160125 Report Guo Wentao Final.Indd

Nuclear Developments in China

A report by GUO Wentao December 2015

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 1

Th e Swiss Nuclear Forum is a non-governmen- tal association with the purpose of fostering the peaceful use and further development of nuclear power in Switzerland. Since more than 50 Publisher: years, it has been promoting a factual and ob- Swiss Nuclear Forum, P.O.Box 1021, CH-3000 Berne 14 jective debate. Th e Forum serves as a platform Switzerland for the science-based dialogue on nuclear technology, primarily among experts in academia, Phone: +41 31 560 36 50, fax +41 31 560 36 59 industry and administration, and including [email protected] politicians, the media and the general public. www.nuklearforum.ch

2 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Preface

China has a history of developing nuclear power for more than 20 years. In 2015, four years aft er the Fukushima nuclear accident, China restarted its nuclear power projects. Recently, considerable progress has been made in the country’s nuclear industry. Now it has become the most dynamic country in developing nuclear power and attracted widespread attention. In this report, I attempt to give a brief introduction of the entire nuclear system in China and provide readers with a good insight of China’s nuclear power fi eld.

Th is report is composed of 10 chapters. Chapter 1 is written by Prof. Li Guanxing from the China Nuclear Power Corporation in Beijing and revised by me with the latest data. Th e other 9 chapters are written by me. In this report, I try to avoid diffi cult technical terms and equations. Concise graphs and charts are used to make the interpretation easier to understand. It is suitable for people from diff erent educational background to read, especially for nuclear supporters who are interested in China’s nuclear industry. I hope that anyone who goes through this report will fi nd it interesting and worth reading. All constructive feedback is cordially invited.

Th is report was written during my internship at the Swiss Nuclear Forum in Berne, Switzerland, from July to October 2015, being part of my master studies of Nuclear Engineering at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology of Zurich (ETHZ). Before I came to study in Switzerland, I studied Nuclear Engineering during my bachelor in China and in France from 2010 to 2014.

I am greatly indebted to Dr. Michael Schorer and Max Brugger of the staff of the Swiss Nuclear Forum for their guid- ance and help during my writing this report. Th anks are due to them and to Matthias Rey both for their careful reading of various draft s and for many helpful suggestions. Guo Wentao Berne, December 2015

About the author

Education: 2014-2016 Master’s student of nuclear engineering at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne and at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland 2013-2014 Bachelor degree of Nuclear Engineering at Phelma of INPG, Grenoble, France 2010-2013 Bachelor degree of Nuclear Engineering at the Harbin Institute of Technology, China

Achievements: April 2012 Th ird prize at Energy-Saving and Emission Reduction Competition in China Feb. 2011 Th ird prize at MCM (Mathematical Contest in Modeling) in the U.S.

Contact: wentao.guo@epfl .ch

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 3

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ...... 9 Overview of the commercial nuclear reactor systems built and developed in China ...... 10 Map of the nuclear facilities in China ...... 11

1 Status and Future of China’s Front-End Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry ...... 12

1.1 Opportunity Opens to China’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry ...... 12 1.2 Supply of Natural Uranium ...... 12 1.2.1 Analysis of Natural Uranium Demand ...... 12 1.2.2 Development and Utilization of Uranium Resources in China ...... 13 1.2.3 Challenges with the International Community ...... 13 1.2.3.1 Challenges with Countries Holding Huge Uranium Resources ...... 13 1.2.3.2 Challenges with Countries that Have Super Nuclear Fuel Fabricating Capacity ...... 13 1.2.4 Two Conclusions ...... 14 1.3 Uranium Conversion and Enrichment ...... 14 1.3.1 Supply and Demand of Global Uranium Conversion ...... 14 1.3.2 Supply and Demand of Enriched Uranium in the World ...... 14 1.3.3 Uranium Enrichment Industry in China ...... 15 1.4 Nuclear Fuel Fabrication ...... 15 1.4.1 Analysis of Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Capacity ...... 15 1.4.1.1 Analysis of Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Capacity in the World...... 15 1.4.1.2 Forecast of China’s Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Capacity ...... 15 1.4.2 Nuclear Fuel Components in Operating Reactors ...... 15 1.4.3 Nuclear Fuels for the Th ird Generation Pressurized Water Reactors ...... 16 1.4.4 China’s Fuel Manufacturing Ability ...... 17 1.4.4.1 Zirconium Alloy for Nuclear Fuel Fabrication ...... 17 1.4.4.2 Construction of the Production Chain of Nuclear Grade Zirconium...... 17 1.4.5 Progress in China’s Nuclear Fuel Manufacturing Technology ...... 17 1.5 Challenges and Policies ...... 18 1.5.1 Challenges in China’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry ...... 18 1.5.2 Research on Countermeasures ...... 18

2 Introduction of the China Nuclear Fuel Corporation (CNFC) and its Member Corporations .... 19

2.1 China National Nuclear Corporation 202 Factory ...... 19 2.2 CNNC Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd ...... 21 2.3 CNNC Lanzhou Uranium Enrichment Co., Ltd ...... 22 2.4 CNNC Shaanxi Uranium Enrichment Co., Ltd ...... 22

4 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

3 Introduction of Fuel Reprocessing - Recycling in China ...... 23

3.1 Introduction ...... 23 3.2 Th e Concept of Fuel Cycle ...... 23 3.3 Th e Current Situation of Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing/Recycling Technology in China ...... 24 3.4 Th e Development Strategy of Fuel Reprocessing/Recycling in China ...... 25 3.5 Key Technical Problems of Reprocessing/Recycling in China ...... 26 3.5.1 Th ermal Reactor Spent Fuel Reprocessing ...... 26 3.5.2 Fast Reactor Spent Fuel Reprocessing ...... 26 3.5.2.1 Fast Reactor Spent Fuel HYDRO Process ...... 26 3.5.2.2 Fast Reactor Spent Fuel Non-aqueous Reprocessing ...... 26 3.6 CNNC 404 Pilot Plant and Reprocessing Factory Project ...... 26 3.7 Conclusion ...... 27

4 Nuclear Waste Disposal in China ...... 28

4.1 Properties of Nuclear Wastes and Disposal Concepts ...... 28 4.1.1 Properties of Nuclear Waste ...... 28 4.1.2 Disposal of Nuclear Wastes ...... 28 4.2 Current Situation of Nuclear Waste Disposal in China and its Future ...... 28 4.2.1 Low and Medium Level Waste Repositories ...... 28 4.2.2 High Level Waste Repositories ...... 29 4.3 Th e Necessity of Constructing High Level Waste Repositories ...... 30 4.4 Conclusions ...... 30

5 Development of the Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) in China ...... 31

5.1 Introduction of MSR ...... 31 5.2 Some Advantages of MSR ...... 31 5.3 Th e Situation of MSR Development in China ...... 32 5.3.1 Energy Background ...... 32 5.3.2 History of Development ...... 32 5.3.3 Development Plan ...... 32 5.3.4 Achievements in Scientifi c Research ...... 33 5.3.4.1 Successful Commissioning a HTS Molten Salt Loop ...... 33 5.3.4.2 GH3535 Alloy ...... 34

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5.3.5 International Cooperation ...... 34 5.4 Conclusion ...... 35

6 Development of the Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) in China ...... 36

6.1 Basic Principles of the Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor...... 36 6.2 Th e Signifi cance of Developing the SFR in China...... 36 6.3 Th e China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) ...... 36 6.3.1 Outstanding Features ...... 37 6.3.2 History of Development ...... 37 6.3.3 Process of Construction ...... 37 6.3.4 Development Planning ...... 39 6.4 Conclusion ...... 39

7 Development of the High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR) in China ...... 40

7.1 Introduction of HTGR ...... 40 7.2 Th e Development History of China’s HTR and its Current Situation ...... 41 7.3 Future Expectations of HTGR in China ...... 41 7.4 HTGR Cooperation between China and Other Countries ...... 42 7.5 Conclusion ...... 42

8 Development of Small Modular Reactors (SMR) in China ...... 43

8.1 Introduction of Small Modular Reactors ...... 43 8.1.1 Characteristics of SMRs ...... 43 8.1.2 Application of SMRs ...... 43 8.2 Th e Signifi cance of Developing SMRs in China ...... 43 8.3 Introduction of China’s Advanced 100 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor (ACP100) ...... 44 8.3.1 Safety ...... 45 8.3.2 Project Schedule ...... 45 8.3.3 Challenges and Diffi culties ...... 46 8.3.4 International Cooperation and Exchanges in ACP100 ...... 46 8.4 Conclusion ...... 47

6 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

9 Introduction of Fusion Development and the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Project in China ...... 48

9.1 Basic Principles of Nuclear Fusion ...... 48 9.2 Th e Advantages of Nuclear Fusion ...... 49 9.3 Introduction of ITER ...... 49 9.4 Fusion Related Activities in China Before Joining ITER ...... 50 9.5 ITER China ...... 50 9.5.1 Th e China Domestic Agency (CNDA) ...... 50 9.5.2 Organization Structure ...... 50 9.5.3 Th e ITER China Team ...... 50 9.5.4 Mission and Objectives ...... 51 9.5.5 China’s Contribution in the ITER Project ...... 51 9.5.5.1 Procurement ...... 51 9.5.5.2 Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) ...... 52 9.5.5.3 HL-2A ...... 52 9.6 Th e Signifi cance of China’s Participation in the ITER Project ...... 53 9.7 Conclusion ...... 53

10 Introduction of the Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) and the Research Status in China ...... 54

10.1 Basic Information and Historical Background of the Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) ...... 54 10.2 Prospect and Signifi cance of LENR ...... 54 10.2.1 Social Aspects...... 54 10.2.2 Economic Aspects ...... 55 10.3 Development Status of the LENR Worldwide ...... 55 10.4 General Situation of the LENR Development in China ...... 55 10.5 Research Process of the LENR in China ...... 56 10.5.1 Experimental Measurements of the Excess Heat and Fusion Products Generated from the Electrolysis of Heavy Water by the Titanium Cathode ...... 56 10.5.2 Research on the Excess Heat Production in Hydrogen-loaded Metals at High Temperatures ...... 56 10.5.3 Selective Resonant Tunneling ...... 58 10.6 Conclusion ...... 58

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Tables and Figures

Table 1 Limits of nuclear fuel shipments from Russia to the USA ...... 14 Table 2 Supply and demand of uranium conversion worldwide ...... 14 Table 3 World enrichment capacity – operational and planned ...... 15 Table 4 World light water reactor fuel fabrication capacity ...... 15

Fig. 1 Nuclear generating capacity for top six countries (2000–2020) ...... 12 Fig. 2 Th e CNNC 202 Factory in Baotou City, Qingshan District, Inner Mongolia ...... 19 Fig. 3 Design sketch of the CJNF “2015 Project” in Yibin, Sichuan Province ...... 21 Fig. 4 Schematic illustration of a closed fuel cycle ...... 23 Fig. 5 Th e hot test of the CNNC 404 Pilot Plant ...... 26 Fig. 6 A scientist is checking a drill hole in Beishan ...... 29 Fig. 7 Overall structure of a Molten Salt Reactor ...... 31 Fig. 8 Nuclear fuel cycle of a Molten Salt Reactor...... 33 Fig. 9 Th e China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) of the China Institute of Atomic Energy (CIAE) near Beijing ...... 37 Fig. 10 On August 15, 2002, the CEFR nuclear main building was offi cially capped ...... 38 Fig. 11 Th e on-site situation of the CEFR at full power operation ...... 38 Fig. 12 Th e 10 MWt High Temperature Gas-cooled Rector (HTGR) ...... 40 Fig. 13 Th e construction of Shidao Bay HTGR conventional island is fi nished ...... 41 Fig. 14 Th e pebble fuel element of the HTGR ...... 41 Fig. 15 Model of China’s advanced Small Modular Reactor ACP100 ...... 44 Fig. 16 Model of the ACP100 Floating Boat Power Plant ...... 44 Fig. 17 Th e structure of the ACP100 ...... 45 Fig. 18 Th e fusion reaction using deuterium and tritium ...... 48 Fig. 19 Th e structure of ITER ...... 49 Fig. 20 Th e Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) in Hefei Province ...... 52 Fig. 21 Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, University of Utah ...... 54 Fig. 22 Conceptual graph of the E-CAT ...... 55 Fig. 23 Schematic diagram of the experiment set-up by Prof. Jiang Songsheng ...... 57

8 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Executive Summary

Based on the analysis of China’s nucle- highlights the problems Chinese scien- Chapter 6 provides an overview of the ar industry, this report aims to describe tists are faced with while developing the Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor develop- and forecast the status and challenges weakest link of China’s fuel cycle system ment in China. It presents up-to-date of China’s front-end nuclear fuel indus- – the nuclear fuel reprocessing. With the information on the China Experimental try, its back-end nuclear fuel industry, increasing amount of spent fuel, nuclear Fast Reactor in Fangshan near Beijing. the research and development situation fuel reprocessing will become a big mar- Th e development strategy of the Sodi- of the advanced nuclear reactor types ket waiting to be developed. um-cooled Fast Reactor is also men- and the research on fusion. Some related tioned. background knowledge is introduced in Furthermore, in the fourth chapter, the corresponding parts of this report as the author focuses on the scheduled Chapter 7 not only introduces the Shi- well as comparisons of China with other high level waste repository in Beishan dao Bay High Temperature Gas-cooled countries. China’s international cooper- in Gansu Province and presents the nu- Reactor in Shandong Province, but also ation in the fi eld of nuclear industry is clear waste disposal technologies for low talks about the cooperation on the High also discussed. level and high level wastes. Th e necessity Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor be- of building the high level waste reposi- tween China and other countries such Th is report starts in its fi rst part with tory is illustrated and the technologies as the United Arab Emirates, the King- the introduction of China’s front-end to do that are promising. Th e author also dom of Saudi Arabia and South Africa. nuclear fuel cycle. By summarizing the points out that the construction of the China has self-owned intellectual prop- current situation of uranium mining, high level waste repository is both time- erty in this fi eld and it is one of those ad- conversion, enrichment and fuel assem- consuming and costly. vanced countries in developing the High bly fabrication in China and abroad, the Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor. author gives corresponding measures Th e third part mainly deals with in- to deal with the challenges identifi ed at troducing the advanced reactor types Chapter 8 reviews the characteristics present. that are developed in China at present. and the application of the Small Modular Th is includes three Generation IV re- Reactor. Th e author tries to summarize Th e second chapter focuses on the actors – the Molten Salt Reactor, the the safety, project schedule, challenges, four nuclear fuel corporations in Chi- Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor and the diffi culties and international coopera- na. Some corporations mentioned in the High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor tion on the China’s Advanced 100 MWe fi rst chapter such as the China North as well as a popular and promising re- Pressurized Water Reactor. Compared Nuclear Fuel Company and CNNC actor type: the Small Modular Reactor. with the mature large-scale reactors, the Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd are in- Small Modular Reactor needs more time troduced in detail including their histo- In chapter 5, the author analyzes the to achieve better commercial prospects. ry, location, major business, output and advantages and the development of the contribution to China’s nuclear industry. Molten Salt Reactor in China. More- In the last part, the author discuss- over, it is the author’s view that the fu- es the state of art in the fusion reaction Th e subject of the second part of this ture of the Molten Salt Reactor in China development, including thermonucle- report is to introduce China’s back-end is promising because China has already ar fusion and the so-called Low Energy fuel industry. In chapter 3, the author mastered some key technologies and the Nuclear Reactions (LENR). Th e objec- thorium resources are abundant.

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 9

tive of chapter 9 is to outline the research in 1989, but the debate whether it is search and development activities, in- and development situation of the ITER real has not yet come to a conclusion. cluding designs of fusion reactors. Some project and especially China’s contribu- Th e author describes the LENR devel- Chinese technologies are even in a lead- tion to ITER. Th e most important con- opment worldwide and China’s major ing position worldwide. As nuclear tech- tribution is the Experimental Advanced contribution to this fi eld. China’s atti- nologies become more and more mature Superconducting Tokamak developed in tude towards this unproven technology in China, nuclear power will gradually the Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese is also revealed at the end of this chapter. increase its proportion in the gross elec- Academy of Sciences in Hefei. It is one tricity generation. Th us, it will occupy a of the world’s most advanced devices in Given the above information, the con- major position in the future energy in- exploring controlled nuclear fusion. clusion can be drawn that despite some dustry in China. As an aff ordable, reli- drawbacks in the back-end fuel indus- able and clean energy source with high Th e last chapter is a brief introduc- try, China has by now formed a rela- capacity, it is believed that the devel- tion of the LENR, also known as “cold tively complete nuclear industry system opment prospect of nuclear power in fusion”. Th e research was put forward and actively participates in reactor re- China is promising.

Overview of the commercial nuclear reactor systems built and developed in China

M310 (France) GEN II

CNP600 CNP300 CPR1000 CP1000 CNP1000 CNP650 (CGN) (CNNC) GEN II+

CPR1000+

ACP600 AP1000 EPR WWER-1000 Candu6 (to be built) ACPR1000 (USA) (France) (Russia) (Canada)

ACPR1000+ ACP1000 CAP1400 ACP100 (to be built) (to be built) GEN III

Hualong One

HTR-PM GEN IV

Sources: Wikipedia, nuclearplanet.ch and chinese websites Compiled in September 2015

10 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Map of nuclear facilities in China

L North West Shenyang

H Beijing Beishan Baotou Hongyanhe (Gansu Province) CNNC 202 Factory Fangshan Dalian

Shidao-Bay

E Haiyang Lanzhou CNNC 404 Xian Tianwan Qinshan-1 Pilot Plant E CHINA Qinshan-II CNNC Lanzhou Hanzhong Shanghai Qinshan-III CNNC Shaanxi Fangjiashan Wuhan Sanmen

Yibin Ningde CNNC Jianzhong Ningdu S Fuzhou Ruijin Fuqing S S Putian Nanning Hong Kong L Ling-Ao Taishan Daya-Bay Fangchenggang Yangjiang Beilong

Changjiang Data as of December 31, 2015 © Swiss Nuclear Forum

Q in operation Q under construction Q planned as mentioned in this report

PWR pressurized water reactor nuclear fuel factory (E: including enrichment)

A APWR advanced pressurized water reactor reprocessing factory

PHWR pressurized heavy water reactor L low and medium level waste repository

FBR fast breeder reactor H high level waste repository HTGR high temperature gas-cooled reactor S Small Modular Reactor (PWR) (double units, 2x100 MWe)

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 11

1 Status and Future of China’s Front-End Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry By Prof. Li Guanxing, China Nuclear Power Corporation, Beijing*

Th e nuclear fuel cycle is the process of acquiring, using, reprocessing and recycling nuclear fuels. Th e cycle can be broken down into two parts: the front-end cycle and the back-end cycle. Th e front- end nuclear fuel cycle includes uranium mining, conversion, enrichment and fuel assembly fabrication [1].

1.1 Opportunity Opens to China’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry Th e active promotion of nuclear power Fig. 1 – Nuclear generating capacity for the top six countries (2000 –2020) [2] development in China has created unprecedented opportunities for the nuclear fuel cycle industry. Fig. 1 shows clear power resources in inland China. 1.2 Supply of nuclear generating capacity for the top He also announced a 5% target for nu- Natural Uranium six countries (2000–2020). clear power as a proportion of overall Today the policy of actively promot- electricity production in China. Should 1.2.1 Natural Uranium Demand ing the development of nuclear power China continue to actively promote the As of June 1, 2015, there were 438 nuclear in China is well established. According development of nuclear power, it is clear power plant units operating around to the “World Energy Outlook 2014”, is- that the country is on its way to become the world. Th e total installed capacity sued by the International Energy Agen- the world’s biggest producer of civil nu- amounted to 379 GWe [3]. Th e demand cy, China is expected to build even more clear power. In step with this, the nu- for uranium stood at 61 600 tons in 2012 nuclear power plants over upcoming clear fuel cycle industry in China will [4]. In 2015, the Nuclear Energy Agency years. see signifi cant development opportu- (NEA), a specialized agency within the Zhang Guobao, the vice president of nities, with the potential to grow into Organization for Economic Co-opera- the National Development and Research the largest nuclear fuel cycle market in tion and Development (OECD), pub- Center (NDRC) and also president of the world. Th is is a basic fact one must lished the “Red Book” titled “Uranium the country’s National Energy Admin- keep in mind when analyzing and plan- 2014 – Resources, Production and De- istration, has stated numerous times the ning for the nuclear fuel industry, as it mand”. Th e Red Book estimated that 5.9 need to readjust the medium and long will also have a signifi cant impact on million tons of conventional uranium at term plan for China’s nuclear industry, the market structure of the nuclear fuel a cost of under 130 US$/kg have been to strengthen the development of power cycle industry. found, with speculative additional ura- plants in the coastal areas and to scien- However, along with the opportuni- nium reserves amounting to 13.54 mil- tifi cally plan the development of nu- ties come tough challenges. lion tons. Looking at unconventional uranium, it estimated that up to 21.39 million tons of uranium could be ex- * Revised by Guo Wentao tracted from phosphate rock.

