Further Information and Reference Material Annexes ANNEX A: ENERGY UNITS, CONVERSION FACTORS, and ABBREVIATIONS

part V further information and reference material annexes ANNEX A: ENERGY UNITS, CONVERSION FACTORS, AND ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE A1. ENERGY CONVERSIONS*

Megatonne Million British Terajoule To: Gigacalorie oil (equiv) thermal units Gigawatt-hour (TJ) (Gcal) (Mtoe) (Mbtu) (GWh)

From: Multiply by:

Terajoule (TJ) 1 238.8 2.388 x 10-5 947.8 0.2778

Megatonne oil (equiv) (Mtoe) 4.1868 x 104 107 1 3.968 x 107 11,630

Million British thermal units (Mbtu) 1.0551 x 10-3 0.252 2.52 x 10-8 1 2.931 x 10-4

Gigawatt-hour (GWh) 3.6 860 8.6 x 10-5 3,412 1

* IEA figures. Additional conversion figures available at http://www.iea.org/stat.htm

TABLE A2. UNIT PREFIXES TABLE A4. UNIT ABBREVIATIONS

k kilo (103) EJ Exajoule 6 M mega (10 ) GJ Gigajoule G giga (109) Gtoe Giga tonnes oil equivalent T tera (1012) GWe Giga Watt electricity P peta (1015) E exa (1018) GWth Giga Watt thermal

ha Hectare

km2 Square kilometre TABLE A3. ASSUMED EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION kWh Kilo Watt hour (FOR CALCULATING PRIMARY ENERGY) Mtoe Million tonnes oil equivalent Type of power Assumed efficiency MWe Mega Watt electricity Nuclear power . 33 PJ Petajoule Hydroelectric 1.00 t Tonne Wind and solar 1.00 Geothermal .10 TWh Tera Watt hour

456 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex A: Energy Units, Coverstion Factors, and Abbreviations ANNEX B: DATA CONSISTENCY

