Book Reviews - Roger Busser, Sudo Sueo, the Fukuda Doctrine and ASEAN; New Dimensions in Japanese Foreign Policy

Book Reviews - Roger Busser, Sudo Sueo, The Fukuda Doctrine and ASEAN; New dimensions in Japanese Foreign policy. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1992. - P.J. Drooglever, C. Fasseur, De Indologen; Ambtenaren voor de Oost 1825-1950. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1993, 552 pp. - Raymond Evans, Tony Swain, A place for strangers; Towards a history of Australian Aboroginal being. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, xi + 330 pp. - CH.F. van Fraassen, Leonard Andaya, The world of Maluku; Eastern Indonesia in the early modern period. Honolulu: University of Hawai Press, 1993, ix + 306 pp. - J. van Goor, Lodewijk Wagenaar, Galle VOC-vestiging in Ceylon; Beschrijving van een koloniale samenleving aan de vooravond van de Singalese opstand tegen het Nederlandse gezag, 1760. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1994. - Geert Kalshoven, A. Schrevel, Access to Water; A socio-economic study into the practice of irrigation development in Indonesia. Ph.D. thesis, The Hague: The Institute of Social Studies, 1993. - Nico Kaptein, Mohamed Ariff, Islam and the economic development of Southeast Asia; The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,1991.''Islam and the economic development of Southeast Asia; The Muslim private sector in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991. - Victor T. King, Alistair Morrison, Fair land Sarawak; Some recollections of an expatriate official. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University (Southeast Asia Program, Studies on Southeast Asia 13), 1993, xiv + 182 pp. - H.A.J. Klooster, Klaus H. Schreiner-Brauch, Nationalismus und Personenkult im indonesischen Geschichtsverständnis. Ph.D. Dissertation, Universität Hamburg, 1993, xxi + 293 pp. - Han Knapen, Mark Cleary, Borneo; Change and development. Singapore, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, x + 271 pp., tables, figures, index., Peter Eaton (eds.) - Sirtjo Koolhof, Christiaan G.F. de Jong, Geesten, goden en getuigen: Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse zending onder de Buginezen en Makassaren in Zuid-Sulawesi (Indonesië). Kampen: Kok, (1991), 338 pp., ills., maps, index. - Margaret Leidelmeijer, G.R. Knight, Colonial production in provincial Java; The sugar industry in Pekalongan-Tegal, 1800-1942. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994. (Comparative Asian Studies 13.) - J.J. Ras, M.C. Ricklefs, War, culture and economy in Java 1677-1726; Asian and European Imperialism in the early Kartasura period. Sydney: Asian studies Association of Australia, in association with Allen and Unwin, 1993, xviii + 425 pp.

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access - Corry M.I. van der Sluys, Rosemary Gianno, Semelai culture and Resin technology. Connecticut: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1990. - Jaap Timmer, Laurence R. Goldman, The culture of coincidence; Accident and absolute liability in Huli. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993, xvi + 443 pp. In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 150 (1994), no: 2, Leiden, 417-446

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Sudo Sueo, The Fukuda Doctrine and ASEAN; New Di- mensions in Japanese Foreign Policy. Singapore: Insti- tute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1992.

ROGffiR BUSSER

The Fukuda Doctrine was first outlined in a speech in Manilla in 1977, during Prime Minister Fukuda's Southeast Asian tour. The speech was im- mediately taken to imply a major new foreign policy initiative. The new policy was to have three pillars: first, Japan would not become a military power. Secondly, Japan would seek a heart-to-heart understanding between the peoples of Japan and Southeast Asia. Thirdly, Japan would be an equal partner of ASEAN with the aim of fostering a relationship with the nations of Indochina. The Fukuda Doctrine triggered off a wide variety of reactions in Japan, as well as in Southeast Asia. Responses ranged from a dismissive 'nothing new under the sun' to a laudatory 'it's a new era in Japanese foreign policy'. In this first monograph on the Fukuda Doctrine, Sudo analyses the factors which prompted the doctrine, and secondly examines the extent to which it has actually influenced Japanese policies towards Southeast Asia since. In the search for causes Sudo uses four perspectives: changes in the international and subregional conditions (Chapter 4), changes in Japanese domestic politics (Chapter 5), and changes in the ideas of policy-makers (Chapter 6). Of these, the last is the most interesting and, in Chapter Six, Sudo describes the process of the formulation of the doctrine. He provides a clear insight into the debate inside the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the struggle between the other ministries involved. He devotes particular attention to the four senior officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who formed an informal policy group within the Asian Affairs Bureau in early 1976. One year before the election of Prime Minister Fukuda these four were already engaged in developing a new policy towards Southeast Asia, focusing on improving relations with Vietnam. However, the study remains somewhat ambiguous on the personal role of Fukuda. On the one hand, Fukuda is depicted as a catalyst who was just the right man in the right place at the right time to carry out the plans

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of the bureaucrats from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. On the other hand, Sudo imputes the first two ideas of the doctrine solely to the prime minister. It is worth noting that the assumption underlying this study is the same as that used by Yasutomo in his study on the Japanese role in the Asian Development Bank, namely that Japanese foreign policy-making since the Fukuda doctrine has become active and initiating. The Fukuda Doctrine signalled a break in Japanese foreign policy- making, which was necessitated by factors such as the bankruptcy of Tanaka's resource diplomacy, the American request for more Japanese responsibility in Southeast Asia, and the pressure exerted by a more self- assured ASEAN after the Bali summit (1976). It meant a move away from the passivity and reactiveness said to have characterized Japanese foreign policy-making for the last three decades to a more active or leading role. Sudo finds evidence of this new energy and activity in the many policy initiatives Japan has undertaken towards Southeast Asia. Japan took the lead in the North-South dialogue in Asia, and there were numerous endea- vours to ease tensions in the region, Japan playing an especially active role as mediator between Washington and Hanoi, between Hanoi and Peking, between ASEAN and Vietnam. There were attempts to stimulate solutions by granting aid, and visits on the prime ministerial level were more or less institutionalized. This is the first detailed study of the Fukuda doctrine, but, over and above this, Sudo has also provided us with new insights into the making of Japanese foreign policy.

C. Fasseur, De Indologen; Ambtenaren voor de Oost 1825-1950. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1993, 552 pp. ISBN 90.3511.275.X.

P.J. DROOGLEVER

Na terugkeer van de Nederlanders in Batavia in 1816 bleek al spoedig dat het personeel ontbrak, om Java en Onderhorigheden naar de eisen van de nieuwe tijd te besturen. In 1825 deed gouverneur-generaal Van der Capel- len daarom een aantal voorstellen om hierin verbetering te brengen. Deze werden in Den Haag nader uitgewerkt door Jean Chretien Baud, die daar toen geplaatst was als hoofdambtenaar op het ministerie van kolonien. Zijn voorstel, om de opleiding van nieuwe lichtingen ambtenaren voortaan te doen geschieden op universitair niveau, en wel te Leiden, stuitte echter op verzet van de koning. Deze zag meer in een opleiding op militaire leest, die verzorgd zou kunnen worden aan de in oprichting zijnde Militaire Academie in Breda. De tezelfdertijd uitbrekende Java-oorlog schoof echter

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 419 alle plannenmakerij op de lange baan en zo werd het 1843, voordat er spijkers met koppen konden worden geslagen. Aan de toen opgerichte Koninklijke Academie te Delft, primair bedoeld voor de opleiding van civiele ingenieurs, was het onderwijsprogramma nu zodanig verruimd, dat ook aspirant-bestuursambtenaren er terecht konden voor een vierjarige cursus. Door de liaison met deze voorloper van de Technische Universiteit Delft kreeg het onderwijs nu geen militaire, maar een technische inslag. Zo stond het landmeten prominent op het rooster. Daarnaast waren voor de specifiek 'Indische' vakken enkele specialisten aangetrokken. De meest befaamde (en best betaalde) van hen was Taco Roorda. Hij zou de Javaanse taal doceren, waarvan de kennis op dat moment nog maar in de kinderschoenen stond. Hiermee was de aanzet gegeven tot een vorm van onderwijs die naar inhoud, aard en vorm in de komende eeuw nogal wat varianten zou verto- nen. In 1864 werd de ambtenarenopleiding in Delft verzelfstandigd en overgenomen door het gemeentebestuur (!), terwijl in diezelfde periode ook Leiden en Batavia soortgelijke onderwijsfaciliteiten gingen bieden. Aan het begin van deze eeuw vond een concentratie te Leiden plaats, waar het ambtenarenonderwijs in 1924 tenslotte de academische status toebedeeld kreeg. Het nu geschapen Leidse monopolie werd echter een jaar later alweer raw doorbroken door de oprichting van een Indologen- opleiding in Utrecht. Dat gebeurde met steun van het Indische groot- kapitaal, dat van mening was, dat 'Leiden' meer begrip toonde voor het ontluikende Indonesische nationalisme dan goed was voor zijn zakelijke belangen. Over deze lange weg van beroepsopleiding naar universitaire studie heeft Cees Fasseur een boek geschreven dat niet alleen degelijk, maar ook boeiend en onderhoudend is. De degelijkheid blijkt niet alleen uit de respectabele omvang, maar vooral ook uit de zorgvuldigheid en kennis van zaken, waarmee dat gebeurd is. Studenten, professoren, onderwijsprogramma's, beleid en beloning passeren in bonte, maar goed gestructureerde reeks de revue. Daarbij slaagt de auteur er niet alleen in, de vele dwarsverbanden bekwaam aan te brengen, maar ook om in de vloed van gegevens het overzicht niet te verliezen. Bovendien blijft een lichte toets gehandhaafd. Personen worden met een goed gekozen epitheton ornans trefzeker en vaak humoristisch getypeerd. Kortere en rakere schets van 'de onzekere Uhlenbeck' dan op p. 187 gegeven, is niet denkbaar. Soms gaat Fasseur hierbij een stap te ver. Zo bijvoorbeeld op p. 355, waar als commentaar op het overlijden van de bejaarde Fransen van den Putte gesteld wordt, dat het na gedane arbeid goed rusten zou zijn. Een al te badinerende toon berooft m.i. hier het verleden van zijn intrinsieke waardigheid. Over het geheel genomen komt echter het feit dat de auteur er in geslaagd is, een conversatietoon te handhaven, de leesbaarheid van het boek bijzonder ten goede. Zo wordt ook de interactie tussen Haagse beleidmakers en belangheb-