12 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

1.2.2 Development and Utilization 1.2.3 Challenges with the International Community of Uranium Resources According to the second National Ura- 1.2.3.1 Challenges with Countries 1.2.3.2 Challenges with Countries nium Resource Evaluation, which is cur- Holding Huge Uranium Resources with Surplus Nuclear Fuel Fabricating rently ongoing, China has a signifi cant Th e countries holding the largest ura- Capacities quantity of uranium reserves – possibly nium resources are striving to shift China has been constantly challenged over 2 million tons, while the proven re- from being natural uranium export- by countries that have surplus nucle- sources of uranium could only fuel the ers to added-value uranium exporters. ar fuel fabricating capacity. Being the reactors expected to be built by 2020. Kazakhstan is among these countries. only company involved in all aspects of According to the “Red Book 2014”, Kazakhstan plans to secure 30% of the the nuclear fuel cycle and nuclear pow- China produced 1450 tons of uranium international market for uranium fuel er plant construction, and in order to in 2012. It is generally recognized that by 2030. In July 2006, Kazakhstan and continue leading the global nuclear in- ten years will be needed in geological the Russian company Tenex signed an dustry, the French company Areva has prospecting of nuclear resources, in- agreement to co-establish an interna- made signifi cant investments develop- cluding general exploration, specifi c ex- tional uranium enrichment center in ing its capabilities in the front-end of ploration and offi cial submission of the Angarsk, Russia. In December 2006, the nuclear fuel cycle, including nuclear quantities of nuclear resources reserves. Kazakhstan signed an agreement with mine exploration, processing, conver- It takes four years to build a uranium China Guangdong Nuclear Power Cor- sion, enrichment and fuel fabrication. mine. Meanwhile, the output volume of poration (CGNPC), whereby the ura- In 2010, Areva had a 30% share of the natural uranium still remains small. In nium supplied must be processed into world nuclear fuel market and suffi - order to meet the demand created by its UO2 in Kazakhstan before it is sent to cient uranium reserves. On November nuclear power development, China will China. Kazakhstan is actively building 11, 2007, Areva and China Guangdong have to make signifi cant eff orts to secure infrastructure to handle the front-end Nuclear Power Corporation (CGNPC) the uranium supply. of the nuclear fuel cycle. signed the EPR project agreement, At present, China has a number of In May 2007, Kazakhstan and the whereby Areva will provide nuclear fuel overseas uranium exploration projects Canadian company Cameco signed an and fuel assembly services to CGNPC underway. Th e China Natural Nuclear agreement to co-establish an UF6 en- over the next 15 years. Corporation has offi cially concluded richment plant with a capacity of 12 000 Upon the restructuring of its nuclear four agreements with countries such as tons/year. In June 2007, Kazakhstan industry, Russia established State-con- Niger, Namibia, etc., and signed multi- bought a 10% equity stake of Westing- trolled Atom Energo Prom. Russia had ple cooperation programs with Algeria, house in the USA. Th e Ulba Metallur- a 17% share of the global nuclear fuel Kazakhstan and Jordan. Th e Chinese gical Plant in Kazakhstan has built a market in 2010. Meanwhile, Russia has enterprises taking part in overseas ura- nuclear fuel fabrication plant with the ambitious plans to increase this market nium development are the China Na- Toshiba-Westinghouse Consortium as share. tional Nuclear Corporation, Sinosteel its technical partner. Russia has large uranium reserves. In Corp., the China Guangdong Nuclear Other countries in the world are ac- January 2006, President Vladimir Putin Power Corporation, and PetroChina. tively promoting their domestic urani- raised the idea of establishing an inter- Th e China Nuclear Energy Indus- um strategy in order to secure a greater national uranium enrichment center. try Corporation has developed a stable share of the international market. Can- In July 2006, the Russian Atomic En- international trade system to procure ada has demanded that uranium con- ergy Agency announced the establish- natural uranium. It is internationally version be conducted in Canada before ment of the fi rst international nuclear competitive and has secured smooth uranium is exported to other counties. enrichment center in Angarsk. uranium trade channels. At present, Australia has established the nuclear China’s Tianwan nuclear power plant Chinese uranium development over- fuel company NFAL. NFAL is to build was constructed with technologies im- seas is being conducted following the a multinational uranium enrichment ported from Russia, which provided the prescriptions of the China Medium company in Australia and establish a fi rst fuel load and the fuels for the fi rst and Long Term Development Plan for uranium conversion plant using tech- three reloads. It goes without saying Nuclear Power (2005–2020). Uranium nology from the European nuclear fuel that China’s nuclear fuel cycle market resources have been secured through enrichment company Urenco. is targeted by countries rich in urani- domestic production, overseas explo- um resources and in nuclear fuel fabri- ration and the international uranium cation capacity. Th e shortage of natural trade. uranium domestically is the weak spot

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 13

in China’s nuclear power development scheme. China should be wary of the impact foreign nuclear powers might have on its domestic nuclear fuel market.

1.2.4 Two Conclusions (1) According to the analysis above, the global natural uranium market today would appear to be a buyer’s market. (2) China should protect and promote its domestic nuclear fuel industry, to ensure it grows bigger and stronger, and strengthen the awareness of protection. People generally have a one-sided un- Table 1 – Limits of nuclear fuel shipments from Russia to the USA (source: U.S. derstanding of the market economy and Department of Energy) international standards. In fact, every country has means in place to protect December 2007, the limits on uranium needed 20 000 MTU converted ura- the domestic market. For example, Eu- shipments from Russia to the U.S. are nium annually but the production ca- rope and the U.S. have long prevented shown in Table 1. pacity was only 12 000 MTU. All the Russian low-enriched uranium from countries are increasing the capacity to entering their markets. Th e U.S feels convert uranium. Th e fi gures in Table 2 that its domestic nuclear fuel industry are given by the World Nuclear Associa- could be endangered with imports of 1.3 Uranium Conversion tion (WNA). In 2007 the China nucle- Russian fuel. An agreement that eff ec- and Enrichment ar conversion plants produced 1500 t of tively suspends fuel imports from Russia uranium. China should increase its ca- into the U.S. was concluded in 1993 and 1.3.1 Supply and Demand of pacity to convert more uranium to meet expired in 2013 only. According to the Global Uranium Conversion the domestic demand. agreement, the U.S. government would Th e process of changing U3O8 or “yel- charge a 112% tariff on low-enriched low cake” into UF6 is called uranium uranium imported from Russia. conversion. Table 2 shows the supply 1.3.2 Supply and Demand Russia and the U.S. signed a new trade and demand of global nuclear fuel con- of Enriched Uranium agreement on February 1, 2008 that al- version. It can be seen that the produc- in the World lows Russian shipments of uranium to tion capacity is smaller than the demand At present, there are four uranium en- the U.S. starting from 2014. Th e amount if the already converted uranium inven- richment service providers in the world: of low-enriched uranium from Russia tory is not considered. For example in Areva, Urenco, USEC Inc. and the cannot exceed 20% of the total amount 2007, the demand of converted urani- Russian Techsnabexport (Tenex). Th e imported. Based on the draft agreement um was 59 000 MTU and the produc- large-scale commercial operating ura- the U.S Department of Energy issued in tion capacity was 46 200 MTU. Th e U.S nium enrichment plants are in France, Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the U.S and Russia. In addition, there are many small uranium enrichment plants worldwide. France and the U.S are constructing new centrifuge uranium plants. Table 3 shows the supply and demand of uranium enrichment in the world. In 2015, the supply and demand situation was balanced. In 2007 diff usion method accounted for 25%, centrifuge method accounted for 65%. Table 2 – Supply and demand of uranium conversion worldwide, in metric tons Now the diff usion method is no longer (data for 2010 and 2015 are projections) [5] used.

14 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

1.3.3 Uranium Enrichment Industry in China China’s uranium enrichment technology has transferred from diff usion to centrifuge. Being the only nuclear fuel provider in China, the China National Nuclear Corporation followed the strategy of “increasing speed of nuclear fuel made in China and actively promoting imported fuel from abroad”. Up to 2020, it is planned that every year there will be new fuel production lines under construction and also new production lines put into use. Th is enhances China’s uranium enrichment capacity rapidly and makes it possible for China to export nuclear fuel aft er meeting its own demand in nuclear fuel supply. China is looking forward to becoming the uranium enrichment center of Asia. Table 3 – World enrichment capacity – operational and planned (thousand SWU/a) [6]

1.4 Nuclear Fuel Fabrication with the biggest fuel fabrication capac- and development, are already in use in ity for light water reactors in the world. Chinese operating reactors. Th e 15×15 1.4.1 Analysis of Nuclear nuclear fuel assemblies, indigenous- Fuel Fabrication Capacity 1.4.2 Nuclear Fuel Components ly developed by the China Jianzhong in Operating Reactors Nuclear Fuel Company, had designed 1.4.1.1 Analysis of Nuclear Fuel Several types of nuclear fuel compo- burn-ups of 25 GWd/tU, but have now Fabrication Capacity in the World nents, manufactured through technol- reached 33 GWd/tU through upgrad- Table 4 shows that there are 13 coun- ogy import and independent research ing. Th ese CQS 300 fuel assemblies have tries in the world having fuel fabrication plants for light water reactors. Th e fuel fabrication capacity in the world is 12 972 MTU/a [7]. Areva, Global Nu- clear Fuel (GNF) and the Westinghouse Electric Company (WEC) are the three largest international fuel producers in the world. GNF mainly fabricates fuels for boiling water reactors.

1.4.1.2 Forecast of China’s Nuclear Fuel Fabrication Capacity In 2020, the demand of fuel fabrication capacity will be 1273.2 tons annually. Th e number is close to the production capacity of the Westinghouse plant in Columbia, South Carolina, which is 1350 MTU. In 2030, the production demand will be 2231.2 tons, in 2040, 3191.2 tons, and in 2050, 4151.2 tons. Th us, China will become the country Table 4 – World light water reactor fuel fabrication capacity (MTU/a) [7]

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 15

never sustained any broken fuel rods. semblies in 2003. To further improve the the plant began to manufacture fuel as- Th is demonstrates the success of China’s fuel effi ciency, China Jianzhong Nuclear semblies which were loaded into reac- indigenous research and development Fuel Company imported the M5-AFA- tor cores in March 2003. By the end of in this area of nuclear fuel assemblies. 3G fuel manufacturing technology from September 2003, 38 743 CANDU-6 type France. Th is technology is based on the fuel assemblies had been loaded into the Th e Daya Bay units 1 and 2 adopt- AFA-3G and has the advantage of high reactor and 30 659 unloaded. Th is indi- ed the AFA-2G type nuclear fuel tech- fuel effi ciency. With the M5-AFA-3G cates that the fuel assemblies had been nology from France. Th e designed technology fully adopted, a quarter of in stable operation and the quality had burn-up of this type of fuel assembly the nuclear fuel assemblies only will be reached international standards. is 33 GWD/tU. Th e fuel assemblies for required to be changed during each fuel the initial loading were provided by a reloading. In February 2007, all the fuel To sum up, the fuel assemblies for French company. In 1991, the China assemblies in Ling-ao nuclear power re- China’s operational pressurized water Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Company im- actors were Chinese manufactured M5- reactors were AFA, VVER and CQS 300, ported the technology from France to AFA-3G assemblies. which were Chinese designed and man- produce AFA-2G nuclear fuel assem- ufactured. Up to 2015, the six reactors blies and in 1994 it delivered the fi rst Th e two units of phase two of Qinshan in Daya Bay nuclear power plant, Ling- batch to unit 2 of Daya Bay. From 1996 nuclear power plant were connected to ao phase one and Qinshan phase two all to 2002, it manufactured 13 batches of the grid and started electricity genera- used AFA-3G 17 × 17 square arrange- 772 AFA-2G nuclear fuel assemblies tion in April 2002 and May 2004 respec- ment fuel assemblies. Th e extension and secured the supply of nuclear fuel tively. Initially AFA-2G type nuclear fuel projects of Qinshan phase two, Ling-ao for Daya Bay. Th ese best quality fuel as- was loaded and in 2004 AFA-3G nuclear phase two and the upcoming Fuqing, semblies gave the Daya Bay reactors safe fuel was adopted. Fangjiashan, Hongyanhe, Ningde and operation for seven years with no fuel Yangjiang etc. also use AFA-3G fuel as- leakage and no deformed, broken or ab- Th e two units at Tianwan nuclear semblies. Th e Tianwan nuclear power normal fuel rods. power plant were connected to the grid plant is using VVER fuel. In order to improve the fuel effi cien- and started power generation in May cy in Daya Bay, the China Jianzhong 2007 and August 2007 respectively. Rus- Nuclear Fuel Company imported the sian VVER-1000 nuclear fuel technolo- 1.4.3 Nuclear Fuels for AFA-3G nuclear fuel manufacturing gy was adopted. Fuel assemblies for the the Th ird Generation technology from France in December initial core and the subsequent three Pressurized Water Reactors 1998, which improved fuel burn-up fuel reloading periods were provided Th e four AP1000 nuclear reactors under rates to 54 GWD/tU. Th is technology by Russian companies. China Jianzhong construction in Sanmen and Haiyang prolonged the fuel reloading period Nuclear Fuel Company began to supply will have AP1000 fuel assemblies for ini- from 12 months to 18 months. In Feb- nuclear fuels to Tianwan nuclear pow- tial core loading provided by Westing- ruary 2002, the fi rst batch of AFA-3G er plant from the fourth fuel reloading. house. China will provide AP1000 fuel manufactured by China Jianzhong Nu- Th e fuel assemblies, which can be used assemblies for the fi rst and subsequent clear Fuel Company was loaded into in all AES-91 pressurized reactors, were fuel reloadings. the reactor core of Daya Bay unit 2. In manufactured with technology import- Th e State Nuclear Power Technolo- April 2002, AFA-3G type nuclear fuel ed from Russia. Th e VVER-1000 nu- gy Corporation (SNPTC) is responsi- was loaded into the reactor core of unit clear fuel production line was installed ble for importing AP1000 nuclear fuel 1. Up until September 2005, when unit and tested in mid-August 2008. It began technology from Westinghouse. Th e 2 started its refueling outage, the fi rst to produce fuel assemblies in 2009 and China North Nuclear Fuel Company, batch of 52 fuel rods had been through supplied fuel for the fourth fuel reload- SNPTC and China Jianzhong Nuclear three fuel reloading periods and no fuel ing in 2010. Fuel Company co-established the China rod was reported broken. In order to supply CANDU-6 fuel Baotou Nuclear Fuel Company which Th e nearby two units at Ling-ao nu- assemblies domestically, in December has started to develop and manufacture clear power plant were synchronized to 1998 the China North Nuclear Fuel AP1000 nuclear fuels in 2013. the grid and started to generate electric- Company (CNNC 202 Factory) be- Areva and the China Guangdong Nu- ity in May 2002 and January 2003 re- gan to import CANDU-6 fuel technol- clear Power Company (CGNPC) signed spectively. Th e two units were loaded ogy from ZPI, a Canadian company. a project agreement, affi rming Areva with AFA-2G fuel assemblies initially Construction of the fuel manufactur- will provide nuclear fuel and fuel assem- and later changed to AFA-3G fuel as- ing plant began in April 1999. In 2002, blies for the two EPR at Taishan nuclear

16 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

power plant for 15 years. Nevertheless, formation are less than the low-tin alloy Corporation and the Baoti Group, will CGNPC imported fuel fabrication tech- Zr-4. Although China began to import receive the manufacturing technology nology together with the EPR reactors. the M5 cladding tube manufacturing for zirconium materials from Westing- technique from France, the technolo- house. When the technology transfer is gy transfer has not yet been completed. fi nished, a complete zirconium produc- 1.4.4 China’s Fuel Until 2015, most of M5 alloy cladding tion chain will exist in China. Manufacturing Ability tubes and materials needed in China China has two nuclear fuel manufac- have been imported from abroad. turing bases which are China Jianzhong Th e E110 (99%Zr-1%Nb) alloy was 1.4.5 Progress in China’s Nuclear Fuel Company (in Sichuan adopted in manufacturing VVER-1000 Nuclear Fuel Manufacturing Province) and China North Nuclear fuel assemblies. Th e E110 alloy cladding Technology Fuel Company (Inner Mongolia). Th e tube manufacturing technology was im- China began to import nuclear fuel China Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Compa- ported from Russia for the Tianwan nu- manufacturing technology in 1991. In ny had an 800 tU/a fuel manufacturing clear power project. In the plant’s fourth 2014, China fi nished the construction capacity for pressurized water reactors fuel reload, domestically manufactured of the fi rst AP1000 nuclear fuel element in 2014. E110 alloy was used in the fuel assem- production line. China North Nuclear Fuel Company blies. In these past 25 years, China has im- at present has a fuel rod manufacturing Th e CANDU-6 type fuel assemblies ported the nuclear power technolo- capacity of 200 tU/a for CANDU-6 re- adopted Zr-4 alloy. China imported gy, including the M310 reactor from actors and 800 tU/a for AFA-3G nuclear technologies from the Canadian com- France, the VVER-1000 from Russia fuel assemblies. pany ZPI for manufacturing cladding and the CANDU-600 from Canada. Detailed introduction about nuclear tubes and a variety of plates, rods and Now, the third generation nuclear tech- fuel companies in China can be found wires. Th e technology transfer process is nology is being imported: AP1000 from in the second chapter. almost fi nished, but the Chinese manu- Westinghouse in the United States and facturing has not yet begun. Right now, the EPR from Areva in France. China 1.4.4.1 Zirconium Alloy for Nuclear all the zirconium tubes China needs are also imported the related fuel manufac- Fuel Fabrication from ZPI. turing technologies. China has import- Zirconium alloy is a critical material in Th e AP1000 fuel assemblies have ed AFA-2G, AFA-3G and M5 AFA-3G manufacturing nuclear fuel assemblies. used Zirlo alloy, developed by West- (three fuel technologies from France), Th e fuel assemblies for phase one of inghouse in the 1970s. Th e Zirlo alloy the VVER-1000 fuel technology from Qinshan nuclear power plant used Zr- (97% Zr, 1.0% Nb, 1.0% Sn, 1.0% Fe) Russia and the CANDU-600 technology Sn alloy cladding material, which was combines advantages of both Zr-Sn and from Canada. All these fuel technolo- domestically designed and manufac- Zr-Nb. Th e burn-up rate of fuel assem- gies are now made in China. tured in China in the 1980s. No cladding blies with Zirlo alloy was 55GWd/t in Th e diversity of nuclear technolo- tubes have been found broken since the 1992. In 1995, Zirlo alloy was in indus- gies in use in China brings diversity in Qinshan reactor was connected to the trial scale use. fuel manufacturing technologies and grid on December 15, 1991, which dem- also serious technical barriers. Nuclear onstrated that the quality of zirconium 1.4.4.2 Construction of the Production fuel manufacturing is diff erent from the alloy is in line with international ad- Chain of Nuclear Grade Zirconium other fuel cycle industries. Th e natural vanced standards. Th e low-tin Zr-4 al- While importing the AP1000 nuclear uranium, conversed or enriched, is uni- loy, a modifi ed Zr-4 alloy, can be used fuel manufacturing technology, China versal and has characteristics of original to make nuclear fuels with a burn-up of is also importing the zirconium produc- materials. However, fuel assemblies are less than 40-45GWd/t. tion chain from Westinghouse includ- critical parts of reactors and involve very Th e AFA-3G fuel assemblies used the ing zirconium sponge, alloy, materials complicated manufacturing procedures M5 alloy from France. M5 alloy is a Zr- and tubing. Under the agreement with with detailed design and stringent as- Nb alloy developed by a French compa- Westinghouse, China is going to use do- sessment. One type of fuel technology ny. It was used to manufacture cladding mestically manufactured zirconium ma- can only fi t into one type of reactor. Th is tubes for AFA-3G assemblies whose de- terials in the fi rst fuel reload to see if the must be given enough recognition. For signed burn-up is 55-60GWd/t. Th e M5 technology transfer is successful. Th e example, the AFA series fuel cannot fi t alloy has been used in eight operating State Nuclear Baoti Zirconium Indus- into VVER reactors nor into AP1000 re- reactors in Europe and one in the US. try Company, a joint venture between actors and vice versa (at least not now). Its corrosion, irradiation growth and de- the State Nuclear Power Technology

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 17

1.5 Challenges and Policies

1.5.1 Challenges in China’s Nuclear Fuel Cycle Industry According to the report of Prof. Li China should create appropriate policies Guanxing presented here, China’s nucle- and implement them to protect its nu- References ar fuel cycle industry is faced with many clear fuel industry. [1] Li Guanxing. Th e Challenges and challenges. Th e scale of the front-end of Th e development of the nuclear fuel Opportunities of the Nuclear Fuel China’s nuclear fuel industry is small. industry will have a huge impact on Cycle Industry in China, Urani- Th e equipment and technology levels the old system. China should adjust the um Geology [J]. V24 No.5, Sept. are behind that of developed countries. nuclear fuel system to avoid disordered 2008: 258. All this makes it impossible for Chi- competition. [2] U.S. Energy Information Admin- na’s nuclear fuel industry to meet the istration: China will soon surpass demands of its nuclear industry. How 1.5.2 Research on Countermeasures South Korea, Russia and Japan should China secure its nuclear power China must recognize the situation and in nuclear generating capacity: industry, expand capacity and improve think diff erently to catch up with all the http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/ the production level according to the sit- big changes taking place, one of which detail.cfm?id=22132 uation of the nuclear fuel industry? is that China will have the largest fl eet of [3] European Nuclear Society: Th e nuclear fuel cycle industry is a nuclear power plants. Correspondingly, Nuclear Power Plants, World- market-oriented international industry. China’s nuclear fuel industry must have wide: https://www.euronuclear. Countries with surplus production ca- the largest scale too. To achieve this is org/info/encyclopedia/n/nuclear- pacities are looking to enter the nuclear an important mission for contemporary power-plant-world-wide.htm fuel cycle market of China. Th e question nuclear engineers. [4] Uranium 2014: Resources, Pro- facing China is how to plan its quick de- Th e nuclear fuel cycle should be of duction and Demand, A Joint velopment in the context of the world’s concern for everyone working in the Report by the OECD Nuclear open market. nuclear industry. Th e administrative Energy Agency and the Interna- Th e nuclear fuel cycle industry is the leadership and coordination must be tional Atomic Energy Agency. basis of the entire nuclear industry. It strengthened and modern enterprise [5] WNA. Uranium Enrichment [J]. is of national safety concern and very systems must be promoted. Actions that October 2007. sensitive. All the leading nuclear pow- put personal interest in front of national [6] WNA. Uranium Enrichment [J]. ers are very protective of their native interest should be avoided. All this can September 2015. nuclear fuel industries. However, “open- contribute towards a healthy develop- [7] WNA. Market Report 2013. ness” and “protection” are contradictory. ment of China’s nuclear fuel industry.