Energy is defined as the ability to do work and is measured in joules factors to the primary energy equivalent of electricity generated by (J), where 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton (N) is hydropower, nuclear, wind, solar, and geothermal energy. In the past, applied through a distance of 1 metre. (A newton is the unit of force non-combustion-based electricity sources were converted to their that, acting on a mass of one kilogram, increases its velocity by one primary equivalents by applying a universal conversion efficiency of metre per second every second along the direction in which it acts.) 38.5 percent. More recently, hydropower, solar, and wind electricity Power is the rate at which energy is transferred and is commonly in OECD statistics are converted with a factor of 100 percent, measured in watts (W), where 1 watt is 1 joule per second. Newton, nuclear electricity with 33 percent, and geothermal with 10 percent. joule, and watt are defined in the International System of Units. Other The quality of data differs considerably between regions. units used to measure energy are tonnes of oil equivalent (toe; 1 toe Statistical bureaus in developing countries often lack the resources equals 41.87 x 109 J) and barrels of oil equivalent (boe; 1 boe equals of their counterparts in industrialised countries, or data are simply 5.71 x 109 J), used by the oil industry; tonnes of coal equivalent (tce; not collected. Countries of the former Soviet Union used to have 1 tce equals 29.31 x 109 J), used by the coal industry; and kilowatt- different classifications for sectoral energy use. Data reported by hour (kWh; 1 kWh equals 3.6 x 106 J), used to measure electricity. different government institutions in the same country can differ See also annex A, which provides conversion factors for energy units.) greatly, often reflecting specific priorities. Studies on national, regional, and global energy issues use a variety The composition of regions also varies in statistical compendiums of technical terms for various types of energy. The same terminology and energy studies. At times, North America is composed of Canada may reflect different meanings or be used for different boundary and the United States—but it might also include Mexico. Except where conditions. Similarly, a particular form of energy may be defined otherwise noted, the following countries joined the Organisation for differently. For example, when referring to total primary energy use, Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1961: Australia most studies mean commercial energy—that is, energy that is traded (1971), Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic (1995), Denmark, in the marketplace and exchanged at the going market price. Although Finland (1969), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary (1996), Iceland, non-commercial energy is often the primary energy supply in many Ireland, Italy, Japan (1964), Korea (1996), Luxembourg, Mexico developing countries, it is usually ignored. Non-commercial energy (1994), the Netherlands, New Zealand (1973), Norway, Poland includes wood, agricultural residues, and dung, which are collected (1996), Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United by the user or the extended family without involving any financial Kingdom, the United States. Depending on when the data was collected, transaction. Because there are no records and a lack of data on actual OECD data may or may not include the Czech Republic, Hungary, the use, most energy statistics do not report non-commercial energy use. Republic of Korea, Mexico, or Poland. Estimates of global non-commercial energy use range from 23-35 Finally, a word on the efficiency of energy conversion. Energy exajoules a year. In contrast, wood and other biomass sold in the efficiency is a measure of the energy used in providing a particular marketplace is reported as solids (often lumped together with coal) energy service and is defined as the ratio of the desired (usable) and becomes part of commercial energy. energy output to the energy input. For example, for an electric Traditional energy is another term closely related to non-commercial motor this is the ratio of the shaft power to the energy (electricity) energy. This term generally refers to biomass used in traditional ways— input. Or in the case of a natural gas furnace for space heating, that is, in the simplest cooking stoves and fireplaces—and is often meant energy efficiency is the ratio of heat energy supplied to the home to as a proxy for inefficient energy conversion with substantial indoor and the energy of the natural gas entering the furnace. Because energy local air pollution. But traditional does not always mean non-commercial: is conserved (the first law of thermodynamics), the difference wood burned in a kitchen stove may have been bought commercially between the energy entering a device and the desirable output is and be reflected in commercial data. Estimates of biomass used in dissipated to the environment in the form of heat. Thus energy is not traditional ways range from 28-48 exajoules per year. consumed but conserved. What is consumed is its quality to do The term modern (or new) renewables is used to distinguish useful work (as described by the second law of thermodynamics). between traditional renewables used directly with low conversion What this means is that a 90 percent efficient gas furnace for space technology and renewables using capital-intensive high-tech energy heating has limited potential for further efficiency improvements. conversion such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, or ocean While this is correct for the furnace, it is not the case for delivering energy to produce state-of-the-art fuels and energy services. space heat. For example, a heat pump operating on electricity Another issue concerns the heating value of chemical fuels assumed extracts heat from a local environment—outdoor air, indoor in statistics and analyses. The difference between the higher heating exhaust air, groundwater—and may deliver three units of heat for value (HHV) and the lower heating value (LHV) is that the higher heating one unit of electrical energy to the building, for a coefficient of value includes the energy of condensation of the water vapour contained performance of 3. Not accounted for in this example, however, are in the combustion products. The difference for coal and oil is about the energy losses during electricity generation. Assuming a modern 5 percent and for natural gas 10 percent. Most energy production gas-fired combined cycle power plant with 50 percent efficiency, the and use are reported on the basis of the lower heating value. overall coefficient of performance is 1.5—still significantly higher Yet another source of inconsistency comes from different conversion than the gas furnace heating system.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 457 Annex B: Data Consistency ANNEX C: ENERGY TRENDS

TABLE C.1. PRIMARY ENERGY USE PER CAPITA BY REGION, 1971–97

Annual Annual Change, Change, 1971 1980 1985 1990 1997 growth rate, growth rate, Region 1990– 97 1971– 97 (gigajoules) (gigajoules) (gigajoules) (gigajoules) (gigajoules) 1990–97 1971–97 (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent)

North America 266 276 258 263 272 3.7 2.4 0.5 0.3

Latin America 36 42 39 40 47 15.4 27.7 2.1 3.6

OECD Europea 118 134 134 137 141 3.3 19.9 0.5 2.6

Non-OECD Europeb 76 108 112 108 84 -21.8 10.6 -3.4 1.5

Former Soviet Union 135 178 192 195 129 -33.9 -4.2 -5.7 -0.6

Middle East 35 61 72 77 95 23.9 175.9 3.1 15.6

Africa 23 26 27 27 27 0.1 17.1 0.0 2.3

China 20 25 28 32 38 18.8 93.6 2.5 9.9

Asiac 15 17 19 21 26 18.9 66.3 2.5 7.5

Pacific OECDd 94 113 117 142 174 23.2 85.1 3.0 9.2

World total 62 69 69 70 70 -0.1 12.5 0.0 1.7

Memorandum items OECD countries 161 177 173 181 194 7.0 20.4 1.0 2.7 Transition economies 124 165 177 180 121 -32.4 -2.0 -5.4 -0.3 Developing countries 20 25 27 29 34 16.0 66.2 2.1 7.5

a. Includes Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. b. Excludes the former Soviet Union. c. Excludes China. d. Includes Republic of Korea. Source: IEA, 1999a.

