones[10]. spangolite. A cave mineral — [11] Synonym: sand pipe. See also geologic Cu6Al(SO4)(OH)12"3H2O . organ. specific capacity. The rate of discharge of solution runnel. See Rinnenkarren. water from a well per unit of drawdown. It is commonly expressed as gpm/ft or

154 m3/day/m and varies with pumping test spelean. Of, pertaining to, or related to duration[6]. caves[10]. specific conductance. A measure of the speleogen. A secondary cave structure ability of water to conduct an electrical formed by dissolving, such as a dome pit or current expressed in micromhos per a scallop[10]. centimeter at 25EC[22]. speleogenesis. Although the term literally specific discharge. The rate of discharge of means the birth, origin, or mode of ground water per unit area of a porous formation of caves, the full extent of medium measured at right angle to the speleogenesis includes all the changes that direction of flow. Synonyms: Darcy take place between the inception and the velocity; seepage velocity. eventual destruction of an underground drainage system. It includes development specific drawdown. The amount of phases during which the active drainage drawdown per unit discharge in a well[16]. voids are too small to be considered caves as normally defined, as well as phases when specific gravity. The weight of a particular the cave no longer functions as a drain, is volume of water that a given body of rock enlarging only by collapse and, eventually, or soil will hold against the pull of gravity is being totally removed[9]. to the volume of the body itself. It is usually expressed as a percentage[6]. speleogenetics. The totality of all processes that affect the creation and development of specific retention, water retaining capacity. natural underground cavities. These The ratio of the volume of water that a comprise corrosion, erosion, and incasion, given body of rock or soil will hold against but are also influenced by lithology, the pull of gravity to the volume of the tectonics, and climate. body itself. It is usually expressed as a percentage[6]. speleologist. 1. A scientist engaged in the study and exploration of caves, their specific storage. The volume of water environment, and their biota[10]. 2. Explorer released from or taken into storage per unit of caves, caverns, and other underground volume of the porous medium per unit openings, especially in karst. “Caver” and change in head[6]. “potholer” are slang terms[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologue; (German.) specific surface. The ratio of grain particle Höhlenforscher, Speläologe; (Greek.) surface to the volume of grain particles[16]. speleologos; (Italian.) speleologo; (Russian.) speleolog; (Spanish.) specific yield. The ratio of the volume of espeleólogo; (Turkish.) speleolo, water that a given mass of saturated rock or ma™arabilimci; (Yugoslavian.) speleolog, soil will yield by gravity to the volume of spiljar, jamar. that mass. This ratio is stated as a percentage[6].

155 speleology. 1. Scientific study of caves, concrezione; (Russian.) natecnia including aspects of sciences, such as obrazovanija; (Spanish.) concreción geomorphology, geology, hydrology, (estalagmítica o estalactítica); (Turkish.) chemistry, and biology, and also the many magara oluÕu™u; (Yugoslavian.) sige. See techniques of cave exploration[9]. 2. The also cave formation. scientific study, exploration, and description of caves, cave organisms, and related spelunker. See caver. features[10]. 3. The branch of knowledge dealing with the study and exploration of spelunking. See caving. underground caves[20]. 4. Study, exploration, and description of caves, spencerite. A cave mineral — [11] caverns, and other underground cavities in Zn4(PO4)2(OH)2"3H2O . karst and, rarely, in lavas or ice[20]. Synonyms: (French.) spéléologie; sphalerite. A cave mineral — ZnS[11]. (German.) Höhlenforschung, Höhlenkunde; (Greek.) speleologhia; (Italian.) spillway. A device that allows for the escape speleologia; (Russian.) speleologija; of excess water[16]. (Spanish.) espeleología; (Turkish.) speleoloji, ma™arabilim; (Yugoslavian.) Spitzkarren. (German.) These are isolated speleologija, peƒinarstvo, jamarstvo. projections that may be of a beehive form or may be sharply pointed and tend to lie speleothem. 1. General term for all cave between grikes and the strike ribs of mineral deposits, embracing all stalactites, bedding grikes[8]. See also grike; bedding flowstone, flowers, etc. Most are formed grike; clint. of calcite, whose precipitation processes, related mainly to carbon dioxide levels in Spitzkegelkarst. (German.) Tropical karst the water, are the direct reverse of the topography containing sharply pointed dissolution of limestone. Climatic residual limestone hills[10]. influences on dissolution processes ensure that speleothems are generally larger and splash cup. The shallow concavity in the top more abundant in the caves of the wet of a stalagmite[10]. tropics, which are typified by thick stalactites and massive stalagmites, in spongework. 1. Randomly shaped cavities contrast to the straws and of created by undirected phreatic dissolution in alpine caves[9]. 2. General term for a massive, essentially homogeneous stalactites, stalagmites, moonmilk, limestone. Fine examples occur in Carlsbad helictites, and other secondary mineral Caverns, New Mexico[9]. 2. An deposits in caves and caverns[20]. 3. A arrangement of partitioned depressions secondary mineral deposit formed in caves, found in cave ceilings and walls, and such as stalactite or stalagmite[10]. attributed to the differential solution of Synonyms: (French.) concrétions submerged karst limestones. Larger and cavernicoles; (German.) Höhlenformation; more isolated hollows are known as (Greek.) speleolithoma; (Italian.) “pockets”[19].

156 spongework cave pattern. A complex maze 4. A discrete place where ground water cave pattern consisting of irregular flows naturally from a rock or the soil onto interconnecting cavities with intricate the land surface or into a body of surface perforation of the rock. The cavities may water[22]. Synonyms: (French.) source; be large or small. All spongework patterns (German.) Quelle; (Greek.) pighi; (Italian.) are nonbranching in development and sorgente; (Russian.) istocnik; (Spanish.) contain profuse travertine. In map view, fuente; (Turkish.) kynak. See also seep. these caves often appear as an irregular inkblot. spring, artesian. Water flowing under artesian pressure with the potentiometric spontaneous potential. See self-potential. surface above the land surface[16]. spore tracer. Dye spores of the fern spring, barrier. A subsurface barrier forcing Lycopodium clavatum, used to label ground water to rise to ground surface and water in karstic terranes. Synonyms: discharge as a spring[16]. (French.) traceur marqueur; (German.) Sporenmarkierung; (Greek.) lycopodium spring, boiling. 1. An uncommon type of ichnithetis; (Italian.) tracciante vegetale; vauclusian spring, where the flow is large (Spanish.) trazador de esporas; (Turkish.) enough in a constricted site to form spor izleyici. See isotope tracer, turbulence on the surface of the resurgence Lycopodium spores. pool[9]. 2. (Jamaican.) A. variable-discharge artesian spring in which hydrostatic spring. 1. Point where underground water pressure is great enough to cause a emerges onto the surface, not exclusive to turbulent or even fountainlike discharge[19]. limestone, but generally larger in cavernous See also . rocks. The image of a trickle of water springing from a hillside hardly matches that spring, boundary. A spring located at the of a vast cave pouring forth a river, but boundary between a permeable formation both are called springs. Among the world’s overlying an impermeable substratum[16]. largest is the Dumanli spring, , with a mean flow of over 50 cubic meters per spring, cave. A spring rising in a cave[10]. second. Springs may be exsurgences or resurgences, depending upon the source of spring, contact. A spring formed at the their water, and also may be vauclusian in intersection of the land surface and a character[9]. 2. A natural outflow of water permeable water-bearing formation (or other liquid or gas) at the surface of the overlying a less permeable formation[16]. land or into surface water. In some usages. “spring” is restricted to the water that spring, depression. A spring originating at outflows, in other usages the word can refer the intersection of the land surface with the to the water, the outlet, or to the locality of water table[16]. the outflow[20]. 3. Any natural discharge of water from rock or soil onto the surface of spring, drowned. A spring that continues to the land or into a body of surface water[10]. function as a spring after it has become

157 submerged by rising sea or lake levels or by potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms: Related to sublacustrine spring, submarine (French.) source sous-aquatique, source spring. noyé; (German.) submarine Quelle, sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) vethisthesa spring, fracture. A spring with its outflow pigi; (Italian.) sorgente sommersa; openings consisting of fractures[16]. (Russian.) subakvaljnij istoƒnik; (Spanish.) fuente subacuática; (Turkish.) bat2k spring, fullflow. A spring that is the sole kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor, drain of an area. potopljeno vrelo, potopljen izvir (vrelec). Related to spring, sublacustrine, spring, spring, gravity. A spring flowing as a result submarine. of gravity[16]. spring, ebb-and-flow; ebbing-and-flowing spring head . The arcuate cliff well. A spring (flowing well or borehole) surrounding many risings, formed by exhibiting periodic variation in volume of progressive headward and cavern flow; this variation, which may be regular collapse. The rapidity of their formation is or irregular, is often attributed in karst increased by the cliff-line, which frequently regions to siphonic action. Ebb-and-flow exists already at the lower margin of the springs differ from intermittent springs karst area[19]. because the latter can be related to seasonal variations in rainfall[20]. Synonyms: spring, intermittent. 1. A karst spring with (French.) source intermittente; (German.) a pulsating flow, caused by the presence intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.) pighí within the rock of cavities and siphons fed ambótidos kai palírrias; (Italian.) sorgente by a subterranean watercourse. When the carsica intermittente; (Russian.) sifonnij cavity is full, the siphon is complete and istocnik; (Spanish.) manatial intermittente, causes a pulse of water to issue from the fuente intermittente; (Turkish.) so™ultkan spring. This diminishes or empties the kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) periodicni ixvor, water supply in the cavity, and no further periodic˜ni izvir. See also spring, periodic. water is discharged from the spring until the Related to intermittent spring. system is reactivated. The discharge is said to be a reciprocating spring when a reduced spring, drowned. A spring that continues to level of flow is maintained between function as a spring after it has been pulses[19]. 2. A spring flowing at irregular submerged by rising sea or lake levels or by intervals[16]. Synonyms: (French.) source subsidence of the ground[20]. Synonyms: temporaire, source intermittente; (German.) (French.) source sous-aquatique, source intermittierende Quelle, periodische noyé; (German.) submarine Quelle, Quelle; (Greek.) thialepousa pege; (Italian.) sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) vethisthesa sorgente temporanea, sorgente pigi; (Italian.) sorgente sommersa; intermittente; (Russian.) peremezajuscijsja (Russian.) subakvaljnij istoƒnik; (Spanish.) istoƒnik; (Spanish.) fuente intermitente, fuente subacuática; (Turkish.) batik fuente temporal; (Turkish.) kesintili kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) potopljen izvor, kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) periodicko vrelo,