18 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

2 Introduction of the China Nuclear Fuel Corporation (CNFC) and its Member Corporations

Th e China Nuclear Fuel Corporation vider in China. CNFC and its affi liated 2.1 The China National (CNFC) is affi liated with the China Na- units provide high-class nuclear fuels to Nuclear Corporation tional Nuclear Corporation (CNNC). all the nuclear power plants in opera- 202 Factory It is one of the important industry pil- tion in China. lars in this group company. On April 12, CNFC has thirteen affi liated units in Th e CNNC 202 Factory, the fi rst scien- 2013, according to the requirement of Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, Gansu, Sich- tifi c research and production-oriented the group company and the demand of uan, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, Guang- enterprise for nuclear fuels and materi- industrial development, China Nuclear dong and Shanxi. Among these thirteen als in China, is located in Qingshan dis- Fuel Corporation was offi cially incor- units, there are four fabrication factories trict, Baotou City, Inner Mongolia [2]. porated [1]. which are CNNC 202 Factory, CNNC With the fast development of China’s Th e business scope of this company Jianzhong Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd (CJNF), nuclear power, the CNNC 202 Facto- covers nuclear fuel production, trans- CNNC Lanzhou Uranium Enrichment ry built the fuel element production portation, sales, construction of as- Co., Ltd (LUEC) and CNNC Shaanxi line for the fi rst CANDU nuclear pow- sociated works, technology research Uranium Enrichment Co., Ltd (SUEC). er plant in China. In December 2002, and development, technology trans- Here is a brief introduction of these four the CANDU fuel element factory went fer, technical services and international factories. into production offi cially. It has provid- cooperation. It is the only nuclear fuel ed qualifi ed fuel assemblies to the Qin- manufacturer, supplier, and service pro- shan Phase III heavy water reactor since

Fig. 2 – The CNNC 202 Factory in Baotou City, Qingshan District, Inner Mongolia [3]

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 19

2003. In 2012, 100 000 rod clusters were and materials do not get in contact with have very little impact on the surround- produced, the quality of which reached each other. Th ere are two sealing bar- ing environment. the international advanced level. riers: One is the processing equipment From construction, operation to re- and the pipelines, the other are the pe- tirement of nuclear facilities, natural For the past few years, the fuel ele- ripheral barrier and its exhaust system. conditions such as geology, hydrology ment production tasks of the CNNC 202 Th e whole plant has a negative pressure and weather must be evaluated care- Factory followed one by one. Th e pres- system in the production area. Air can fully. Although the CNNC 202 Facto- surized water reactor (PWR) fuel ele- only fl ow from the outside to the inside, ry is not far away from mountains, it is ment production line was completed in which prevents radioactive substances not on geological fault zones. Moreover, 2010, which has the ability to handle 200 from diff using into the environment. the building standards of the factory are t of metallic uranium per year. Besides, Th e CNNC 202 Factory fuel element high. Th e anti-seismic grade of the fac- the production of the fuel for the Gen- production lines have high automa- tory is 8 and the seismic fortifi cation eration III AP1000 PWRs reached 800 tion levels. Workers use touch screens level is 9. All the radioactive working t. In 2014, it provided the Sanmen and to operate them. Th ey can only oper- places are airtight workshops. Even if a Haiyang nuclear power plants with fuel ate following preset programs and have leakage of substances would happen, ra- elements for the fi rst time. no authority to change the operation in dioactive substances could be controlled Aft er the completion of the High Tem- order to avoid misoperation [4]. within the factory and emissions to the perature Gas-Cooled Reactor (HTGR) environment are reduced thanks to the fuel element production line, it will be Although the radioactivity of ura- outer barriers. capable to produce 300 000 pebble fuel nium during fuel element operation is U3O8 powder and UO2 pellets are elements per year, marking that China low, the “three wastes” (waste gas, waste a very stable solid. UF6 is solid under masters the HTGR fuel element technol- water and waste residues) disposal is normal pressure and temperature. It is ogy aft er Germany, the USA and Japan. very strict. Th e CNNC 202 Factory has stored in airtight steel vessels. Th e op- Meanwhile, in order to meet the de- special uranium and fl uorine-bearing eration and processing of UF6 is with- mand of developing nuclear power in wastewater treatment facilities. Th ey can in the airtight pipelines, equipment and a massive scale, the CNNC 202 Facto- recycle uranium from the wastewater containers, which avoid releases to the ry will extend the construction of the and implement wastewater defl uorida- environment. Because UF6 is chemically AFA3G PWR fuel element production tion. All of the treated water is recycled active, in the case of a leakage, UF6 will line. At the appointed time, the CNNC and reused. react with moisture in the air and most 202 Factory will become the industrial Th e CNNC 202 Factory has also built of it will form UO2F2 and deposit inside base for all types of fuel elements in Chi- advanced waste gas treatment facilities. the factory. HF will be confi ned inside na. Th e factory was also built with min- With the help of air fi ltration, absorb- the factory. Th e formed UO2F2 can also isterial key laboratories and the National ing and washing facilities, the air inside be recycled. Physical and Chemical Testing Center as the workshop passes through multi- Besides, U3O8 and other forms of well as a research institute and one post- stage purifi cation, which reduces waste pure uranium are weak radioactive mat- doctoral scientifi c research station [3]. gas production to a minimum. Th e ex- ter. Even if the factory building collapses haust gas purifi cation effi ciency of fuel because of a violent earthquake, fl ood Th e CNNC 202 Factory is not only element factories in China is 99.97%. or other extreme disasters, as long as the biggest fuel element production base CNNC 202 Factory reached 99.99%. we can reclaim the material, the conse- of China, but also the research and de- In order to prevent and control the quences of the accident are mainly con- velopment center of fuel elements. All pollution of exhaust gases, the inlet and trolled within the factory. types of fuel elements in test reactors, outlet of the waste gas treatment facili- research reactors and engineering reac- ties are equipped with monitoring in- Since the CNNC 202 Factory was tors in China are researched, developed struments or sampling ports to have built, it suff ered earthquakes greater and fabricated there. real-time monitoring. Meanwhile, en- than magnitude six and other disas- vironmental monitoring sites are set ters, but none of these caused damage Th e safety of nuclear power plants is up around the factory. Th e monitoring to the production facilities. Up to now, related to the quality of fuel elements. data will be reported to the local envi- the CNNC 202 Factory has never caused Aft er entering the PWR fuel element ronmental protection agency and the any measurable harmful eff ects to the production area, all the materials are supervision department. Th e research surrounding environment. Th e safety completely sealed in closed containers result from many years’ monitoring data level of this fuel element factory is very and pipelines, which means that people shows that nuclear facilities in China high.

20 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Fig. 3 – Design sketch of the CJNF “2015 Project” in Yibin, Sichuan Province (source: http://news.huaxi100.com)

2.2 The CNNC Jianzhong From the Qinshan Nuclear Power CJNF 400 ton fuel element production Nuclear Fuel Co., Ltd Plant unit 1, to Daya Bay to Qinshan line was put into operation, realizing a unit 2, Ling-ao unit 1, and Ling-ao unit leap of uranium annual output from 400 Along with the strategic adjustment 2, CJNF has provided the existing PWRs tons to 800 tons. Th e production capac- of the National Nuclear Development in China and the Chashma NPP in Paki- ity is among the highest in the world, Plan, China ushered in the era of nucle- stan with more than nine thousand fuel which can meet the refueling needs of ar energy development. Th e fi rst safety assemblies and around two million fuel thirty 1000 MWe PWR nuclear power barrier of a nuclear power plant is the rods. Th ey passed long-term safe opera- units [7]. fuel elements itself. China is now active- tion and no assembly was damaged be- Th e “2015 Project” is a major project ly establishing a world class fuel element cause of mistakes in manufacturing. carried out by CNNC in order to meet manufacturing base [5]. Aft er entering the 21th century, with the demand of nuclear energy develop- Th e biggest pressurized water reac- the implementation of the National ment in China, making the fuel element tor (PWR) fuel element manufacturing Nuclear Long-and-medium Term De- manufacturing industry stronger and base in China is CJNF. It was built in velopment Plan, nuclear fuel demand better, upgrading the production capaci- 1965 and belongs to CNNC. It is located grows with every day because of the ty and ensuring the safe and reliable fuel in Yibin, Sichuan Province. It provides rapid development of nuclear power. element supply. It is also one of the fi ft y fuel assemblies to all the existing PWR Th e gap between the demand and the major projects in Sichuan Province [8]. plants and those under construction in insuffi cient production capacity is grow- On December 26, 2014, the com- China and has achieved “zero breakage” ing gradually. In 2006, the uranium pro- mencement ceremony of the CJNF for many years. Aft er forty years of de- duction capacity was 200 tons per year, “2015 Project” was held in Gaojie In- velopment, it has become a large state- which could not meet the demand of dustrial Park in Yibin, marking that the owned enterprise being the industry fuel elements in the NPPs from 2008 to fuel element manufacturing base cov- leader of fuel element fabrication and 2010. So it was decided to enlarge the ering an area of 667 000 square meters the civil industry of perfume and lith- capacity of the fuel element production with an investment of CHF 800 million ium batteries. Manufacturing, scientif- line. started construction. Aft er completion, ic research, domestic and foreign trade On July 17, 2014, the technical in- the annual value of production is esti- have become an organic whole [6]. novation and expansion projects of the mated to be CHF 1600 million.

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 21

Th e construction of the “2015 Project” national advanced technology produc- and technical level in this key link of the marks the beginning of the CJNF fuel el- tion system and provided the fi rst NPP nuclear fuel cycle as well as it gained ex- ement manufacturing capacity promo- in China with qualifi ed fuel elements. perience, cultivated talents and trained tion and technical equipment upgrade. Th e next ten years will be another teams for the further development of It is also an important symbol of coop- golden age for the nuclear industry de- China’s nuclear fuel industry [11]. eration between CJNF and Yibin which velopment in China. Th e nuclear fuel Under the leadership of CNNC, can not only improve the CJNF fuel ele- industry will step into a track of fast SUEC continuously imported foreign ment manufacturing level and reinforce development and LUEC also shows a uranium enrichment technology and its core competitiveness, but also pro- bright future. According to the devel- signed a commercial contract for a ura- mote the local economic development. opment planning of the corporation, up nium enrichment production project. to 2020, the scale of nuclear fuel pro- In 2011, this project was completed duction will increase signifi cantly. Th en and put into operation. Th is promot- LUEC will become a fi rst-rate nuclear ed SUEC’s scale of production and eco- 2.3 The CNNC Lanzhou fuel base with high technology, new nomic benefi ts dramatically and exerted Uranium Enrichment mechanisms, high standard team, strict a positive infl uence on China’s nuclear Corporation, Ltd management, large scale and good eco- power development. On this basis, in nomic returns. order to meet the further requirements Th e CNNC Lanzhou Uranium Enrich- of nuclear fuel, SUEC is actively plan- ment Co., Ltd. (LUEC) is a key Science ning and striving for bigger engineer- and Technology Industry of Nation- ing projects to expand production scale al Defense enterprise in China. It is an 2.4 CNNC Shaanxi Uranium and enhance competitiveness. At pres- important fuel element manufactur- Enrichment Co., Ltd ent, all the projects have achieved pri- ing base. Since reform and opening up mary progress, marking that SUEC is on (1978), LUEC never stopped exploiting SUEC was built in October, 1969, locat- an expressway of development. the civilian market and using nuclear ed in Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province. It is a energy peacefully. It completed the mis- large-scale mainstay enterprise belong- sion of providing Qinshan and Daya Bay ing to CNNC. It has 2000 employees and NPP with initial core loadings and nor- covers an area of two square kilometers. mal refueling successfully and moved to In 1992, aft er the permission of the State a new level in serving the Science and Council, it imported packaged produc- Technology Industry of National De- tion technology and equipment from fense and the national economy. While abroad to work on advanced uranium References ensuring the stable production of fuel enrichment production. It became the [1] http://www.cnncnf.com.cn elements, it actively adjusted its product fi rst enterprise to use centrifugal pro- [2] http://news.ifeng.com/gundong structures and developed non-nuclear cesses to produce enriched uranium in [3] http://baike.baidu.com/ civilian activities. It has so far developed China [10]. [4] http://military.china.com/ packaging products, fi ne chemical prod- SUEC’s 405 technical innovation proj- important ucts, aluminum-plastic products, me- ect was included in the national key con- [5] http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics chanical processing products, pressure struction projects during the “Eighth [6] http://baike.baidu.com vessels, nuclear electronic instruments, Five-Year Plan” and Ninth Five-Year [7] http://www.guancha.cn/Industry industrial gases and so on [9]. Plan” period (from 1991 to 2000). In [8] http://www.wccdaily.com.cn LUEC is located in suburban Lan- December, 2002, it fi nished the comple- [9] http://baike.baidu.com zhou, Gansu Province, covering an area tion acceptance, marking that China re- [10] http://baike.baidu.com of 7.67 square kilometers. It has an inter- alized promotion of production capacity [11] http://baike.baidu.com

22 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

3 Introduction of Fuel Reprocessing - Recycling in China

3.1 Introduction

Nuclear energy is one kind of clean energy which has high energy density and low carbon emission. It plays an important role in ensuring energy safety, easing pressure on the environment in order to achieve economic and social sustainability in China. In the “Twelft h Five-year Plan” (from 2011 to 2015) of China, safety and high effi ciency are emphasized on nuclear energy, which makes a clear way for the development of nuclear power [1]. Th e fuel cycle is like a “main artery” in the nuclear energy system. In order to make sure the sustainable development of nuclear energy in China, a technology (and possibly resource) independent, complete and advanced nuclear fuel cy- Fig. 4 – Schematic illustration of a closed fuel cycle [1] cle system must be established. Making full use of nuclear resources, achieving minimal nuclear waste and safe disposal of fast reactor fuel, fast reactor spent fuel in the front end of fuel cycle, which all are the basic requirements for sustain- reprocessing, and disposal of high level include uranium mining, milling, con- able development. Fast reactors and a waste. In this article we focus on core version, enrichment and fuel assembly closed fuel cycle can meet these require- issues of the fuel cycle system in China, fabrication. ments. that is the technical problems of spent Th e diff erences between the two ways Compared to developed countries, the fuel reprocessing/recycling. exist in the back end. Th e closed fuel development of nuclear energy in China cycle includes interim storage of spent started late. China falls behind in fuel cy- fuel, spent fuel reprocessing, Pu and U cling technology. It established industri- 3.2 The Concept of Fuel Cycle recycling, disposal of radioactive waste. al production capacity in the front end Th e recovered fuel can be recycled in of fuel recycling, which can meet the de- Th e fuel cycle of nuclear energy systems thermal reactors or in fast reactors. In mand in the near future. But the scale of (such as the U-Pu cycle) means a series Fig. 4, the left side shows the closed fuel production and the technological level of industrial processes from Uranium cycle of thermal reactors (mainly light need to be enlarged and improved. Th e mining to the fi nal disposal of nuclear water reactors) and the right side shows industrial capacity of the back end of waste. It is divided into two parts: the the closed fuel cycle of fast reactors or the fuel cycle is still not been well devel- front end and the back end by setting accelerator driven sub-critical systems oped, which is the weakest link in nu- the reactor as a boundary. Th ere are two (ADS). As for the once-through cycle, clear industry system. Th e back end of categories of fuel cycles: the closed fuel direct geological disposal will start aft er the fuel cycle includes thermal reactor cycle and the once-through cycle. Th ere the spent fuel is removed from the reac- spent fuel reprocessing, manufacturing are no diff erences between the two ways tor core and interim storage.

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3.3 The Current Situation dimethylhydroxylamine-monometh- they cooperated with the Institute for of Nuclear Fuel yl hydrazine to reduce and extract Pu Transuranium Elements (ITU) in Karls- Reprocessing/Recycling during the U/Pu separation part and ruhe, Germany, and fi nished thermal Technology in China Pu purifi cation cycle as well as using verifi cation tests of the TRPO extraction acethydroxamic acid during uranium process. From 1996 to 2000, they coop- In the middle of the 1960s, China suc- purifi cation cycle and separating Pu and erated with the CNNC 404 Pilot Plant cessfully developed reprocessing tech- Np from uranium. and did research on auxiliary technics nology for military use and built According to the twelft h fi ve year plan, of full separation process, mud wash- reprocessing factories. Th e separation a laboratory scale hot test should be ing tests and proposed advise on non-α technology was very close to the world done on the advanced salt-free double of mud. Besides, research on extraction standard at that time. But aft er 1980s, loop PUREX process during 2011–2015. equipment and pre-feasibility of proj- with the shutting down of military re- If the hot test succeeds, verifi cation tests ects is also done by these institutes. Th ey processing factories, the research and will be carried out step by step in the also came up with the CYANEX 301 ex- development funding for reprocessing CNNC 404 pilot plant. In order to pro- traction method. got extremely insuffi cient, leading to the vide the required conditions for the hot Based on the above research achieve- reprocessing technology becoming the test, research will be focused on con- ments, Tsinghua University fi nished a weakest link of the nuclear energy sys- fi rming the properties of the process and miniature bench thermal verifi cation tem in China. optimizing the technological parame- experiment which lasted for more than ters, including the conditions of Pu pas- 120 hours in 2009. It showed that the de- Even in this relatively diffi cult con- sivation cycle in non-refl ux extraction, contamination factor of α-emitting nu- ditions, Chinese scientists and engi- Pu unsalted conditioning technology, clides reached above 3×103. For nuclides neers achieved some good results in purifi cation performance of the process with high heat release rate like Sr-90 and reprocessing R&D and constructing to fragments, chemical and irradiation Cs-137, the decontamination factor can the China National Nuclear Corpora- stability of salt-free reagents as well as be more than 104 which can meet the tion (CNNC) 404 pilot plant in Lan- treatment of salt-free reagents and their technical requirements of making high zhou, Gansu Province. reaction products in the following pro- level waste non-α and turning high level cess. Besides, developing new types of waste into low or medium level waste. In the fi eld of reprocessing technology salt-free reagent is still proceeding. In research, the China institute of Atomic order to improve the level of experimen- In terms of researching and develop- Energy did research and development tal technology, they developed mixer- ing non-aqueous reprocessing of nucle- of advanced reprocessing process since settlers, a centrifugal extractor, feed ar fuel, China studied fl uoride volatility 1990s. Th e focus is on applying a salt- pump and other experimental equip- methods for reprocessing in the 1970s. free reagent, aiming to reduce radio- ment and systems. Furthermore, they But it stopped because of serious equip- active waste, simplify the technology will carry out some research on mate- ment erosion. In the 1990s, cooperating process and control the moving of key rials of experimental devices and auto- with fast reactor projects, they did a few nuclides. Th e researched salt-free re- matic control in order to make enough researches. In recent years, some pre- agent is divided into two categories: re- preparation for the hot test. liminary studies of non-aqueous repro- ductant and complexant. Th e former cessing are arranged in some projects includes hydroxylamine and its deriv- In the fi eld of high level waste separa- like ADS, nuclear fuel cycle and nucle- atives, hydrazine and its derivatives, tion, the Institute of Nuclear and New ar safety which are supported by the aldehydes, aldoximes and hydoxyure- Energy Technology, Tsinghua Univer- Ministry of Science and Technology of as etc. Th e latter is mainly the short- sity in Beijing, proposed and developed the People’s Republic of China. But the chain hydroxamic acid. Th e features the TRPO (Trialkyl Phosphine Oxide) R&D of non-aqueous reprocessing has of the advanced double loop PUREX extraction process of actinides in the not been included into the National Plan process with salt-free reagent are using end of the 1970s. From 1992 to 1993, for the Development of Reprocessing.