TABLE C.2. ELECTRICITY USE PER CAPITA TABLE C.3. ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION BY REGION, 1980–96 (KILOWATT-HOURS) LOSSES BY REGION, 1980–96 (PERCENT)

Region 1980 1985 1990 1996 Region 1980 1985 1990 1996

North America 8,986 9,359 20,509 11,330 North America 6.9 6.8 7.0 7.6 OECD 5,686 6,277 7,177 8,053 OECD 7.6 6.8 7.2 6.4 East Asia 243 314 426 624 East Asia 8.4 8.8 8.2 10.1 South Asia 116 157 228 313

Sub-Saharan Africa 444 440 448 439 South Asia 19.4 19.1 18.8 18.7

Middle East 485 781 925 1,166 Sub-Saharan Africa 9.2 8.6 8.8 9.6

China 253 331 450 687 Transition economies 8.4 8.9 8.4 11.0 Transition economies 2,925 3,553 3,823 2,788 Least developed Least developed countriesa 11.0 15.8 20.3 20.9 countriesa 74 66 60 83

World 1,576 1,741 1,927 2,027 World 8.3 8.0 8.3 8.5 a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999. a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999.

458 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.1. CHANGES IN GDP, POPULATION, PRIMARY ENERGY USE, AND ELECTRICITY USE BY REGION, 1971–97 (INDEX: 1971=1)

2.8 9 World China 2.6 8 Electricity 2.4 7 2.2 Electricity 6 2.0 GDP GDP 5 1.8 4 1.6 3 1.4 Primary Population energy use 1.2 2 Primary energy use Population 1.0 1 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 2.4 8 Economies in transition Developing countries

2.2 7 Electricity Electricity 2.0 6 Primary energy use 1.8 5

1.6 4 GDP GDP 1.4 3

Primary 1.2 2 energy use Population Population 1.0 1 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 5.0 5.5 Africa Latin America 4.5 5.0

4.5 4.0 Electricity Electricity 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 Primary energy use Primary energy use 2.5

2.0 2.0 GDP GDP 1.5 1.5 Population Population 1.0 1.0 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995

Source: IEA, 1999a.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 459 Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.2. ENERGY USE BY SECTOR IN FIGURE C.3. DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY AND SELECTED REGIONS, 1980–97 (EXAJOULES) FINAL ENERGY INTENSITIES BY REGION, 1971–1997

Final energy intensities 400 80 World 350 Total Asia 300 70 250 60 200 50 150 Former Soviet Union 100 40 50 30 Africa Pacific OECD 0 Megajoules per 20 World Latin America OECD Middle East

1971 1975 1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1995 dollar of GDP 10 250 OECD 0 200 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Primary energy intensities 150 80 70 100 Total Asia 60 50 50 Former Soviet Union 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 40 Africa 90 30 Middle East 80 Total Asia World Megajoules per 20 Latin America

70 1995 dollar of GDP 60 10 OECD Pacific OECD 50 0 40 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 30 20 Source: IEA, 1999a. 10 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 FIGURE C.4. GLOBAL TRADE IN 60 CRUDE OIL, OIL PRODUCTS, COAL, AND NATURAL Former Soviet GAS, IN ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TERMS 50 Union 40 90 60 30 80 55 20 50 70 10 45 0 60 40 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 35 Percent 50 20 30 Africa 40 25 Exajoules 15 30 20 15 10 20 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 Coal Crude oil Oil products Gas % Coal % Oil % Gas % Total traded Transformation Non-energy Residential

Commercial Agriculture Transportation Industry Note: Total traded shows share of total specific fuel use that is traded, that is total traded energy/primary energy. Source: IEA, 1999a. Source: BP, 1999, IEA, 1999a, World Bank, 1999.

460 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.5. MAJOR OIL IMPORTERS FIGURE C.6. GROSS FOREIGN AND EXPORTERS, 1980–98 DIRECT INVESTMENT AND DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN FINANCING BY REGION, 1980–97 Importers 35 40 Gross foreign direct investment 4.0 30 35 30 25 Developing countries

25 Percent 3.5 20 Western Europe 20 OECD Rest of world 15 United States 15 3.0 Exajoules 10 10 Japan 5 5 2.5 0 0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 Exporters 2.0 90 Latin America and Caribbean 80

Rest of world of GDP Percent 1.5 70 East Asia Latin America Least and Pacific developed 60 Africa countries 1.0 50 Sub-Saharan 40 Africa

