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Introduction to Food Toxicology

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Introduction to Food Toxicology INTRODUCTION TO FOOD TOXICOLOGY Takayuki Shibamoto Department of Environmental Toxicology University of California, Davis Davis, California Leonard F. Bjeldanes Department of Nutritional Sciences University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, California FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY International Series SERIES EDITOR Steve L. Taylor University of Nebraska ADVISORY BOARD John E. Kinsella University of California, Davis Douglas Archer FDA, Washington, D.C. Jesse F. Gregory, LII University of Florida Susan K. Harlander University of Minnesota Daryl B. Lund Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey Barbara O. Schneeman University of California, Davis Robert Macrae University of Hull, United Kingdom A complete list of the books in this series appears at the end of this volume. 2 Contents Foreword Preface CHAPTER I Principles of Toxicology I. Dose—Response II. Safety III. Absorption IV. Translocation V. Storage VI. Excretion CHAPTER 2 Determination of Toxicants in Foods I. Qualitative and Quantitative Analyses of Toxicants in Foods II. Sample Preparations for Determination of Toxicants A. Sampling B. Extraction C. Cleanup D. Chromatography III. Toxicity Testing A. Preliminary Steps for Toxicity Testing B. Acute Toxicity C. Genetic Toxicity D. Metabolism E. Subchronic Toxicity F. Teratogenesis G. Chronic Toxicity CHAPTER 3 Biotransformation I. Conversion of Lipid-Soluble Substances II. Phase I Reactions Ill. Phase II Reactions IV. The Effects of Diet on Biotransformation V. Metabolic Induction 3 VI. CHAPTER 4 Natural Toxins in Animal Foodstuffs I. Toxins Occurring in Animal Liver A. Bile Acids B. Vitamin A II. Toxins Occurring in Marine Animals A. Scombroid Poisoning B. Saxitoxin C. Tetramine D. Pyropheophorbide a E. Tetrodotoxin F. Ciguatoxin CHAPTER 5 Natural Toxins in Plant Foodstuffs I. Natural Goitrogens A. Mode of Toxic Action II. Cyanogenic Glycosides A. Cyanide Toxicity Ill. Favism IV. Lathyrism V. Lecitins (Hemagglutinins) VI. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids VII. Enzyme Inhibitors A. Protease Inhibitors B. Cholinesterase Inhibitors VIII. Vasoactive Amines IX. Mutagens in Natural Plants A. Flavonoids B. Maltols C. Caffeine D. Constituents of Spices E. Phytoalexins CHAPTER 6 Fungal Toxins Occurring in Foods I. Mycotoxins A. Ergotism B. Alimentary Toxic Aleukia C. Aflatoxins II. Other Mycotoxins III. Mushroom Fungal Toxins CHAPTER 7 Toxic Food Contaminants from Industrial Wastes 4 I. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons A. Polychlorinated Biphenyls B. Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin II. Heavy Metals A. Lead B. Mercury C. Cadmium CHAPTER 8 Pesticide Residues in Foods I. History II. Pesticides in the Food Chain III. Regulations IV. Insecticides A. DDT B. Chlorinated Cyclodiene Insecticides C. Organophosphate Insecticides D. Carbamate Insecticides V. Herbicides A. Chlorophenoxy Acid Esters VI. Naturally Occurring Pesticides CHAPTER 9 Food Additives I. Regulations II. Preservatives A. Benzoic Acid B. Sorbic Acid and Potassium Sorbate C. Hydrogen Peroxide D. AF-2 [2-(2-Furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acrylamide] III. Antioxidants A. L-Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) B. dl-a-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) C. Propyl Gallate D. Butylated Hydroxyanisole and Butylated Hydroxytoluene IV. Sweeteners A. Saccharin and Sodium Saccharin B. Sodium Cyclamate V. Coloring Agents A. Amaranth (FD&C Red No. 2) B. Tartrazine (FD&C Yellow No. 4) VI. Flavoring Agents A. Methyl Anthranilate B. Safrole (3,4-Methylene Dioxallybenzene) VII. Flavor Enhancers CHAPTER 10 5 Toxicants Formed during Food Processing I. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons A. Occurrence B. Benzo[a]pyrene II. Maillard Reaction Products III. Amino Acid Pyrolysates IV. N-Nitrosamines A. Precursors B. Occurrence C. Toxicity D. Mode of Toxic Action E. GeneralConsiderations V. Food Irradiation 6 Foreword The field of toxicology is rapidly expanding in scope and relevance, and consequently formal academic programs encompassing teaching, training, research, and outreach are increasing. The toxicology program at U.C. Davis represents one of the pioneering programs that is experiencing a surge in student enrollments at both the undergraduate and the graduate levels. This development is welcome because the appropriate education at all levels is important to meet the growing demand for toxicologists. Graduates with a sound education in the principles of toxicology and industrial hygiene are increasingly needed to deal with environmental, industrial, agricultural, and food safety issues with respect to toxic and potentially toxic chemicals. Trained professionals are critical to ensure development of rational legislation implementation