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Straffen Tijdens De Tokugawa Periode Faculteit Lettern en Wijsbegeerte Vakgroep Oosterse talen en Culturen Voorzitter: Prof. Dr. E. Moerloose Straffen tijdens de Tokugawa periode door Jens Coppejans Promotoren: Prof. Dr. A. Niehaus Scriptie ingediend tot het behalen van de academische graad van Master in Oosterse Talen en Culturen optie Japanologie Academiejaar 2008--2009 Straffen tijdens de Tokugawa periode door Jens Coppejans Scriptie voorgelegd tot het behalen van de graad van , Master in Oosterse Talen en Culturen : Japanologie Academiejaar 2008--2009 Promotoren: Prof. Dr. A. Niehaus, Prof. Dr. B. Dessein Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte Universiteit Gent Vakgroep Oosterse Talen en Culturen Voorzitter: Prof. Dr. E. Moerloose Samenvatting In dit werk wordt gepoogd het strafrecht en de strafpraktijk tijdens de Tokugawa periode te plaatsen in context met deze in de rest van de wereld. Trefwoorden Tokugawa,strafrecht,strafpraktijk,foltering INHOUDSOPGAVE ii Inhoudsopgave Overzicht i Inhoudsopgave ii 1 Inleiding 1 2 Japan 4 2.1 Politieke en Institutionele geschiedenis van Japan . 4 2.2 Het Japanse Recht en de Rechtspraktijk . 13 2.2.1 Oorsprong . 13 2.2.2 Begripsdifferentiatie en Conceptualisatie . 18 2.2.3 Stand en Status . 25 2.2.4 Strafrecht en Strafpraktijk . 31 2.2.5 ``Machtsclusters'' . 39 2.3 Symboliek en Geografie in het Strafrechtelijk Schouwspel . 42 2.4 Verzachtende Maatregelen . 43 2.5 Tortuur . 45 3 Het Westen 51 3.1 Politieke en Institutionele Geschiedenis van Engeland . 52 3.2 Politieke en Institutionele Geschiedenis van de Verenigde Staten van Amerika . 57 3.3 Benefit of Clergy . 61 3.4 De Straffen en de Strafpraktijk in het Westen . 62 3.4.1 Doodstraffen . 63 3.4.2 Ander Straffen . 68 3.4.3 Tortuur . 70 4 Ideëengeschiedenis en Geschiedenis van Ideëen 75 4.1 Ideëengeschiedenis . 75 4.1.1 Het Oosten . 75 4.2 Het Westen . 79 4.2.1 Beccaria . 79 4.2.2 Bentham . 80 INHOUDSOPGAVE iii 4.2.3 Montesquieu . 81 4.2.4 Ideëen . 81 4.3 Ideëen over Geschiedenis . 81 5 Conclusie 86 Vertaling 100 Bibliografie 100 1 Hoofdstuk 1 Inleiding In dit werk zal ik trachten de menselijkheid van het strafrechtelijk beleid in het Japan van de Tokugawa periode (徳川時代 1603-1868) te onderzoeken. Menselijkheid in deze gedefinieerd als: niet wreed, zachtzinnig, humaan1. Wreedheid zie ik in deze enkel en alleen in de betekenis van lijden verhogende factoren. Omdat menselijkheid niet in absolute waarden uitgedrukt kan worden, volg ik in deze thesis een vergelijkende be- nadering; in die zin wordt getracht niet alleen het Japanse strafrechtelijke beleid te anal- yseren, maar ook een schets te geven van een deel van de strafrechtelijke geschiedenis in de westerse wereld. Hierbij lijkt het mij niet onbelangrijk om trachten is te gaan welke doelstellingen beleidsmakers betrachtten met hun strafwetgeving. In welke mate deze doelstellingen blijken uit het geschreven recht enerzijds of praktijk anderzijds zal pas na afloop blijken. Verder is het niet enkel de doelstelling die telt, het is de praktijk die, hoe goed bedoelt ook, al dan niet lijden veroorzaakt. Aan een vergelijkend onderzoek zijn verschillende problemen verbonden.2 Eerst en vooral is er de eenheid van vergelijk: strafrecht was doorheen de Tokugawa periode uiteraard geen statisch gegeven. Er bestonden grote strafrechtelijke verschillen tussen de steden en het platteland enerzijds en tussen die delen van het land die rechtstreeks door de bakufu gestuurd werden en die delen waar de lokale heren een bepaalde autonomie genoten anderzijds. Noch Japan noch Amerika noch Europa waren tijdens de Tokugawa periode uniforme gehelen met uniforme wetten. Ten tweede is er het probleem van definitie: wanneer is een straf precies strafrechtelijk? Wanneer is een daad van geweld of opsluiting een straf? Zo werden er tijdens de Toku- gawa periode speciale toelatingen uitgevaardigd om moord op een familielid te wreken, 1 Ten Boon, Ton and Geeraerts, Dirk, Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse taal, 14 edition (Van Dale Uitgevers, 2004) 2005, geconsulteerd via https://athena.ugent.be/Citrix/AccessPlatform/ site/default.aspx op 16/10/2008 2Voor een bespreking van de problemen bij vergelijkend onderzoek naar strafpraktijk zie: Miethe, Terance D. and Lu, Hon, Punishment: A Comparitive Historical Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005) p.10 2 terwijl dit in de Verenigde Staten door de overheid niet officieel werd bekrachtigd maar `afrekeningen' gebeurden. Zijn deze gevallen van `private gerechtigheid' mee te tellen als de strafpraktijk van een land of niet? Zijn de terechtgestelden tijdens burgeroor- logen; na opstanden, of tijdens golven van religieuze vervolgingen het slachtoffer van de rechtspraktijk dan wel van buitengewone omstandigheden die niet tot strafrecht di- enen te worden