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access 420 Book Reviews benden uit het 'onderwijsveld' levendig en met veel begrip beschreven. Men kan merken, dat de auteur ook zelf van beide markten thuis is. Iemand als Spanjaard, de directeur van de 19e-eeuwse Delftse bestuurs- academie, komt goed uit de verf. Duidelijk is, dat hij over de juiste eigen- schappen beschikte om ook vandaag de dag een gooi te mogen wagen naar het voorzitterschap van de raad van bestuur van een moderne universiteit. Meer in het algemeen wordt duidelijk, dat er in onderwijsvraag- stukken een zekere consistentie zit. De fundamentele vraagstukken waren honderd jaar geleden niet minder gecompliceerd dan vandaag de dag. Het verschil was, dat zij toen ten departemente door een enkele hoofdambtenaar moesten worden afgedaan, wat niet in alle gevallen een voordeel was. Soms werd meer speelruimte gegeven aan het hobbyisme van afzon- derlijke docenten dan met het onderwijsbelang te verenigen was. Een goed voorbeeld daarvan is het voortdurend debat over de vraag of in het onderwijs de nadruk zou moeten liggen op het Javaans, het Maleis of eventueel andere talen. Opportunisme en docentenbelang lijken hier voor- name beleidsbepalende factoren geweest te zijn. Overigens wordt uit deze bladzijden ook duidelijk, hoe beperkt de kennis van de Indonesische talen en culturen in het 19e-eeuwse Nederland was. De noodzaak, deze weten- schappen tot ontwikkeling te brengen, was ook toentertijd al evident, maar dit kreeg eerst in de twintigste eeuw vaart. Er ligt ironie in de constatering, dat er tegenwoordig in Nederland meer Indonesie-kennis voorhanden is dan in de 19e eeuw, toen men deze echt nodig had. Dit boek is vooral gebaseerd op grondig onderzoek in de Haagse archieven. Deze zijn over dit onderwerp bijzonder rijk voorzien omdat het een zaak betreft, die vooral in Nederland ten uitvoer moest worden gelegd. In dit opzicht is er een verschil met de meeste andere Indische beleids- aangelegenheden, waarbij initiatief en uitvoering in de regel in Batavia lagen. Deze omstandigheid verklaart echter tevens waarom het vierde cen- trum, waar ambtenaren werden opgeleid, relatief mager is behandeld. Weliswaar vergeet Fasseur de in Batavia verzorgde bestuursopleiding niet, maar personen en zaken hier komen heel wat minder uit de verf dan het geval is met hun Delftse, Leidse en Utrechtse tegenhangers. Dit was, gezien de uiterst matige ordening en toegankelijkheid van de archieven in Jakarta, niet te voorkomen, maar het wijst er eens te meer op, dat hier een knelpunt ligt in de verdere ontwikkeling van de geschiedschrijving van Nederlands-Indie. De opleiding van Indische ambtenaren, tenslotte, heeft van het midden van de vorige eeuw af in het teken gestaan van parochiale rivaliteiten. Fasseur maakt er geen geheim van, waar zijn voorkeuren liggen. De universitaire opleiding in Leiden, zoals in 1825 door zijn held Baud gecon- cipieerd, is voor hem de natuurlijke uitkomst van de geschiedenis. Dat zij hem gegund, zolang ook de rivaliserende instellingen een eerlijke behan- deling krijgen. En dat is zeker het geval! Wei maakt lezing van deze historie nieuwsgierig naar de vraag, welke omstandigheden nu de goede

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 421 bestuursambtenaar maakten: niveau van onderwijs, sociale herkomst of het al dan niet hebben van een Indische achtergrond. Een studie over het functioneren van het Europese BB lijkt daarom een logisch vervolg op dit mooie boek.

Tony Swain, A Place For Strangers; Towards a History of Australian Aboriginal Being. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, xi + 330 pp. Price: £ 35.-, US$ 59.95.

RAYMOND EVANS

Patrick Brantlinger, a cultural studies critic, has recently suggested that, of all the humanistic disciplines, history and anthropology alone possess interpretive keys for unlocking the intricacies of minority cultures and discourses. In this exciting, and provocative progression 'towards & history of Australian Aboriginal being', Tony Swain has understood and exploited the possibilities of utilizing both disciplines in tandem, in order to explore the impact of culture contact upon Aboriginal ontologies. The result is an intensely wrought - one is almost tempted to say, lovingly honed - piece of work which breaks ranks with traditional anthropological emphases upon pristine and relatively fixed indigenous cosmologies. Additionally, it confronts Australian anthropology's apparent 'terror of history' (p. 278) - particularly that historiographical wave which has exposed much of the horror and bloodshed of European frontier intrusion. In some revealing passages, Swain alludes to the quiet connivance of earlier anthropologists at the process of dispossession itself; and, given their inability to observe de facto pre-contact societies, their academic need to ignore the substantial degrees of transformative irruption which the European presence had imposed upon the supposedly 'traditional' social orders they came to study. Frontier violence, it would seem, made 'people quiet' in more ways than one. Yet Swain's main brief is to compare and contrast the cosmological out- comes of Aboriginal peoples' meetings with Melanesians, Indonesians, and Europeans in different parts of the Australian continent. As he states:

'I suggest the degree of cosmological adjustment intensifies as we pass from the relatively mild, equitable trade and marriage-based contacts with Melanesians; through to the more land-threatening, affineless associations with Indonesians from a distant land; followed by the ration/ wage labour morality of the pastoral world; and, finally, to the amoral associations with whites on the frontiers of invasion' (p. 281).

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From Melanesian contacts in the north-east and European pastoral contacts in the north-west, Hero Cults and Cargo Cults respectively are shown to arise. From Indonesian interactions in the central-north and European introductions in the south-east, the cosmological adjustments associated with the transcendental powers of the All-Mother and All- Father in turn result. Of the four metaphysically patterned effects arising from these strangers' arrivals, the Melanesian impact was the least disruptive upon the Aboriginal abiding and locative sense of Law and Place. The European intrusion, on the other hand - lawless and devastating as it was - imposed a blow so 'jarring at [the] very foundations' of the philosophical order that it rendered 'impossible the maintenance of a locative cultic life' (pp. 116-7, 122). In its place, a 'Utopian sky world', with a single omnipotent, masculinist creator, 'outside and above the totemic and kinship order', was imposed with desolate ontological consequences. Swain's overall schema is both fascinating and persuasive. As an historian, however, I must admit to some disquiet with the manner in which the four contact scenarios have been stage-managed in this account. To begin with, the savage European invasion, taking some 'ninety-six per cent of the people's lives' (p. 278), was not simply confined to the southeast, but rather spanned rapaciously across the entire continent. Indeed, in Cape York Peninsula, where the mildest cultural adjustments to the Melan- esian impact are recorded, European destructiveness was, if anything, far more severe than it had earlier been further south, and the European mission presence was also comparatively intense there. (Swain himself actually refers, at one point, to 'the North Queensland frenzy of dispossession' (p. 220).) Why, then, did the encompassing All-Father cosmology not surface here also? Furthermore, it is hard to accept that pastoralism's impact was essentially very much different from that of Swain's other 'invasion frontier'; for, across much of the continent that frontier, time and again, actually was a pastoral one. And the Kimberleys in the north-west was certainly not the only region where the hand of extermination was stayed by pastoral intruders so that the profitable economic exploitation of vanquished survivors could proceed. Once more, it is difficult to understand why Cargo Cults take precedence over All-Father beliefs in one pastoral area and not in others. Such historical problems require serious reflection and, as Swain happily calls for the spying out of 'interfering bugs' in his argument at the book's opening, I am equally happy to suggest these few for his attention. Nevertheless, this is a most thoughtful and intellectually challenging account. In suggesting that his scholarship is a form of 'interim plaything' as the study begins (p. x), Swain again seems to be seriously underselling his mental percipience in order perhaps to conform to a contemporary sense of postmodernist eclat. Yet his analysis proceeds with a tenacity and

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a passion which speaks for itself and carries the significance of his findings far beyond the effete realms of academic game-play.