of practical guidelines, and human and environmental health and safety. The field of food toxicology has developed rapidly as a popular area of study in several universities and colleges. The field, which has evolved from food science, food safety, pesticide chemistry, and toxicology, represents a broad area requiring a strong scientific base in physical, chemical, mathematical, and biological sciences and an appreciation for food chemistry, natural products, analytical chemistry, pharmacokinetics, risk assessment, and some legal orientation. Because of the broad scope of toxicology it is imperative that students study the relevant disciplines and synthesize them into a coherent framework that will ensure a solid professional base. In this regard this textbook provides an excellent comprehensive treatment of the important subjects, principles, and concepts of food toxicology. Toxicology, risk assessment, pesticides, microbial toxins, food additives, and naturally occurring poisons are covered in a manner providing the undergraduate, and the lay reader, with a clearly written, well-organized, basic treatment of these topics. The study of food toxicology is a very appropriate field for undergraduate science majors. It gives graduates a solid background in sciences and it can be applied to the study of important everyday phenomena and common consumer products. This textbook will be of benefit to the field and greatly appreciated by students, formal and informal, of food toxicology. John E. Kinsella 7 Preface Food is one of the most essential materials for the survival of living organisms, following perhaps only oxygen and water in importance. People have been learning how to prepare appropriate foods since prehistoric times. However, there was probably a tremendous sacrifice of human lives before people learned to find and prepare safe foods. For thousands of years trial and error was the only method to detect the presence of poisons in certain foods. Systematic data on poisons in foods have been recorded for only approximately 200 years or so. Moreover, only a decade has passed since food toxicology was first taught in universities. This textbook is aimed at students who do not have strong backgrounds in either toxicology or food science. The format is designed primarily to teach students basic toxicology; toxicants and their fates in foods and the human body are then discussed. The number of students who are interested in toxicology has increased dramatically in the past several years. Issues related to toxic materials have received more and more attention from the public. The issues and potential problems are reported almost daily by the mass media, including television, newspapers, and magazines. Major misunderstandings and confusion raised by those reports are almost always due to lack of basic knowledge about toxicology among consumers. This textbook provides the basic principles of food toxicology in order to help the general public better understand the real problems of toxic materials in foods. Takayuki Shibamoto 8 CHAPTER I Principles of Toxicology Toxicology maybe defined as the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. Its historical origins may be traced to the time when our prehistoric ancestors attempted to eat a variety of substances in order to obtain adequate food. By observing which substances could satisfy hunger without producing illness or death, ancient people developed dietary habits which allowed for the survival and growth of the species. In its modern context, toxicology draws heavily on knowledge in chemical and biological fields and seeks a detailed understanding of toxic effects. Much of toxicology today involves studies of the effects of specific substances on specific biological and chemical mechanisms. One of the fundamental concepts of toxicology is that the dose determines the toxicity. As noted by Paracelsus (1493—1541). “All substances are poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates the poison from a remedy.” Thus, the answer to the question, “Is this substance toxic?” must always be, “Yes, if taken in a large enough dose.” Thus, two of the primary objectives of toxicology are to quantitate and to interpret the toxicity of substances. I. Dose—Response Since there are both toxic and nontoxic doses for any substance, we may also inquire about the effects of intermediate doses. In fact, the intensity of biological response is proportional to the dose of the substance to which the organism is subjected. Thus, as the dose of a substance approaches the toxic level, there is no one point at which all of the organisms in the group will suddenly develop toxic symptoms. Instead, there will be a range of doses to which individuals in the test group respond in similar ways. Once the response has been properly defined, information from dose—response experiments can be presented in several ways. A frequency—response plot (Figure 1.1)
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