158 potajnica, obdobni izvir. Related to spring, spring, seepage. A spring where surface ebb-and-flow; spring, periodic. discharge occurs from numerous small openings[16]. Synonym: filtration spring. spring, karst. A spring emerging from karstified limestone[10]. See also spring, subaqueous. A spring that discharges emergence; exsurgence; resurgence; rise. below the surface of a water body (e.g., ocean, lake, river, or stream)[16]. spring, medicinal. A spring with healing properties[16]. spring, sublacustrine. A spring emerging in the bed of a lake predominantly in karst spring, mineral. A spring having a high areas[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous mineral content. lacustre; (German.) Unterwaßerquelle, sublacustre Quelle; (Greek.) ypovrichios spring, overflow. A spring that is part of a pighi; (Italian.) sorgente sublacustre; but that drains only at the level (Russian.) istocnik na dne ozera; (Spanish.) above base flow. fuente sublacustre; (Turkish.) gölalti kayna™2. See spring, drowned. spring, perched karst. The emergence of underground water somewhere above the spring, submarine. 1. A spring emerging in basement of a calcareous massif caused by a sea or lagoon predominantly in karst the interbedding of an impermeable or terranes. This is a descriptive term intermittent perched water table by generally corresponding to the genetic term restricting the vertical movement of water, “drowned spring”[20]. 2. Large offshore which instead issues from the contact[19]. emergence, generally from cavernous lime- stone, but in some areas from beds of spring, perennial. Stream flowing above land lava[10]. Synonyms: (French.) source sous surface throughout the year[16]. marine; (German.) Untermeeresquelle, Grundquelle, submarine Quelle; (Greek.) spring, periodic. A spring that shows ypothalassia pighi; (Italian.) sorgente variation in flow that is either regular or sottomarina; (Russian.) submarinnij irregular. It may be due to siphonic istocnik; (Spanish.) fuente submarina; action[20]. Synonyms: (French.) source (Turkish.) denizalti kayna™2; (Yugoslavian.) périodique; (German.) Periodische Quelle, vrulja. See spring, drowned. intermittierende Quelle; (Greek.) periodhiki piyi; (Italian.) sorgente spring, thermal. A spring with temperature periodica; (Spanish.) fuente periódica; of the spring water above the average (Turkish.) periyodik kaynak; (Yugoslavian.) temperature of superficial rock[16]. periodic˜ ini izvor (izvir). See ebb-and-flow spring. Related to intermittent spring. spring, tubular. A spring issuing from a round channel such as a tubular passage[16]. spring, saline. Spring water having a high salt content[16]. spring, unconformity. A spring issuing at the contact of an aquifer with an unconformity.

159 spring, underflow. A spring that is part of a squeeze. A narrow passage or opening just distributary but is at lower elevation and passable with effort. Differs from flattener preferentially drains base flow. Between it in that there is little spare space in any and an overflow spring there may be several direction[10]. underflow-overflow springs. staff gage. A fixed graduated scale[16]. spring, valley. Springs occurring at valley sides where the water table intersects the stage. Water surface elevation at a point land surface. along a stream, river, lake, etc., above an arbitrary datum[16]. spring, vauclusian; rising, vauclusian. 1. A type of rising or spring where direct stage-discharge relation. See rating curve. drainage from the phreas flows up a flooded cave passage under pressure to emerge in stage hydrograph. The elevation of stage daylight. The term is best applied where plotted against time[16]. water rises from a vertical or very steep bedrock passage. Such risings are named stage record. Stage discharge relations after the Fontaine de Vaucluse in southern presented in tabulated form[16]. France. The River Sorgue rises from the Fontaine with a mean flow of 26 cubic stagmalite. A general term including sta- meters per second. Its upper part is steeply lactite and stalagmite. Superseded by inclined, but at depth it is vertical. A diver dripstone[10]. has reached a depth of 200 m, and a robot reached 243 m, below which the flooded stagnation point. The foremost point on a shaft continues[9]. 2. Large karst spring streamline dividing an area of pumping (name by Fournet, after la Sorgue en depression from a zone of influence in a Vaucluse, France) characterized by a stream tilted aquifer being pumped by a well[16]. surging up as from a siphon. Also applied to karst springs with artesian stalactite. 1. Speleothem, generally of calcite, characteristics[20]. 3. A large spring or formed by dripping water and hanging from exsurgence of an underground river, gen- a cave roof. Stalactites embrace an erally from limestone, that varies greatly in enormous variety of sizes and shapes. They output and is impenetrable except with form where percolation water seeps from a diving apparatus[10]. Synonym: (American.) cave ceiling and becomes saturated with gushing spring; (French.) source respect to calcite because of loss of carbon vauclusienne, bouillidou (South of France); dioxide into the cave air. Calcite is (German.) Vauclusequelle, (Riesenquelle); precipitated round the rim of the water (Greek.) kephalari/vauclusiana pighi; droplet and continued deposition creates a (Italian.) sorgente valchiusana; (Russian.) hollow tubular straw stalactite (soda straw). vokljuz; (Spanish.) fuente vauclusiana, ojo, Additional deposition of calcite on the heryidero; (Turkish.) bas2nçcl2 kaynak; outside of the initial cylinder creates an (Yugoslavian.) voklisko vrelo, obrh. See ordinary tapering stalactite. Almost infinite also gushing spring. variation in shape may be influenced by

160 changes in water flow, cave air chemistry, Caves of New Mexico[9]. 2. Columnar or evaporation, temperature or dissolved partly irregular deposit of calcite or impurities, and by crystal growth blocking aragonite on the floor of a cave or cavern flow paths. They are the most common formed by the precipitation of carbonates

speleothem. Though the single 7 m long due to escape of CO2 from water dripping stalactite in Ireland’s Poll an Ionain is not from the roof[20]. 3. A deposit of calcium the world’s longest, it is uniquely carbonate rising from the floor of a spectacular against the dark chamber limestone cave, formed by precipitation walls[9]. 2. Conical deposit of calcite or from a bicarbonate solution through loss of

aragonite, often with a hollow center CO2. The water drops on the stalagmite hanging from the roof of a cave or cavern from above. From Greek word meaning formed by precipitation of carbonate due to drip[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalagmite;

escape of CO2 from hanging water beads (German.) Bodenzapfen, Stalagmit; and to evaporation of part of the water[20]. (Greek.) stalagmitis; (Italian.) stalagmite; 3. A cylindrical or conical deposit of (Russian.) stalagmit; (Spanish.) minerals, generally calcite, formed by estalagmita; (Turkish.) dikit; dripping water, hanging from the roof of a (Yugoslavian.) óulak, stoje…i kapnik, cave, generally having a hollow tube at its stalagmit. See also dripstone. center. From Greek word meaning “exude drops”[10]. Synonyms: (French.) stalactite; stalagmite, capillary. See capillary (German.) Tropfstein, Stalaktit; (Greek.) stalagmite. stalaktitis; (Italian.) stalattite; (Russian.) stalaktit; (Spanish.) estalactita; (Turkish.) standard deviation. A measure of variability sark2t (Yugoslavian.) mosur, viseci kapnik, of the square of individual deviations from stalaktit. their mean[16]. stalagmite. 1. Speleothem, normally of standing line. A rope of approximately calcite, formed by upward growth from a 0.4375 inches or 11 mm in diameter that is cave floor, and therefore the complement of tied to a solid anchor and is used for a stalactite. Stalagmites form when descending and ascending[13]. See also dripwater that is still saturated falls from a ascender; knot; mechanical ascender; cave roof or stalactite and, when or after it prusik knot; prusiking. lands, loses more carbon dioxide to the cave air, causing precipitation of calcite. state of solution. The degree to which a They vary in size and shape, from tall thin mineral or rock has gone into solution[16]. towers to wide domes that grade into flowstone, the main controls being drip rate static head. See head, static. and height, and saturation levels of the water. The stalagmites of Aven Armand, static water level. The level of water in a France, are of the multiple splash-cup well that is not being affected by withdrawal variety, being notably slender and up to 30 of ground water[6]. m tall. Spectacularly massive stalagmites occur in the Carlsbad and Cottonwood

161 steady flow. Flow where the velocity at a stone forest. See shilin. point remains constant with respect to time[16]. stoping. The upward migration of the ceiling in a passage or room by the action of slabs steam hole. An opening from a cavity falling[13]. through which a current of air charged with vapor blows upwards and condenses at the storage capacity. 1. The ability of an aquifer orifice to appear as steam. Such openings to store water[16]. 2. The capacity of rivers are an occasional feature in karst to store water in their own channel[16]. terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) puits à vapeur, puits fumant; (German.) storage coefficient. 1. The volume of water Dampfschlot; (Greek.) atmotrypa; an aquifer releases from or takes into (Spanish.) cavidad fumante; (Turkish.) storage per unit surface area of the aquifer buhar deli™i. per unit change in head[22]. In a confined aquifer, the water is derived from storage, steep. The property of inclination with a very with decline in head resulting from an steep gradient[16]. expansion of the water and compression of the aquifer. Similarly, water added to steephead. A deeply cut valley, generally storage with a rise in head is accommodated short, terminating at its upslope end in an partly by compression of the water and amphitheater, at the foot of which a stream partly by expansion of the aquifer. In an may emerge[10]. unconfined aquifer, the amount of water so released or accepted is generally negligible stemflow. Rain water flowing down the stem compared to the amount involved in gravity of plants[16]. drainage or filling of pores, hence, in an unconfined aquifer, the storage coefficient stereo aerial photographs. Aerial is virtually equal to the specific yield. 2. photographs shot in sequence over a The volume of water an aquifer releases landscape so that when adjoining photos are from or takes into storage per unit surface viewed at the proper interpupillary spacing, area of the aquifer per unit change in head features may be seen in three dimensions. (virtually equal to the specific yield in an unconfined aquifer.) 3. The volume of water stereogram. A block diagram or three- a confined hydrogeologic unit releases from dimensional diagram[16]. or takes into storage per unit subsurface area of the hydrogeologic unit per unit stilling well. A well connected to a flowing change in head. stream or spring through a bottom conduit permitting elevation measures to be taken in storage gage. A precipitation gage for quiescent water[16]. collecting and storing the total amount of inflowing water to be read at long stomatal transpiration. The transpiration by intervals[16]. escape of water through pores (stomata) of leaves[16].