Leonard Andaya, The World of Maluku; Eastern Indo- nesia in the Early Modern Period. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993, ix + 306 pp. ISBN 0.8248.1490.8. Price: $ 38.-.

CH.F. VAN FRAASSEN

The World of Maluku encompasses three centuries of European and Moluccan interaction (16th-18th centuries). Maluku, i.e. Maluku proper (the four realms of Ternate, Tidore, Jailolo, and Bacan), overlaps with the present sub-province of the North Moluccas. These four realms played an important role in Indonesian history because, up to the 16th century, they controlled the total world production of cloves. The position of power enjoyed by the rulers of these four realms was based on the grip they had on the production of and trade in cloves, which were very much in demand in Asia and Europe. The Portuguese and Spaniards were attracted by the clove trade from the beginning of the 16th century, and they entered into alliances with Ternate and Tidore respectively. At the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the dominant European power in the Moluccas. In due course the VOC established a jealously guarded monopoly on the purchase of and trade in cloves, obstructed all free trade, and controlled the political life in the Moluccas. In the book under review, Leonard Andaya, while giving a sketch of the course of events, stresses the gap between the European intellectual standpoint and the Moluccan frame of reference as regards historical perception, centre-periphery relations, symbolic classification and defini- tion of the world, and other relevant matters. Andaya argues that there was a gap of incomprehension between the Europeans, whose mental world was based on classical and Christian principles, and the Moluccans, who stressed the unity of their universe in spite of the fact that this universe consisted of four realms divided into two moieties, represented by Ternate and Tidore. The sketch of what Andaya calls 'The World of the European' could have been written as a synopsis of a few popular books on this subject. A more difficult proposition was the description and analysis of 'The World of Maluku'. Andaya is right in observing that 'To suggest what may have been the overriding concerns of the Malukans in the past is a risky business at best' (p. 21). Nevertheless, he seems to be pretty sure of himself when he writes: 'There is a specific Malukan way of organizing and inter-

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preting their history. When events in the period under study are placed within this indigenous conceptual framework, the activities of both out- siders and locals acquire a specific significance which provides a distinctive interpretation of Maluku's past' (p. 22). The value of this statement is very much dependent on Andaya's knowledge and understanding of 'the indigenous conceptual framework'. Andaya does not make use of the most important written Moluccan sources available (i.e., the history of Ternate by Naidah, published in 1878, and the Hikayat Ternate, kept in the library of Leyden University; see Van Fraassen, 1987,1:9-11). The only Moluccan written source mentioned and used by Andaya is a typed essay by Abdul Hamid Hasan, written in 1979. Furthermore, he has not been very meticulous in consulting European sources in which the Moluccan conceptual framework is described and analysed. Quite a number of state- ments are clearly based on the uncritical use of a theoretical framework developed by anthropologists. Just a few examples chosen at random will be sufficient to illustrate these points. Andaya's association of the four realms with the four points of the compass (p. 52-3) is not based on any empirical facts, but is undoubtedly derived from some theoretical framework. The observation that in Maluku the number four signifies totality and perfection and appears to have been a feature of the Austronesian-speaking peoples (p. 54) is incorrect in so far as many of the people in question speak non- Austronesian languages, while nowhere in his book does Andaya mention the equally great significance of the number nine for Moluccans. Contrary to what Andaya seems to believe (p. 55), social and cosmological dualism does not coincide with an asymmetrical relationship between 'wife-giver' and 'wife-taker', at least in the area studied. In my view, neither historical facts nor contemporary lore permit the conclusion that Ternate is the 'wife-taker' of Tidore (Andaya p. 55; Van Fraassen 1987, 1:433, 512-3, note 7). Ngofagamu should not be translated as 'the people of the Land' or 'the ordinary people' (p. 57 and glossary), but as 'the civilized people of the city and the villages' (Van Fraassen 1987, 11:645). The statement that 'the element of compulsion was never as effective in maintaining links between the center and periphery as was the belief in the shared myth of origin' (p. 112) does not take into account the fact that a myth is more easily reshaped and adapted to reality than the reverse, i.e. reality adapted to a myth. Sultan Hamza (r. 1627-1648) was not a brother of Sultan Babullah (r. 1570-1583) (p. 158), but was a son of Babullah's brother, Tolu. Sultan Mandar Syah (r. 1648-1675) was not the eldest son of Sultan Hamza (p. 163), who was childless, but was a son of Sultan Mudafar (r. 1606-1627). Andaya suggests (p. 178-9) that the Dutch were used by Sultan Amsterdam to strengthen his authority in the dependencies of Ternate, and describes the conquest of Siau by a combined Dutch-Ternate force (1677) as though it was a Ternatan expedition supported by the VOC, whereas in fact it was a Dutch initiative aimed at preventing the

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Spaniards and Makassarese from establishing a foothold in Siau, which might have posed a serious threat to the Dutch monopoly in the Moluccas, while the role of Ternate was just used as a legal cloak. With regard to the turmoil at the end of the 18th century, Andaya underlines (p. 214) the fact that the Moluccans deemed the restoration of Jailolo, the fourth realm of Maluku conquered by Ternate in the 16th century and since then one of the dependencies of Ternate, necessary for the benefit of the cosmic order, while omitting to indicate that the pro forma installation by the Tidorese pretender to the throne, Nuku, of a puppet from Makian as ruler of Jailolo was used as a legitimation for the rebellion of the inhabitants of Halmahera against the ruling sultans of Ternate and Tidore. Actually Nuku never seriously tried to restore Jailolo as the fourth realm of Maluku and the installation of a Makianese as ruler of Jailolo was an act of window- dressing. Andaya is right in arguing that there was a structural tension between the rulers and the lords of the land (p. 241), but apparently does not know about the contemporary Ternatan myths on this subject, although he has spent some time in Maluku (for this mythological theme, see Van Fraassen 1987,1:338; 11:43-4, 53-8, 454-5). These examples could easily be multiplied. With regard to the facts, historical sources have been copied in an uncritical and slipshod way. A lot of errors and inaccuracies could have been avoided by more careful reading. Another weakness of the book is that Andaya simply omits to mention a number of important facts and issues, such as the fact that the population of Maluku was of a very heterogeneous origin. He does not even make an estimate of the number of inhabitants of Maluku. The main shortcoming of the book, however, is its aptness to reduce a complex situation to a simple picture, in which the Europeans in general create the impression on the reader of being rather simple souls, who dis- carded none of their European narrow-mindedness in the Moluccas. In my view he is exaggerating where he writes: 'Being very much products of long-held classical and medieval views, the Europeans believed that "abroad" (that is, the periphery) could not be anything but the antithesis of everything that was good at "home" (that is, the center)' (p. 44). Formulating matters this way, he passes over the fact, for example, that the Dutch had no problems about entering into alliances with Muslim realms and principalities like Ternate and Hitu in order to be able to throw their Portuguese fellow-Europeans out of the Moluccas. He also passes over all the differences within the European camp, such as those which emerged in the 'debate' between J.P. Coen, who opted for a line of very firm action in the Moluccas, and the governors of Ternate and Ambon, Reael and Van der Haghen, who were inclined to wonder on what legal basis the Asian traders could be kept out of the Moluccas (Van Fraassen 1987, 1:41). Andaya also comes out with propositions that are not further worked out or substantiated, like: 'This European conception of time and "progress" was in stark contrast to the Malukan idea of cyclical and episodic time.

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These two distinct modes of interpreting the past, present, and future constituted a fundamental issue in the relationships between the groups in this early modern period.' (p. 24.) Summing up, Andaya has been very selective in his use of the available sources and has not seriously tested his starting-points and hypotheses. The study appears to have been written off the cuff, which certainly has a beneficial effect on the readability of the book. The book is probably best characterized as the product of a scholarly tourist who writes well but who did not check his interesting views sufficiently against the available facts.

Reference 1987 Fraassen, Ch.F. van, Ternate, de Molukken en de Indonesische Archi- pel; Van soa-organisatie en vierdeling, 2 vols, Ph.D. thesis, Leiden.

Lodewijk Wagenaar, Galle VOC-vestiging in Ceylon; Be- schrijving van een koloniale samenleving aan de vooravond van de Singalese opstand tegen het Nederlandse gezag, 1760. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1994. ISBN 90.6707.333.4.