Exajoules 0.5 30 Middle East South Asia 20 Transition economies 0 10 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 North America 0 Domestic and foreign financing 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 9

Source: BP, 1999. 8

7 FIGURE C.7. ENERGY TAXES Domestic financing, IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1998 South Asia 6

80 5 4 1, France 2. Germany 70 4 7 3. Hungary 4 3 4. Italy 60 5. Mexico Foreign financing, 6. Norway 3 South Asia 50 7. Turkey 8. United Kingdom 1 Percent of GDP Percent 1 2 40 7 2 4 6 6 Percent 30 4 1 8 8 1 8 1 2 4 20 6 7 0 5 5 5 7 2 5 Domestic 3 financing, Foreign financing, 10 East Asia and East Asia and Pacific 8 -1 Pacific 0 Light oil Light oil High-sulphur Electricity Electricity -2 (industry) (household) oil (industry) (industry) (household) 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998

Source: IEA, 1999b. Source: World Bank, 1999.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 461 Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.8. EFFICIENCY OF COAL-FUELLED AND NATURAL GAS–FUELLED ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY REGION, 1971–97

40 Coal

30 Percent 28

20 1971 1980 1990 1997

45 Natural gas

35 Percent 30

20 1971 1980 1990 1997

OECD Transition economies Middle East and North Africa Africa China Asia Latin America World

Source: Adapted from IEA, 1999a.

462 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.9. NATURAL GAS AND STEAM COAL PRICES FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY REGION, 1990–98

7 Natural gas

3 U.S. dollars per gigajoule 2

0 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 Germany Hungary Japan Mexico Turkey United Kingdom United States

7 Steam coal

3 U.S. dollars per gigajoule 2

0 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 France Germany Italy Japan Mexico Turkey United Kingdom United States

Source: IEA, 1999b.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 463 Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.10. ELECTRICITY PICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990–98

Industry Household

France

Germany

Hungary

Italy

Japan

Mexico

Norway

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

South Africa

Taiwan

1990 Thailand 1995 1996 1997 Venezuela 1998

0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour

Source: IEA, 1999b.

464 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.11. OIL PRODUCT PRICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1990–98

25 Light oil prices for industry

U.S. dollars per gigajoule 5

0 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 France Germany Hungary Italy Japan Mexico Norway United Kingdom United States India

30 Light oil prices for household

U.S. dollars per gigajoule 5

0 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 France Germany Italy Japan Norway Turkey United Kingdom United States India Thailand

80 Taxes on different fuels 70

Percent 30

0 Light oil industry Light oil household High-sulphur oil industry Electricity industry Electricity household France Germany Hungary Italy Mexico Norway Turkey United Kingdom

Source: IEA, 1999b.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 465 Annex C: Energy Trends FIGURE C.12. UNLEADED GASOLINE PRICES IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1998

United States Tax component of price Canada Australia South Africa New Zealand Mexico Taiwan Poland Czech Republic India Slovakia Greece Spain Turkey Hungary Luxembourg Ireland Switzerland Japan Austria Portugal Germany Belgium Sweden France Italy Denmark Netherlands Finland United Kingdom Norway

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 U.S. dollars per litre

Source: IEA, 1999b.

References ———. 1999b. Energy Prices and Taxes. Quarterly statistics (second quarter). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop- BP (British Petroleum). 1999. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. London. ment. Paris. IEA (International Energy Agency). 1999a. Energy Balances. Organisation World Bank. 1999. World Development Indicators 1999. CD-ROM. for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris. Washington, D.C.

466 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex C: Energy Trends ANNEX D: CARBON EMISSIONS