162 storage in depressions. Water retention in generally less than a centimeter in diameter surface depressions[16]. and of very great length (examples as long as 4 meters); also called soda straw[10]. See storativity. See storage coefficient. also soda straw; stalactite.

storm. 1. A disturbance of average stream. A body of flowing water[16]. meteorological conditions and usually connected with precipitation[16]. 2. A stream bed. The bottom of a stream covered period of precipitation over a specific by water[16]. drainage basin[16]. stream development. The ratio of actual terrace. An erosional remnant of an tortuous stream length between two points elevated broad river valley[16]. on a straight line connecting these points[16].

stratification. 1. A depositional structure of stream flow. The total runoff confined in a sedimentary rocks in beds and layers[16]. 2. stream and its channel[16]. The separation into nondiscrete layers of water as a result of chemical, saline, or stream frequency. Channel frequency; the temperature differences which in turn create number of stream segments per unit area[16]. density differences in the water. stream order. The hierarchic order of stream stratigraphic column. A graphic means of segments according to tributaries[16]. representing the various rock types of an area in a geologic report[13]. stream profile. The elevation of the main stream bed as a function of distance from stratigraphic sequence. The sequence of outflow. rock types in an area[13]. stream sink. Point at which a surface stream stratum. A sedimentary bed or layer[16]. sinks into the ground[10]. See also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole; sumidero; swallet; straw stalactite; straw. 1. The simplest form swallow hole. of stalactite — a fragile, thin-walled tube, normally of calcite, which is the diameter of streamtube. 1. A cave passage completely the drops of water that hang from its end filled, now or in the past, with fast-moving and continue its growth. Though only water and whose ceiling and walls normally about 5 mm in diameter, straw stalactites show scallops[10]. 2. The imaginary space (or straws) may grow to great length in formed between two adjacent streamlines in clusters of spectacularly dense profusion, which flow is constant (assuming steady more commonly in caves of cooler climates. flow conditions). Synonyms: (French.) The length record may be held by a 6 m conduite forcée; (German.) Druckflußrohr; straw in Easter Cave, . (Greek.) ypóghios síranx; (Italian.) Also known as “straw stalactite” or “soda condotta forzata; (Spanish.) tubo (o straw”[9]. 2. Thin tubular stalactite,

163 conducto) fréatico; (Turkish.) akarsu may also be regarded as the difference mecras2. See conduit, pressure flow tube. between geostatic and neutral stress[21]. streamline. A curve that is everywhere stress, geostatic. The total load per unit area tangent to the specific discharge vector and of sediments and water above some plane of indicates the direction of flow at every point reference. It is the sum of the effective in a flow domain. stress and the neutral stress[21]. strength. The maximum stress that a material stress, neutral. Fluid pressure exerted equally can resist without failing for any given type in all directions at a point in a saturated of loading. deposit by the head of water. Neutral pressure is transmitted to the base of the stress. The force acting across a given surface deposit through the pore water, and does element divided by the area of the element. not have a measurable influence on the void ratio or on any other mechanical property of stress, applied. The downward stress the deposits[21]. imposed at an aquifer boundary. It differs from effective stress in that it defines only stress, preconsolidation. The maximum the external stress tending to compact a antecedent effective stress to which a deposit rather than the grain-to-grain stress deposit has been subjected, and which it can at any depth within a compacting deposit[21]. withstand without undergoing additional permanent deformation. Stress changes in stress, effective. Stress (pressure) that is the range less than the preconsolidation borne by and transmitted through the grain- stress produce elastic deformations of small to-grain contacts of a deposit, and thus magnitude. In fine-grained materials, stress affects its porosity or void ratio and other increases beyond the preconsolidation stress physical properties. In one-dimensional produce much larger deformations that are compression, effective stress is the average principally inelastic (nonrecoverable)[21]. grain-to-grain load per unit area in a plane normal to the applied stress. At any given stress, seepage. When water flows through a depth, the effective stress is the weight (per porous medium, force is transferred from unit area) of sediments and moisture above the water to the medium by viscous friction. the water table, plus the submerged weight The force transferred to the medium is (per unit area) of sediments between the equal to the loss of hydraulic head. This water table and the specified depth, plus or force, called seepage force, is exerted in the minus the seepage stress (hydrodynamic direction of flow[21]. drag) produced by downward or upward components, respectively, of water stress, shear. Stress directed parallel movement through the saturated sediments (tangential) to the surface element across above the specified depth. Thus, effective which it acts. stress may be regarded as the algebraic sum of the two body stresses, gravitational strike. The direction or azimuth of a stress and seepage stress. Effective stress horizontal line in the plane of an inclined

164 stratum, joint, cleavage plane, or other the accepted defined size of a conduit. Sub- planar feature within a rock mass. conduits originate under inception conditions and enlarge during gestation, but strike valley. A valley following the strike of many fail to achieve larger dimensions when underlying strata[16]. drainage later becomes concentrated along preferred routes. In most cases, however, structure. One of the larger features of a they will continue to function as part of the rock mass (e.g., bedding, foliation, jointing, microfissure, or percolation, system within cleavage, brecciation, etc.) Also the sum the rock mass. Sub-conduits are an total of such features as contrasted with essential part of a continuum of void sizes texture. In a broader sense, it refers to the that extends between microscopic structural features of an area such as discontinuities and the largest tube anticlines or synclines. passages[9].

structural factor. Features modifying or subcutaneous drain. Discrete percolation interrupting the continuity of rock types[16]. drains contained within the epikarst zone and leading to the transitions zone. See structural geology. That part of geology also epikarst zone; subcutaneous flow; dealing with structures formed in rocks[16]. subcutaneous zone; transition zone.

struga. (Slavic.) A corridor formed along a subcutaneous flow. Lateral and vertical flow bedding plane in karst country[10]. that occurs within the epikarst zone under saturated conditions. Lateral flow distances stylolite. An irregular suturelike boundary can exceed hundreds of meters and several developed along some bedding planes in meters per day while vertical flow within limestones, probably caused by dissolution discrete percolation drains (subcutaneous under pressure and possibly related in some drains) may allow flow rates in excess of cases to subsequent inception of several hundred meters per hour. See also speleogenesis[9]. epikarst zone; subcutaneous drain; subcutaneous zone; transition zone. subaqueous spring. See spring, subaqueous. subcutaneous zone. Synonym for epikarst subaqueous karst. A karst terrane that is zone. covered by a discrete body of water[17]. See also drowned karst; subfluvial karst; subfluvial karst. Karst topography submarine karst. developed beneath a river. See also subaqueous karst. subartesian well. An artesian well with insufficient head to raise water above the subjacent karst. Karst landscape in land surface[16]. noncarbonate rocks due to presence of karstified rocks beneath the surface sub-conduit. Any void, whether of tectonic formation[10]. Synonyms: (French.) karst or dissolutional origin, that is smaller than sous-jacent; (German.) unterirdisches

165 Karstphänomen; (Greek.) ypokímenon Caused in karst areas by subterranean karst; (Russian.) pokritij karst; (Spanish.) solution or collapse of caves[10]. karst subyacente; (Turkish.) gizli karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriven krs˜ (kras). See also subsidence doline. A closed karst depression interstratal karst. formed by local subsidence of the surface rocks and/or soil into cavities formed by subkutan karst. See subsoil karst. widespread dissolution or local collapse of caves. The type of subsidence doline sublacustrine spring. See spring, formed by downwashing of the soil cover is sublacustrine. better described as a suffosion doline[9]. Also known as sinkhole. sublimation. The direct conversion of water from its solid state to the vapor phase[16]. subsidence/head-decline ratio. The ratio between land subsidence and hydraulic head submarine karst. Karst topography decline in the coarse-grained beds of the developed below the tidal zone. See also compacting aquifer system[21]. subaqueous karst. subsoil karst. Karst covered by soil, usually submarine spring. See spring, submarine. residual soil[17]. Synonyms: (British.) soddy karst; (French.) karst vert, karst subcutané; subpermafrost karst. Underground karst in (German.) bedeckter Karst, bodenbedeckter areas of permafrost. Karstification is due to Karst, grükarst, subkutan karst; (Greek.) the solvent action of subpermafrost (or ypethaphikon karst; (Russian.) intrapermafrost) water[20]. Synonyms: zadernovanny0 karst; (Spanish.) karst (French.) karst sous-permafrost; (German.) subcutáneo; (Turkish.) toprakalt2 karst2; Pseudokarst; (Greek.) karst ypomonímou (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krs˜ (kras). See paghetoú; (Italian.) carsismo di also covered karst. subpermafrost; (Russian.) podmerzlonij karst, mezmerzlotnij karst; (Spanish.) karst subsurface divide. See underground divide. de subpermafrost, karst de intrapermafrost; (Turkish.) don alan2 yeralt2 karst2. See subsurface flow. See subsurface runoff. permafrost karst. See also intrapermafrost karst. subsurface runoff, storm seepage, subsurface flow, subsurface storm flow. subpermafrost water. Ground water below Runoff due to infiltrated precipitation the permafrost[16]. moving laterally under the surface.

subsequent river. 1. A river flowing along subsurface water. All water that occurs the strike of a weak formation[16]. 2. A below the land surface[22]. tributary to a consequent river[16]. subterranean. Beneath the land surface[16]. subsidence. Lowering of the surface of the ground because of removal of support.