J. VANGOOR

Zelden omschrijft een ondertitel zo goed de inhoud van een boek als de hierbovenstaande. Het boek, oorspronkelijk een dissertatie verdedigd te Leiden, bevat een minutieus onderzoek naar het reilen en zeilen van het Nederlandse bestuur en de VOC-gemeenschap in Galle, een stad aan de zuidkust van Ceylon, het huidige Sri Lanka. Ten tijde van de VOC was Galle een afzonderlijk commandement met een eigen bestuur. Het was een belangrijke post omdat vandaar de retourvloten naar Nederland vertrok- ken. De plaats bestaat nog steeds uit een groot versterkt schiereiland dat de baai van Galle beheerst. Ondanks allerlei veranderingen die in de loop van de laatste twee eeuwen hebben plaatsgevonden heeft Galle nog zoveel oude Nederlandse gebouwen en huizen bewaard dat het kan worden beschouwd als een van de grootste Nederlandse overzeese koloniale monumenten. Inmiddels hebben de autoriteiten op Sri Lanka de waarde hiervan ook ingezien en is de stad tot een beschermd monument uitgeroepen. Dit maakt Galle een in meerdere opzichten uitzonderlijke plaats. Niemand die de stad bezoekt zal kunnen ontkomen aan de charme die van dit levende monument uitgaat. Wagenaar heeft het originele idee gehad om een jaar in een stad uit de Nederlandse periode te kiezen als onderwerp van zijn dissertatie. Hij gaf

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 427 de voorkeur aan een diepgaand en uitvoerig onderzoek van een korte periode waarin alle gebeurtenissen aan de orde konden komen boven een structurele benadering over een langere tijd. Deze aanpak staat haaks op de gebruikelijke methodes van onderzoek. De vraag moet dan ook worden gesteld wat dit boek afgezien van de feitelijke inhoud aan nieuws te bieden heeft. Wat zijn de voor- en nadelen van de door Wagenaar gekozen aanpak? Eerst echter de inhoud. De keuze voor het jaar 1760 is geen toevallige. Het was het laatste jaar voor het uitbreken van de grote Singalese opstand in de Nederlandse delen van Ceylon. Dit geeft aan het verhaal een zekere spanning. Geleide- lijk aan worden steeds meer problemen zichtbaar en ziet men de cata- strophe naderen. Het aardige is dat ook het verschil in perceptie door tijd- genoten en latere onderzoekers duidelijk naar voren treedt. Veel grote gebeurtenissen komen onverwacht voor de omstanders. Het is de latere onderzoeker gegeven de structurele oorzaken aan te geven. Wagenaar laat het boek beginnen met het bezoek van gouverneur Jan Schreuder aan Galle. De gouverneur houdt een grote inspectie en laat geen dienstonder- deel ongemoeid. Alles wordt bekeken en geevalueerd en eventueel worden verbeteringen aangegeven. Dit bezoek geeft een mooi voorbeeld van de interne werking van het grote bedrijf van de VOC. Het maakt ook duidelijk aan welke kwaliteiten de onderneming zijn lange bestaan te danken had. Een goede, strak opgezette administrate, die regelmatig werd gecontroleerd, met vaste regels en een zuinig beheer moesten het bedrijf tegen verlies beschermen. Het verslag van Schreuders bezoek aan Galle laat zien hoe dit in de praktijk toeging en bevestigt het groeiende besef van de kwaliteit van dit grote bureaucratische lichaam en het hogere personeel. Niets ontging aan de gouverneur, zelfs het gebruik van afgekeurd linnen als pitten voor olielampen had zijn aandacht. Dit boek is daardoor exemplarisch voor de werkwijze van de Compagnie. Men krijgt daardoor een goed overzicht van en inzicht in het compagniesapparaat in Galle. De samenstelling van de bevolking van de stad komt eveneens uitvoerig aan bod. Ook hier zien wij een bevestiging en verfijning van onze kennis van de Nederlandse koloniale samenleving in de tropen. De sterke gerichtheid van dit onderzoek op Galle intra muros heeft echter als beperking dat de relatie met het omringende platteland minder goed uit de verf komt. Men zou graag meer hebben vernomen over de interactie die tussen de VOC en haar Singalese onderdanen plaatsvond. Hier zou onderzoek naar langere-termijn ontwikkelingen een belangrijke aanvulling hebben kunnen geven. Wij tasten bijvoorbeeld in het duister over de demografische ontwikkeling van de Singalese bevolking. Dit bete- kent niet dat de problemen die hebben geleid tot de opstand van 1760 niet uit de verf komen. Wagenaar laat zien dat wij hier te maken hebben met de gevolgen van de grond- en belastingpolitiek van de Compagnie. Eens- deels een strakkere inning van de belastingen door een verbeterde regis- tratie, anderdeels een verbod op het onbeperkt aanleggen van chena's,

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tijdelijke akkers die de bevolking gewoon was te maken in de bossen waar ook de kaneel groeide. De vraag of er misschien nog een andere factor in het spel was, een toename van de bevolking, kan met de hier ten dienste staande gegevens niet worden beantwoord. De ontevredenheid in het compagniesgebied werd bovendien gesteund door Kandy, de Singalese hoofdstad in het binnenland. Het conflict zou daardoor uitgroeien tot een jarenlange strijd met een deel van de eigen onderdanen en Kandy, die pas in 1766 zou worden beslist. Het boek heeft een voor een historische dissertatie ongebruikelijke kwaliteit door de integratie van illustratiemateriaal en tekst. Een gevolg van de historische opleiding en de museale activiteiten van de auteur, die in het dagelijkse leven werkzaam is bij het Amsterdams Historisch Museum. Heel mooi komt deze combinatie tot uiting op de bladzijden 82 en 83, waar aan de ene kant een lijst van sieraden uit 1758 wordt ver- bonden met een tekening van een mestieze vrouw die ter kerke gaat. Wagenaar heeft de verschillende accessoires uit de lijst en de tekening daadwerkelijk bij elkaar gebracht en getoond, waardoor het hoofdstuk over de burgerbevolking extra relief krijgt. De grote kennis van het huidige en vroegere Ceylon is in alle onderdelen voelbaar. Wagenaar weet waarover hij schrijft. Vorm en inhoud sluiten nauw aaneen, waardoor het een in meerdere opzichten opmerkelijk en boeiend boek is geworden.

A. Schrevel, Access to Water; A Socio-Economic Study into the Practice of Irrigation Development in Indonesia. Ph.D. thesis, The Hague: The Institute of Social Studies, 1993.

GEERT KALSHOVEN

This is a well-documented and interesting study on practices relating to irrigation development in Indonesia. The author, who has considerable field experience as a consultant for Dutch-sponsored irrigation projects in Indonesia, bases his findings on three case-studies. Two of them, the Cidurian Upgrading and Water Management Project and the Sedeku Trial Run Project, are situated in West and Central Java. The third case refers to the Pompengan Integrated Area Development Project, which is located in South Sulawesi. The author presents a clear outline of the regional settings of these projects, and non-agricultural features, such as the existence of rural industries and the expansion of towns, are not overlooked. In presenting a framework for analysing irrigation systems (Chapter Two), Schrevel discusses major trends in irrigation theory and selects a number of theoretical guidelines for his study. Three main socio-economic issues are outlined: 1. the issue of access to resources; 2. incomes of rural

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 429 households; and 3. the issue of government policy in rice production areas. Chapter Three contains an overview of the history of irrigation development in Indonesia, focusing mainly on the government-controlled irrigation sector. In analysing the Integrated Irrigation Development approach (Chapter Four), he offers some realistic comments, such as on distinctions between the acquired co-operation of water users, and their actual involvement in several stages of irrigation development. The standpoint of the author is sober and pragmatic, and he resists the temptation to indulge in the flowery speech of the participation gurus' jargon. Another distinctive feature of this study is the systematic treatment of the various organizational aspects of associations of water users (P3A). Variations in notions about the concept of P3A, such as the fact that irrigation officials and consultants appear to have their own images of these associations, are carefully documented. Following Coward's model of irrigation tasks, Schrevel differentiates between regular organizational chores and those tasks pertaining to the proper distribution of irrigation water within tertiary units. Water masters seem to have only limited control over water flows and over the users of water. Basing himself on detailed data from the Cidurian case, Schrevel concludes that water distribution is highly uneven in each of the irrigation units studied (p. 118). In Chapter Five, he comes to the heart of the matter: despite the amount of effort spent on the implementation of the 'integrated approach', serious imbalances still occur between upstream and downstream water users. The latter even have to launch nocturnal raids on upstream areas in order to gain better access to water, albeit only temporarily. The issue of (un)even water distribution would have been even more forcefully underlined if data on differences in income from irri- gated rice had been presented. A more detailed treatment of the existing interrelations between water users and irrigation personnel would also have enhanced the quality of the study. In his final chapter, Schrevel presents a number of factual conclusions and recommendations, which should prove very valuable to planners and practitioners in the area of irrigation development. One of his main recommendations is that one should be flexible with regard to the objectives, plans of action, project modalities, and timing, as new insights into existing conditions will develop over time, leading to reconsiderations of existing plans and reformulations of earlier objectives.

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Mohamed Ariff (ed.), Islam and the Economic Develop- ment of Southeast Asia; The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991.

Mohamed Ariff (ed.), Islam and the Economic Develop- ment of Southeast Asia; The Muslim Private Sector in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991.