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3.4 The Development Strategy of Fuel Reprocessing/Recycling in China Th e CNNC 404 pilot plant is de- Aft er the restart in China in the wake A closed fuel cycle and spent fuel re- signed and developed independently of the Fukushima disaster, nuclear con- processing, which can improve the uti- by China for reprocessing. Th ey com- struction is progressing smoothly and lization ratio of uranium eff ectively pleted researches on water test, acid steadily. Th e large-scale development and decrease the volume of high level test and cold uranium test. In 2010, hot trend becomes obvious day by day. It not waste, are the set policy as well as stra- tests were successfully fi nished. Aft er a only provides wide space for industrial tegic choices for the long-term strategic long time of research and development, development of reprocessing, but also development of the nuclear energy in several technical problems were solved gives serious challenges of the reprocess- China. Moreover, the overall strategy of related to devices. For example, stable ing abilities. Because of the complexity nuclear energy development in China is control of air-lift equipment, the engi- of the technology in the back-end of the “thermal reactor – fast reactor – fusion neering application of an air-purge set of fuel cycle, its development has fallen be- reactor” (three-step strategy), and spent liquid level non-contact measurement1, hind compared to other fi elds in nuclear fuel reprocessing is the key point for or a reliability study of decanter and the energy and gets wide attention in both moving towards the second step. Com- development of a shearing machine. Th e industry and society. pared to the strategic planning process successfully debugging and operating of Aft er operating nuclear power plants of fast reactors, the time and tasks of re- the CNNC 404 pilot plant will provide for more than 20 years, a large amount processing development are becoming important reference for designing and of spent fuel has been produced. Until extremely urgent. constructing large nuclear fuel repro- 2020, more than 1000 tons of spent fuel cessing factories. will be generated from nuclear power Th e reprocessing development is Although China made some prog- plants per year, based on the nuclear forced by the “three-step strategy”. In the ress in the development of reprocessing development planning. At that time, the “three-step strategy”, the multiple loop technology, great gaps still exist between accumulated spent fuel production in system of “reprocessing + fast reactor” is China’s technology and advanced inter- China will be around 10 000 tons. Such the second step of nuclear development national levels in respect of reprocessing massive amounts of spent fuel will bring in China. According to the development devices, automatic control and remote serious challenges to their safety man- plan for the fast reactors, up to 2035 fast maintenance. agement. Accelerating the development reactors will be put into commercial op- of reprocessing allows no delay. eration step by step. In recent times, people in the nuclear 1 Th e air-purge set of liquid level non-contact measurement is one of the non-contact industry organized a series of discus- Reprocessing projects should be start- measuring methods. It transfers the mea- sions on China’s current situation of ed as soon as possible because of its surement of liquid level to the measure- reprocessing development. Aft er sum- complex technology and long construc- ment of pressure diff erentials. Using this method can measure the level, density and marizing comments from diff erent par- tion period. Experts point out that in interface of the medium inside the equip- ties, three aspects are focused: order to achieve large scale nuclear de- ment. 1. Accelerating the industrialization velopment, spending 15 years on com- process of spent fuel reprocessing is pleting commercialization of spent fuel eagerly demanded according to the reprocessing, 20 years on completing current situation of development; the study on fast reactors and demon- 2. Before achieving a closed fuel cycle, stration projects of the fast reactor fuel some contingency plan or phased cycle should be considered. In the time transition options must become new scale, the tasks and demands of these re- projects. searches are quite urgent. So from now 3. Th e opportunity for promoting an on, the harmony and coherence between industrial capacity of reprocessing in the development of the reprocessing China is ready and the journey has al- industry and the project construction ready started. schedule should be well handled [2].

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3.5 Key Technical In conclusion, in China, R&D aimed ous reprocessing, put forward its own Problems of at a commercial reprocessing factory R&D roadmap and carry out related Reprocessing/ construction will make full use of the feasibility studies. Meanwhile, interna- Recycling in China research results accumulated over many tional cooperation will be implemented years and the operation experience of actively in order to use research results 3.5.1 Th ermal Reactor the CNNC 404 pilot plant. Meanwhile, in foreign countries and to promote the Spent Fuel Reprocessing China will learn and import advanced own R&D. Th e research objectives of the aqueous and proven technique and equipment HYDRO process in China are as follows: – like key process equipment, remote enhancing researches on advanced re- maintenance equipment and automatic processing process fl ows to make it eco- control systems – from other countries. 3.6 The CNNC 404 Pilot nomic, safe and minimizing waste while Th ey will try to form a self-possession Plant and Reprocessing separating U, Pu, minor actinides (MA) property right technology based on di- Factory Project and low level fi ssion products (LLFP) gesting and absorbing foreign technolo- which can provide technical support for gies in order to obtain the initiative in Th e China National Nuclear Corpora- commercial reprocessing factories. the international cooperation and com- tion has mastered the key technology is- According to their reprocessing tech- petition. sues of spent fuel reprocessing and built nology basis and the practice in most China’s fi rst spent fuel reprocessing pi- countries, the development of an ad- lot plant: the CNNC 404 Pilot Plant. It vanced reprocessing technology will be 3.5.2 Fast Reactor has been developed and built for more based on the proven PUREX procedure. Spent Fuel Reprocessing than 20 years. From 2004 to 2008, wa- An improved PUREX process and the ter tests, acid tests and cold uranium separation of the minor actinides from 3.5.2.1 Fast Reactor Spent Fuel linkage debugging were completed suc- high level waste will be developed in or- HYDRO Process cessfully. Th e hot tests started in March der to apply the research achievements For the fast reactor mixed oxide (MOX) 2010. It achieved success on December of reprocessing to the process fl ow de- spent fuel reprocessing, research on the 21, 2010, aft er fi nishing radioactive hot sign of reprocessing factories. HYDRO process has never been stopped tests and producing qualifi ed products, Th e improvement research of the rein the world. So China will not give up meaning that the goal of a closed fuel processing process is focused on sim- its research on the HYDRO process of cycle is realized. It eff ectively promot- plifi cation of the separation process fast reactor MOX spent fuel reprocess- ed the development of the nuclear fuel (reducing cycle times) and using new ing. In order to avoid detours and mis- types of salt-free reagents. As for the de- takes, enough investigation will be done velopment of high level waste separa- in the start stage. Experts will be orga- tion, its connection to the reprocessing nized to discuss and evaluate in order to main process and the connection be- put forward reasonable research plans. tween separated MA and transmutation will be studied. Besides process fl ows, 3.5.2.2 Fast Reactor Spent Fuel reprocessing technology development Non-aqueous Reprocessing also includes studies of special process- In recent years, non-aqueous repro- Fig. 5 – The hot test of the CNNC 404 ing equipment and its material (espe- cessing of spent fuel has become a hot Pilot Plant [4] cially for spent fuel cut-off machines research area in the world. China will and dissolvers), analysis and testing conduct a wide range of investigations technology, criticality safety etc. and master the entirely new progress in this area. It will have an in-depth discussion on the road of R&D in non-aque-

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industry and nuclear power as well as 3.7 Conclusion providing an important research-experiment platform for developing advanced Nuclear fuel reprocessing/recycling reprocessing engineering technology. It based on the U-Pu-cycle is the key marked that China had mastered the problem of the fast reactor fuel cycle spent fuel reprocessing technology [3]. system, which is also the weakest link of China’s fuel cycle system. Reprocess- Aft er the successful hot test, China ing/recycling is related to the thermal is still facing a series of tasks in repro- reactor spent fuel reprocessing, the fast cessing: reactor fuel fabrication, the fast reactor 1. Operation of the CNNC 404 Pilot spent fuel reprocessing etc. It is complex Plant and gaining empirical data; systematic engineering, and a top level 2. Design and construction of thermal design must be done under the unifi ed reactor spent fuel commercial repro- state plan and the overall layout in order cessing factories; to make sure that each link is developed 3. Research, development, design and in coordination with the others. construction of fast reactor spent fuel It may take 25 to 35 years for China reprocessing factories [4]. to make technical breakthroughs in the main issues in order to achieve the in- Th e preparatory work for big com- dustrialization of a fast reactor nuclear mercial reprocessing factories was car- energy system and solve the worries of ried out according to the “we take the nuclear power sustainability in China. initiative, combination of Chinese and foreign” principle. In 2013, CNNC and Areva signed a letter of intent to cooperate on the reprocessing factory project. References Th is factory will be built using interna- [1] Gu Zhongmao, Chai Zhifang, tional advanced reprocessing/recycling 2011. Some thinking of nucle- technology and will be able to reprocess ar fuel reprocessing/recycling in 800 tons of spent fuel per year. China. Process in Chemistry. In March 2014, CNNC and Areva [2] http://www.chinapower.com.cn/ signed the memorandum of under- newsarticle/1230/new1230145.asp standing in France on a reprocessing/ [3] http://www.chinanews.com/ recycling long term cooperation. By ny/2010/12-28/2751155.shtml the end of 2013, China and France had [4] http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/ cleared their scope of work and respon- html/2011-03/14/content_767971. sibility and fi nished the negotiations of htm the technical content. At present, they [5] http://www.chinapower.com.cn/ are following the technical negotiation newsarticle/1210/new1210083.asp minutes and implementing the technical content of the contract. In the next stage, the focus of the negotiation work will be turned to business negotiations [5].

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4 Nuclear Waste Disposal in China

4.1 Properties of Nuclear – Radioactivity: Th e radioactivity of nu- Th e other method is to reprocess the Wastes and Disposal clear wastes cannot be eliminated by fuel to regain the uranium and the plu- Concepts physical, chemical or biological meth- tonium and to store in the deep geo- ods in a general way. It can only be re- logical repository the remaining fi ssion High level nuclear wastes are plutonium duced by the radioactive decay itself. products and minor actinides only. and other radioactive materials gener- – Radiation hazards: When the rays ated from nuclear power plant opera- emitted from nuclear wastes pass tion and nuclear weapon manufacturing through matter, ionization and exci- 4.2 Current Situation and dismantling. Th ey are highly radio- tation will happen, causing radiation of Nuclear Waste active and the half-life period can be damage to living bodies. Disposal and its Future thousands, tens of thousands or even – Th ermal release: In nuclear wastes, ra- hundreds of thousands of years. Th is dionuclides release energy by decay. In the past thirty years of operation, means that aft er hundreds of thousands When radioactive nuclides are high- China’s nuclear industry stored up to of years, these wastes can still cause ly concentrated, the released heat will tens of thousands of cubic meters of harm to humans and the environment. lead to the increase of the waste tem- medium and low level solid wastes. At So how to dispose nuclear wastes safely perature, as far as to boil if it is in liq- present, 150 tons of high-level wastes and permanently is an important sub- uid form and melt if solid. are generated per year. Besides, experts ject for scientists [1]. speculate that the pressure on nuclear waste storage space will appear around 4.1.2 Disposal of Nuclear Wastes 2030. At that time, the high level wastes 4.1.1 Properties of Nuclear Waste Th e International Atomic Energy Agen- generated by the NPP alone will reach From a technical perspective, nuclear cy (IAEA) has issued requirements on up to 3200 tons. wastes fall into three categories: high nuclear waste disposal and requires ev- Up to now, China has built two me- level wastes, medium level wastes and ery country to follow them. When dis- dium & low level waste repositories and low level wastes. High level wastes in- posing, all the countries must accept plans to build two more. Th e two com- clude spent fuels and their treatments international supervision. pleted repositories are in Beilong which aft er using them to generate electricity. For medium and low radioactive is close to Daya Bay in Guangdong Prov- Medium and low level wastes include wastes disposal, IAEA requires that – no ince, and in Yumen, Gansu Province. contaminated equipment, checkout matter if solid or liquid nuclear wastes But there are no high level waste repos- equipment, hydration systems under are handled – they should have a con- itories in China yet. operation, exchange resin, wastewater, ditioning and then be put into a sealed waste liquid and labor protection appli- container and a shallow land repository. ance like gloves, which account for 99% As for high level wastes, there are two 4.2.1 Low and Medium Level of all nuclear wastes. Medium and low treatment methods worldwide. One is Waste Repositories nuclear wastes are less harmful, whereas regarding spent fuel as nuclear waste. Th e Beilong repository covers an area high level wastes contain many highly Aft er treatment, the fuel is put into can- of 210 000 square meters. Th e total de- radioactive elements which are extreme- isters and ultimately buried deep under- sign handling capacity is 80 000 cubic ly harmful to human health. So the dis- ground. At present, countries such as meters. It is fi ve kilometers away from posal methods for diff erent nuclear the USA, Russia, Canada, Switzerland, Daya Bay NPP and four kilometers away wastes are not the same. Th e following Sweden and Finland are using this di- from Ling-ao NPP. Medium and low particular properties of nuclear wastes rect disposal. It is the most safe nuclear level solid wastes generated from the make it troublesome for disposal. waste disposal method and is interna- NPP in Guangdong and in areas close tionally recognized. to Guangdong are sent here for perma-

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put into canisters that can shield the radiation. Finally, they have to be placed in repositories that are 500 to 1000 meters underground. Because the half-life period of these nuclear wastes range from tens of thousands of years to one hundred thousand years, when choosing the repository site, the geological conditions must guarantee the safety of the repositories at least for that time. In the fi rst half of 2015, the State Com- mission of Science and Technology for National Defense Industry ran a semi- nar about disposing high level wastes and started planning for medium and long term nuclear waste disposal. Th e fi nal goal is to build a permanent high Fig. 6 – Exploring the site for a high level waste deposit: a scientist is checking a level waste repository in China. Th e can- drill hole in Beishan, Gansu Province [3] isters’ design lifetime would be 10 000 years. nent disposal. It took a 10-year period Compared to the impulsion of fi ght- Aft er the safety is assured by the ge- from the site selection and exploration ing for nuclear power projects in vari- ology. the repository’s capacity should in 1991 to temporarily store the contam- ous regions, regional governments have be able to store the high level nucle- inated guide cylinders from Daya Bay in quite a backlash on building repositories ar wastes generated during 100 to 200 November 2001. locally. Th e site selection of the East Chi- years in China. When full, it will be per- As a kind of relatively simple civil na repository has not been decided yet manently sealed. Th is means that at least nuclear treatment facility, the Beilong because of this reason. Authorities be- within the next 100 years, there will be a repository is designed with 70 dispos- lieve that it should be built in Zhejiang second permanent high level waste real units within 130 000 square meters. Province, because the construction of pository in Chinese Mainland. Every disposal unit is a 17m×17m×7m NPP’s in Zhejiang was the fi rst in time shielded box made of ferroconcrete. and largest in quantity. According to the nuclear power devel- When a disposal unit is full of waste According to calculations, building a opment plan, China will determine the packages, the gaps between the waste low and medium level waste repository site of the fi rst permanent high level nu- packages are fi lled with cement paste in now needs around CHF 30 million. Ac- clear waste repository between 2015 and order to immobilize them and strength- cording to the plan, in addition to the 2020. At present, there are six regions en the shielding. Th en the disposal units two repositories which have been built chosen for site reconnaissance nation- will be capped by ferroconcrete. Even in the northwest and south part of Chi- wide. Th ey are East China, the southern if an earthquake happens, it is still a na, two more regional low level waste part of China, South West China, Inner whole cement block and cannot be bro- repositories will be built in Southwest Mongolia Province, Xinjiang Province ken down easily. and East China [2]. and Gansu Province. Th e other low and medium level re- In East China, the site selection was pository is the North West repository in once considered at the junction of Jiang- Yumen, Gansu Province. It is located 10 4.2.2 High Level Waste Repositories su, Zhejiang and Anhui Provinces. Th e to 20 meters below the surface. Dozens In order to avoid harmful eff ects on en- geology and lithology there are relative- of square kilometers around the reposi- vironment, high level wastes must go ly good. But taking the future economic tory are closed to the public. A medium through strict conditioning processes. development of this region into consid- and low level waste repository needs an First, the nuclear wastes must be trans- eration, no more investigation work was isolation period of 300 to 500 years. formed into a vitrifi ed solid and then done in the end.

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Th e site in Beishan in Gansu Province (3) repository prototype verifi cation ferred fuel handling method. Th is will is oft en assumed to be the fi rst under- and repository construction (2041– either be high-level vitrifi ed wastes gen- ground high level nuclear waste reposi- 2050). erated by reprocessing plants or spent tory in the Chinese Mainland. Its code But the current progress is so slow that fuel from NPPs for once-through direct name is “Beishan Number One”. But its it is scarcely possible to fi nish the under- disposal. Finally, they all need to be put exact name is “Pre-selected Site of High ground lab construction before 2020 [3]. into high-level waste repositories. At Level Waste Geological Disposal Re- present, the storage situation is a little pository in Beishan, Gansu Province”. Since the start of drilling in Beishan-1 bit stressful. Th ere is only little storing It is 25 kilometers away to the south- in 2000, the project has now entered into space in NPPs. It has come to the point east of Mo Kao Grotto at Dunhuang. It Beishan-6. Nineteen holes were drilled of having to build repositories quickly is in the Gobi desert which has the same in total and eight of them are shallow to store high-level wastes. area as Hainan Province. Human beings boreholes. Compared with the inter- are few and far dispersed in this zone. national situation, the data acquisition Th e population in the entire region is for such a large area like Beishan is far less than twelve thousand. Th e eco- from being enough. Some repositories 4.4 Conclusions nomic development in Beishan is rela- in other countries had thousands of tively backward. Th ere are no mineral boreholes, which is not only time-con- Scientists in China are studying on how resources around. Th erefore, building suming but also expensive. Th e average to dispose nuclear wastes. For medium nuclear waste repositories would have cost of drilling is CHF 180 000 per hole. and low-level wastes, China is able to little negative infl uence on the economic Th e expenditure of drilling holes alone dispose them safely by means of land- development. is an enormous fi gure. Th e accumulated fi ll. For disposing of high-level wastes, Th e climate conditions are also ideal. input of USA’s Yucca Mountain Project countries such as Sweden and Finland Th e average annual rainfall is only 70 has reached USD 40 000 million in 2010. have achieved some progress in order millimeters while the evaporation ca- to meet the safety standards aft er treat- pacity reaches 3000 millimeters. So the ment. In China, the high-level waste underground water level is very low and repository is planned to be completed reduces the risk of radioactive elements 4.3 The Necessity of between 2030 and 2040, which is quite diff using with underground water. Be- Constructing High Level urgent. Its capacity should be enough to sides, Beishan has convenient trans- Waste Repositories hold all high-level wastes generated by portation facilities. Th e repository site China’s nuclear industry in the next 100 is only 70 to 80 kilometers away from Before the completion of nuclear waste to 200 years. Th e repository will confi ne the railway. And the geological condi- repositories, the high level wastes in the nuclear wastes in deep underground tions of Beishan are excellent. It is locat- China can only be temporarily stored forever. However, the high-level waste ed in a stable region within the crustal in Boron pools on site in the NPPs. If repository is a costly project. Accord- movements. Th e repository site has a the construction of the repository can- ing to the future size of China’s nuclear complete granite body which is a good not be completed timely, the Chinese power fl eet, the high-level waste reposi- “protection suit” to deal with radiation. nuclear industry will be faced with the tory will cost around CHF 10 000 mil- Aft er conducting a fi eld study, experts fact that the nuclear wastes can be stored lion. Only if this issue can be dealt well from the International Atomic Energy nowhere. with, nuclear power is really a promising Agency (IAEA) declared that Beishan In this respect, the USA (and other technology for China. is one of the best-suited nuclear waste countries) had to learn some painful les- repository sites in the world. sons. Th eir original plan was to complete the construction of a high level Previously, the State Commission of waste repository in 1998. Although the References Science and Technology of the Nation- US Government put heavy fi nancial re- [1] China.com: Chinese Interpreta- al Defense Industry has planned three sources and manpower into research, tion 31st Issue: http://news.china. stages for the research and development there is still no high level repository in com/jiedu/20140724/ (R&D) and engineering construction of operation. [2] Tiexue Internet Forum: http://bbs. high level repositories: China has not yet completed any com- tiexue.net/post_6961832_1.html (1) underground lab R&D and site se- mercial spent fuel reprocessing plants. [3] Southern Weekly: http://www.in- lection of repositories (2006–2020) But high level solid wastes will be pro- fzm.com/content/101619 (2) underground testing (2021–2040) duced ultimately regardless of the pre-

30 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

5 Development of the Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) in China

5.1 Introduction of the MSR can remove heat from reactor cores very nuclear wastes generated by MSRs will eff ectively in order to reduce require- be only one thousandth of the existing Th e MSR is a fi ssion type reactor. Its ments from pumps, pipelines and core technology [2]. primary coolant is a salt-mixture in a size. Th e dimension of these compo- Th e operation of traditional nuclear molten state. It can be operated at high nents can be reduced. reactors is accompanied by the produc- temperatures (with higher thermal effi - tion of Plutonium. Th erefore, the peace- ciency) while keeping a low vapor pres- ful use of nuclear energy is accompanied sure in order to decrease mechanical by the nuclear proliferation risk. But stress and to improve safety. And it has 5.2 Some Advantages burning Th -232 will generate U-233 lower chemical activity than a molten of MSRs along with some U-232 and its strongly sodium coolant [1]. Th e nuclear fuel can radioactive decay products as impuri- be solid fuel rods or can be dissolved in Being the only liquid fuel reactor among ties. So the Th -U nuclear fuel is unsuited the coolant. So there is no need to fab- the six Generation IV reactor type can- for developing nuclear weapons, which ricate fuel rods. Th e reactor structure is didates, the MSR has many advantag- is internationally recognized. simplifi ed and the burn-up is homoge- es such as a simple structure, operable A MSR is operated under normal neous. On-site nuclear fuel reprocess- at normal pressure etc. Th e reactor can pressure rather than at high pressure ing is feasible. be built compactly. It can be operated like traditional light water reactors, what Th e liquid fl uoride thorium reactor for several decades aft er putting a cer- makes the operation safe and simple. If (LFTR) is the most famous MSR type. tain amount of nuclear fuel into it. Af- the core temperature would rise above In many designing schemes, nuclear fuel ter suffi cient burning, theoretically the the safe value, the frozen plug at the bot- dissolves in molten Villiaumite coolant and forms UF4 and other compounds (Villiaumite is a mineral composed of sodium fl uoride). In the reactor core, graphite is used as moderator and liquid molten salt reaches criticality therein. Th e design of liquid fuel reactors has a signifi cantly diff erent focal point of safety compared with solid fuel reactors: It is less likely to have reactor accidents (such as LOCA, reactivity addition, heat removal from the reactor primary circuit). But the likelihood of operating accidents increases. Recent research is focused on the real advantages of high-temperature, low-pressure main cooling circuits. Many modern design schemes use ceramic fuels uniformly distributed in a graphite matrix and molten salt to provide cooling in a low pressure and high temperature environment. Molten salt Fig. 7 – Overall structure of a Molten Salt Reactor