166 subterranean cut-off. The diversion carbonate successions, but because of their underground of a surface watercourse high solubility they may not survive beneath a surface meander neck, marked by subsequent dissolution by ground water. a swallow hole on the upstream side and a Even if they survive subsequent dissolution spring on the downstream side[19]. See also by ground water. Even if they survive at stream piracy. depth, they tend to dissolve as they are raised nearer to the surface following uplift subterranean river, subterranean stream. and erosion of overburden. Removal of Underground stream of flowing water in sulfates by dissolution may contribute to the caves and caverns, but not necessarily early establishment of secondary large[10]. See also underground stream. permeability in limestone sequences. Sulfate solutions have a limited corrosional effect suction. See moisture tension. upon calcium carbonate, but may also be oxidized to produce sulphuric acid, which is suffosion. Undermining through removal of highly corrosive of limestone. sediment by mechanical and corrosional action of underground water[20]. Synonyms: sulfate-reduction karst. Karst topography (French.) soutirage karstique; (German.) developed in the subsurface where solution Anzapfung; (Greek.) ypoghion thiavrosis; of bedrock is chiefly a result of sulfate (Russian.) suffozija; (Spanish.) sufosión; reduction by petroleum hydrocarbons aided (Turkish.) karstik yeralt2suyu kaz2mas2; by bacterial processes that oxidize (Yugoslavian.) sufozija. hydrocarbons to yield carbon dioxide. Little, if any, of the water that dissolves the suffosion doline. More accurate synonym for rock is meteoric[17]. a type of subsidence doline, indicating formation by the suffosion, or sulfide. A mineral compound characterized by downwashing, of the soil into an underlying the linkage of sulfur with a metal or fissure[9]. Also known as shakehole. semimetal, such as galena, PbS, or pyrite, [1] FeS2 . See also gypsum and pyrite. sulfate. A mineral compound characterized 2- by the sulfate radical SO4 . Anhydrous sulfide minerals. Minerals that are composed sulfates, such as barite, BaSO4, have of one or more metals combined with divalent cations linked to the sulfate radical; sulphur. The most common is pyrite. They hydrous and basic sulfates, such as gypsum, are believed to be produced by the [1] CaSO4.2H2O, contain water molecules . metabolic action of microorganisms and are found in many sedimentary rocks, usually in sulfate minerals. Minerals containing the trace amounts. 2- SO4 radical, formed by precipitation from water. The most common are the sulfuric acid. An acid (H2SO4). anhydrous and hydrated calcium sulfates,

anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum sumidero. (Spanish.) 1. A swallow hole. 2. (CaSO4.2H2O). Sulfates are deposited as a In Latin America, any closed depression generally minor component of most caused by solution[10].

167 summation curve. A curve of cumulated supersaturation. A liquid that is values[16]. oversaturated with respect to whatever particles may be contained in the fluid. summit. The highest point of a physiographic feature[16]. suprapermafrost karst. Surface karst in areas or permafrost. Karstification is due to sump. 1. In caves a sump is a section of the solvent action of suprapermafrost flooded passage. This may be a perched water[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst sump, probably quite short, within a vadose suprapermafrost; (German.) Pseudokarst; cave and created by a local reverse passage (Greek.) karst epi monímou paghetoú; gradient. Alternatively it may be a major (Italian.) carsismo superficiale di feature, where a cave passage descends permafrost; (Russian.) nadmerzlotnij karst; below the regional water table into the (Spanish.) karst de suprapermafrost; phreas, as is common at the lower end of (Turkish.) don alan2 yüzey karst2. See also many cave systems. Some short sumps can permafrost karst. be dived without the use of breathing apparatus, but most are restricted to suprapermafrost water. Ground water exploration by cave divers. Logistics are a above permafrost[16]. barrier to endless sump penetrations, but some have now been explored for many surf karren. Surf karren form along marine kilometers in length, notably in Cocklebiddy limestone and dolomite coasts where the Cave, Australia, the Nohoch Nah Chich and surf sprays water onto abrasion surfaces other great flooded systems in Mexico’s that lie slightly above normal sea level. Yucatan, and behind Keld Head in They are a result of corrosion caused by the Yorkshire[9]. 2. A pool of underground mixing of sea- and rain water, but do not water or point on an underground stream exist under the sea surface as sea water is that has a submerged extension, the nature not limestone-corrosive. Beyond the of which has not been determined[10]. 3. A splashwater zone the karren are much less place where the ceiling of a passage drops sharp[3]. to and below water level in a cave, leaving no air space with the cave passage surfactant. A substance capable of reducing continuing underwater[13]. 4. A water trap. the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved. Used in air-based drilling fluids sunken pan. An evaporation pan buried in to produce foam, and during well the ground for equal elevation of the water development to disaggregate clays[6]. surface with the ground surface[16]. are now being considered for aquifer remediation by helping disperse superimposed valley. A valley established on immiscible contaminants. the land surface with a pattern that is independent of the underlying rock surface detention. Sheet flow of water in structure. overland flow before a channel is reached[16].

168 surface entry. An opening immediately at the . Detrital matter being land surface that permits infiltration to take transported in suspension by a moving place[16]. stream[16]. surface film. A monomolecular film of suspended matter. Solid matter small organic compounds forming on water or enough to be held in suspension by moving grain surfaces[16]. or stagnant water[16]. surface mapping. The topographic and suspended water. See vadose water. geodetic mapping of an area[16]. sustained yield. The rate at which water can surface mine. Strip mine[16]. be withdrawn from an aquifer without depleting the supply[16]. surface retention. Water held on land surface[16]. swale. A marshy depression or depression in a ground moraine[16]. surface runoff. That part of runoff traveling over the ground surface and through swallet, swallow hole. (British.) A place channels[16]. where water disappears underground in a limestone region. A swallow hole generally surface seepage. Surface discharge of ground implies water loss in a closed depression or water not important enough to form a blind valley, whereas a swallet may refer to rivulet[16]. water loss into alluvium at a streambed, even though there is no depression[10]. See surface spreading. A method of artificial also doline; ponor; sink; sinkhole; stream recharge of water to an aquifer by sink; sumidero. spreading on a surface[16]. swelling. The volume increase due to intake surface tension. The free specific surface and absorption of water, especially clays[16]. energy occurring at the interface between a liquid and its own vapor phase[16]. swelling rate. The time rate of volume increase[16]. surface water. Water obtained from surface supplies[16]. synclinal valley. A valley following the axis of a syncline[16]. susica. Yugoslavian term for intermittent stream or river in a karst terrane in which syncline. Downfolded stratum[16]. the water diverts and soaks gradually into the karst ground-water system[20]. See also syngenetic karst. 1. Karst developed intermittent river. contemporaneously with the lithification of the formation, as in eolian calcarenite, where lithification and karstification of dune sands may proceed simultaneously[10]. 2.

169 Karst landforms that developed upon young, porous carbonate rocks, such as aeolianites, as they underwent lithification[9]. Synonyms: (French.) karst syngénétique; (German.) Syngenetischer Karst; (Greek.) synegeticon karst; (Italian.) carsismo singenetico; (Spanish.) karst singenético; (Turkish.) eÕtürümlü karst; (Yugoslavian.) singenetski krs˜ (kras). syngenite. A cave mineral — [11] K2Ca(SO4)2"H2O . synoptic network. A network of first-order stations permitting the regular observation of weather for all points at the same time[16]. synthetic unit hydrograph. A unit hydrograph constructed by assuming the reaction of a drainage basin will be based on its physical characteristics[16].

170 T some of which are hundreds of meters long and up to 60 m deep[9]. table mountain. A flat-topped mountain ()[16]. tectonic valley. A valley formed by tectonic forces[16]. tailwater. The lower course of a river with respect to a given point of structure[16]. temperature efficiency. An efficiency factor defined by Thornthwaite for different talus cone. A conelike collection of climates. See also Thornthwaite. disintegrated rock material originating from and adjacent to a steeper slope[16]. temperature log. A recording curve of ground-water temperature in a well[16]. taranakite. A cave mineral — [11] temporary hardness. See carbonate KAl3(PO4)3(OH)"9H2O . hardness. tarbuttite. A cave mineral — [11] tenorite. A cave mineral — CuO[11]. Zn2(PO4)(OH) .

[11] tensiometer. A device used to measure the taylorite. A cave mineral — (K,NH4)2SO4 . moisture tension in the unsaturated zone[22]. tectokarst. Karst formed under the strong influence of tectonic disturbances. The . A glacial deposit [16] term is indefinite and its use is not generally accumulated in front of a glacier . recommended[20]. Synonyms: (French.) tectokarst; (German.) Tektonischer Karst; terra rossa. 1. Reddish-brown soil mantling (Greek.) tektonikon karst; (Russian.) karst limestone bedrock; may be residual in some zon tektoniceskih razlomov; (Spanish.) places[10]. 2. Insoluble residuum of a tectokarst; (Turkish.) tektonik karst; reddish-brown color left behind when (Yugoslavian.) tektokrs˜, tektokras, carbonate rocks weather under tektokarst. Mediterranean or allied climatical conditions[20]. Synonyms: (French.) terra tectonic. Pertaining to structural features due rossa; (German.) Kalksteinroterde; to the deformation of the crust[16]. (Greek.) erythroghi; (Italian.) terra rossa; (Russian.) terra-rossa; (Spanish.) terra tectonic cave. A cave formed by some form rossa; (Turkish.) k2z2l toprak, terrarosa; of ground movement. The most common is (Yugoslavian.) crvenica, jerina, jerovica. due to landsliding in a jointed rock, leaving an open fissure cave parallel to the line of terrace. A flat surface bounded by steplike the hillside along the back of the slipped steep slopes[16]. block. Tectonic caves can form in any rock, as they do not depend on dissolution. terraced flowstone. Shallow rimstone pools Well-known examples are the windypit on outward-sloping walls[10]. See also fissures of northeast Yorkshire, England,