NICO KAPTEIN

Millions of Muslims live in Southeast Asia, but here - as elsewere in the world - there is not really any question of an Islamic economy. The main theme of the two volumes under review is how Muslims in various countries of the region have been trying to introduce Islamic notions into economic life during the last few decades. These books are the pro- ceedings of the Second and the Third Workshop on Islam and the Eco- nomic Development of Southeast Asia, organized by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore on 24-25 August, 1987, and 26-27 September, 1988, respectively. The first workshop was held on 24-26 June, 1986, and dealt with 'Islamic Banking in Southeast Asia' (ed. Mohamed Ariff, Singapore: ISEAS 1988). The contents of the The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia are roughly as follows. In his introductory chapter Mohamed Ariff mentions the most important components of the Islamic voluntary sector, namely: a) zakat, the religious tax, which is in fact compulsory according to Muslim Law, but which according to the author is 'practised in a voluntary fashion' (p. 4); b) sadaqa, religiously motivated alms; and c) waqf, pious endowments. Chapter 2 is written by the well-known theoretician in the field of Islamic economics, Muhammed Nejatullah Siddiqi, who provides the theological and theoretical background for the case-studies which are dealt with in the subsequent chapters. In Chapter 3 M. Ariff makes an assessment of the role of the Islamic sector in Southeast Asia in the mobilizing of resources. In Chapter 4 Taufiq Abdullah discusses Indone- sian attempts to institutionalize zakat, in particular in the post-1968 period, when the topic of zakat was drawn into the public sphere after President Soeharto had given an influential speech on this topic. Chapter 5, by Aidit bin Ghazali, deals with the collection and administration of zakat in Malaysia, where it is state-organized. In Chapter 6 waqf management in Malaysia is discussed by Syed Othman Alhabshi. In Chapter 7 Radiah Abdul Kader deals with the Pilgrim Management and Fund Board, which was set up in 1969 for the benefit of Malaysian pilgrims, concentrating on its ability to mobilize voluntary savings among Malaysian Muslims. Chap- ter 8, by Carmen Abubakar, discusses the zakat and sadaqa practices

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 431 among the Moros of the Philippines. In Chapter 9 Amina Tyabji deals with the management of zakat,fitra, waqf, education, mosque-building and other activities among the Muslims of Singapore, and with the increasingly important role of the Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura (MUIS) in this. In the final chapter Preeda Prapertchob gives an overview of waqf properties in Thailand. The second volume, The Muslim Private Sector in Southeast Asia, has the same structure as the first. After an introductory chapter (by Mohamed Ariff), and a chapter which outlines the theoretical framework written by Monzer Kahf, a specialist attached to the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah, there follows a number of case-studies. In Chapter 3 Mohd. Musib M. Buat studies the business practices of urban Muslim Filipinos, in particular in Zamboanga City, Western Mindanao. Amina Tyabji discusses the way non-Malay Muslims (Chinese, Indian and Arab) conduct their business in the rapidly changing economy of Singapore in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 contains a discussion by Chaiwat Satha-Anand of the role of Bangkok Muslims in the tourist industry, in particular in restaurants and 'entertainment'. Chapter 6, by Nor Aini Haji Idris and Faridah Shahadan, reports on the entrepreunerial role of women and their types of business in Kelantan, on the basis mainly of a survey conducted among 200 Muslim women from the area. Indonesia provides the setting for Chapter 7, in which Bahauddin Darus deals with the Indonesian Development Finance Institution (Banana) and its attempts to finance small and medium-sized enterprises in accordance with Islamic principles. The relatively new phenomenon of Islamic insurance in Malaysia is analysed in Chapter 8 by Syed Waseem Ahmad. Malaysia again provides the background in Chap- ter 9, in which Salleh Ismail deals with landownership and land use in the rural areas of Malaysia and the role of Muslim law in the fragmentation of land. In the concluding chapter Mohamed Ariff summarizes the case- studies of the book as a whole. This volume on the private sector is more concerned with the influence of Islamic values (or the absence thereof) on the way Muslims behave economically or conduct business. This central theme is vaguer than the key topics in the volume on the voluntary sector, which discusses concrete institutions and has far more coherence as a volume. For this reason, in my view, The Islamic Voluntary Sector is the more interesting of the two. Both books, however, share a number of things in common on which I would like to concentrate in the remainder of this review. Both the general introductory chapters and the chapters on the theoretical framework, which were written by specialists in Islamic economics attached to Saudi Arabian scholarly institutions, sketch the situation as it should be, and therefore deal with economics more on a normative theological level than on a descriptive analytical level. For instance, in The Muslim Private Sector, p. 13, one reads: 'The religion of Islam in general and its economic

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access 432 Book Reviews system in particular ensures the basic economic rights of individuals which include the right to private ownership, the right to economic freedom and the right to decent means of living'. It goes without saying that essays of this kind are interesting, but first and foremost as a means of learning how contemporary Muslims intellectuals visualize Islamic economics, and not as a means of learning about socio-economic reality in a Muslim environment. The case-studies do deal with socio-economic reality, but also in these chapters the theological jargon just mentioned crops up from time to time. To give but one example: in Chapter 9 of The Islamic Voluntary Sector, it is stated with reference to Muslim education in Singapore that: 'More than any other religion, Islam emphasizes the importance of learning and the acquisition of knowledge' (p. 218). Perhaps this statement is due to an uncritical use of the information materials supplied by the Council for the Education of Muslim Children, but it is certainly a remark which is not in harmony with the descriptive and strictly objective tone of the bulk of this excellent chapter. Another common feature of both books is that all the case-studies have been written by researchers discussing the situation in their country of residence or origin. This has the evident advantage that the authors may be more aware of developments than researchers from abroad, simply because the latter were not around. This advantage is clearly illustrated by the contribution of Taufiq Abdullah, for instance. This scholar not only provides an excellent overview of all kinds of source materials which are not readily accessible, but also includes personal observations from sem- inars which he has attended, and in this way presents a picture which it would have been impossible for someone who has not witnessed the developments in person to put together. In a number of chapters this personal involvement leads to the formulation of proposals on how to improve the situation described in the paper. An interesting example of this occurs in the chapter on the management of zakat in Malaysia. Tp make this more effective its author advocates, amongst other things, greater legal powers for the zakat administrators and proposes 'more rigorous supervision over possibilities of violations of zakat laws by zakat payers and amilin [zakat administrators, N.K.] and misuses of zakat funds' (The Voluntary Sector, p. 111). To understand the purport of this proposal fully, one should be aware that in some Malaysian states the penalty for the violation of zakat laws can be a maximum of 6 months' imprisonment (The Voluntary Sector, p. 93). These kinds of proposals are, of course, of a strictly personal nature, but it is still useful for students of Islam and of Southeast Asian affairs to become acquainted with them. With regard to the presentation of both books I would like to add the following three remarks. Unfortunately, neither book contains an index, which would have made the rich contents of the separate contributions more easily accessible. If such an index had been added to both books, the

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 433 transliteration of Arabic terms would have had to be made consistent throughout both works. Secondly, it is a pity that most contributions lack a separate list of references. Finally, I feel that both books have been well produced. All in all, it can be said that, despite an occasional lack of balance in the discourse, in general both books include papers of a high quality, which are highly informative and can be used as background material for further research on Islamic economy in Southeast Asia.

Alastair Morrison, Fair Land Sarawak; Some Recollec- tions of an Expatriate Official. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University [Southeast Asia Program, Studies on Southeast Asia 13], 1993, xiv + 182 pp. ISBN 0.877.27.712.5.

VICTOR T. KING

We have very few personal accounts of colonial Sarawak or more particularly of what it was like to be involved in the administration of a fascinating backwater of Empire in the declining years of the British presence in Asia. A recently completed doctoral thesis on the Sarawak administrative service by Naimah.S. Talib, The Development of the Sara- wak Administrative Service from its Inception (1840s) to 1963 (1993, University of Hull), gives us an official history with some anecdotal information from former colonial officers. However, Alastair Morrison's account of his sojourn in Sarawak with his famous photographer wife, Hedda, provides us with some of the first-hand experiences and intimacies of someone who had served both as an outstation officer and in the bureaucracy of the Secretariat in Kuching. Indeed, during their almost twenty years of service in Sarawak the Morrisons had lived and worked in many of the important regions of the state - in the lower Rejang at Sarikei and Binatang, the middle Rejang at Kanowit, in the northernmost area of Sarawak at Lawas, and in the Baram River basin at Marudi. In Kuching Morrison held a range of posts - among others in the Registrar's Office of the Supreme Court, and as Principal Assistant Secretary in Defence and then Finance. Perhaps his most interesting post from 1956 until 1959 was as Development Secretary, given the urgent need to establish modern facilities and infrastructure in Sarawak. Morrison's tenure spanned most of the exciting years of the first Sarawak Development Plan (1955-60), and, in this context, of special significance was the expansion of the government secondary school programme, though other important matters concerned road-building and agriculture. From the end of 1959 until his eventual departure from Sarawak Mor- rison served as Information Officer. During this period of his service prob-