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tom will fuse automatically. Th e molten which exceeds the present total installed der the leadership of Zhang Jiahua, the salt with the nuclear fuel will fl ow com- generation capacity in the world. How- Shanghai Institute of Nuclear Research pletely into emergency storage tanks ever, most of the operating nuclear re- studied uranium-thorium nuclear fuel and the nuclear reactions will stop. Be- actors in the world are thermal reactors, circulation for twenty years. China’s fi rst cause the coolant is fl uoride salt (car- that is to say, using thermal neutrons to nuclear power plant, Qinshan NPP in rying the nuclear fuel), it will become induce fi ssion. Th e main nuclear fuel Zhejiang Province, was even prepared solid aft er cooling. So the nuclear fuel consumed by the thermal reactor is to use molten salt reactors. But the out- is very unlikely to leak or dissolve into U-235. Its reserves in the nature are only come of the debate in that time was groundwater and cause ecological disas- 0.71% of the total uranium. Most of the to adopt the pressurized water reactor ters. Th is gives more freedom for the site rest, 99.02% is U-238. Th erefore, China’s (PWR) which already had some expe- selection of a MSR. In addition, it can be and also the world’s rapid development rience in submarines. Th is led the re- built tens of meters underground, which of nuclear energy will be faced with the search on thorium-based reactors to a does not only isolate the radiation com- severe challenge of a stable nuclear fuel standstill [3]. pletely, but also prevents attacks. It can supply in the future. Aft er entering the 21st century, the be built in big cities as well as in the wil- Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) re- derness to provide long-lasting power to In 2005, China’s total GDP was CHF started the study on MSRs. Recently the remote villages. 2 800 000 million. Th e total consump- government of China announced plans tion of primary energy is 2230 million to appropriate CHF 385 million as spe- standard tons of coal. Nowadays, China cial project research fund looking for- has become a top greenhouse gas emit- ward to building a 2 MWe test reactor 5.3 The Situation of MSR ter. In another thirty or forty years, as soon as possible. Th is will make the Development in China China’s total GDP might reach CHF MSR, along with the High Temperature 18 000 000 million. Th e correspond- Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR), built by 5.3.1 Energy Background ing energy demand will increase enor- Tsinghua University in Beijing, and the Fossil fuels will be depleted one day. mously. Meanwhile, the greenhouse gas Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) built Solar energy and wind energy are not emissions should be reduced rather than by the China Institute of Atomic Energy stable. Hydropower development has al- increased. Th is seems impossible with- (CIAE) the most important three types ready reached the limit. Nuclear energy out using nuclear energy. In terms of ex- of Generation IV reactors in China. seems to be a reliable choice for China’s isting nuclear power technology, 1 kg mainstay energy in the future. It has a uranium can release 82 million Mega- high energy density, low carbon emis- joule thermal energy while 1 kg stan- 5.3.3 Development Plan sions and the potential for sustainable dard coal can only give 29 Megajoule. On January 25, 2011, in the “Innovation development. Th erefore, in the face of global climate 2020” press conference held during the Striving to develop nuclear energy has change, the need for energy conserva- CAS 2011 annual work meeting, CAS become the key point of China’s medi- tion, emission reduction and the low announced that the thorium-based Mol- um and long-term energy development carbon economy are prompting the re- ten Salt Reactor (TMSR) nuclear project plan. At present (December 2015), vival of nuclear energy in China. started implementation. China has 30 in-service nuclear power Th e aim of the TMSR project: do- units. Th e installed generation capacity ing the research and development for is 26.67 GWe and 2% of the total elec- 5.3.2 History of Development a TMSR Generation IV fi ssion reac- tricity is produced by nuclear power. As a matter of fact, the fi rst reactor type tor nuclear system within 20 years. All According to the development plan developed in China was a thorium reac- the technologies meet pilot level and from the National Development and Re- tor. Most of the researchers were older with independent intellectual proper- form Commission (NDRC), there will generation elite scientists who had stud- ty rights. Cultivate a TMSR technolo- be 70 nuclear power units in operation ied in the USA. In the late 1960s, the gy team with more than one thousand in 2020. It is estimated that in 2030, the Shanghai Institute of Nuclear Research talents, a wide range of disciplines and proportion of nuclear power in China (now Shanghai Institute of Applied techniques, reasonable age distribution, will reach 10% of its electricity genera- Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences) international leading level and indus- tion, and in 2050 the installed gener- carried out research on U-233 purifi - trial capacity. Complete a world-class ation capacity will be over 400 GWe, cation processes. Since the 1970s, un- TMSR study base.

32 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Th e TMSR project gives consideration to scientifi c research, technological development and engineering construction. It starts from the basic scientifi c problems of thorium MSRs and looks into the laws of physics. It will begin with the engineering and construction of a small reactor and gradually enlarge the scale. Related key techniques will be developed and fi nally all the key TMSR techniques will be mastered and achieve industrialization. Here is the roadmap:

(1) Preliminary stage from 2011 to 2015: Establish a perfect research platform. Learn and master the existing technology. Carry out research into key science and technology problems. Th e goal of the project is to build a 2 MWe thorium based molten salt experimental reactor and reach criticality at zero power level. Unfortu- nately, the time table for the end of this year will not be met. According to the new plan, the construction of Fig. 8 – Nuclear fuel cycle of a Molten Salt Reactor (graph provided by the the 2 MWe MSR will start in 2017. Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics)

(2) Developing stage from 2016 to 2020: On August 16, 2006, the North Amer- 5.3.4 Achievements in Complete the thorium based MSR ican Energy Corporation announced Scientifi c Research pilot system. Fully solve the related that they were ready to develop tho- China has already obtained many im- scientifi c and technical problems. rium-based nuclear power generation portant achievements in the research Reach the international advanced facilities and thorium batteries. But be- of thorium nuclear reactors. Research level in the fi eld. Th e project goal is cause the global next-generation nuclear and technological innovation capabil- to build a 10 MWe thorium MSR and reactors are still in research and devel- ity has reached the advanced world-class reach criticality. opment, China is likely to get all the in- level [4]. tellectual property rights if they develop (3) Breakthrough stage from 2020 to a thorium-based MSR independently. 5.3.4.1 Successful Commissioning of a 2030: Build an industrial-size tho- Th is will enable China to fi rmly grasp HTS Molten Salt Loop rium-based demonstration MSR the lifeline of energy in its own hands. On January 17, 2012, the fi rst HTS (a nuclear power system and solve re- Although the prospects are exciting mixture composed of 40% NaNO2, lated scientifi c problems. Develop for scientists, many diffi culties need to 7% NaNO3, 53% KNO3) molten salt and master all the key technologies. be mastered. It took nearly 20 years from thermal test loop of the TMSR project Realize the industrialization of small the fi rst successful test of the fi rst reac- achieved successful commissioning in modular MSRs. Th e project goal is to tor in the world to the commercial pro- the Shanghai Institute of Applied Phys- complete a 100 MWe thorium-based motion of NPPs. And from that time on ics, Chinese Academy of Sciences [5]. demonstration MSR nuclear power until the maturity of the current main- In this nuclear power system, the cool- system and reach criticality. stream NPP technology was another 20 ing medium assumes the transmission years of development. It may also need of the thermal energy generated by the 20 to 30 years before MSRs are achiev- reactor. Its thermal-hydraulic design is ing widespread application. related to the thermal energy and ther-

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 33

mal safety of the reactor and is the key adjusting of small temperature diff er- the team to undertake this task and de- technology of this nuclear energy sys- ences. In the morning of January 17, veloped qualifi ed structural metal ma- tem. But the molten salt coolant used large temperature diff erence operation terials for the MSR. in the MSR also bears the function of testing and adjusting at 400 degrees cen- Th e choice of the metals, on the one the nuclear fuel carrier at the same time. tigrade was completed. hand, is related to nuclear radiation safe- So the circulation circuit and thermal- Th e success of the loop testing and ty of the surrounding personnel and hydraulic design of a MSR are decisive adjusting marks that the TMSR project environment. On the other hand, their factors for safety, stability and reliable has now an initial capacity for molten performance aff ects the service life of operation. salt thermal hydraulic tests. Th ermal the thorium-based MSR as well as its Th e TMSR project is in accord with hydraulic parameters of the molten salt costs and benefi ts. By design and op- the principle of “from small to large” and medium under diff erent conditions as timization of alloy composition, they “from the easier to the more advanced”. well as high temperature molten salt eventually developed the GH3535 al- Scientists plan to construct four large loop equipment can be measured and loy, which can meet the requirements, molten salt test circuits within fi ve years tested. Th us, experience for future de- with independent intellectual proper- in order to study the thermal hydraulic sign, construction and operation of ty rights. characteristics of the molten salt, master loops is gathered. Furthermore, the researchers made the design and operation of the molten breakthroughs in rolling and precision salt loop, test the loop structure materi- 5.3.4.2 GH3535 Alloy shaping of the GH3535 alloy. Th is ma- als and key equipment and in the end Th e ultimate mission of the TMSR proj- terial will be processed into plates, pipes fi nish the thorium-based MSR design ect is to solve the looming energy crisis and welding wires etc. which are need- and construction tasks. and develop a new generation of nuclear ed for MSRs. Th ey also prepared vessel technology which is safer and has low- samples and loop piping components Th e HTS molten salt thermal test loop er cost and higher fuel effi ciency. Th is for the 2 MWe MSR, meeting the needs with nitrate as working medium is the project is led by the Shanghai Institute of alloys used in small power MSRs. fi rst test loop of the TMSR project. Th e of Applied Physics, Chinese Academy At present, the GH3535 alloy they HTS test loop is a system with com- of Sciences. Th e Institute of Metal Re- have developed can withstand temper- plete preheating and feeding, heating, search, Chinese Academy of Science in atures up to 650 degrees centigrade and recycling and cooling functions. It uses Liaoning Province is responsible for the harsh molten salt corrosion. With the InconelTM (an austenite nickel-chromi- metal alloy preparation for this system in-depth research in the future, mate- um-based superalloy) and a central- [6]. rials which can meet the operating re- ized network control system based on Th e task undertaken by the Institute quirements at 700 or even 800 degrees an Experimental Physics and Industrial of Metal Research seems insignifi cant, centigrade are expected to be devel- Control System (EPICS). Th is loop was but it is the most important part of the oped. However, although the Institute constructed since the middle of October entire system. In the design of the Gen- of Metal Research made breakthroughs 2011. On January 13, 2012, equipment eration IV rector systems, the liquid in a series of GH3535 key technologies, installation and debugging of parts were MSR is considered to be an ideal re- the long-term stability of the material completed. actor type for thorium resource utili- is still subjected to the test of practice. Th e overall testing and adjusting work zation. But most of the materials used started with loading the molten salt on in a MSR need to be strong in multi- January 14. Aft er three consecutive days ple extreme environments such as high of testing and adjusting, in the aft ernoon temperature, extreme corrosion and of January 16, the loop circulation ran neutron radiation. Th is makes the most successfully, followed by isothermal op- stringent requirements for the materials. eration testing and adjusting under dif- Dr. Dong Jiasheng and Dr. Han Weixin ferent temperatures and the testing and from the Institute of Metal Research led

34 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

5.3.5 International Cooperation develop a cobblestone-shaped solid fuel Th e US Department of Energy (DOE) reactor using molten salt as the coolant. plans to sign a 10-year cooperation China also plans to build a liquid fuel agreement with the Chinese govern- MSR eventually. In this respect, the co- ment, assisting China to build at least operation with the DOE can also help. one MSR in this period. Th e United To promote effi ciency, China plans to States intends to develop the MSR which use thorium fuel instead of uranium. References can be built in the United States even- [1] Baidu baike: Molten Salt Reactor: tually through a large-scale coopera- http://baike.baidu.com/ tion between the DOE and the Chinese [2] Shanghai Institute of Applied Academy of Sciences [7]. 5.4 Conclusion Physics, Chinese Academy of China will implement this work and Sciences: http://www.sinap. share information with the US. Th e US Th e MSR is the only liquid fuel reactor cas.cn/xwzx/cmsm/201209/ will also send experts to provide support among the six Generation IV reactors. t20120910_3640782.html for China. China has a shorter period It has huge advantages over other reac- [3] Douban: http://www.douban.com/ of time in developing MSRs and needs tors in inherent safety, economy, sus- note/168411688/ technical support. Th ey may benefi t tainable development with regard to [4] Tiexue BBS: http://bbs.tiexue.net/ from the DOE’s help. If they can fi nish nuclear resources and nuclear nonpro- post_6673616_1.html the project and build an experimental liferation. At present, China has been [5] Shanghai Institute of Applied reactor, they can provide scientists in moving towards the world leading level Physics, Chinese Academy of this fi eld with a lot of useful informa- in the development of MSR and gradu- Sciences: http://www.sinap. tion. Based on this 10-year cooperative ally developed many key technologies cas.cn/kxyj/kyxm/201209/ research and development agreement, with independent intellectual proper- t20120905_3639171.html the DOE and the Chinese government ty rights. In addition, China has natu- [6] Phoenix New Media: signed a small scale memorandum of ral advantages in the development of http://news.ifeng.com/a/ understanding at the end of 2011. Th e MSR. Abundant thorium resources in 20140814/41575311_0.shtml content is to cooperate on MSR technol- Inner Mongolia can guarantee that Chi- [7] Phoenix New Media: ogy. According to the new plan, China na will not be beset by problems of the http://fi nance.ifeng.com/a/ will provide a lot of money. MSR’s fuel supply. Th e development of 20150206/13486567_0.shtml In the initial phase, the two sides HTGRs with MSR would be a revolu- will not focus on copying Alvin Martin tionary change in China’s energy in- Weinberg’s famous experimental reactor dustry. China will likely become one of in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, in 1967. Wein- the world’s energy powers and achieve berg used liquid fuel: he mixed uranium greater advantages in development in and molten salt. Th is mixture was both the 21st century. reactor fuel and coolant in the reactor. Th e DOE will focus on helping China to

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 35

6 Development of the Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) in China

6.1 Basic Principles rials are involved in the nuclear reaction. the NPPs in China will not have enough of the Sodium-cooled Almost all of the rest is uranium-238. nuclear fuel in the near future. Fast Reactor In the early times of studying nuclear Fast breeder reactors can solve this reactions, researchers found that when problem. U-238 can be saved from nu- Th e sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) is participating in fi ssion, U-238 absorbs clear wastes and turned into nuclear fuel a Generation IV reactor in which liquid a small amount of the fast neutrons and so the utilization ratio of uranium ores metallic sodium is used as the sole cool- becomes U-239. But U-239 is very un- increases from 1% to more than 70%. ant, carrying heat from the core. “Fast stable and quickly decays into Pu-239. Besides, it can transmute long-lived reactor” is the short term for fast breeder Pu-239 is again a fi ssile material similar radioactive wastes produced from light reactor. It is a type of reactor in which to U-235. Based on this property, in the water reactors and minimize the amount nuclear fi ssion is mainly caused by fast late 1960s, French scientists produced of radioactive wastes [2]. Furthermore, neutrons with an average energy above the fi rst fast reactor by increasing the fast reactors, which are recognized as 0.1 MeV. Its most important character- fast neutron production. Th e U-238 in optimizing reactors in Generation IV istic is that while consuming the nuclear the fuel is continuously converted into advanced nuclear energy systems, show fuel, it can breed more fi ssile fuel than it Pu-239 by fast neutrons. Since the pro- high safety and reliability [3]. Devel- consumes. Th e more you burn, the more duction is greater than the consumption, opment and promotion of fast reactor nuclear fuel and less nuclear waste you the initial fuel is breeding continuously technology is of great signifi cance in en- will have [1]. fi ssile Pu-239 out of not fi ssile U-238. hancing the sustainable development of Currently, there are more than 400 China’s nuclear power and establishing nuclear power plants all over the world, an advanced fuel cycle system. most of which are light water reactors. Pressurized water reactors and boiling 6.2 The Significance of water reactors are two types of light wa- Developing the SFR ter reactors. Fission reactions are mainly in China 6.3 The China Experimental caused by thermal neutrons. So they are Fast Reactor (CEFR) also known as thermal reactors. U-235 Many developing countries attach great is the main nuclear fuel consumed by importance to the development of nu- Th e CEFR, located in Fangshan near thermal reactors. clear power. In Asia, China amazes the Beijing, is the fi rst fast reactor in China. Th ere are three natural uranium iso- world by its large number of nuclear Its thermal power is 65 MWth and elec- topes: U-234, U-235 and U-238. Nuclear power plant construction programs. tric power is 20 MWe. It uses a “sodium- fi ssion of U-234 will not occur. U-238 According to these plans, China will sodium-water” three circuit design. Th e is not fi ssionable by thermal neutrons. build 58 new 1000-Mega-class nuclear primary circuit is an integrative pool Only materials like U-235 can be made power units by 2020, which is equiva- type reactor structure. Th e core inlet into nuclear fuels because they can allow lent to the total number of nuclear pow- temperature is 360 ºC. Th e outlet tem- nuclear fi ssion easily. er units in France at present. But the perature is 530 ºC. Th e steam tempera- However, the nature reserve of U-235 large-scale nuclear power construction ture is 480 ºC. Th e pressure is 14 MPa. is only 0.72% of all uranium. Most of program is in contradiction of the in- Th e decay heat removal system is pas- the rest is U-238. It accounts for 99.27%. creasingly depleted uranium resources. sive, directly cooling the sodium in the To ensure the normal nuclear reaction, It is predicted that by 2030, 80% of the reactor core. light water reactors usually use U-235 world’s low-cost and easy exploitation which has an enrichment of 3-4%. Th at uranium resources will be consumed. So is to say, only 3-4% of the nuclear mate- the awkward situation may appear that

36 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

6.3.1 Outstanding Features Th e CEFR is the fi rst step of the fast reactor development in China. It’s one of the few high power experimental fast reactors with power generation function in the world. Its main system settings and parameter selections are the same as other large fast reactors in the world. Th e CEFR has advantages in inherent safety and uses a variety of passive safety technologies. It uses an advanced pool Fig. 9 – The China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR) of the China Institute of type reactor structure. In this structure, Atomic Energy (CIAE) in Fangshan near Beijing [1] even if the circulation pumps fail or if a sodium loss caused by pipeline rupture fundamental aspects. By 1987, China and medium scale sodium purifi cation or blockage of sodium infl ux occurs, the had built 12 sets of test devices and so- equipment. Practical sodium purifi ca- core is still in a large pool of sodium. Th e dium loop devices, including a fast zero- tion technology was successfully devel- large amount of sodium in the pool has power device. It reached criticality at the oped and a high temperature sodium enough heat capacity to absorb the de- end of June, 1970. boiling test loop was established, pro- cay heat and has the ability of natural In 1987, the fast reactor technology viding the analytical basis for the safety convection. It can prevent a loss of cool- was listed as one topic of the 863 Pro- design of the fuel elements. Th e scien- ant accident (LOCA). In this respect the gram (National High-tech Research and tists also successfully developed fast re- pool type reactor structure is superior in Development Program). Th is accelerat- actor fuel cladding and core structure safety to the loop type reactor structure. ed the fast reactor research. At that time, materials, making overall technology Its safety meets the requirements of a elite fast reactor researchers throughout preparations to provide the CEFR with Generation IV nuclear system. the country converged on the Ministry homemade materials. of Nuclear Industry and the government allocated special funds to establish a 6.3.2 History of Development special fast reactor research laboratory. 6.3.3 Process of Construction China’s fast reactor research began in In 1992, it was offi cially named Fast Re- Th e CEFR has 15 sub-items and 219 sys- 1965 and embodied painstaking eff orts actor Research Center and started basic tems. At the end of 1995, this project was from generations of people. It went research for application aiming at a 65 approved by the relevant department. In through a fundamental study stage MWth CEFR. 1997, the preliminary design of the re- (1965–1987) and an applied basic re- It successfully carried out research actor was completed. On May 30, 2000, search stage (1987–1993). Now it is in work on 9 topics and 60 sub-topics, the fi rst pot of concrete was poured. On the experimental design validation stage acquiring a large number of scientifi c July 18, 2000, Chinese President Jiang (since 1995). In the late 1960s, Premier achievements. Around fi ft y calculation Zemin and Russian President Vladimir Zhou Enlai personally approved 50 kg of programs were developed and designed Putin attended the signing ceremony enriched uranium for a fast reactor zero in the fi elds of physics, thermo hydrau- of “Chinese and Russian governments power construction. At that time the re- lics, fuels, mechanics and safety, basi- for the construction and operation of search was focused on fast reactor neu- cally meeting the needs of soft ware in an experimental fast neutron reactor in tronics, engineering thermodynamics, a fast reactor design. It had built multi- China cooperation agreement”, push- sodium processes, materials and other functional purifi cation sodium test beds ing the fast reactor technology cooper-

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 37

Fig. 10 – On August 15, 2002, the CEFR nuclear main building was officially capped [1] ation between the two countries to the Reactor – Fusion Reactor”. Th is break- dicates that China has fully mastered new height of national level. In August, through also marks China’s entry into the core technology of fast reactor de- 2002, the nuclear island main building the international advanced level in the sign, construction, commissioning and was capped. Generation IV nuclear power technol- operation. Th e realization of 72 hours On August 11, 2005, the fi rst large ogy research and development. full power operation laid a solid foun- parts were hauled into the reactor hall At 17:00 on December 15, 2014, the dation for the subsequent development for installation [4]. CEFR reached 100% power for the of fast reactor technology, industrializa- At 9:50 on July 21, 2010, China’s fi rst fi rst time. At 17:00 on December 18, it tion application and nuclear fuel cycle fast reactor which was developed and achieved stable operation at full power technology. Subsequent performance researched independently by CIAE for 72 hours. Main technological param- verifi cation tests will be done in order reached criticality for the fi rst time. eters and safety performance indicators to realize industrialization as soon as Th is is a major independent innova- met the design requirements. Th is in- possible. tion achievement in the fi eld of nuclear power in China, meaning that China achieved a great breakthrough in the technology development of Generation IV advanced nuclear energy systems. Th us, China has become one of the few countries mastering fast reactor technology. At 10:00 on July 21, 2011, the CEFR was connected to the grid successfully for the fi rst time.