171 rimstone barrage; rimstone barrier; thermokarst. 1. A pitted periglacial or rimstone dam; constructive waterfall. former periglacial surface in superficial deposits, produced by settling or caving of terrain. An area with some specific the ground after melting of ground ice[10]. characteristics. Reserved for surficial 2. A term applied to topographic features only. Contrast with terrane. depressions in karstic terranes resulting from the thawing of ice. See cryokarst. terrane. An area with some specific characteristics[16]. Includes both surface thermokarst pit. Steep-walled depression and subsurface features. Contrast with formed by thermokarst processes[10]. terrain. thickness. The perpendicular distance tertiary porosity. See porosity, tertiary. between bounding surfaces such as bedding or foliation planes of a rock. test hole. A hole to test the depth of ground water, water quality, or geological thief zone. The zone through which drilling conditions[16]. fluid is lost into a formation through the borehole wall[16]. texture. The arrangement in space of the components of a rock body and of the Thiem equation. The equation that describes boundaries between these components[16]. steady-state equilibrium radial flow into a well[16]. . A line of maximum depth of stream cross-section[16]. thixotropy. The property of a gel to become fluid under application of shear stresses[16]. Theis equation. The nonequilibrium equation of radial flow towards a well[16]. threshold. That part of a cave system to which light penetrates in some degree[10]. [11] thenardite. A cave mineral — Na2SO4 . threshold saturation. Saturation below thermal spring. See spring, thermal. which no flow occurs[16].

thermal stratification. The stratification of through cave. Cave through which a stream water in reservoirs because of thermal- runs from entrance to exit or formerly did density differences[16]. so[10]. Synonym: (German). Durchgangshöhle. . An intermediate layer in stratified water[16]. throughfall. A part of precipitation that reaches ground by falling through thermocouple. A temperature measuring vegetative cover[16]. device based on the proportionality between thermoelectric current and temperature throw. The vertical displacement of stratum difference between thermojunctions[16]. along a fault plane[16].

172 thrust; thrust fault. A generally gently time of rise. The time between the first dipping or subhorizontal fault plane where arrival of runoff and arrival of the peak the relative movement has been essentially flow[16]. horizontal, with one rock sequence being pushed across and above another. Some tinajita. (Spanish.) See solution pan. cave development in the Traligill area of northwest Scotland has been guided by tinticite. A cave mineral — [9] [11] thrust planes . Fe6(PO4)4(OH)6"7H2O . tidal river. A river strongly influenced and toadstone. Local term in the Peak District, subject to tidal currents[16]. England, for lavas, tuffs, and igneous intrusions within the local Carboniferous tidewell. See spring, ebb-and-flow. carbonate sequence.

tightest packing. An arrangement of particles topographic divide. A crest line dividing one allowing only minimum void space a unit drainage basin from another[16]. See also cell of a sample[16]. divide.

till. Predominantly unsorted and unstratified topographic map. A map representing the drift, generally unconsolidated, deposited land surface via the use of contour lines, directly by and underneath a glacier without which are lines of equal elevation on the subsequent reworking by meltwater, and earth’s surface. Synonym: topo map. consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders ranging topography. The physical features of a widely in size and shape[6]. geographical area[16].

tilted aquifer. A dipping aquifer[16]. topsoil. The topmost portion of a soil profile[16]. time base. The sum of storm duration time and concentration time in a hydrograph[16]. torca. (Spanish.) Large closed depression, more or less circular; a doline[10]. time-drawdown curve. A plot of drawdown variation with time[16]. torricellian chamber. A submerged air-filled chamber of a cave at a pressure below time lag. The time elapsed between the onset atmospheric pressure, sealed by water, of a certain event and the reaction to this having an air-water surface above that of event[16]. adjacent free air-water surfaces[10].

time of concentration. The time required for tortuosity. The ratio of actual length of pore surface runoff produced in the farthest part channel to over all length of sample. The of a basin to reach a concentration point sinuosity of actual flow path in a porous under consideration[16]. medium[16].

173 total dissolved solids, TDS. 1. The total dolines and cone karst. Many towers are concentration of dissolved constituents in riddled with relict caves at high levels, and solution, usually expressed in milligrams per with active caves through their bases[9]. 2. liter[22]. 2. The total concentration of Karst topography characterized by isolated dissolved material in water [as] ordinarily residual limestone hills displaying numerous determined from the weight of the dry shapes (e.g., cone shaped, steep-sided) residue remaining after evaporation of the separated by areas of alluvium or other volatile portion of an aliquot of the water detrital sand; towers are generally sample[22]. forest-covered hills, and many have flat tops. They may form as isolated hills or in total hydraulic head. See head, total. groups. 3. A type of karst topography, common in the tropics, in which the residual total pore space. The sum of interconnected hills rise in steep-sided but flat-topped and noninterconnected pore space[16]. mounds (resembling towers) from intervening depressions or dolinas total runoff. The sum of all components of (sinkholes)[20]. Synonyms: (French.) karst à runoff into a stream[16]. tourelles, karst à tours; (German.) Turmkarst, Kegelkarst; (Italian.) carsismo total soil-water potential. The sum of the con forme residuali a torre; (Spanish.) energy-related components of a soil-water karst de torres; (Turkish.) kuleli karst. See system; i.e., the sum of the gravitational, also cone karst; cupola karst; pinnacle matric, and osmotic components[22]. karst; fengcong; fenglin.

tourelle. (French.) A little tower; applied to tracers. Materials, such as chemicals, dyes, small flat-topped buttes of limestone in radioactive salts, and light insoluble solids, karst areas. Contrasted with pitons, which introduced into underground waters to have pointed tops, and with coupoles, determine points of egress of the water and which have rounded tops[10]. its velocity[10].

tower karst, turmkarst. 1. A spectacular tracer flow method. A method of variety of karst landscape dominated by determining flow velocities and directions steep or vertical sided limestone towers by introducing tracers or indicators into each 30-300 m high. By far the most ground water[16]. extensive and best developed tower karst is the Guangxi province of southern China. traction load. See bed load. Towers originate as residual cones and are then steepened by water table undercutting tranquil flow. Open channel flow with from surround alluviated plains. Tectonic Froude number smaller than unity[16]. uplift matched by karst erosion then increases tower heights, but if uplift transgression. The spreading of the sea over exceeds surface lowering the towers are level areas[16]. raised to hillside locations and the landscape is rejuvenated to form a new generation of

174 transient. A pulse-dampened oscillation or roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere other temporary phenomena occurring in a from the plant surface[6]. system prior to reaching a steady-state condition[22]. See flow, unsteady. transpiration depth. The depth of water consumed annually by plants[16]. transition zone. 1. Portion of bedrock in the vadose zone that is between the epikarst transpiration ratio. The ratio of water zone and the phreatic zone, is relatively weight transpired to weight of dry matter waterless and unfractured, but is locally produced[16]. breached by discrete percolation points (vadose shafts.) 2. The zone in which the transport. Conveyance of solutes and properties of two adjacent units change particulates in flow systems. See also gradually (freshwater/saltwater). See also solute transport; particulate transport[22]. epikarst zone; subcutaneous drain; subcutaneous flow; subcutaneous zone; transportational process. All processes vadose caves; vadose shafts. contributing to the transport of eroded material[16]. transit time; travel time. The travel time of a sonic impulse through a given length of transverse permeability. See permeability, rock[16]. transverse. transmission capacity. The property of a transverse wave. A wave generated by porous medium to conduct fluid[16]. shearing displacement where wave motion is perpendicular to direction of transmissibility coefficient. The use of the propagation[16]. term “transmissibility” has been replaced by “transmissivity”[22]. See transmissivity. trap. See siphon; sump; water trap.

transmissivity. The rate at which water of travertine. 1. Hard calcareous mineral the prevailing kinematic viscosity is deposited by flowing water, that is the same transmitted through a unit width of an as the calcareous variety of sinter and aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient[6]. comparable to the softer tufa. The term is Though spoken of as a property of the normally used only for deposits formed aquifer, it embodies the saturated thickness outside caves, where plants and algae cause and the properties of the contained liquid as the precipitation by extracting carbon well. It is equal to an integration of the dioxide from the water and give travertine hydraulic conductivities across the saturated its porous structure. Travertine forms most part of the aquifer perpendicular to the flow commonly on that build up like paths[22]. gour dams. Famous examples include those at Plitvice in Croatia, Dunn’s River Falls in transpiration. The process by which water Jamaica, and, largest of all, Band-I-Amir in absorbed by plants, usually through the Afghanistan[9]. 2. Calcium carbonate,

CaCO3, light in color and generally

175 concretionary and compact, deposited from tributary. A stream contributing its waters to solution in ground and surface waters. another stream of higher order[16]. Extremely porous or cellular varieties are known as calcareous tufa, calcareous sinter, tributary river. A smaller stream entering or spring deposit. Compact banded and contributing to the flow of a larger varieties, capable of taking a polish, are river[16]. called onyx marble or cave onyx[10]. 3. Generally compact calcium carbonate rock tributary valley. A less important valley formed by precipitation of soluble joining a larger valley[16]. bicarbonates when equilibrium is lost through changes in temperature and triple point. A point at which the solid, chemical characteristics. Soft, porous liquid, and vapor phases are in variety is called calcareous tufa[20]. equilibrium[16]. Synonyms: (French.) travertin; (German.) Kalktuff, Sinter, Travertin; (Greek.) tripoly. A very fine-grained silica sand[16]. travertinis/asvestolithikos toffos; (Italian.)