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ably the most vital development for those of us who have a professional academic interest in Sarawak was the establishment of the Borneo Literature Bureau, 'a small government publishing house [...] to promote local literature and to make books more readily available throughout the territories' (p. 127). Morrison's recollections are recorded in a fluent and readable style. He writes in a frank, commonsense way and indirectly one gets to know something of the man. There are direct and sometimes amusing character sketches of those personalities whom Morrison liked and those he disliked; but his descriptions are always balanced. There are references to well known administrators - Snelus, Urquhart, Pike, White, Griffin and one also gets a strong sense of the affection which Morrison held for many of his local colleagues and counterparts, Morshidi, 'a small, chubby man' (p. 19) in particular. Clearly Morrison did not take to Tom Harrisson. He describes Harrisson as 'extraordinarily gifted' and 'imaginative' (p. 96), who made the Sara- wak Museum, of which he was Curator, into 'an institution of world standing' and the Sarawak Museum Journal into 'a very wide-ranging and unique publication' (p. 97). But Morrison notes Harrisson's 'vicious temper' and 'unbridled tongue', his 'capacity for quarrelling' and his amorality in 'financial and business matters'. Harrisson's personality Mor- rison attributes to 'partially-arrested development', an unfortunate relationship with his father so that 'One side of him never grew out of a stage of uncouth adolescent rebellion' (p. 98). Yet Morrison admits that, although he did not like Harrisson, when he heard of his death in a road accident in Thailand in 1976, he felt surprisingly 'some sense of personal loss' (p. 99). In the descriptions of the Resident of the Third Division, John Barcroft, Morrison's senior official during his first posting to Sarikei, he acknow- ledges Barcroft's qualities - someone with 'a good brain and uncommon abilities' who was well liked by his constituents, but 'he was yet wayward, mischievous, autocratic and unpredictable, drowning his loneliness in drink' (p. 27). Morrison has some extraordinarily humorous observations on Sarawak administrative life and some prescient comments on socio-economic developments, for example, the effects of logging on the local societies and environment and the inadequacies of the education system. Morrison served during an extremely interesting period of Sarawak history, and his observations on the prelude to independence from Britain, the formation of Sarawak political parties and the establishment of the Federation of Malaysia with the attendant difficulties of the early years of self-government, particularly Indonesian Confrontation and communist insurgency, are especially insightful. For anyone who is interested in the post-war history of Sarawak and in

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 435 a personal record of this late chapter in British imperial history, then this entertaining and well written memoir is recommended reading.

Klaus H. Schreiner-Brauch, Nationalisms und Personen- kult im indonesischen Geschichtsverstandnis. Ph.D. Dis- sertation, Universitat Hamburg, 1993, xxi + 293 pp.

H.A.J. KLOOSTER

Since 1959, Indonesia has been building a pantheon of national heroes: figures from the recent as well as the more remote past who have served their fatherland in an exceptional way. As far as we know, there is no other country with such an elaborate system of heroes. The government plays a leading role in constituting this pantheon. A person is awarded the title pahlawan nasional (national hero), pahlawan kemerdekaan nasional (hero of national freedom), or some similar epithet, by presidential decree. Such an honour is always posthumous, and dependent on the favourable conclusion of an inquiry into the nature of the person's merit. The government's involvement reveals the existence of an official view of Indonesian history, which creates a sacrosanct group of persons about whom it is no longer possible to write in a critical way. Schreiner-Brauch argues that such an 'official view' is a phenomenon found only in countries with an authoritarian political system; it is not found where parlia- mentary democracy really functions. About 1958, the western-model par- liamentary system in Indonesia was replaced by a presidential dictatorship: shortly afterwards President Sukarno proclaimed his first heroes. Since the abortive coup d'etat of 30 September 1965, the Suharto regime has adopted and extended this hero pantheon. Several military officers killed in the coup were proclaimed pahlawan revolusi. At present, the pantheon includes 94 individuals, not only military men but also nationalist leaders and figures from the past like Sultan Agung and Diponegoro. Apart from looking at some particular aspects of the cult, like heroes' cemeteries, the procedures followed if a subject is to be proclaimed a hero, and biographical projects, the author devotes a lot of attention to the origins of hero worship. In doing so, he analyses the jago figure of the radical pemuda (revolutionary youth) at the time of the independence struggle. An even more suitable prototype for the hero cult, however, he believes to be the satria ideal, borrowed by Indonesian literature and society from the classical Indian epics. The chivalrous code of the satria demands self-sacrifice, steadfastness, loyalty, and other praiseworthy qualities. Although we do not wish to detract from the value of the satria as a background influence on hero worship, we do wonder if a more prosaic explanation might not be plausible. I am thinking here of the

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Dutch and Indonesian past as taught at (primary) schools in the Dutch East Indies, emphasizing the role of 'great men' like William the Silent and Jan Pietersz. Coen. After independence, an Umwertung aller Werte took place: Coen's statue was dragged from its pedestal and replaced by that of Sultan Agung. Yet, the 'personalized' nature of old-fashioned histori- ography still remained intact in the new, nationalist view of the Indonesian past. Schreiner-Brauch's monograph is important because it clearly shows the connection between nationalism and the treatment of the past in the psyche of a developing country. A constructive image of history, in which steadfast individuals serve as an example, is promoted for the sake of national unity. The quantity of printed source material consulted by the author is impressive. Regrettably, no list of biographies published in Indonesia after 1945 is included. In a study as griindlich as Schreiner-Brauch's, such a list should not be omitted.

Mark deary and Peter Eaton, Borneo; Change and De- velopment. Singapore, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992, x + 271 pp., tables, figures, index. ISBN 0.19.588587.2.

HAN KNAPEN

Since the 1960s Borneo has been experiencing enormous changes. The rain forest is disappearing at an alarming rate. The world demand for oil has given rise to booming coastal enclave economies. In three decades population figures have doubled. Shifting cultivation and long-house residence are giving way to urban ways of life. In this book, Cleary and Eaton want to provide the reader with the necessary background for studying these developments and thereby to stimulate informed debate. One of the greatest merits of the book is its vast scope. Not only do the authors cover a wide range of development themes, which are commonly treated separately, they also adopt a long-term perspective, starting in prehistoric times and ending in the present. Finally, they try to cover the whole island, nowadays divided by the political boundaries of Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. The book opens with an important and enlightening introductory chapter entitled 'The human ecology of Borneo', in which the geography of the island is briefly delineated, as is the way in which Borneans make their living. The authors argue, however, that 'ecology need not the used deterministically', and that 'the geographic personality of Borneo has been shaped as much by men and women as by environment, with differ-

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 437 ences in habit and culture constantly shaping and reshaping the geo- graphical habitat' (p. 21). The remainder of the book is divided into three parts. The first one deals with the heritage of the past, sketching the early peopling of the island, processes of state formation, the consecutive outside influences of, for example, Chinese and Indian traders, the advent of European mercantilism, the consequences of colonialism, and, finally, early post-Independence change. The rationale for treating the history of the island extensively is that 'the presence of the past continues to pervade society and economy on Borneo today1 (p. 86). Since the first millennium, Borneo has been increasingly incorporated into the world economic system, but essentially it has remained a marginal area dependent on the buoyancy of the world commodity market. The early 1960s, when the pace of change increased dramatically, provide the starting-point for the second part, on 'Contemporary patterns and processes'. First the dynamic processes of demographic change, urbanization, and agricultural and economic development are outlined. The management of forest and marine resources is granted a separate chapter, since 'issues of resource management are basic to the theme of this book' (p. 135). Shifting cultivation, based on customary land rights, and commercial logging, for example, often form conflicting interests, differing in their evaluation of the environment. Part two concludes with recent economic development issues set in an international perspective and the formulation of policy plans for development. In the third part, case-studies of important contemporary development issues are presented, covering, for example, the conflict between the Penan of Sarawak and commercial logging concessionaires, the efforts to con- serve nature and wildlife in protected areas, the consequences of an economy that is increasingly based on oil and natural gas, and the (question- able) success and effects of transmigration and resettlement schemes. There is not one single, general conclusion formulated in this book, though the comment that the problems of development are complex and no easy answers can be given is made at regular intervals. This is sometimes frustrating for the reader, though understandable considering the aim of the authors to provide a balanced context for future discussions. An example is the discussion on the impact of shifting cultivation on development. There is no simple yes or no to this question. Ecologically the impact 'need not be negative', although population pressure can lead to a deterioration of management practices and the impact on deforestation can be considerable. In financial terms, shifting cultivation is not very productive, but it does provide many opportunities for employment where other alternatives are absent. In the third part, focusing on several case-studies, Cleary and Eaton give many valuable suggestions for solving some of the problems of development. With regard to the customary land rights of the Penan of

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Sarawak (Chapter 9), for instance it is important to respect the principle of cultural diversity, for example, by creating reserves where the Penan can continue to pursue their sustainable economic activities. The example from Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak (Chapter 10) provides a 'greenprint' for how to combine this with other development goals, like the preservation of biological diversity, the collection of forest products and promotion of scientific research and tourism. One example of a missed opportunity is furnished by Cleary and Eaton's treatment of 'ethnicity', which was intended to be one of the structuring themes of the book. Indeed, 'the ways in which ethnic groups perceive, evaluate, and use resources in creating distinctive ways of life' is of particular significance (p. 3). But there is more to this than, for example, indigenous groups regarding the wild pig as a valuable resource, while Muslims regard it with abhorrence (p. 134). Nothing is said, for example, about stratified and egalitarian inland groups, or systems of kinship and class grouping. These differences in social organization may be linked to important differences with regard to environmental perception and exploitation. I was also a little disappointed to find the historical part of the book rather Malaysian-biased, as reflected in, for example, the use of the years 1841 (establishment of Brooke rule in Sarawak) and 1963 (founding of the Federation of Malaysia) as important turning-points in Bornean history. Except for some statistical data, no use has been made of important Dutch- language historical sources. The reader is now left wondering whether the interesting example of the structure of the city of Brunei is applicable to, for instance, Banjarmasin or Pontianak. Migrations of groups other than the Iban and Chinese of Sarawak and Sabah would also have deserved attention. To conclude, this is an indispensable work for those who are concerned with contemporary problems of development on the island of Borneo. Above all, the encouragement to widen one's perspective, whether histor- ically, topically, or geographically, is an important contribution to the swelling volume of literature on confined development themes.