In November, 2012, the CEFR project passed expert acceptance of the Science and Technology Organization. Experts believe that the completion of the CEFR marks a signifi cant breakthrough in the key second step of the nuclear energy three-step development strategy: “Pres- surized Water Reactor (PWR) – Fast Fig. 11 – The on-site situation of the CEFR at full power operation [3]

38 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Up to 10:00 on December 19, 2014, SFR will make signifi cant contributions well as incinerate and transmute high the CEFR had been in grid-connected to China’s sustainable nuclear energy level wastes (HLW) will follow a three- operation for 438 hours. Th e electric en- development and national energy sup- step development strategy and will see ergy production was more than 3 mil- ply security. rapid development, realizing the sus- lion kWh. Th e on-grid energy was over tainable development of China’s nucle- 1.8 million kWh. Materials and fuel ir- ar power. Currently, the design of a 600 radiation test experiments were also MWe demonstration fast reactor has al- carried out at the same time. Follow-up 6.4 Conclusion ready begun. It will draw the experience tests such as full power scram tests, reac- from the CEFR safety design and lay tor core natural circulation tests, argon Th e fast reactor is the front running re- the foundations for the development of gas leakage rate tests and other concom- actor type in the world’s Generation IV high-power SFR’s, further development itant tests were fi nished in the fi rst half advanced nuclear energy systems. Tech- of passive safety systems and ensuring of 2015. nically, a fast reactor is much more dif- China’s full realization of Generation IV fi cult to build than a light water reactor nuclear system requirements for high- (LWR). But it has unique advantages. power fast reactors [7]. 6.3.4 Development Planning Th erefore, France and the EU, Japan, Fast reactors occupy a very important Russia, India and other countries are ac- position in China’s nuclear energy stra- tively developing fast reactors [5]. China tegic layout. According to the plan, the is the eighth country in the world which fast reactor development in China is di- has completed the construction of a References vided into three steps: fast reactor following the USA, Russia, [1] Sina blog: CEFR Project: France, Britain, Japan, India and Ger- http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/ (1) Th e CEFR is the fi rst step of devel- many [6]. blog_5a53af350100d7oy.html opment. Its main purpose is to ac- Although China is behind some de- [2] Baidu baike: CEFR: cumulate design, construction and veloped countries in the development of http://baike.baidu.com/ operation experience and to test and fast reactors, it makes improvements on [3] Guancha Syndicate: China’s First irradiate fuels, materials and equip- the basis of learning from foreign tech- SFR Achieved Full Power ment. nologies. Both management and safe- Operation for 72 Hours: (2) Th e second step is to design, con- ty have improved. Aft er more than 20 http://www.guancha.cn/Sci- struct and operate a Chinese 600 years of experimental fast reactor re- ence/2014_12_19_303835.shtml MWe prototype or demonstration search and development, the Chinese [4] Baidu baike: CEFR Project: fast reactor. Th is goal has been in- scientists have mastered the fast reactor http://baike.baidu.com/ cluded in the 2006–2020 Medium technology and made a large number of [5] Baidu baike: Fast Neutron and Long Term Science and Tech- independent innovation achievements Reactor: http://baike.baidu.com/ nology Plan. Design preparation has and patents and achieved independent [6] China Energy News: Accelerate begun. Th e reactor named CFR600 research, independent design, indepen- the Construction of Nuclear will be put into operation in 2020. dent construction, autonomous opera- Fuel Cycle System in China: (3) Th e third step is to build 1000-1500 tion and self-management. Th ey have http://paper.people.com.cn/zgnyb/ MWe high breeding commercial fast formed complete research and develop- html/2011-03/14/content_767971. reactor nuclear power plants. Th e ment capabilities as well as cultivated a htm expected completion is in 2025 and batch of excellent technical personnel. [7] Xu Mi, Safety of Sodium-cooled mass construction and promotion Fast Reactors. Chinese Journal of will be from 2030 to 2035. Due to the requirements of China’s Nature Vol. 35, No.2. economic development and reduction In this way, only 250 000 to 300 000 of greenhouse gas emission, a variety of tons of natural uranium are needed to clean energies will make contributions support the joint development of PWRs adjusted to local conditions. Nuclear and fast reactors. Th e grand national power as a type of clean energy will be goal of 240 GWe or more nuclear pow- developed in a large scale. SFRs which er capacity by 2050 can be achieved. Th e can use nuclear resources eff ectively as

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 39

7 Development of the High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR) in China

7.1 Introduction of the HTGR

Recent developments in High Tempera- ture Gas-cooled Reactors (HTGRs) attracted widespread attention. China, Japan, South Africa, USA, Russia and France are all actively initiating the development work of HTGRs. Some developing countries expressed great interest in this type of reactor [1]. Th e HTGR is one of the six Genera- tion IV reactors put forward by the Gen- eration IV International Forum (GIF) in 2002. Th is type of reactor has a high outlet temperature. It uses Helium as coolant and graphite as moderator. Peb- ble fuel and a ceramic reactor core are adopted. At the center of each poppy seed-size fuel particle is a uranium ker- nel. Layers of carbon and silicon carbide contain the radioactive material [2]. Fig. 12 shows the overall structure of the HTR-10 MW Test Module constructed by the Institute of Nuclear and New En- ergy Technology at Tsinghua University. Fig. 14 shows the pebble fuel element structure of HTGR. Th e most important feature of modular high temperature gas cooled reactors is that under any accident conditions, including a large loss of coolant accident (LLOCA), the reactor can be kept Fig. 12 – Th e 10 MWt High Temperature Gas-cooled Rector (HTGR) [7] in a safe state without any human or machine intervention. 2. Short construction period: the HTGR 3. Simple system: Th e HTGR has passive Th e modular HTGR also has other ad- adopts a modular construction ap- safety features which greatly simplify vantages such as: proach. Th e construction period can the system. Engineering safety facili- be reduced to two years. Compared to ties like emergency core cooling sys- 1. High generating effi ciency: Its effi - PWR power plants which have 5 to 6 tem and full grade containment don’t ciency is 25% higher than PWR nu- years of construction, the interest pay- need to be installed, which can reduce clear power plants because of the high ment during construction is reduced the construction investment. outlet temperature. and the construction investment can be reduced by 20%.

40 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

7.2 The Development History of China’s HTR and its Current Situation

Th e HTGR research and development work in China started in the 1970s. By implementing the National High-Tech- nology Project (863), the Tsinghua Uni- versity designed and built a HTR-10 MW Test Module under the support of the China National Nuclear Corpora- tion (CNNC). It realized the fi rst power generation on January 7, 2003 [3]. In 2006, the Tsinghua University in Beijing, the China Nuclear Engineering Group Corporation (CNEC) and the China Huaneng Group co-fi nanced the Fig. 13 – Th e construction of the Shidao Bay HTGR conventional island was construction of the HTR demonstration fi nished on June 27, 2015 (photo credit: Shidao Bay NPP) project, aft er which a complete industrial chain will be formed. In this system, Th e High Temperature Reactor-Peb- Bay Nuclear Power Project completed the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy ble-bed Modules (HTR-PM) under the pouring task of the reactor building Technology, Tsinghua University is the construction has two reactors (2x100 walls for the fi rst modular High Tem- liability subject in charge of technology MWe) and one turbine. On December perature Gas-cooled Demonstration R&D and providing design and techni- 9, 2012, the construction of the Shan- Reactor in the world [5]. Th e reactor cal support; CNEC is the major special dong Rongcheng Shidao Bay HTR dem- building walls were poured to 41.30 me- project implementation body, responsi- onstration project started. Up to April ters, marking the HTGR project meet- ble for designing, purchasing and con- 20, 2015, civil construction of the base- ing the requirement of heavy equipment structing the demonstration project of ments came to an end and turned to the lift ing. On June 27, by capping of the the nuclear island and its auxiliary sys- intensive equipment installation stage. Shidao Bay HTGR conventional island tems; Huaneng Shandong Shidao Bay Th e key point for construction was shift - was fi nished [6]. Th is is another major Nuclear Power Co., Ltd. takes charge of ed from civil construction to installa- step aft er the end of the pouring task. the investment operations of the dem- tion construction. On June 24, aft er two Th e project will be completed and put onstration project [4]. months of arduous struggle, the Shidao into operation at the end of 2017.

7.3 Future Expectations of HTGRs in China Th e HTGR industrialization has shift ed from research toward commercial applications. CNEC announced that the feasibility study report of the 600 MWe commercial high temperature reactor project (6x100 MWe) in Ruijin, Jiangxi Province, has passed the experts audit- ing and promises to be the fi rst commercial Generation IV nuclear power plant in the world. At present, China has mastered all the technology of HTGR systematically and takes the lead in the world. Th e home manufacture can be re- Fig. 14 – Th e pebble fuel element of the HTGR [7] alized for 95% of the equipment.

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As next step, CNEC and Jiangxi Prov- industry. Th e related business coopera- grid with full power. Long-term opera- ince will combine together and submit tions are under way. tion and safety tests verifi ed the intrinsic the project proposals to the National At present, CNEC starts working on safety of the HTGR and proved its tech- Development and Reform Commis- the HTGR preliminary work in Jiangxi, nical feasibility. Th e success of the HTR- sion (NDRC), applying to list the proj- Hunan, Guangdong, Fujian, Shandong, 10 MW Test Module construction and ect into the National Nuclear Long and Hubei and Zhejiang Province succes- operation marks that China has made Medium Term Development Planning. sively. Meanwhile, CNEC signed the a breakthrough in the R&D of HTGRs. Aft er receiving the permit, the feasibil- memorandum of understanding (MOU) China has been included among those ity study of the project will be carried on cooperation with Dubai’s Nuclear advanced countries in the development out. Land requisition, “Five-Outlet-one- Energy Committee and provides King of HTGR technology. Dish”1 and the construction of the aux- Abdulaziz City for Science and Technol- In early 2006, the large pressurized iliary facilities will be carried out at the ogy (KACST) with the design scheme of water reactors and HTGRs were includ- same time. Aft er getting the approval a HTGR for seawater desalination. Th ey ed in the 16 major scientifi c and tech- from the NDRC and obtaining building have also reached a consensus on sign- nological projects by “China’s national permits from the National Nuclear Safe- ing the memorandum of understand- policy for medium and long-term sci- ty Administration (NNSA), the com- ing on cooperation with Saudi Energy entifi c development” in which they are mencement of work for the two units City. On April 21, 2015, they signed the striving to make breakthroughs in 15 in the fi rst-stage project is planned in MOU with the South African Nuclear years. Actualizing the major scientif- 2017 and they will be connected to the Energy Corporation (NECSA). CNEC is ic and technological project of HTGRs grid around 2021. jointly with other organizations respon- marks that the HTGR technology, in sible to provide nuclear fuels, spent fuel which China has self-owned intellectu- reclamation, nuclear power plant opera- al property, takes a crucial step towards tion, technical support, personnel train- industrialization. 7.4 HTGR Cooperation ing and other integration services to the between China and international market. Other Countries References By the way of multi-module combina- [1] Wu Zongxin, February 2000. tion, the installed capacity of the HTGR 7.5 Conclusion Development of China’s High nuclear power plants can be 200 MWe Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor. (2x100 MWe), 400 MWe, 600 MWe, Generation IV nuclear power systems Nuclear Power Engineering. 800 MWe and 1000 MWe. Th ese power are advanced systems which stand for [2] http://baike.baidu.com/ plants can be operated with fl exibility a major revolution in economy, safety, [3] http://military.china.com/news/ to suit the market and meet the need of waste treatment and nuclear nonpro- 568/20150421/19562626.html diff erent power grids. It is suitable for liferation. Th e HTGR is considered to [4] http://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/ being constructed close to load centers be the most possibly actualized and the http_www.kjrb.com/kjrb/html/ as well as in countries and regions with most promising advanced reactor type 2014-11/01/content_282325. small or middle power grids. in the near future by the international htm?div=-1 Many countries in Southeast Asia, nuclear community [7]. [5] http://www.cet.com.cn/nypd/ the Middle East and Europe, includ- Under the support of the National hn/1576726.shtml ing some potential users in China, ex- High-Technology Project, the Institute [6] http://paper.people.com.cn/zg- press a keen interest in the application of Nuclear and New Energy Technolo- nyb/html/2015-07/06/con- of HTGRs in nuclear electric power gen- gy, Tsinghua University, built the HTR- tent_1585012.htm eration, sea water desalination, petro- 10 MW Test Module successfully, and [7] Fu Xiaoming, Wangjie, October chemical industry and coal chemical achieved joining the national power 2006. Summary of HTGR Devel- opment in China. Modern Elec- tric Power 1 Five-Outlet-one-Dish: In order to construct effi ciently and orderly, some on-site fi rst-phase preparations have to be made, such as electrifying, communication, road access, water access, gas access and land smoothing.

42 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

8 Development of Small Modular Reactors (SMR) in China

8.1 Introduction of Small According to IAEA’s latest statistics, refrigeration and providing industrial Modular Reactors currently there are 132 small and me- heat. Th ey will be the ideal source for dium-sized reactors in the world in op- Combined Cooling Heating and Power Nowadays the development of clean eration, of which 106 are medium sized (CCHP) which is already the industry energy has become the theme of the reactors and 26 are SMRs [2]. Th ere are consensus. Moreover, SMRs provid- times. Besides large-scale nuclear pow- also 13 SMRs under construction. 28 ing power for icebreakers, ships and er plants being deployed at large scales countries have small or medium-sized rockets are also one of the focuses in in many countries, the development reactors. Th e total capacity of all these the industry. Furthermore, research and utilization of small modular reac- small and medium-sized reactors is 57 and development of nuclear energy for tors (SMRs) is becoming an important GWe. Th e cumulative operating experi- space technology is going on. To realize scenery in the international markets ence is 5082 reactor-years. manned Mars exploration in 2017, nu- [1]. Small nuclear reactors are defi ned clear power must be used, relevant ex- by the International Atomic Energy perts in the fi eld of nuclear energy have Agency (IAEA) as reactors with elec- 8.1.1 Characteristics of SMRs pointed out [2]. tricity power less than 300 MWe. Small Aft er analyzing the developed SMRs nuclear reactors with modular design, and those under development in diff er- modular equipment system prefabrica- ent countries, IAEA evaluated the char- tion and on-site modular assembly are acteristics of this type of reactor. IAEA 8.2 The Significance called small modular reactors [2]. believes SMRs have great advantages in of Developing SMRs With the development of global nu- safety, economy, nuclear non-prolifer- in China clear power, more and more countries ation and no need of on-site refueling. begin to pay close attention to the appli- Th e biggest market advantage of SMRs Th e majority of China’s inland areas and cation of SMRs. IAEA said they would is their fl exibility. Capacity can be added remote areas are aff ected by constraints encourage the development and use of in small steps according to the users’ rein location, geology, climate, cooling safe, reliable and economically viable quirements. Th ey can be built in regions water, transportation, grid capacity and SMRs. In fact, SMRs received inter- or countries with small grid systems that fi nancing capacity. Th erefore, the appli- national attention and centralizing re- cannot support large-scale nuclear pow- cation of large nuclear power equipment search in the early years of this century. er plants. Furthermore, compared to is greatly constrained while SMRs could But in the 1950s and 1960s already, the large reactors, the emergency planning satisfy the power demand of these ar- use of small and medium-sized reactors zone of an SMR is greatly reduced. Sites eas. Furthermore, China’s urban heat- had begun. In the meantime, in addi- close to cities and close to users become ing energy demand is the highest in the tion to the early experimental reactors possible[3]. world. Th e development of nuclear en- and standard nuclear power plants, hun- ergy heating and replacing coal power dreds of SMRs for ship propulsion were plants with SMRs is an eff ective way to also built. We can say that the develop- 8.1.2 Application of SMRs solve the problem of air pollution and ment and construction of SMRs have In addition to generating electricity, carbon dioxide emissions. Meanwhile, accumulated a lot of experience in en- SMRs have a number of interesting China is also a country with serious gineering and technology. features. Th ey can be comprehensively shortage of water resources. Using SMRs utilized in heating, water desalination, for desalination is a practical solution.

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8.3 Introduction of China’s Advanced 100 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor (ACP100)

Th e ACP100 is a small reactor type launched by the China National Nucle- ar Corporation (CNNC). It is a modular pressurized water reactor suitable for distributed generation [4]. Th e ACP100 is substantially retrenched by CNNC from the three-loop design originally launched by Areva in France. Th e reactor consists of 57 fuel rods which are 2.15 meters long. Th e module also includes a 287 °C steam generator and a complete steam supply system. Th e thermal design power is 310 MWth and the electric power is 100 MWe. Th e design life is 60 years and the refueling cycle lasts for 24 months [5]. Fig. 15 – Model of China’s In addition to be used as a conven- advanced Small tional nuclear power plant, the ACP100 Modular Reactor can also be placed on ships as a fl oat- ACP100 [5] ing power station. It can provide rapid power supply for off shore platforms and CNNC’s main market is in China ACP100 are planned to be construct- overseas harbor activities of enterprises. and the company has signed a developed in Putian, Fujian Province. Th e con- Th e process is quite easy. Just put the ment agreement with Fujian, Zhejiang, struction period will be 36 to 40 months. fl oating power plant into electrical con- Jiangxi, Hunan, Heilongjiang and Jilin Th e Putian reactors will take multiple nection. In case of emergency or wars, it Provinces. Th e ACP100 design was fi - tasks such as power generation, desali- can be quickly removed. nalized by the end of 2013. Th e fi rst two nation, community heating etc.