travertino; (Russian.) travertin; (Spanish.) tritium. An isotope of water, H3O (HTO), travertino, toba; (Turkish.) traverten, used for tracing ground water and for age sutaÕ2; (Yugoslavian.) sedra, travertin, dating of ground water[16]. See also bigar, lehnjak. Related to sinter and tufa. radioisotope; radioactive tracer; tracers. travertine terraces. Terraces and related Trittkarren. (German.) These are best forms covered by or composed of described as heel-print karren because they carbonates precipitated from water. Such resemble the imprint of a heel. They are precipitation is usually from saturated nearly connected with subhorizontal, bicarbonate waters (as from karst) when adjacent, flat plains and migrate upslope by they enter a zone of turbulent flow[20]. cutting “steps” through the process of Synonyms: (French.) terrasse de travertin; retrogressive corrosion. The semicircular (German.) Travertin-Terrasse; (Greek.) form is preserved by the “horseshoe falls anavathmos travertinou; (Italian.) spianata effect,” which concentrates the main di travertino; (Spanish.) terrazas amount of water on the innermost part of travertínicas; (Turkish.) sutaÕ2 traçalar2; the heel-print. At the upper rim the water (Yugoslavian.) slapovi. See also gain speed. The thickness of the film of constructive waterfall. water is indirectly proportional to the speed of the flow. A higher rate of flow results in trellis. A geometrical arrangement of an a greater effectiveness of fresh precipitation interwoven pattern[16]. added to the flow on the ground, but it also

causes the diffusion of atmospheric CO2 and trellis drainage pattern. A arrangement of more extensive corrosion. Most Trittkarren stream and tributaries in a rectangular originate at the rim of a grike lying below fashion[16]. and have moved upward to the surface through retrogressive corrosion. At the base of steep slopes where snow collects,

176 nearly funnel-shaped Trittkarren appear and habitation[9]. 2. An animal entering a cave are of subnival origin. They are common in for various reasons but not living there the Alps[3]. Synonym: heel-print karren. permanently[10]. trough. A depression usually on the land true velocity. Ground-water flow velocity in surface, but can occur in ground water. porous interstice or cavernous opening[16]. troglobite. 1. An animal living permanently truncation. A horizontal or vertical clean cut underground in the dark zone of caves and through a topographic feature[16]. only accidentally leaving it[10]. 2. A creature that is fully adapted to life in total darkness tsingi. Type of pinnacle karst found on and can only complete its life cycle limestone in [9]. underground[13]. 3. A creature that lives permanently underground beyond the tube, lava. See lava cave. daylight zone of a cave. Many troglobitic species are adapted in some way to living in tubular passage; tube; tube passage. 1. a totally dark environment. Synonyms: Cave passage formed by approximately (French.) troglobie; (German.) Troglobiont; equal dissolution all round when full of (Greek.) troglothitis; (Italian.) troglobio; flowing water within the phreas. Relict (Russian.) troglobiont; (Spanish.) tubes, abandoned as the water table was troglobio; (Turkish.) troglobit, kör bal2k. lowered, are common in old caves, and may be partially filled by sediment, breakdown, troglodyte. A human cave-dweller[10]. or stalagmite, or entrenched to form Examples would be early “cave man.” keyhole passages. Tube sizes range to over 15 m in diameter, but the larger ones are troglophile. 1. An animal that enters beyond rarely of uniform section. Peak Cavern in the daylight zone of a cave intentionally and Derbyshire is well known for its fine habitually and generally spends part of its circular phreatic tubes. Some of the trunk life in the underground environment. Cave passages of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, are swifts and some bats are troglophiles[9]. 2. spectacular tubes of elliptical section, An animal habitually entering the dark zone formed by dissolution rates that were higher of a cave but necessarily spending part of its along the bedding than across[9]. 2. These existence outside such as some species of are nearly horizontal cave passages bats[10]. (tunnels) with round or elliptical cross sections and are either straight or winding. troglophobe. An animal or person unable At Mammoth Cave they vary in size up to physically or psychologically to enter the 30 feet high and nearly 100 feet wide. They dark zone of a cave or other underground are formed while completely filled with area[10]. flowing water. Athough they are typically wider than high as a result of dissolution trogloxene. 1. A creature that will enter a along horizontal cracks and bedding-plane cave on occasions but does not use the cave partings, they may also form as high, either for temporary or permanent narrow, straight fissures along major

177 vertical or near vertical fractures[15]. See flow; Reynolds number; turbulent threshold. also canyon passage; keyhole passage; passage; vertical shaft. turbulent threshold. The limiting value of subconduit size, below which water flow is tubular spring. See spring, tubular. essentially laminar and above which water flow includes a significant turbulent tufa. Soft, porous concretions of carbonate component. Subconduit diameters between reprecipitated from saturated karst water, 5 mm and 15 mm have been suggested as often around plants[22]. See also sinter; the minimum for turbulent flow, but the travertine. value depends upon a variety of factors, including the flow velocity; at low flow tunnel. See natural tunnel. velocities laminar flow conditions may persist in tubes up to 500 mm in diameter[9]. turanite. A cave mineral — See also laminar flow; Reynolds Number; [11] Cu5(VO4)2(OH)4 . turbulent flow. . A diminishing of light penetration turlough. (Irish.) 1. A karst depression that through a water sample because of may be dry or flooded according to season suspended and colloidal materials. or prevailing weather conditions; derived from the Irish term for “dry lake.” turbulence. An irregular motion of fluid Oscillations in the general ground-water particles in an inertia-dominated flow level, including variations in response to regimen[16]. local or more distant tidal effects, are the probable mechanism for water level changes turbulent flow. 1. Type of flow that begins in the true turloughs. Effects that appear to develop in a dissolutional subconduit as similar can be produced by high surface its diameter increases to the point where runoff into a closed depression with only differences between flow velocity at the restricted capacity for the drainage to sink bounding wall (slowed by friction and underground[9]. 2. A depression in adhesion) and the maximum velocity in the limestone or in glacial drift over limestone tube’s center are sufficient to cause that is liable to flood either from excess development of eddies within the flowing surface runoff or from rising ground water. water[9]. 2. The flow condition in which From the Irish words “tuar loch,” meaning inertial forces predominate over viscous “dry lake”[10]. forces and in which head loss is not linearly related to velocity[22]. It is typical of flow in Turmkarst. (German.) See tower karst. surface-water bodies and subsurface conduits in karst terranes, provided that the type curve. A plot of the theoretical well conduits have a minimum diameter of function versus the lower limit of the approximately 2-5 mm although some integral in Theis’ graphical solution research has suggested that 5-15 mm, may method[16]. Numerous variations of Theis’ be more appropriate. See also laminar original work have been developed for which type curves readily exist.

178 tyuyamunite. A cave mineral — [11] Ca(UO2)2(VO4)2"nH2O .

179 U underfit stream. A small stream that flows along a cave passage that was enlarged to unaltered rock. Rock that has not its current size by an earlier, larger stream. experienced physical or chemical erosion[16]. Commonly underfit streams are found flowing under vadose conditions along the unconfined. A condition in which the upper floors of drained phreatic tubes, long surface of the zone of saturation forms a abandoned by the phreatic flow that water table under atmospheric pressure[22]. enlarged them. Underfit streams may also occur if the major flow in a vadose unconfined aquifer. An aquifer in which the streamway is captured to lower levels by water table is exposed to the atmosphere the opening of a new shaft. The main flow through openings in the overlying materials. no longer uses the downstream passages, leaving any tributaries to amalgamate as an [9] unconfined flow. Ground-water flow underfit stream . displaying a free surface[16]. underflow. Deep phreatic flow within an unconfined water. Ground water vertically aquifer, along flow lines that are largely in direct contact with the atmosphere[16]. unrelated to the more obvious flow at higher levels. Underflow drainage may be unconformity. A fossil land surface slower than that in shallower systems, and representing the absence of a sequence of may travel towards more distant and/or [9] sediments[16]. unrelated springs .

unconformity spring. See spring, underground divide. Subsurface watershed unconformity. between two catchment areas in karst; often incongruent with the surface topography of [20] uncontaminated zone. In electrical logging the area . Synonyms: (French.) ligne de practice, the zone around a borehole that partage des eaux souterraines, limit has not become contaminated by mud souterrainne; (German.) unterirdische filtrate[16]. Waßerscheide; (Greek.) ypoghios ythroketis; (Italian.) spartiacque undercut karren. These are Rinnenkarren sotterraneo; (Russian.) vodorazdel (solution grooves) that have been podzemnih vod; (Spanish.) divisoria transformed by humus filling and by their subterránea; (Turkish.) yeralt2 su bölümü; side walls having been hollowed under by (Yugoslavian.) podzemna razvodnica, [3] podzemna vododelnica. See also biogenic CO2 . subsurface divide. underflow spring. See spring, underflow.

underdrainage. The drainage from under a underground river, underground stream. hydrologic feature such as a river, barrier, Water flowing in channels through caves, lake, etc. caverns, and larger galleries in karst terranes[20]. Synonyms: (French.) rivière

180 souterraine; (German.) Höhlenfluß, water[22]. 2. Two-phase flow through pores unterirdischer Fluß; (Greek.) ypoghios roe, only partially filled with water and air[16]. potamos; (Italian.) fiume sotterraneo; (Russian.) podzemnaja reka; (Spanish.) río unsaturated zone. See vadose zone and zone subterráneo; (Turkish.) yeralt2 nehri, of aeration. deresi; (Yugoslavian.) podzemni tok, podzemna rijka, podzemna reka. See unsteady flow. Flow with a finite local subterranean river. acceleration term and streamlines that vary with time[16]. underground waters. All subsurface waters[16]. Not to be confused with “ground unterirdische karst. See interstratal karst. water,” which specifically refers to water within the phreatic zone. upconing. Process by which saline water underlying fresh water in an aquifer rises uniaxial (unconfined) compression. upward into the freshwater zone as a result Compression caused by the application of of pumping water from the freshwater normal stress in a single direction. zone[22].

uniaxial state of stress. The state of stress in uplift. 1. The hydrostatic force of water which two of the three principal stresses are exerted on or underneath a structure zero. tending to cause a displacement of the structure. 2. The relative upward uniform flow. Flow with constant velocity at movement of a part of the earth’s crust[16]. all points and at all times[16]. upper confining bed. An impermeable bed uniformity coefficient. A numerical overlying an aquifer[16]. expression of the variety in particle sizes in mixed natural soils, defined as the ratio of upside-down channel. See ceiling channel. the sieve size on which 40% (by weight) of the material is retained to the sieve size on urkarst. See buried karst. which 90% of the material is retained[6]. uvala. 1. A multi-coned closed depression; unit-hydrograph. A hypothetical discharge now little-used term of Croat, Serb or hydrograph for a given point resulting from Bulgarian origin. The term was introduced unit rainfall that produces unit runoff[16]. to describe features assumed to be the second step in a three-stage process of polje unsaturated coefficient of permeability. development, in which dolines were The apparent coefficient of permeability in supposed to coalesce into uvalas. This flow through an unsaturated medium[16]. mechanism is no longer accepted and the term “uvala” has fallen into disuse[9]. 2. unsaturated flow. 1. The movement of water Large closed depression formed by the in a porous medium in which the pore coalescence of several dolines that have spaces are not filled to capacity with enlarged towards each other. Typically, the

181 floor is irregular, being a combination of doline floors and degraded slopes of the individual hollows[19]. 3. A Yugoslavian term for an elongated closed depression in karst that is commonly dry or with periodical small sinking streams or inundations. They are generally a few hundred meters long and may be considered as a small polje[20]. Synonyms: (American.) compound doline; (French.) cuvala; (German.) Uvala; (Greek.) ouvala; (Italian.) avvalamento carsico, uvala; (Russian.) uvala; (Spanish.) uvala; (Turkish.) koyak; kokurdan; (Yugoslavian.) draga. See also canyon; karst valley; valley sink. Related to polje.

