Department of English and American Studies English

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Bc. Amira Smoudi, MBA Perceptions of the 19th century Medicine in America based on Cultural Aspects: The Medicine Man Master’s Diploma Thesis Supervisor: Jeffrey Alan Smith, M.A., Ph. D. 2020 1 2 I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography. …………………………………………….. Author’s signature 3 4 Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor Jeffrey Alan Smith, M.A., Ph.D. for his guidance, patience and feedback throughout this thesis. 5 Table of Contents 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………………………...8 2. Context to 19th century American-Indian treaties: Healthcare and politics ………….11 3. 19th century thoughts on Native American medicine ………………………………..15 4. The notion of medicine and health by the Natives ……………………………...…....26 4.1.Native American healthcare beliefs ……………………………………………...29 5. The figure of medicine man ……………………………...…………………………..32 5.1.Critique of the medicine man …………………………………………………….34 6. 19th century perspective of medicine by American culture ………………………… 49 6.1.Alternative medicine: cultural appropriation ………………………….…………52 6.1.1. Women and medicine ………………………………………..….………..57 7. Conclusion: The imagery of medicine man to serve politial agenda ………..……….61 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………...………….63 Resumé ………………………………………………………………………………66 Résumé ………………….……………………………………………………………67 6 7 1. Introduction American medicine during 19th century deals with cultural relations influencing the field of medicine. The thesis is concerned with the situation of medicine, with political context in the background, primarily focusing on perspectives of American culture in contrary with the Native American culture in regards to medicine. For this purpose, the figure of medicine man within the Native culture is chosen for the analysis to depict how negative imagery of the medicine man influenced the Native position in the medical sphere. The aim of such representation was to shade the Native knowledge of healing practices and to support the evolvement of science during this period. To major primary sources, proving such depictions, belongs the journal “The ‘MEDICINE- MAN’; or Indian and Eskimo Notions of Medicine” by Robert Bell and “The Relation of the Medicine –Man to the Origin of the Professional Occupations” by W.I. Thomas. Bell offers criticism including both positive and negative observations from a point of view of a 19th century writer, analyzing the relationship between the medicine man and the white society. He provides commentary not only on the philosophies differing the cultures apart but also describes the medicine man’s course of treatment in detail, offering positive notes on some of the practical skills of the Natives, however, in general, interprets their perspective on medicine as ‘unprofessional’ due to reliance on spirituality and mythology. Thomas on the other hand, analyses the contrast of the Native beliefs with the Christian religion, stating that the foundation of the Native’s insufficiency to be important figures in the medical environment is due to cultural ‘backwardness’. Secondary sources dealing with cultural issues of the Native Americans transferring it to the issue of medicine, include the study American Indian Medicine by Virgil J. Vogel, deepening the acceptance of the medicine man figure by the White society; analysis of the history of the healthcare system of the Native American including its cultural implications Caring and 8 Curing: A History of the Indian Health Service by James P. Rife and Allan J. Dellapenna; by Paul Starr who defines in his analysis the connection of various perspectives on medicine within the American land The Social Transformation of American Medicine: The Rise of a Sovereign Profession and the Making of a Vast Industry; in Health and Wellness in 19th-century America by John C. Waller who comments on different courses of treatment during the 19th century, including the Native tribal healers; and American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century by William Rothstein who provides analysis of scientific approach of the medical society versus alternative medicine based on Native healing beliefs. The first chapter will be concerned with the history of the American-Indian relations, including treaties and political situation during the 19th century, to provide background which influenced the medical state during this era and the cultural perceptions of American society upon Native belief system and hence their set of practices when dealing with diseases. The second chapter will analyze views on Native American medicine in the 19th century and its major contradiction. Basis for the breakdown provides either the views of American society with the cultural implications and the written criticism by White authors. The aim of this chapter is to provide a thorough concept of what are the key elements distinguishing these two cultures, with denouement that reliance on spirituality, mythology and the use of magic and intuition does not suit the American urge to evolve towards the exact scientific grasp of health interpretations; therefore the Native healing practices are viewed and reviewed as savage, as well as their culture and society in general. Next chapter focuses on explanation of Native beliefs in religious manner as well as in course of treatments. Native American spirituality revolves around the ‘Great Spirit’ defining their harmonious lifestyle based on interconnectivity of each element on Earth and beyond. Such notion of life intersects into healing practices, as health is based on a belief for the Native society. 9 The fourth chapter analyses the figure of medicine man, as being the most important healer in the Native perception of medicine, encompassing the Native belief system with a great general knowledge of human health. Not only does this chapter describes what role does the medicine man plays within the tribe and for the Native set of beliefs, but what kind of image does he originate in the eyes of the American culture and what are their reactions towards this figure. Moreover, this section denotes the major arguments against the principles of the medicine man by the White authors, stating that as his practices are based on magic and lack of ‘rationality’, his role obtains plethora of respect which is inadequately ascribed to him, since he is not a ‘real doctor’. In addition, Bell, Thomas and other White authors doubt the medicine man’s efficacy of treatment and accuse him of deception. Finally, the analysis focuses on purposes of this imagery and aims to find reasons of creating the negative reflects upon the practices of the medicine man and thus the Native healing arts. Conclusion lies in the combination of political implications on cultural awareness, historical context and the pressure of upcoming wave of scientific oriented approach to knowledge and explanation of processes and phenomena. Last chapter describes professional medicine and exemplifies how such written perspectives influenced the acknowledgement of the Indigenous healing knowledge and how this behavior could also be looked upon as strategic (concerning the American scene of doctors), since their aim was to arrange the highest position in the medical hierarchy and navigate society’s concentration towards the American medical society and its achievements. This analysis also focuses on alternative attempts of medicine to oppose the scientific approach and authority of the medical society within the American medicine, and find its interpretation of human health within the competitor, additionally based on the imagery of the medicine man. Such alternative movements include the ‘folk medicine’, Thomsonian medicine, domestic medicine and the role of women among the medicinal patriarchy. 10 2. Context to 19th century American-Indian treaties: Healthcare and politics Analysis of historical context of the American-Indian relations and affairs is important, as the political and historical background simultaneously shaped the cultural environment and atmosphere of the territory, influencing the perspectives upon medicine, comparing the American culture’s view of medicine with the Native’s. Not only it defined the mood between these two counterparts but also stated the cultural awareness. Since years of the Republic, cooperation between the American society and Native Americans has been set sustaining in the situation where Native cultures are mere co-inhabitants of the country but not ruling over it. Such relation was constituted by law, as Rife and Dellapenna argue, so both parties could reach its justice when addressing the land, since, “this relationship was grounded on both the legal foundations laid out by the Articles of Confederation and the U.S. Constitution, which explicitly acknowledged the distinct sovereignty of Indian tribes, and the government’s early understanding of the Doctrine of Discovery and Indian Title” (1). However, in practice, Indian rights, during the end of 18th century, to the land were continuously fading. Although, they might be the ‘grandfathers of the land’, they were not legitimate enough to have ownership of it due to different spiritual/religious values and socio-economic strategies apart from European colonizers. Rife and Dellapenna note that the law dismissed Indians from possessing anything valuable enough to gain respect from the dainty opposition: “Since the tribes were considered

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