Fig. 16 – Model of the ACP100 Floating Boat Power Plant [3]

44 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

8.3.1 Safety Compared with large NPP reactors, the ACP100 has higher operational fl exibility and safety. Th e emergency planning zone of an ACP100 is greatly reduced. Th e required evacuation radius is only 300 meters and the radius of the power plant is also 300 meters. Th e area involved in the emergency plan can be greatly simplifi ed, making it possible to build this reactor close to cities and users. It uses the same passive core cooling system as the ACP1000 and the Hua- long-One-Reactor. It can operate safely for 14 days without outside interfer- ence under the worst multiple external small probability accident. Th is can buy enough time for emergency response. It is a highly advanced technology in the fi eld of worldwide nuclear energy. On the plant construction level, the SMR adopts the way of basement set- Fig. 17 – Th e structure of ACP100 (graph provided by the Institute of Nuclear tings. All parts are built underground, Energy Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing) which of course is diff erent from the large traditional NPPs. Th e natural barrier of the surrounding rock is rein- opment “Twelft h Five Year Plan” (from is trying to be completed. Th e expected forced by concrete around the facility. 2011 to 2015) and in the Energy Sci- aim will be reached at the end of the- Th e rock also becomes an infi nite con- ence and Technology “Twelft h Five Year “Fourteenth Five Year Plan” (from 2021 tainment structure. Plan”. Th is project did not stay on pa- to 2025) [6]. On April 16, 2015, an agreement on per only. Th e support of the country is In July, 2013, the County of Ningdu, the ACP100 was signed by the IAEA. refl ected in a multi-sector action. Th e in Jiangxi Province signed a formal Th e ACP100 reactor safety review by National Nuclear Safety Administration contract with CNNC on a “small mul- IAEA experts started in July. Th e pro- (NNSA), the State Administration of tipurpose modular reactor (ACP100)”. gram will last for 7 months. Aft er pass- Science & Technology and Industry for Th e project construction period is 36 ing the review, the ACP100 will obtain National Defense (SASTIND) and the months with a total investment of 2.46 a certifi cation from IAEA. National Energy Board (NEB) joined billion CHF. Th is signing ceremony hands in support of China’s fi rst SMR- marked that the project is now in the ACP100 research and development by substantive phase. By the end of De- 8.3.2 Project Schedule CNNC. Th ey provided strong support cember, 2013, the preliminary design In June, 2010, the ACP100 was set up in fi nancial security, key technology re- of the ACP100 demonstration project as the major scientifi c and technologi- search, supporting research of demon- in Putian, Fujian Province was fi nished cal project of CNNC. Soon aft erwards, stration projects and other aspects. By by parties organized by China Nuclear the Nuclear Power Institute of China the end of 2012, the standardized design Power Engineering Co., Ltd. (NPIC) and the China Nuclear Power was completed. In 2014, CNNC further introduced Engineering Co., Ltd. set up a research In the seventh EXPO Central China the ACP100S. Th e aim is to research and and development team and immediately in 2012, CNNC and the Hunan Pro- develop a fl oating SMR which can oper- started independent research and design vincial Government signed a strategic ate off shore on the basis of the previous work. By the end of 2010, the top-layer cooperation agreement. It planned to se- ACP100 on land. Th e installed capacity design of the ACP100 was completed. lect six sites in the inland Hunan Prov- is also 100 MWe [7]. Th e development In 2011, the program design was com- ince. Th e total installed capacity is about speed of the ACP100 in China is aston- pleted and China’s SMR demonstration 6000 MWe. During the “Twelft h Five ishing. But behind this surprising speed project was listed in the Energy Devel- Year Plan”, the fi rst inland SMR project is not “weaken the pursuit of domestic

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innovative technology”. On the contrary, quirements are the same as for the pro- qualifi cation tests. Its live test and seis- relying on 20 years of research on the totype. When simulating the prototype mic test results met the design require- basis of key technologies, each design structure, several parameter measurements. It marks that now the ACP100 keeps improving. ment problems also need to be consid- control rod drive line has a foundation ered at the same time. of engineering application [8]. Design of the new drive line, test 8.3.3 Challenges and Diffi culties specimens and test scheme are almost Being one of seven major ACP100 tests, simultaneous. Th e test related personnel 8.3.4 International Cooperation the cold test of the control rod drive line learned at the beginning of the project and Exchanges in ACP100 is an important test to verify the drive a lot about the test requirements, struc- In June, 2014, CNNC was invited to mechanism and other equipment. It tures of the drive line components and attend the International Small Mod- provides the experimental basis for the interfaces between the components in ular Reactor Development Forum drive line setting, design optimization order to combine the test specimens and (ISMRDF) in Washington D.C. Th ey and safety review by measuring the con- the test scheme. comprehensively and systematically in- trol rod drop data. In fact, cold tests of It is necessary to not only consider the troduced the development status, mar- the control rod drive line have been feasibility of the testing methods as well ket demands and future prospects of carried out many times by the Nuclear as the test site installation conditions, the ACP100. Th is forum was organized Power Institute of China (NPIC). But but also to try not to change the struc- by the American Nuclear Society. More because of the diff erent reactor structure of the drive line and the operating than one hundred experts and schol- ture, the test specimens of the ACP100 environment. In order to ensure that the ars in the United States, Russia, Britain, are quite diff erent from other NPPs. design is practicable, every measure- France, Canada, Japan, Korea, Indone- Th erefore, the design, manufacture and ment scheme is formulated aft er his- sia. Vietnam and other countries at- installation of the test specimens have torical data research, group discussion, tended the meeting. Aft er this forum, to start again, which is a new challenge. manufacturers’ consultation, communi- the ACP100 formally entered the inter- One of the challenges is that the test cation and assessment with task parties, national SMR family and will be writ- specimens are the longest ever used in fi eld investigation and many other links. ten into the SMR family tree by IAEA. previous similar tests. Due to the SMRs Th e cold test of the control rod drive integrated design, the drive rod alone line was required to be completed in Internationally, China’s SMR, es- is already 8 meters long. Th e entire test June 2013. Otherwise it would have af- pecially the ACP100, is regarded as a specimen is up to 14 meters. Th e sec- fected the progress of the follow-up test. potential partner and competitor by nu- ond challenge is the complex structure In order to guarantee the test schedule, clear powers such as France, Russia, and of the test specimen. One set of drive the staff s of the task team all went out the USA. Canada and many countries lines in the reactor used for the test con- to do experiments. Ultimately, aft er in the Middle East are very optimistic tains fuel assemblies, guide assemblies, months of remarkable eff orts, they fi n- about the economy and maturity of the drive mechanism control rod assemblies ished all test contents on schedule. ACP100. Th ey have already off ered an and other drive line components. Th e On July 25, 2014, the ACP100 control olive branch to CNNC [9]. machining precision and installation re- rod drive line successfully completed

46 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

8.4 Conclusion References [1] CLP Exhibition Website: CNNC Currently, the development boom of Promotes ACP100 Independent SMRs set off once again in the global Research Work: nuclear industry. Th e development of http://www.365zhanlan.com/ SMRs has also been focused by many [2] Polaris Power Grid: SMR Open a countries and large nuclear industries New Era of Nuclear Energy: as a new type of commercial interest. In http://news.bjx.com.cn/ March 2010, Steven Chu, the minister of html/20130410/427741.shtml the United States Department of Energy [3] China.com: China Launched recommended the SMRs and said it was Floating ACP100 SMR Directed one of the most promising fi elds in the at Marine Development: future of nuclear power. http://military.china.com/news/ At present the world’s leading nuclear 568/20140619/18573534.html powers and engineering enterprises are [4] Wikipedia: ACP100: https:// all researching and developing SMRs. zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACP100 International enthusiasm for SMR re- [5] Super Camp Military Forum: search and development also let people ACP100 Compact Reactor:http:// see that the diff erential development lt.cjdby.net/thread-1743542-1-1. strategy made by CNNC, which is a html roadmap of developing large-scale re- [6] Polaris Power Grid: SMR Projects actors and accelerating the development Are Favored Gradually: of ACP100 at the same time, is correct. http://news.bjx.com.cn/ Meanwhile, the safety design con- html/20130704/443672.shtml cepts and technology proposed by the [7] Polaris Power Grid: Chinese SMR ACP100 is in line with the internation- Accelerate to Go Overseas: al development trends. China’s ACP100 http://news.bjx.com.cn/ is partly transformed from the military html/20140416/503954.shtml application (such as nuclear submarines [8] SOHO: ZHEFU Holding Group etc.) by NPIC. Th e development of mili- Co.,Ltd ACP100 SMR Con- tary nuclear technology in China is very trol Rod Drive Line Quali- mature. Th e technology gap between fi cation Tests Have Been China and the international level in Completed: http://business.sohu. SMRs is not large. But to achieve better com/20140813/n403411458.shtml commercial prospects and safety per- [9] State Administration of Science, formance, they also need to explore the Technology and Industry for technology further. National Defense, PRC: China’s ACP100 Offi cially Enters the International SMR Community: http://www.sastind.gov.cn/

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9 Introduction of Fusion Development and the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Project in China

9.1 Basic Principles Taking into account the conditions found to prevent the escape of the plas- of Nuclear Fusion of deuterium and tritium fusion reac- ma. A magnetic fi eld with closed fi eld tions, if we want a deuterium and tri- lines is the most likely choice. Research Th e fi ssion energy released from heavy tium gas mixture to produce a large on plasma motion behavior and escape nuclei under neutron bombardment number of nuclear fusions, the gas tem- prevention in the diff erent designs of is the source of conventional nucle- perature must be above 100 million de- the “magnetic cage” becomes a second ar power plants [1]. Th e energy emit- grees centigrade. At such temperatures, diffi culty for controlled thermonuclear ted by fusion reaction of two hydrogen the negatively charged electrons and the fusion. If we want fusion reactions to nuclei is the energy source of the stars. positively charged nuclei are completely continue, the plasma with hundreds of Mankind has been able to control and disengaged. Th eir movement is indepen- millions of degrees centigrade must be use nuclear fi ssion energy. But because dent. Th is high temperature gas is called maintained for a long time. Improving it is diffi cult to overcome the Coulomb plasma, consisting of charged particles the ability of the magnetic cage to con- barrier and get two positively charged that are completely free. Th erefore, the fi ne plasma over long time is the third light nuclei close to each other to have fi rst problem to be solved to realize con- major diffi culty to achieve the feasibility fusion reactions, control and utiliza- trolled thermonuclear fusion is to heat of magnetic confi nement fusion. tion of nuclear fusion require a long the gas to millions, tens of millions and Since the late 1940s, many countries and diffi cult research and development hundreds of millions of degrees cen- have developed diff erent types of mag- process. Among all possible nuclear fu- tigrade. However, such a plasma can- netic cages. But since the 1970s, the sion reactions, nuclear fusion of hydro- not be constrained by containers made “tokamak” approach invented by Sovi- gen isotopes – deuterium and tritium from any material. Th erefore, the hot et scientists showed unique advantages – seems to be the most promising way plasma has to be kept away from the re- and became the mainstream of fu- to implement. actor walls. In addition, ways must be sion energy research in the 1980s (the other type of fusion reactor in an advanced state is the stellarator developed in Greifs wald, Germany). Th e tokamak device is a magnetic cage composed of closed annular magnetic fi elds. By putting diff erent sizes of tokamaks into operation and doing experiments in dif- ferent countries, the tokamaks showed a bright prospect: Th e plasma reached several million degrees centigrade and plasma confi nement also had a good performance. Scientists realized that by expanding the scale of such devices it is possible to get plasmas with conditions Fig. 18 – Fusion reaction using deuterium and tritium (source: Baidu wenku) close to fusion.

48 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

9.2 The Advantages of Nuclear Fusion

Th e deuterium–tritium fusion reaction can release an enormous amount of energy. Deuterium is abundant in sea water. Extracted from one liter of water , it can release the same amount of energy as 300 liters of gasoline combustion. Tri- tium can be generated from lithium in Fig. 19 – Th e structure of ITER [1] the reactor and lithium, too, is abundant in the crust of the earth and in seawater. Th e product of the deuterium–tritium reaching international research coop- cooperation, which show that the gov- reaction – helium gas – is not radioac- eration projects. It takes about 10 years ernments and technology communities tive. Th e neutron activation of the re- and 15 000 million euros to build. Th e attach great importance to the plan. actor structure materials only produces ITER device is a superconducting toka- Th e results of implementing the ITER a small amount of short-lived radioac- mak which can produce large scale nu- project will determine whether we could tive substances that are relatively easy to clear fusion, commonly known as the use fusion energy quickly and massive- handle. Fusion reactors don’t produce “artifi cial sun”. Th e seven members un- ly, which may aff ect the course of solv- noxious gases or greenhouse gases. Tak- dertaking the ITER project together are ing the energy problem fundamentally. ing into account the inherent safety of China, the European Union (includ- Nowadays energy, environment and re- fusion reactors, it can be said that fusion ing Switzerland by a treaty of coopera- source prospects are of high concern in energy is pollution-free, without long- tion), India, Japan, Russia, South Korea the world. Th e participating countries lived radioactive nuclear waste and with and the USA. Th e seven parties include insisted on consultations and coop- infi nite resources. Achievement of large the world’s leading nuclear powers and eration spirit and set aside many con- scale controlled thermonuclear fusion major Asian countries, covering nearly tradictions and confl icts of interests. will solve the energy problems of human half of the world’s population. For the Finally an agreement that was accept- society fundamentally. construction of ITER, aft er specialized able to all the parties was reached. Th e negotiations, the parties formed an in- seven members began to work together dependent international organization. to build the world’s fi rst large fusion ex- Th e heads of governments have tak- perimental reactor. 9.3 Introduction of ITER en diff erent ways to make offi cial state- Th e ITER project was initiated in ments to participate in the ITER project 1985. Th e research and design work of Th e International Th ermonuclear Ex- during the past few years. Th ese are the experimental reactor started in 1988. perimental Reactor (ITER) project is unprecedented in the history of in- Aft er 13 years of eff ort, the design of the one of the world’s largest and most far- ternational science and technology ITER project was completed in 2001 on

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 49

the basis of integrating the main techni- was founded for the purpose of the 9.5.2 Organizational Structure cal achievements worldwide. Aft er fi ve peaceful utilization of the fusion en- CNDA consists of fi ve divisions. Th e Di- years of negotiations, the seven parties ergy, primarily based on the tokamak vision of Administration is responsible in the ITER project signed the joint im- approach. Meanwhile, the Department for handing administrative aff airs and plementation agreement in 2006 and of Modern Physics of the University of management [4]. Th e Project Engineer- launched the ITER project. It will last Science and Technology of China in He- ing Division and Project Management for 35 years: 10 years for construction, fei established the discipline of plasma Division are responsible for negotiat- 20 years for operation and exploitation, physics, and successfully built a toka- ing, reviewing and signing agreements, fi ve years for deactivation. Th e world’s mak with smaller size – the KT-5B – as organizing and coordinating the imple- largest experimental tokamak nuclear well as conducting related experiments. mentation of the in-kind procurement fusion reactor is currently being built in Th e facility had been redeveloped into packages, and supervising domestic Cadarache, in southern France. KT-5C aft erwards. manufacturing tasks. Th e Internation- Since 1984, the key to magnetic con- al Cooperation Division is responsible fi ned fusion research has become the to- for international cooperation aff airs. kamak experiment. In 1984 and 1994, Th e Division of Domestic Research and 9.4 Fusion Related Activities the HL-1 Tokamak and the HL-1M To- Development is responsible for study- in China Before Joining kamak were developed respectively. ing and analyzing the nuclear fusion en- ITER Much progress and important contribu- ergy research development status and tions to nuclear fusion and plasma phys- trends, participating in the organiza- Magnetic confi ned fusion research in ics have been made on these devices. tion and management of research and China started in the 1950s [2]. Th e In- development programs supporting the stitute of Physics, Chinese Academy of ITER project. Sciences (CAS) in Beijing, the China In- stitute of Atomic Energy in Beijing, the 9.5 ITER in China Beijing University and some other in- 9.5.3 Th e ITER China Team stitutes developed basic research in this 9.5.1 Th e China Domestic Agency China has built two science and engi- fi eld. Several important facilities had (CNDA) neering research institutions on nucle- been constructed by then. In order to implement the ITER project ar fusion: Th e Southwestern Institute of From 1964 to 1983, the magnetic aft er China entered the ITER program, Physics and the ASIPP [5]. confi ned fusion research in China ex- to strengthen the international coop- In order to train professionals, the perienced signifi cant adjustments. En- eration in the fi eld of nuclear fusion University of Science and Technology gineering achievements prevailed in research, to deliver the in-kind procure- of China, the Huazhong University of this phase. In 1965, the Southwest- ment packages assigned to China, and Science and Technology in Hubei Prov- ern Institute of Physics in Chengdu, to promote the development of nuclear ince, the Dalian University of Technol- Sichuan Province, was founded, and fusion research in China, the China Do- ogy, the Tsinghua University in Beijing soon became one of the largest insti- mestic Agency (CNDA) was established and others provide major courses of nu- tutes focusing on investigation of plas- in October 2008 by the Ministry of Sci- clear fusion and plasma physics. Some ma physics and magnetically confi ned ence and Technology (MOST) in ac- universities even have built special in- nuclear fusion in China. Various ex- cordance with the related provisions of stitutes. Th e researchers in many uni- perimental facilities for magnetical- the ITER Agreement signed on Novem- versities including Beijing University, ly controlled fusion research had been ber 21, 2006, by the minister of MOST Shanghai Jiaotong University, Zhejiang developed in CAS including a Pulse on behalf of the Chinese government, University, Sichuan University, Dong- Compress Mirror, a Stellarator (1971), which was approved by the State Com- hua University in Shanghai, University the MM-2 (super-conducting magnetic mission Offi ce for Public Sector Reform of Science and Technology Beijing and mirror, 1972) and the HL-1 Tokamak [3]. China will provide its contributions others have launched nuclear fusion re- (1984). to the ITER international Fusion Ener- search. Th is way, many young profes- In 1978, the Institute of Plasma gy Organization (ITER Organization) sionals have been trained and many Physics, Chinese Academy of Scienc- through CNDA. infl uential research achievements have es (ASIPP) in Hefei, Anhui Province, been acquired.

50 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Th ere are many institutes studying nu- 1. To participate in the decisions and Th e main form of contributions in the clear fusion, such as the China Acade- management of the ITER project construction phase is in-kind contribu- my of Engineering Physics in Mianyang, comprehensively. tion. Th e ITER member countries un- Sichuan Province, the China Institute 2. To promote the bilateral cooperation dertook the component development, of Atomic Energy, the China Nuclear and multilateral cooperation of nu- installation, test and adjustment of the Power Engineering Corporation, the clear fusion research. ITER device together. According to the Nuclear Power Institute of China, the 3. To build and perfect the implemen- adjustment of the procurement arrange- Hefei Institute of Physical Science, Chi- tation management mechanism of ment agreed by the ITER Internation- nese Academy of Sciences, the Shenyang the in-kind procurement packages al Organization and the parties by early Research Institute of Metal, Chinese assigned to China and management 2010, China is now undertaking 12 pro- Academy of Sciences, the Beijing Re- systems of the outlay, schedule, qual- curement tasks. Th ese are Magnet Sup- search Institute of Automation, Chi- ity and standard to formulate the imports, Correction Coils, Feeders, Feeder nese Academy of Sciences, the Institute plementation plan. and Correction Coil Conductors, Toroi- of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy 4. To cultivate a group of high-level sci- dal Field Coil Conductors, First Wall, of Sciences in Beijing, the Institute of entifi c research personnel and en- Shield Module, Gas Injection System Electrical Engineering, Chinese Acad- gineering technology teams with and Glow Discharge Cleaning System emy of Sciences in Beijing, the Techni- steadfast determination. (GIS&GDC), Pulsed Power Electrical cal Institute of Physics and Chemistry, 5. To promote the transformation of Network (PPEN), Alternating Current/ Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, Chinese large and medium size nu- Direct Current (AC/DC) Converters the Northwest Institute for Non-ferrous clear fusion equipment, to arrange and a Diagnostic System. Metal Research in Xi’an, Shaanxi Prov- China’s contribution to the ITER Some of the 12 procurement packag- ince and many others. project. es are processing tasks according to the 6. To digest, assimilate and master the design drawings provided by ITER. Ac- research results of the ITER project. cording to the schedule agreed by the 9.5.4 Mission and Objectives parties, China is responsible for fi n- CNDA actively organizes and partici- ishing the manufacturing tasks within pates in the ITER project related ac- 9.5.5 China’s Contribution the prescribed time and transporting tivities and management [6]. CNDA is to the ITER Project them to the designated place. For oth- responsible for safeguarding China’s in- er parts of the procurement tasks such terests as an equal partner of the ITER 9.5.5.1 Procurement as GIS&GDC, the Diagnostic System, organization and performing China’s In the construction phase, China un- the AC/DC Converters and PPEN, Chi- commitment to the program. CNDA dertakes 9% of the in-kind procure- na needs to provide the detailed design will fully participate in the management ment package manufacturing tasks [7]. and fi nish the manufacturing tasks ac- and decision making of the ITER proj- At the same time it also participates in cording to the functional parameters ect, master the knowledge transfer and the management, overall coordination provided by ITER. Some of the manu- intellectual properties produced dur- and implementation of the ITER In- facturing tasks are undertaken by ASIPP ing the ITER project implementation, ternational Organization. China also [8]. ASIPP has experience in developing unite and foster science research and en- provides fi nancial contributions, rec- superconducting tokamaks. So it is in a gineering technology talents, promote ommends and dispatches personnel to leading position in producing tokamak domestic nuclear fusion energy research work in the organization’s headquar- components such as superconducting and development, develop the indepen- ters. Th e in-kind contribution accounts conductors and the shielding cladding. dent innovative capacity in nuclear fu- for about 80% of China’s expenditures. As of May 2010, China had signed fi ve sion energy, and lay a solid foundation Th e fi nancial contribution accounts for procurement arrangements with ITER on the independent design and devel- about 20%. Th e fi nancial contribution to Organization. opment of a nuclear fusion demonstra- the ITER project is the annual operation tion reactor in the future. Th e mission and plant construction costs submitted contains: to the ITER International Organization according to the “Organization Agree- ment”.