gerekend? Ten derde is er ook het probleem van de beschikbaarheid van statistische data van de betreffende periode. Dit probleem is uiteraard niet beperkt tot de vergelijkende methode geeft daarbij toch de extra moeilijkheid dat 'appelen niet met peren mogen vergeleken worden, of in dit geval mogen niet zomaar parallellen getrokken worden tussen Edo, Londen, Parijs of New York. Wanneer vergelijkingen worden gemaakt op basis van statistieken moeten correcties worden ingebouwd omtrent functie en structuur van de stad, bevolkingsaantal, bevolkingsdichtheid, sociaaleconomische aspecten en zo meer. Betrouwbare statistische gegevens van de Tokugawa periode omtrent strafbedeling zijn daarenboven nauwelijks beschikbaar.3 Een nog groter probleem stelt zich bij het gebruik van bronnen. De archieven betref- fende de Tokugawa periode zijn voor mij, om geografische redenen, niet beschikbaar en bijgevolg steun ik volledig op secundaire bronnen. De enige primaire bronnen ter mijner beschikking zijn namelijk beschrijvend van aard en daardoor ongeschikt om statistieken uit te puren. Daardoor kan ik in dit werk onmogelijk hopen op volledigheid en dient er op te worden gewezen dat ik niet alle aspecten van de Tokugawa strafpraktijk kan be- lichten. Een derde punt waarmee men dient rekening te houden is het feit dat een vraag naar de menselijkheid dan wel de wreedheid van een bepaald regime uiteindelijk een filosofische vraag is. Ik zal dan ook trachten, na een inleiding in de historische insti- tuten en praktijken van de Tokugawa een korte samenvatting te geven van de historiek van filosofische ontwikkeling omtrent rechtspraak. Dit werk zal bijgevolg een beschri- jving geven van een reeks historische gegevens en daarna trachten parallellen dan wel verschillen te duiden. Strafrecht en strafrechtgeschiedenis zijn geen fenomenen die in het ijle worden bestudeerd. Net zoals de rest van de geschiedenis en de sociologie heeft deze studie een eigen geschiedenis. Een historicus of socioloog leeft altijd binnen een context, tijdsgeest en politiek klimaat, dewelke diens werk beïnvloeden. Het is daarom van belang niet enkel een feitengeschiedenis of een beschrijving van sociale omstandigheden te geven, maar eveneens een overzicht van de verschillende kaders waarin aan wetenschappelijk onder- zoek wordt gedaan omtrent strafrecht en geschiedschrijving. Deel één zal ik wijden aan een beschrijving van verschillende instituten, maatschap- pijstructuur en strafpraktijk van de Tokugawa. Deel twee laat de systemen die tijdens 3 Volgens Botsman betreft het hier slechts de periode 1862-65 en het jaar 1787, zie :Daniel Botsman, Punishment and Power in the making of modern Japan (New Jersey: Princeton university press, 2005) 3 dezelfde periode in het westen beschikbaar waren aan bod komen. Deel drie zal een se- lectie geven van de filosofische en historische invalshoeken die men heeft ten opzichte van het strafrecht en politieke geschiedenis in Japan en in het Westen. Tenslotte zal ik tussen de drie delen verbanden trachten te vinden om tot een conclusie te komen. 4 Hoofdstuk 2 Japan 2.1 Politieke en Institutionele geschiedenis van Japan De Japanse geschiedenis wordt, zoals vaak bij geschiedschrijving, meestal ingedeeld in vaste en scherp afgelijnde gehelen, elk voorzien van een naam. Deze gewoonte is eerder `kunstmatig' in die zin dat de geschiedenis een continuüm is en eigenlijk één geheel vormt. De nadruk die zo komt te liggen op verandering, in plaats van continuïteit, kan uiteraard het in grote lijnen begrijpen van een bepaalde periode binnen een bepaalde regio ten goede komen en is in geschiedschrijving ook wel enigszins noodzakelijk. Toch kan dit ook zorgen voor een bijna onbewust `contrasteren' van periodes ten opzichte van elkaar. Zo maakt men vaak een innerlijke vergelijking van periodes met betrekking van bepaalde eigenschappen. Vaak zijn deze eigenschappen vrij ambigue en gevoelsgeladen begrippen: humanere periodes ten opzichte barbaarse periodes, moderne ten opzicht van minder moderne periodes of regio's. Een voorbeeld daarvan zijn bijvoorbeeld de Middeleeuwen, de benaming impliceert dat ze tussen twee veel belangrijkere periodes in liggen. Treffender is misschien de term `dark ages' die in er geen onduidelijkheid laat over bestaan hoe `onverlicht' deze periode wel niet is. Hoewel dit fenomeen in de traditionele westerse indeling van de Japanse geschiedenis wel meevalt, gezien de meest gangbare benamen4 voornamelijk zijn afgeleid van plaatsen, dient men er ook bij de studie van de menselijkheid van een strafrechtelijk beleid zich van bewust te zijn dat geschiedenis zich altijd afspeelt binnen een bepaalde culturele context die niet zomaar verdwijnt naarmate men en nieuwe periode wenst te laten beginnen. De Tokugawa periode5 is die periode in de Japanse geschiedenis waarin de clan
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