182 V circulates freely under gravity above the level of saturation - the vadose zone. Caves vadose cave. 1. A cave that underwent most formed by flowing water are said to be [19] of its development above the water table. vadose caves . 2. Water in the zone of Within the vadose zone, drainage is free- aeration; water above the zone of [10] flowing under gravity, and cave passages saturation . therefore have air above any water surface. The gravitational control of vadose flow vadose zone. 1. The zone between the land [22] means that all vadose cave passages drain surface and the water table . 2. The zone downslope, they exist in the upper part of a between the land surface and the deepest karst aquifer, and they ultimately drain into water table which includes the capillary the phreatic zone or out to the surface. fringe. Generally, water in this zone is Active stream caves, explorable by non- under less than atmospheric pressure, and diving cavers, are by definition vadose some of the voids may contain air or other (though they generally have phreatic gases at atmospheric pressure. Beneath origins). Characteristics of vadose caves flooded areas or in perched water bodies are uneroded ceilings (except for immature the water pressure locally may be greater [22] phreatic features predating the vadose than atmospheric . When discussing a conditions) and continuous downhill karst setting, it is preferable to use the term gradients (unless interrupted by short “vadose zone,” so as to avoid confusion perched sumps). The main passage forms regarding chemical saturation. Synonym: are canyons, with meanders and potholes, unsaturated zone. See also zone of broken by sub-cylindrical, spray-corroded aeration. shafts that may demonstrate waterfall retreat. Some of the caves of Monte Canin, valley fill. Unconsolidated debris Italy, are spectacularly long and deep accumulated on a valley bottom[16]. vadose systems[9]. 2. Older, higher cave passages found in the vadose zone; usually valley sink. (American.) An elongated closed vadose caves have been abandoned by the depression or series of interconnecting ground water except in times of extreme depressions forming a valleylike depression. aquifer recharge. Passages usually appear Compare karst valley; uvala[10]. as canyons and keyholes. valley spring. See spring, valley. vadose shaft. A vertical tube in the vadose zone that may be a few inches to several vanadinite. A cave mineral — [11] feet in diameter and may be a few feet deep Pb5(VO4)3Cl . to hundreds or over a thousand feet deep. They commonly occur as complexes. A vaporization. The process by which liquid or drain hole is usually evident at their base. solid water changes into the gaseous See also vertical shaft. state[16]. vadose water. 1. That part of the variance. The square of the standard underground water in a karst limestone that deviation[16].

183 [11] . A cave mineral — AlPO4"2H2O . vertical shaft. These are formed by underground water dripping of flowing varve. The alternating of coarse and fine straight downward through the limestone grained layers in sediments[16]. along vertical cracks. Uniformly distributed dissolution of the rock results in a silo- or vasque. A large, shallow solution pan formed well-shaped passage so that most of them in the intertidal zone of warm seas by the appear roughly circular in cross section action of brine and marine organisms[19]. when viewed straight up and down. They form above active tubular passages, vauclusian spring; vauclusian rising. See although they may intersect a limited spring, vauclusian. number of passages along their length. At Mammoth Cave, they range in size from 30 vegetation cover. The cover living vegetation feet across to 200 feet from top to on top of the upper soil horizon[16]. bottom[15]. Synonym: dome-pit. See also canyon passage; fissure cave; keyhole vein. A mineral-filled fracture cutting through passage; passage; tubular passage; vadose a host rock. The mineral filling may be shaft; vertical cave. derived from the host rock, as is the case with many calcite veins in limestone (e.g., at vertical caver. A caver who enjoys and is Marble Showers in Ogof Ffynnon Ddu) or competent doing vertical caving[13]. See derived from other, generally deeper also vertical caving. sources, such as the many veins containing lead and zinc ore minerals in the Derbyshire vertical caving. Caving that includes a lot of Peak District, England[9]. ascending and descending[13]. See also vertical caver. velocity, average interstitial. The average rate of ground-water flow in interstices very fine sand. Grain particles with diameters expressed as the product of hydraulic ranging from 0.05 to 0.1 mm[16]. conductivity and hydraulic gradient divided by the effective porosity. Synonymous with vesicular. Containing small circular average linear ground-water velocity or cavities[16]. effective velocity. victor tube. The single phreatic subconduit vertical cave. A vertical passage within a among the many that potentially exist on a cave system, formed along joints by which given bedding plane (or fracture plane) that underground watercourses are transferred is the first to reach a diameter capable of from a higher to a lower bedding plane[19]. establishing turbulent-flow conditions. They may become transformed into vertical Following this breakthrough the victor tube shafts by sufficiently uniform dissolution as tends to enlarge more rapidly than other to create a rounded vertical passage. See branching or subparallel alternatives, and also fissure cave; vertical shaft. eventually captures much of the drainage within its field of influence[9].

184 virgin flow. Flow unaffected by artificial vulcanokarst. An area comprised of tubular diversions, impoundments, or channels[16]. caves within lava flows and showing evidence of mechanical collapse of the roof virgin passage. A cave passage that has not into them. See also lava cave; pseudokarst. previously been entered; a new discovery[13]. viscosity. 1. The resistance of liquid to flow[16]. 2. The property of a real fluid creating shear forces between two fluid elements and giving rise to fluid friction[16]. Specifically, it is the ratio of the shear stress to the rate of shear strain[6].

void. See interstice.

void ratio. The ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solid particles in a given soil mass[22].

. Substances with relatively large vapor pressures. Many organic substances are almost insoluble in water, so they occur primarily in a gas phase in contact with water, even though their vapor pressure may be very small[22].

volumetric flowmeter. Apparatus designed to measure a volume flow rate[16].

volumetric moisture content. The concentration of water in soil by volume[16].

vrulje. (Yugoslavian.) See submarine spring.

vug. A small cavity in rock usually lined with crystals. Adjective, vuggy[10]. See also geode.

vugular pore space. Void space due to solution cavities of small size[16].

185 W water-bearing. Containing water[16]. wading measurement. Discharge water-borne disease. Disease spread by measurement during which a hydrographer organic contaminants contained in the water takes readings while standing in a river[16]. supply[16].

wall block. A roughly cubical joint-controlled water budget. The quantitative accounting of large block of limestone or dolomite, which water volumes involved in the hydrologic has rotated outward from a cave wall[10]. cycle[16]. See also cave breakdown; wall slab. water catchment. The intake of water from wall karren. These are found on vertical an aquifer or a surface reservoir[16]. walls as a result of water flowing down the walls without any areawide moistening, water conservation. All measures to reduce although areawide sprinkling occasionally the quantitative of qualitative spoilage of influences their development[3]. See also water[16]. meandering karren; humus-water grooves. water content. The amount of water lost wall pocket. See pocket. from the soil after drying it to constant weight at 105EC, expressed either as the wall slab. A thin but large block of rock, weight of water per unit weight of dry soil which has fallen outward from the wall of a or as the volume of water per unit bulk cave in limestone in which the dip is nearly volume of soil[22]. See moisture content. vertical[10]. See also cave breakdown. water course. Any channel conveying wang. (Malaysian.) Polje[10]. water[16]. wash. A small ravine caused by outwash from water equivalent. The depth of water flow in desert regions[16]. resulting from the melting of snow[16]. . The incoming load of suspended water hammer. An abnormally high pressure sediment passing through a river network rise in a pipe when sudden changes in flow without deposition[16]. occur[16]. waste load. The content of wastes by weight water-holding capacity. See specific of volume transported by or discharged into retention. a river[16]. water invasion. The sudden invasion of waste water. Water containing sewage and water into a well or borehole[16]. waste products[16]. water level. The level of free surface of a water-balance. An instrument designed to water body or water column[16]. measure evaporation by gravimetry[16].