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 51

Fig. 20 – Th e Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) in Hefei Province [8]

9.5.5.2 Th e Experimental Advanced complex systems for support and also a in the plasma parameters such as tem- Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) variety of new designs. All of this makes perature, density and discharge dura- In the 1990s, there was no precedent in it very diffi cult to realize the fully super- tion and it becomes a priority reference the world for a device that could form conducting tokamak. model for similar devices worldwide. magnetic fi elds with superconducting Chinese scientists have overcome Th e major task of the ASIPP is to do systems only. Chinese scientists submit- many diffi culties and made several observations and research on plasma ted an application and got the nation- achievements. In 2006, EAST achieved in the cavity of EAST. Scientists have al project of building the Experimental the fi rst ignition: producing plasma and to ignite, wait, measure and calculate. Advanced Superconducting Tokamak inducing fusion. In next to no time, it Besides, they also have to explore the (EAST) in 1998. Now it is located in achieved continuous running for 1000 unknown factors in the theory. On ASIPP in Hefei Province. EAST is one seconds, which was an unprecedented February 10, 2015, a major upgrade of of the world’s most advanced devices in achievement at that time. Chinese sci- EAST was completed. It now has be- exploring controlled nuclear fusion. Be- entists used the high temperature super- come one of the most advanced fusion cause of its success, China is standing in conductor current leads in EAST for the devices achieving 400-second long pulse the forefront of nuclear fusion research. fi rst time worldwide. If this technology high performance discharges. Th e rapid changes of the magnetic can be successfully applied in ITER, it fi eld will make superconductors lose can save CHF 1.54 million per year of superconductivity easily. All kinds of electricity consumption as well as re- 9.5.5.3 Th e HL-2A complex instruments need to be gath- duce CHF 23.1 million in the construc- In December 2002, the HL-2A (the fi rst ered in a small space and to work re- tion cost of the cryogenic system [9]. At divertor tokamak in China) was put into liably under extreme and complex present, EAST and other experimental operation, and some ITER-relevant re- conditions. Each subsystem needs more devices continue to make breakthroughs search was undertaken. So far, impor-

52 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

tant progress has been achieved on the Th e ITER project is the largest-scale ducting fusion reactor, China is trying HL-2A, and the operation parameter multilateral international cooperation to achieve an indispensable role in the regime has been greatly extended. Th e project in which China participated international fi eld of nuclear fusion and plasma current in HL-2A tokamak has since the reform and opening-up (1978). to become the world’s advanced mag- reached 450 kA, and the plasma du- Participating in the ITER project is help- netic confi nement fusion research base ration is up to 4200 ms. A number of ful for China to enhance the level of par- carrying out pilot and prospective stud- achievements have been made on the ticipating in international cooperation ies. physics of plasma transport, plasma in science and technology. It will also turbulence and energetic particles. Th e help to promote China’s development heating and current drive systems in the of fusion energy. Besides, it is condu- HL-2A include a 3 MW Electron Cyclo- cive for China to learning and mastering References tron Wave (ECW), a 1.5 MW Neutral the construction, management, opera- [1] Baidu baike: Th e ITER Project: Beam (NB), and a 1 MW Lower Hybrid tion and maintenance of large-scale in- http://baike.baidu.com/ Wave (LHW). High-power heating and ternational science projects. Research [2] Iterchina: Fusion related current drive experiments equipped and development capabilities in many activities in China: with all these systems improved the areas such as the superconducting tech- http://168.160.11.36:800/ plasma confi nement. nology, rare metal material technology, Activities/ In spring of 2009, ELMy H-mode (a high voltage technology etc. will be im- [3] Iterchina: Iter International: disruptive instability occurring in the proved. Last but not least, it accelerates http://168.160.11.36:800/About/ edge region of a tokamak plasma under the training of high-level researchers, International.html the highly constrained mode) discharg- engineering technicians and managers, [4] Iterchina: Organizational Struc- es were obtained in the HL-2A divertor which lays a solid talent resource foun- ture: http://168.160.11.36:800/ confi guration. It was a milestone in the dation for the development of fusion. About/Organizational.html history of magnetic confi nement fusion [5] Iterchina: Iterchina Team: experiment research in China. http://168.160.11.36:800/About/ Besides, China is investing heavi- Team.html ly in building its own reactor, the Chi- 9.7 Conclusion [6] Iterchina: Mission & Objectives: na Fusion Engineering Test Reactor http://168.160.11.36:800/About/ (CFETR). Th e superconducting toka- China’s government fully supports the Mission.html mak technology used in ITER will be ITER project [10]. In the construction [7] SINA: China’s Contribution applied on CFETR. Th e construction phase, China not only actively organizes to the ITER Project: http:// is planned to be started in 2020 and domestic relevant institutes to carry out news.sina.com.cn/o/2010-06- electricity will be produced in 2026. If manufacturing tasks of procurement 17/120120490656.shtml it comes true, China will change the packages, but also carries out interna- [8] Tencent: China is in the World course of human history in using fu- tional cooperation under the framework Leading Position in Controlled sion energy. of the “Joint Implementation Agreement Nuclear Fusion: http://news. of the ITER” and promotes the imple- qq.com/a/20120612/000301.htm mentation and management of various [9] Chinanews: China is Actively tasks together with other parties during Carrying out the Design and 9.6 The Significance of the construction phase. In recent years, Research of the Next Generation China’s Participation China’s investment on fusion energy re- Superconducting Fusion Reactor: in the ITER Project search and development showed almost http://www.chinanews.com/ exponential growth. Active policies es- gn/2013/11-07/5474716.shtml China is a large developing country un- tablish an unprecedented period of de- [10] Embassy of the People’s republic der sustained and rapid development. velopment of fusion energy. of China in Japan: Th e Second Energy issues have become increasing- In the future, China will continue to ITER Technical Cooperation ly prominent. Because fusion is able to target fusion science and national needs Meeting of China, Japan and solve the energy problem thoroughly, a for energy following the National Fu- South Korea was Held in Japan: lot of research arrangements are made sion Energy Research and Development http://www.china-embassy.or.jp/ for it. Discussions on the ITER project Strategic Plan. While actively develop- chn/gdxw/t1287569.htm are given high attention. ing the next generation of the supercon-

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 53

10 Introduction of the Low Energy Nuclear Reaction (LENR) and the Research Status in China

10.1 Basic Information and Historical Background of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR)

LENR are fusion reactions occurring at a low temperature. Th ey are affi liated to the category of condensed matter nuclear science [1]. Usually we say that LENR can happen at room temperatures or several hundred degrees centigrade only. Th e raw materials used in LENR are hydrogen and elements such as carbon, nickel, platinum, or palladium. In 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah designed a fusion experiment based on the characteristic that palladium can absorb a lot of deuterium. Th ey claimed to have discovered that a large amount of energy was produced in the experiment and then held a press conference to pub- licize the success of LENR. Th is discov- Fig. 21 – Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, University of Utah [2] ery pointed out a method to obtain large amounts of clean energy. then we could eventually generate heat 10.2 Prospect and However, because nobody (including or even electricity in a non-centralized Significance of LENR themselves) could reproduce the result way. Each family could generate heat- of their experiment, their fi ndings were ing and electricity by itself. And water 10.2.1 Social Aspects not accepted by the public. Although could be assumed as fuel. But the study Th e phenomenon revealed by LENR most people rejected their scientifi c the- of LENR requires a lot of time to do the provides a new way to explore the mi- ory, there were still some people feeling experiments to prove and understand croscopic world. Th at is to say, some nu- that this phenomenon just needed more the phenomenon. It will take decades clear reactions which before could only development. Th erefore, LENR went on or even longer to develop such a tech- be done by a large accelerator can now being developed by scientists quietly. nology and a lot of investment and new be achieved on a desktop. If the technol- If the results of Fleischmann and plants are needed, just like space engine ogy of LENR would get mature some- Pons’ experiment could be confi rmed, experiments. day, automotive power, mobile power of

54 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

electronic equipment etc. might be re- 10.3 Development Status future, several companies in the world placed by energy generated from LENR. of LENR Worldwide announced to launch mature commer- Th en we would no longer rely on coal, cial products. If true, these products will oil and other fossil fuels. Th ere will be no Since 1989, there has not been any ma- gradually enter the industrial and the pollutants or greenhouse gas emissions jor development in the LENR devel- civil fi elds. as well. Th e emission of small particu- opment until 2011. In January 2011, a late matter on micrometer scale (PM2.5 LENR device called the “Energy Cata- and PM10) will be massively reduced. lyzer” (E-CAT) was published by two LENR promise to provide us with in- Italian scientists, Andrea Rossi and Ser- 10.4 General Situation of exhaustible cheap energy solving a lot gio Focardi. According to Rossi’s intro- LENR Development of environmental problems. Large in- duction, the initial input power of his in China dustrial manufacture will eventually E-CAT was 400 W. Aft er the start of fu- be replaced by 3D printing and LENR. sion reactions, the input power was no Th e research on the LENR in China be- Mankind would go through a new in- longer needed for the self-sustaining gan aft er Fleischmann and Pons’ ex- dustrial revolution. Th is revolution reaction. Th e output power under the periment in 1989 [4]. At that time, a could lead to the development of intel- steady state was 10 kW. If Rossi’s claims lot of research institutes were engaged ligent power terminals and the Internet can be verifi ed independently, his E- in the study of LENR. Basically, all of of Th ings. CAT would be a milestone in the devel- them were trying to repeat Fleischmann But by now, all this is speculative. opment of LENR. and Pons’ experiment. A lot of results Meanwhile, the National Aeronautics were published in professional journals. and Space Administration (NASA) in Some experiments also generated excess 10.2.2 Economic Aspects the USA also announced that they had heat and radioactive materials. Later, the Th e potential economic benefi ts of developed a low energy fusion device. voices against LENR in the world be- LENR would be amazing. First, LENR In the last several years there were other came stronger and stronger. LENR was would help mankind to get rid of the companies announcing a success. Th ere suspected by some scientists as pseudo- high pollution and the dependence of were, for instance, Defk alion in Cana- science. the relatively ineffi cient fossil energy. In da and Brillouin in the USA. In the In- China gave up further support for addition, it would reduce energy costs, ternational Conference on Cold Fusion LENR and the researchers also lost saving the living expenses of the public (ICCF) held at the University of Mis- their enthusiasm. Th is made the study and the production costs of enterprises. souri in 2013, Defk alion demonstrated of LENR stagnant in China. In China’s It would impact the energy consump- their low energy fusion technology. Th e research environment, scientists are re- tion market with its revolutionary qual- equipment ran dozens of hours contin- quired to make achievements as soon ity of safety and performance. uously. Th e output energy reported was as possible. Under this pressure, exper- Second, LENR is a truly revolution- much larger than the input energy. imental studies seemed no longer pos- ary energy. It would shock the fi nan- In April 2015, the LENR Industry sible. Some scientists published some cial and stock markets and become the Association was established, which of- theoretical articles about LENR occa- focus of banks and investors. Finally, fi cially started the commercialization sionally, but these articles did not arouse LENR being the most advanced tech- process of LENR technologies. In the large attention. nology would change the allocation of Prof. Li Zhongxing in the Depart- labor force in the energy industry. In ment of Engineering Physics at Tsing- the long run, it would help to accelerate hua University and Prof. Gou Qingquan the realization of the labor and industry in Sichuan University persisted in this upgrading. LENR would not only pro- area silently and published a series of vide energy for production and life, but articles. Tian Zhongqun, an academi- also promote prosperity and the devel- cian of the Chinese Academy of Science, opment of the world economy. studied LENR at the University of Utah in the 1990s. He was also an active pro- moter of LENR. He proposed to carry out LENR studies under “the condition of non-consensus” in the fi ft h meeting Fig. 22 – Conceptual graph of the of the expert committee in the Nation- E-CAT [3] al Science Foundation of Chemistry in

GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015 55

2011. Since then, China has restarted to this excess heat accurately. Aft er a few (5) According to the measurements support LENR research at the national years they put two titanium rods in par- from the China Institute of Atom- level offi cially. allel as the cathode and a platinum sole- ic Energy (CIAE), the nuclear prod- China’s LENR activities have already noid as the anode to do the heavy water uct aft er LENR is mainly He-4. Th is been launched. Th e research and devel- electrolysis experiment. Th e excess heat indicates that the theoretical pre- opment of LENR is depending on indus- phenomenon was obvious. Th e excess dictions proposed by Prof. Gou try support. Rossi’s American partner heat power could reach the magnitude Qing quan are correct. – Industrial Heat – has already started to of 100 W. Th e repeatability of this exper- advertise the concept of LENR in China. iment was also very good. Th e calorim- According to the news published on the etry system used in this experiment was 10.5.2 offi cial government website of Baoding, a high-power open system developed by Research on the Excess Heat Hebei Province, the leaders of Indus- them, using computers to have real time Production in Hydrogen-loaded trial Heat in the USA have exchanged experimental data acquisition and pro- Metals at High Temperatures views on the domestic production of the cessing. Th is system could be used to In May 2015, Prof. Jiang Songsheng of Nickel Metal Hydride Reactor (NiMHR) measure the excess heat power from 2 the CIAE published a research report with related Chinese departments. Th is W ± 0.5 W to 150 W ± 0.5 W. Th e mea- on repeating the E-CAT experiment [6]. makes it possible to launch mass pro- surement result was reported to be ac- His report showed that excess heat was duction of the E-CAT in China. Th e curate and reliable. generated during the experiment. Fig. strategy of developing LENR in China Here are some research results of this 23 shows the schematic diagram of his will be supplying the domestic market experiment: experiment set-up: with technology, just like the way it did (1) Experiments show that TiD2 can be Th e amount of powder fuel (Ni + 10% in other industries. formed aft er a long time of heavy (in weight) LiAlH4) is 20 g fi lled in a water electrolysis and aft er deuteri- nickel cell, located in the stainless-steel um is fi lled into the titanium cath- reaction chamber. Th e existing heat- ode surface layer. Th e excess heat er is made of nichrome wire, which is 10.5 The Research Process phenomenon happens aft er the for- wound on a ceramic tube. A stabilized of LENR in China mation of TiD2. DC power supply is used. Th e heater is (2) Th e degree of the excess heat phe- surrounded by MgO thermal insulation 10.5.1 nomenon is related to the surface material, which is fi lled in an hollow cy- Th e Experimental Measurements area of the titanium cathode. lindrical aluminum jacket with inner di- of the Excess Heat and Fusion (3) Th e comparative experiments of ameter of 55 mm, outer diameter of 25 Pro ducts Generated from the light water and heavy water elec- cm and 40 cm long. Electrolysis of Heavy Water by trolysis show that electrolyzing light Th e temperature is measured by stain- the Titanium Cathode water does not have excess heat but less-steel shielded K-type thermocou- Fleischmann and Pons’ announcement electrolyzing heavy water can have ples. Th e thermocouple T1 is located on on their LENR achievements on March excess heat. the outer surface of the stainless-steel re- 23, 1989, caused strong shock and con- (4) Th e X-ray diff raction analysis of the action chamber. T2 is placed in contact troversies in the scientifi c community titanium rod with excess heat aft er with the outer surface of the nickel cell [5]. At that time, Prof. Gou Qingquan the electrolysis shows that the struc- and T3 is inserted inside the container pointed out that LENR were possible in ture of the surface layer has been in contact with the fuel powders. crystals and clarifi ed that such fusion changed from the hexagonal struc- Th e experiment was carried out from reactions were mainly exothermic. He-4 ture to the cubic structure of TiD2. May 4 to May 8, 2015, and lasted for was also emitted at the same time. Th is experiment was repeated for 96 hours. In the fi rst day, the reaction Measuring the excess heat in the ex- several times and the same result chamber was vacuumed to 10-4 mbar, periment is very important. It could be was obtained. Th e TiD2 crystal is an and then was heated up. Th e LiAlH4 was used to ascertain the existence of LENR. ionic crystal. D– is an anion and has degassed, and the upper pressure in the Chinese scientists had kept using tita- two electrons orbiting around the chamber reached 400 kPa at tempera- nium rods as cathodes to electrolyze nucleus, which enhances the shield- tures of around 150-300 degrees centi- heavy water and to study the reason of ing eff ect of the Coulomb force be- grade. Th en the pressure went down to this excess heat phenomenon for more tween deuterons. Th is is benefi cial 90 kPa in the subsequent 18 hours. In than a decade. Th ey improved their test to generate fusion reactions between the next day, when the temperature of methods continuously and measured two deuterons. the thermocouple T3 was increased to

56 GUO Wentao: Nuclear Developments in China. Swiss Nuclear Forum, Dec. 2015

Fig. 23 – Schematic diagram of the experiment set-up by Prof. Jiang Songsheng [6] about 950 degrees centigrade by increasing state of excess heat production ap- the input power might be signifi cant- ing the electric power to 900 W, the tem- peared again because T2 was back to be ly decreased if a chopper supply can be perature of thermocouple in the fuel cell higher than T1 again. During most of used to keep excess heat production. increased rapidly. the running time, T2 temperature was How to calculate the ratio of total pro- Unfortunately, T3 was damaged at kept less than 1200 degrees centigrade duced heat energy to electrical input en- this time. However, T2 was still work- by controlling the electrical power. ergy with this kind of supply remains a ing well. And T2 (the temperature near Th e excess heat production in the Ni question in present work. Th e consump- fuel cell) was also increased rapidly to + LiAlH4 fuels has been observed re- tion of the nickel container and the Ni + be higher than T1 (the temperature peatedly. Th e heat production can be LiAlH4 powder was checked to be less near the heater). When T2 tempera- controlled by the input power and can than 1 g aft er the experiment. Th e cal- ture reached a temperature over 1300 last for a longer time. Th e T2 tempera- culated energy density is four orders degrees centigrade for 10 minutes, the ture placed on the outer surface of the of magnitude greater than the value of power was turned off to protect T2 from fuel cell is about 405 degrees centigrade gasoline. Th erefore, the origin of excess damage. higher than the T1 temperature. T1 is heat cannot be explained by any chem- Th e self-sustaining heat eff ect ap- placed on the outer surface of the reac- ical reaction. Th e isotope abundances peared and lasted about 20 minutes, then tion chamber and near the heater. Th e of nickel and lithium in the fuels aft er the T2 temperature went down rapidly. estimate power of excess heat is about the experiment will be analyzed by mass When the temperature decreased to less 600 W. Th e ratio of the excess heat of spectrometry technique. A further ex- than 1000 degrees centigrade, the power 600 W to input power of 780 W is 0.77. periment will be carried out. was turned to 900 W again, and an excit- Considering the self-sustaining eff ect,

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10.5.3 Selective Resonant Tunneling 10.6 Conclusion References Th e research work on LENR in Tsing- [1] Baidu baike: Th e Cold Fusion: hua University in Beijing is based on the Th e potential signifi cance of LENR can http://baike.baidu.com/ theory of the selective resonant tunnel- be simply summarized as a cheap, clean, [2] Utah News, Sports, Weather and ing model developed by the university’s compact and portable energy source Classifi eds: Renowned ‘Cold Fu- own team [7]. According to the general with high capacity [8]. Our world would sion’ Scientist Martin Fleisch- formula of quantum mechanics, when welcome this revolutionary energy. Its mann Dead at 85: http://www.ksl. resonance happens, the cross section of invention and popularization could com/?sid=21590341 inelastic and elastic scattering should bring countless benefi ts to commercial, [3] Extremetech: Cold Fusion be increased at the same time. Th is will industrial and other economic fi elds. It Reactor Verifi ed by Th ird-party lead to the correlation between the ex- would aff ect every aspect of our society. Researchers, Seems to Have cess heat (inelastic scattering) and dif- But there is still a certain period be- 1 Million Times the Energy fusion (elastic scattering). fore the scientifi c research on LENR is Density of Gasoline: Based on this thinking, a post-doctor expected to achieve easy repeatability http://www.extremetech.com/ from the Tsinghua University Depart- and stability. Viewed from LENR sci- extreme/191754-cold-fusion- ment of Physics did an experiment us- ence, the traditional thermonuclear reactor-verifi ed-by-third-party- ing a high-precision micro calorimeter fusion reaction theory and the whole researchers-seems-to-have-1- and confi rmed that there was a relation- nuclear reaction theory limited the million-times-the-energy-density- ship between the deuterium fl ux and thinking of LENR researchers and reg- of-gasoline the excess heat in the palladium pipe ulated the majority view of the scien- [4] Th e World of LENR: Th e fi lled with gaseous deuterium. On this tifi c community. From the perspective Development Situation of LENR basis, another doctoral student found of the technology and its applications, in the World by 2014: evidence of nuclear transmutations by the huge potential commercial future of http://www.lenr.com.cn repeating 80 times the charge and dis- LENR made the researchers and sup- [5] Gou Qingquan, Zhang Qingfu, charge of a palladium sheet. Th is report porters become utilitarian. Th eir com- Sun Yue: Review on the Research was well received in the 17th ICCF in petition not only limited the freedom of Progress of Cold Fusion, Journal 2012. the scientifi c exchange, but also reduced of Atomic and Molecular Physics, In return, the confi rmation of the re- the transparency and credibility of the Vol. 25 No. 3, June 2008 lationship between the deuterium fl ux research results. [6] Th e World of LENR: Th e China and the excess heat is another support In China, the research on LENR is Institute of Atomic Energy for the selective resonant tunneling still at the beginning stage. China is still (CIAE) Successfully Repeated the model. Today, the selective resonant holding back to see whether the inter- Nickel-hydrogen Low Energy tunneling model not only gets support national LENR fi eld will have a break- Nuclear Fusion (LENR) Device- from the three-deuterium reaction ex- through [9]. China’s attitude towards E-CAT: http://www.lenr.com.cn/ periments done in the United States LENR is to wait until there is a reliable [7] Dong Zhanmin, Gong Cunkui, Naval Research Laboratory, but also message indicating that there has been Li Xingzhong. Th e 18th Interna- from the cross section data of the ther- a real breakthrough in this fi eld. LENR tional Conference on Cold Fusion monuclear fusion. It can well describe supporters regret that this also means (ICCF) Documentary, August 7, the cross section data of light nuclear that China is probably to miss the best 2013. fusions. It was also cited by the Interna- chance to develop LENR technology in [8] Th e World of LENR: 25 Benefi ts tional Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in case this phenomenon can be used com- of LENR: http://www.lenr.com.cn/ its monograph named Frontiers of Plas- mercially. [9] Th e World of LENR: Prof. Li ma Physics and Technology. Xingzhong Talks about the Domestic Status of LENR: http://www.lenr.com.cn/

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