Christiaan G.F. de Jong, Geesten, goden en getuigen: Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse zending onder de Buginezen en Makassaren in Zuid-Sulawesi (Indonesia). Kampen: Kok, [1991], 338 pp., ills., maps, index. ISBN 90.242.4929.5. Price: / 59.90.

SIRTJO KOOLHOF

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In Geesten, Goden en Getuigen Chris de Jong presents a solid account of the history of the Dutch (Protestant) mission among the Bugis and Makasarese (including the Selayar) peoples of South Sulawesi. Generally known to be strict adherents of Islam, the Bugis and Makasarese have never received as much attention from missionaries as have, for example, the different Toraja groups who inhabit the mountaineous interior of Sulawesi. The small scale of these missionary activities is reflected not only in the number (never more than a few thousand) of indigenous Christians in the Bugis-Makasar area up to the present day, but also in the number of publications on this aspect of South Sulawesi history. However, De Jong's book compensates for this lack in all respects.

Geesten, Goden en Getuigen is divided into three parts. In the first the author presents us with a detailed historical description of the activities in the four different regions of South Sulawesi upon which the mission focused: Selayar, the city of Makassar, Gowa, and the district of Soppeng. Starting in 1932, the author describes the developments through World War II, and the upheavals caused by Kahar Muzakkar's rebellion in the 1950s and 1960s, up to 1966, the year in which the independent Gereja Kristen di Sulawesi Selatan was founded. The second part of the book is devoted to the efforts of the different missionary institutions involved in the South Sulawesi mission to achieve a more fruitful form of co-operation after 1945, and to the developments which led to the foundation of an independent Bugis-Makasar church. Two short chapters are devoted to the education of indigenous teachers {guru injil), and to the service that provided the newly Christianized people with Christian reading materials (Lectuurdienst). The traditional religions and adat form the subject of the third part of Geesten, Goden en Getuigen. The author concentrates on four groups of Bugis and Makasarese who either adhered to the traditional beliefs of their ancestors (Toani Tolotang in Sidenreng, and the Patuntung in Kajang), or developed their own system of belief based on indigenous traditions combined with those of Islam or Christianity (the Petta Barang and Mukhdi Akbar movements). Especially the chapters on the latter two movements, which are based on the author's own research, present some interesting material on the history and belief systems of groups about which so far very little has been published. The description of the first two groups is not based on the author's own investigations. Hence especially in the case of the Tolotang, the data provided should be handled with care. De Jong relies heavily on government publications, which, at least in this case, are not the most reliable source. The publications of Narifumi Maeda on the Tolotang, of which only one is mentioned in the bibliography, could have provided much better information. The book ends with some short concluding remarks. These are followed by more than a hundred pages of appendices with photographs and

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excerpts from the source materials (letters, reports, interviews) used by the author. The book is carefully edited, although the spelling of indigenous words in many cases is incorrect and outdated (for instance the use of ae and the capital E in Bugis words). It is a welcome addition to the literature on the Bugis and Makasarese peoples of South Sulawesi, and is of interest not only to historians of the Christian mission in that area, but also to anyone eager to know more about the broader cultural background of South Sulawesi.

G.R. Knight, Colonial Production in Provincial Java; The Sugar Industry in Pekalongan-Tegal, 1800-1942. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1994. [Comparative Asian Studies 13.]

MARGARET LEIDELMEDER

Many political and economic studies have been written about the Javanese sugar industry. Less attention, however, has been paid to the production process itself. In this monograph Knight gives an excellent analysis of the production of sugar. He begins by considering both the agricultural and the manufacturing sectors with respect to the factors of capital, land, and labour. Then he focuses on the development of the industry in a world context. He concentrates on the period from 1800 to 1942 in the area of Pekalongan-Tegal. The industrialization of the backward manufacturing sector after the 'sugar crisis' of the mid-1880s is highlighted. This development was said to have been induced by a change of ownership, whereby metropolitan- based trading and banking organizations took over control from private owners. Knight argues, however, that the penetration of 'private' capital had already begun during the Cultivation System. This was closely con- nected with the so-called 'free disposal' of sugar allowed the manufacturers. In Pekalongan-Tegal this free sugar quota was raised considerably during the fifties, and manufacturers invested in new machinery. The technology applied was a 'mixed system', in which European machinery was used alongside the traditional methods. Industrialization was a gradual process in which the mixed system was eventually replaced by a European system. Another issue which Knight investigates is the control of land and labour by the industry. Referring to the control of land, he elaborates on the idea that one form of 'extra-economic' pressure was replaced by another during the transition from the Cultivation System to the Liberal Period. This hypothesis proves to be too simplistic, as it underemphasizes

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 441 the extent of differentiation in the rural areas. In its stead, he proposes a more intricate notion of power relations and relations of landownership. In the way in which labour was controlled, the area of Pekalongan-Tegal differed from other areas. It contained a work force that was largely dependent on wages as, during the Cultivation System, a large group of landless or near-landless peasants had been created. He challenges the 'peasant with land' thesis of Geertz. Knight believes that the industry was capable of coping with the severe problems which arose during the 'sugar crisis' and the Great Depression due to its ability to develop and sustain the exceptionally high rates of productivity which were achieved in the agricultural sector. A key explanation has always been the ready availability of cheap labour. Therefore, the control of land and labour by industry during the last century has to be examined more closely with respect to the above-mentioned issues. With this conclusion Knight provides an excellent framework for further research. However, some issues are given only little attention, for example the role of technology in the dynamics of the industry in coping with severe economic problems. Although the author concludes that, under the Cul- tivation System, technological development was not just a marginal process, he does not examine this issue more thoroughly. For example, it would be very interesting to focus on the way in which cheap labour influenced the choice of a certain kind of technology and, through this choice, the process of industrialization. Moreover, the role of experimental stations in the ability of the industry to develop and sustain high rates of productivity should not be underestimated. In conclusion I would say that this monograph is highly commendable. Its value lies in the abundant data it provides and the compact way in which it presents these, as well as in its critical approach.

M.C. Ricklefs, War, Culture and Economy in Java 1677- 1726;. Asian and European Imperialism in the Early Kartasura Period. Sydney: Asian Studies Association of Australia, in association with Allen and Unwin, 1993, xviii + 425 pp. ISBN 1.86373.380.9.

J.J. RAS

This book was written to fill in the gap between the series of monographs on the history of the kingdom of Mataram in Central Java (1587-1677) by H.J. de Graaf and the author's own doctoral thesis on the history of Yogyakarta in the reign of Sultan Hamengku Buwana I (1749-1792). The fact that the author has not succeeded in this is not his fault. The Kartasura

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access 442 Book Reviews period in Javanese history (1677-1746) is so profusely documented by archival materials, both from Dutch and other sources, that he was forced to split up the period described and restrict himself to describing the period from 1677 to 1726, roughly covering the reigns of Amangkurat II (1677- 1703), Paku Buwana I (1704-1719) and Amangkurat IV (1719-1727). Considering the quality of the present monograph and the need for more historical description, a second book by this author, covering the remain- ing half of the Kartasura period, would be most welcome. In his study of Javanese history Ricklefs deals with political and military developments in the broad sense of the word. This means that he devotes ample attention to socio-cultural and economic facts and developments as well. Thus he begins by giving a brief description of Javanese society around 1660, with its distinctive social structure based on the principle of hereditary hierarchy extending from the king downwards, as well as other relations of loyalty within the realm, such as those based on religion. Very important in this context was the great natural wealth of Java, which attracted foreign traders from various parts of the world. The weak administrative structure of the state, on the other hand, was a negative factor which undermined the position of the king. Both in peace and in war the king's success depended on the loyalty of the nobility. Merchants ranked low in the social hierarchy, whereas military prowess enjoyed high esteem. In a similar way, Ricklefs gives a brief but interesting sketch of the European society of that period, which was characterized by a tight administrative organization and a power structure that had its centre abroad and its local headquarters in Batavia. The ethnic setting of this society was complex, comprising elements from the Netherlands and various other European nations, as well as people of diverse Asian origins. The dynamism of the VOC (the Dutch East India Company) received its strongest stimulus from commercial interests. Cultural identity was deter- mined by adherence to the Dutch Reformed church. Having thus provided an overview of the prevailing socio-cultural setting in Java, the author goes on to describe the developments leading to the fall of the Mataram empire in 1677. Important figures on the political and military stage were the king, Amangkurat I, the crown prince, and the Madurese rebel, Trunajaya. As long as its commercial interests on the north coast were not at stake, the VOC was reluctant to intervene in the multilateral conflict. The main reason for the VOC's presence in the area was its determination to carry on trade and make a profit, an objective it was not likely to achieve by becoming involved in military campaigns. If there is question of imperialism at this stage, it was imperialism in spite of the VOC. Colonialism is not always synonymous with imperialism. Ricklefs then goes on to address the main topic of his book, the restoration of the Mataram dynasty in the kraton named Kartasura (near present- day Surakarta) and subsequent developments. These include the various

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 443 crises which threatened Javanese-Dutch relations, the dethronement of Amangkurat III and the installation of Susuhunan Paku Buwana I in Semarang in 1704, the Surabaya war of 1717-1723, and the ensuing period of peace of 1723-1726. With this book on Asian and European imperialism, Ricklefs shows himself to be both a good story-teller and an excellent historian. He helps the reader with copious comments on elements of the main text and he painstakingly documents the events discussed in a valuable and impressive body of notes, the information in which he draws from archival materials, works by fellow-historians - past and present - and other literature. An important factor responsible for the quality of his work is that he has access to both modern and older Dutch sources as well as to the type of Javanese used in his Javanese source materials. An exhaustive index provides the reader with numerous references to both persons and subjects.