186 water logged, waterlogged. Water water table cannot normally be related to saturated[16]. them. The water table concept does, however, apply to the diffuse drainage of water logging. Water accumulation on top of percolation water in the microfissure soil where the water table and ground network of limestone, but its detailed surface coincide[16]. structure may be complicated by the presence of conduits. The water-table slope water of constitution. Chemically bound (hydraulic gradient) is low in limestone due water[16]. to the high permeability, and the level is controlled by outlet springs or local water of crystallization. Water embodied in geological features. High flows create crystal structure[16]. steeper hydraulic gradients and hence rises in the water level away from the spring. In water of dehydration. Water freed from France’s Grotte de la Luire, the water level hydrous minerals by chemical changes[16]. in the cave (and therefore the local water table) fluctuates by 450 m[9]. 2. The upper water pot. See kamenica, solution pan. surface of a zone of saturation except where that surface is formed by a confining unit[22]. water quality. The physical, chemical, and 3. The upper surface of the zone of biological characteristics of water[16]. saturation on which the water pressure in the porous medium equals atmospheric water requirement. The quantity of water pressure[22]. 4. The upper boundary of an needed for crops regardless of the unconfined zone of saturation, along which source[16]. the hydrostatic pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure[10]. See also water resources. The total supply of surface, potentiometric surface. ground, and reclaimed water that can be used[16]. water-table aquifer. See unconfined aquifer.

water stage. The height of the water level[16]. water-table cave. In theory the water table offers the prime environment for cave water table. 1. The top surface of a body of development, as it provides the shortest slowly moving ground water that fills the route through the phreas and is potentially pore spaces within a rock mass. Above it more active chemically because of the lies the freely draining vadose zone, and presence of the air/water interface. below it lies the permanently saturated However, geological factors determine the phreas. In uniform aquifers, such as details of cave inception and enlargement, sandstone, the water table is a smoothly and passages most commonly form just contoured surface intersecting the ground below the water table as a shallow phreatic at rivers and lakes, but in limestone it is variety of cave development. Development more complex. Individual cave conduits of this type is believed to be responsible for may be above or below the water table, and the “levels” of cave passage found in some therefore either vadose or phreatic, and the areas, as in the flint Mammoth Cave

187 System, Kentucky. True water-table caves natural flood pulses, which provide are rare, except on a limited scale as additional data on the nature of conduits, as extensions to cliff foot notches margined to a pulse is transmitted instantaneously tropical . Also, under these through flooded passages. The longest conditions, the water table may adjust down successful water trace was from Beysehir to the level of a mature phreatic cave and Golu to the Manavgat springs, in Turkey, then modify the passage with horizontal over a distance of 130 km; 390 kg of dissolution notches — as is common in the fluorescein was used and the dye caves of Mulu and Niah, Sarawak[9]. reappeared after 366 days[9]. water-table divide. See divide. water trap. A place where the roof of a water-table map. A map showing the upper chamber or passage of a cave dips under surface of the phreatic zone of a water-table water but lifts again farther on[10]. aquifer by means of contour lines[1]. See Synonym: trap. also phreatic zone; potentiometric-surface map; water-table aquifer. water works. A plant where water is treated and prepared for municipal consumption[16]. water tracing. Underground drainage links through unexplored caves confirmed by water year. A 12-month period for labeling input water and identifying it at streamflow computation[16]. points downstream. The common labeling techniques involve the use of fluorescent waterlogging. Water accumulation on top of dyes (fluorescein, rhodamine, leucophor, soil where the water table and ground pyranine, etc.), lycopodium spores, or surface coincide. chemicals such as common salt. Detection of dye downstream may be purely visual, watershed. 1. A drainage basin[16]. 2. A but if the dye is used at a subvisible divide separating one drainage basin from (environmentally acceptable) dilution, another[16]. suitable detectors must be placed in all potential risings and collected for waterway. An artificial or natural subsequent fluorometric examination watercourse fit for navigation. (although water samples are more desirable and beneficial). Lycopodium spores are wave karren. Wavy karren surfaces that usually collected in fine nets, along with appear similar to corrugated tin. When other streamborne sediment, and must then denuded they are a disposition for the be identified under the microscope. If formation of Rinnenkarren[3]. See also chemical tracers are used, regular water covered karren; Rinnenkarren; root karren. samples must be collected for subsequent analysis, or the resurgent waters must be wayboard. One of many thin beds of volcanic monitored with suitable electronic detectors clay that occur at intervals within the and recorders. Flowpaths can also be Carboniferous carbonate succession of the confirmed by transmission of artificial or Peak District, England; a term formerly

188 used by lead miners (see toadstone). well yield. The volume of water discharged Wayboards have potential significance from a well in gallons per minute or cubic during speleogenesis, when they may act as meters per day. local aquicludes, inception horizons, or providers of strong acid formed by wet line. That portion of line submerged oxidation of sulfide minerals[9]. under water in stream measurements[16].

weathering. The process of disintegration wetland. A general term used for a group of and decomposition as a consequence of wet habitats, in common use by specialists exposure to the atmosphere, to chemical in wildlife management. It includes areas action, and to the action of frost, water, and that are permanently wet and/or heat. intermittently water-covered, especially coastal marshes, tidal swamps and flats, and wedge storage. 1. Water storage in the form associated pools, sloughs, and [1]. of a wedge overlying a prism[16]. 2. Storage in a flooded river segment[16]. wettability. The property of a solid substance to be wetted by a liquid such as water[16]. weir. A dam across a water course to control, raise, or measure water flow[16]. wetted area. The cross-sectional area of that portion of a channel that is filled with weir coefficient. A coefficient used in water[16]. transforming water depths into discharge volumes in weir measurements[16]. wetted perimeter. The perimeter over which flowing water is in actual contact with the well. 1. A shaft or hole sunk into the earth to channel walls and bottom[16]. obtain water, oil, gas, or minerals[10]. 2. A deep vertical rounded hole or shaft in the wetting period. The period of contact floor of a cave or at the bottom of a closed between a liquid and a solid surface during depression[10]. 3. A bored, drilled or driven which wetting occurs[16]. shaft, or a dug hole, whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension[22]. . A cave mineral — [11] Ca9(Mg,Fe)H(PO4)7 . well function. An exponential integral as used in Theis’ nonequilibrium equation[16]. width of contribution. The width of the contributing region between the ground- well hydrograph. A graph of water level water divide from which water enters a fluctuations in a well[16]. well. This usually occurs with an inclined piezometric surface[16]. well loss. Head loss caused by flow through a screen and inside a well[16]. wilt, to. The shrinking of cell walls due to loss in turgor as a result of water deficiency well-sorted grains. An assortment of grains in the plant[16]. having the same diameter[16].

189 wilting coefficient, wilting point. The soil moisture content at which plants wilt[16]. wind factor. The factor containing a monthly mean wind velocity in evaporation[16]. wind field. The air velocity field above ground due to wind action[16]. window. 1. In speleology, a natural opening above the floor of a passage or a room, giving access to an adjoining cavity or to the surface; larger and less symmetrical than a porthole. 2. The opening under the arch of a small natural bridge[10]. See karst window. windypit. Open fissure, widened by landslip, common in valley side situations in which limestone overlies weaker rocks such as clays or shales. The term is commonly used to describe gulls and tectonic caves in the Jurassic limestones of northeast Yorkshire, England[9]. withdraw, to. To draw water from an aquifer or reservoir[16]. workover. The reworking of a well that has declined in yield[16].

190 Y yield. The quantity of water discharged from an aquifer[16] (e.g., spring or well.) See also well yield.

191 Z zones of karstification. Cviji… (1926, 1960) distinguishes three zones of karstification: zadernovanny0 karst. (Russian.) See subsoil (1) dry zone in the upper part of the karst karst. with caves almost completely dry; (2) transition zone where water flows zakryty0 karst, skryty0 karst. (Russian.) See downstream almost permanently; and (3) closed karst. deep zone with slow downstream flow and local siphons[20]. Synonyms: (French.) zanjón. (Spanish.) In Puerto Rico, solution zones de karstification; (German.) Zone der trench in limestone. Zanjónes range from a Verkarstung; (Greek.) zoni karstikopiiseos; few centimeters to about 8 meters in width (Italian.) zone idrogeologiche; (Spanish.) and from about 1 to 4 meters in depth. zona de karstificación; (Turkish.) Apparently they form by the widening and karstlaÕma kuÕa™2; (Yugoslavian.) zone deepening of joints by solution[10]. See also karstifikacije. bogaz; corridor; struga. Zwischenhöhle. (German.) Cave in which a zero adjustment. The adjustment of a scale river passage, or former river passage, is or a measuring circuit to an original point of entered from above or laterally and which departure[16]. can be followed upstream and downstream some distance but not to daylight[10]. zonal soil profile. The normal horizontal distribution of soil zone[16].

zone of accumulation. The second horizon of a soil profile (B), usually the zone of clay accumulation subjacent to zone (A)[16]. zone of aeration. The zone in permeable soil or rock that is above the zone saturated with water; the zone of vadose water[10]. See also vadose zone. zone of investigation. The zone over which a given measuring device is able to obtain information[16]. zone of leaching. The top horizon of a soil profile (A) that is most intensely weathered[16]. zone of saturation. The zone in permeable soil or rock that is saturated with water; the phreatic zone[10]. See also phreatic zone.

192 REFERENCES

1. Bates, R. L., and J. A. Jackson. 1980. Glossary of Geology. American Geological Institute, Falls Church, Va. 751 pp.

2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York. 569 pp.

3. Bögli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology and Physical Speleology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 284 pp.

4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New observations on tower karst. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Geomorphology (Manchester, England). 14 pp.

5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in Karst Systems: Physics. Chemistry. and Geology. Springer-Verlag, New York. 288 pp.

6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater and Wells. Johnson Division, St. Paul, Minn. 1089 pp.

7. Ford, D. C., and P. W. Williams. 1989. Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. Unwin Hyman Inc., Lakeland, Fla. 601 pp.

8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. Karst Geomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc., New York. 293 pp.

9. Lowe, D., and T. Waltham. 1995. A Dictionary of Karst and Caves: A Brief Guide to the Terminology and Concepts of Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies Series Number 6. British Cave Research Association, London. 41 pp.

10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. A Glossary of Karst Terminology. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 26 pp.

11. Moore, G. W., and G. N. Sullivan. 1978. Speleology: The Study of Caves. 2nd Edition. Cave Books., St. Louis, . 150 pp.

12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologic classification of caves and karst. Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R. G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc. Boston. pp. 157-172.

13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of caving terms used in this manual. Caving Basics. J. Hassemer, Editor. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124-125.

14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of a sinking stream system: Onesquethaw Cave, New York. National Speleological Society Bulletin. 34. pp. 89-110.

193 15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guide to Mammoth Cave National Park. Zephyrus Press, Teaneck, N.J. 196 pp.

16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier’s Dictionary of Hydrogeology. American Elsevier Publishing Company, Inc., New York. 168 pp.

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