Rosemary Gianno, Semelai Culture and Resin Techno- logy. Connecticut: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1990. Price: US$ 43.-.

CORRY M.I. VAN DER SLUYS

In this book, which is a revised version of her doctoral dissertation, Rose- mary Gianno describes in detail how different kinds of resins are extracted, processed, used, traded, and placed in a cultural classification system by the Semelai, one of the aboriginal populations of Peninsular Malaysia, who have a mixed economy consisting of swidden cultivation, hunting and gathering-cum-trading of forest products. To the best of my knowledge, this volume is the first detailed account of resin technology, containing a wealth of general botanical information and even goes so far as to describe methods for spectral resin analysis. As such, it will remain extremely valuable as a reference work for researchers from various disciplines like archaeology, botany, ethnobotany and anthropology. Giannno's archaeological interest in resins was first raised by O. W. Wolters' book, Early Indonesian Commerce (1967), in which he postu- lates the importance of the trade of forest products, such as resins, to the Srivijaya empire and China during the protohistoric period. Other pre- historians, historians and anthropologists have also suggested, that trade in forest products played an important role in the development of complex societies in Southeast Asia. Hutterer (1976) has proposed that an inter- dependence based on the trade of forest products between populations of different technological complexes accounts for the fact that archaeologists

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working in Southeast Asia often find remains from different cultural complexes dating from the same period, making it impossible to assign particular technologies to particular periods in a linear sequence. Of the forest resins traded, Gaharuwood seems to be one of the oldest, as it is referred to in connection with trade from Southeast Asia to China from the third century onwards. This aromatic wood, also known as 'eaglewood' or 'aloeswood', was used in classical times as an ingredient in incense, perfumes, cosmetics, and medicines (Miller 1969:34). It is har- vested from the Aquilaria hirta and Aquilaria malaccensis trees, where it occurs in fungus-attacked patches which become saturated with resin as a defensive mechanismby the tree. Gaharuwood is still the trade item most highly prized by the aboriginal populations of Malaysia, like the Semelai. Various other resins such as dammars and 'dragon blood' are also important. Gianno first intended to test some of the issues raised by Wolters and others by doing archaeological fieldwork in Malaysia, focusing on resins, which are often neglected or regarded as unimportant. However, forced partly by unfavourable conditions for archaeological research there, she shifted her attention to ethno-archaeology and planned research with an aboriginal population to gain first-hand information on the indigenous uses of resins and their trade, assuming that tribal populations would still be using and trading in the same resins as in the past. Her final aim was to lay an ethnographic basis for the interpretation of resin finds in prehistoric and protohistoric sites in Southeast Asia. During the almost two years that she spent with the Semelai at Tasek Bera in Pahang (between January 1980 and November 1982), she particip- ated actively in the gathering and processing of the resins, often following the tappers on their resin-collecting trips and closely observing their technology. She lived most of the time with the family of a headman who was himself an active resin-tapper and she could thus obtain a wealth of detailed information. Moreover, her mastery of the Semelai language has enabled her to give a meticulous account of the Semelai cultural taxonomy of animal and plant life, and the place of resins in this system. Conse- quently, her work has resulted in a unique blend of ethnographic and botanical information. As the main focus of her research was on resin technology, the anthropological analysis had, of necessity, to remain the weaker point of this endeavour. The book is comprised of eight chapters.which I shall pass briefly in review in order to give a more specific impression of its contents The intro- duction contains an extensive overview of the results of previous research on resins which have appeared in the archaeological and ethnographic literature, as well as an account of the identification techniques used in archaeology. The next two chapters present an ethnographic account of the Semelai culture, based largely on her own fieldwork. Chapter Four specifies the ethnobiology of the Semelai and the place of the various

Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 03:24:58AM via free access Book Reviews 445 resins in this cultural classification system. In Chapter Five the methods of collecting and trading of resins and other plant fluids are described, while Chapter Six gives an overview of their various uses by the Semelai, such as in torches or as sealants, glues, colorants, medicines, and poisons. Chapter Seven reproduces several myths in which resins play a role. Finally, Chapter Eight sets out some conclusions and suggestions for further research with regards to the cultural significance of resins in prehistoric and historic Southeast Asia. This highly sophisticated book, well laid out and illustrated with various photographs and drawings, also contains several appendices: an analysis of infra-red spectra of resin samples, linguistic notes, Semelai word lists, lists of Semelai plant names, and transcriptions of myths.

Laurence R. Goldman, The Culture of Coincidence; Acci- dent and Absolute Liability in Huli. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993, xvi + 443 pp. ISBN 0.19.827873.X. Price: £45.-.

JAAPTTMMER

This work is the first major study of language and law in a non-Western society (the Huli, Southern Highlands, Papua New Guinea). It is a contribution to the burgeoning field of legal anthropology and makes a strong case for assigning a central position to the law-and-language approach. In line with Goldman's previous studies of Huli disputes, it presents a welter of ethno-linguistic information with continual references to various approaches to explanations of accidents and the ethnographic background, which makes the linguistic analysis meaningful and lively. In a ninety-two-page appendix we find a very readable transcript of a dispute about the death of a woman, Gegai, who was burnt to death in her house. Her friend, Ngaulime, managed to retrieve many of her personal belongings and livestock before the house was destroyed by the fire. In the aftermath, the deceased woman's son accepted the event as an accident, as something just waiting to happen. Gegai's two stepdaughters, however, accused Ngaulime of having deliberately locked Gegai in the house, following a quarrel, and then setting the house with Gegai in it on fire. The discussion between the disputants hinged on the possible motives that Ngaulime may have had. The resulting conflict was about whether it was a case of murder or accident, which each involved quite different views of responsibility and liability. The antithetical nature of these two concepts allows 'accident' to stand out in bold relief. Goldman's subsequent painstaking analysis of linguistic form and practice results in a detailed account of Huli socio-legal epistemology.

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The fact that the deceased's son judged it to be an 'accident' while his stepsisters cried 'murder' appears to be less remarkable after Goldman suc- cessfully unravels the Huli socio-legal system, where the conception of liability takes account of mental states. This Huli case thus challenges some conventional anthropological notions, which go back at least as far as Evans-Pritchard. In many studies, African and Melanesian social systems appeared as systems where mishaps and misfortunes were implacably and mystically reductionist in nature (and man seemed to act at his own peril), disregarding the mental element. This leads Goldman to argue that the cultural definitions and the interactional rhetoric of 'accident' in Huli and Western legal systems 'appear similar in a way that draws relationships between demotic and forensic reasoning, and which may well be rooted in a universally understood, and linguistically realized, distinction between agentive and non-agentive happenings' (p. 271-2). The bulk of the book is devoted to formal analyses of the grammar of excuse and exoneration in Huli and the various linguistic routines of sub- jugation, sarcasm, and sympathy evocation. Furthermore, Goldman examines the role played by the cultural stereotypes of 'male' and 'female' and the way in which the agendas of murder/accident as 'whole meanings' are linguistically developed in the course of the debate. At times this micro- scopic view of the accidental in Huli philosophy is hard to digest. The dedicated reader, however, is rewarded by the valuable insights and analysis offered. In the last chapter Goldman explores the implications of 'intention' in forensic language. It investigates Huli notions of person and mind, and looks at the place of 'accident' in the wider cosmological and eschato- logical philosophies of fate and fortuity. In analysing the omnibus notion of 'state-of-mind' in terms of Huli ideas about desire, will, purpose, intention, premeditation, and so forth, Goldman highlights the benefits to be derived from bringing together linguistically oriented disciplines and anthropology. The interesting findings challenge one of the most recurrent ideas in Melanesian ethnography: a belief in the lack of direct access to the inner life of another person, which remains hidden to everyone else. In his attempt to understand the concept of accident in Huli, Goldman dis- covers that in Huli 'fortune's wheel is not spun by supernatural ordina- tion' (p. 317). On the contrary, 'accident' appears to be the upshot of a culturally constituted understanding of an eventful world, and one option in the imposition of order on the relationship between humans and events. This ethnography is a challenging and valuable contribution to our understanding of accident and absolute liability, as well as of method in anthropology and linguistics.

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