The fossil energy used in 1998 contained about 6.5 gigatonnes of carbon, down slightly from 1997. The slight reduction was caused BOX D.1. CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION FACTORS by the economic crisis in East Asia, which curbed energy use in this Carbon dioxide emissions are measured in units of elemental carbon. fast-growing region, and China’s closure of inefficient and coal- For example, in 1998 global carbon dioxide emissions were 6.5 intensive heavy industry enterprises. All this carbon essentially ends gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of carbon. In the literature carbon dioxide up in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide, the inevitable emissions are often reported as the mass of the carbon dioxide molecules (1 kilogram of carbon corresponds to 3.67 kilograms of by-product of any combustion process involving hydrocarbon fuels. carbon dioxide). The energy sector emitted about 2.8 gigatonnes of carbon during Carbon emission factors for some primary energy the extraction and conversion of primary energy to fuels and sources (kilograms of carbon per gigajoule) electricity, and during transmission and distribution to final use. The rest, about 3.7 gigatonnes of carbon, was emitted at the point of end Source Heating OECD and Literature use. Included are 0.4 gigatonnes of carbon embodied in durable value IPCC, 1995 range hydrocarbon-based materials and products such as plastics, Wood HHV 26.8–28.4 asphalt, lubricants, and pharmaceuticals. Although these materials LHV 28.1–29.9 do not necessarily contribute to carbon emissions in the year they Peat HHV 30.3 are statistically accounted for as energy or non-energy use, most LHV 28.9 materials manufactured from hydrocarbons are eventually oxidised Coal (bituminous) HHV 23.9–24.5 to carbon dioxide. LHV 25.8 25.1–25.8 Carbon is also released from the combustion of biomass. Annual Crude oil HHV 19.0–20.3 net emissions from biomass conversion are difficult to determine LHV 20.0 20.0–21.4 and depend on the extent to which the biomass use is truly renewable. The information presented here assumes that biomass-based energy Natural gas HHV 13.6–14.0 services are renewable and so do not result in net additions to LHV 15.3 15.0–15.4 atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. Note: HHV is the higher heating value, LHV is the lower heating Box D.1 reports the range of carbon emission factors found in value. The difference is that the higher heating value includes the energy of condensation of the water vapour contained in the the literature and the IPCC factors used to calculate the past and combustion products (see annex A). Source: IPCC, 1996. current carbon emissions shown in figure D.1. Global carbon

FIGURE D.1. CARBON EMISSIONS BY REGION, 1965–98

7 Africa Middle East Non-OECD Europe Latin America

6 Asia

China 5 Pacific OECD 4 Former Soviet Union

3 OECD Europe

Gigatonnes of carbon 2

1 North America

0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Source: Calculated from BP, 1999 data using carbon emission factors of IPCC, 1996.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 467 Annex D: Carbon Emissions FIGURE D.2. GLOBAL CARBON EMISSIONS, TABLE D.1. CARBON EMISSIONS PER CAPITA CARBON EMISSIONS PER CAPITA, AND BY REGION, 1975–97 (TONNES OF CARBON) DECARBONISATION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEM AND OF ECONOMIC PRODUCTION, 1971–97 Region 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997

North Americaa 4.84 4.96 4.54 4.54 4.55 4.70 1.8 OECD Europe 2.42 2.59 2.41 2.35 2.26 2.29 1.6 Pacific OECDb 2.06 2.19 2.14 2.52 2.86 3.02 1.4 Non-OECD Europe 1.71 2.05 2.10 1.99 1.45 1.44 1.2 Former Soviet Union 3.16 3.47 3.53 3.50 2.36 2.15

1971 = 1.0 1.0 Latin America 0.53 0.57 0.50 0.53 0.57 0.63

0.8 Middle East 0.78 1.13 1.34 1.41 1.62 1.73

0.6 Asiac 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.31 0.34 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Global carbon emissions China 0.35 0.42 0.50 0.59 0.72 0.73 Carbon emissions per capita Africa 0.21 0.25 0.29 0.28 0.28 0.28 Carbon emissions in primary energy use Carbon emissions per 1995 U.S. dollar of World 1.14 1.21 1.16 1.17 1.13 1.15 economic activity a. Includes Mexico. b. Includes the Republic of Korea. c. Excludes China. Source: IEA, 1999. Source: Calculated from IEA, 1999 energy data and IPCC carbon emission factors (see box D.1).

emissions effectively doubled between 1965 and 1998, corresponding economic activity was 258 grams of carbon per 1995 U.S. dollar, to an average increase of 2.1 percent a year—not surprisingly, a and carbon emissions per capita were 1.15 tonnes. mirror image of the fossil fuel–dominated global energy use. Since Regional carbon emissions per capita vary considerably around 1990 the average rate of increase has slowed to 0.7 percent a year, the average of 1.15 tonnes. In 1997 the average North American not because of carbon emission mitigation efforts but because of the emitted 4.70 tonnes of carbon, while the average African emitted economic collapse of the former Soviet Union and the financial crisis just 0.28 tonnes—6 percent of the North American’s emissions in East Asia. Although figure D.1 clearly identifies industrialised (table D.1). countries as the main source of carbon emissions, it also shows the growing emissions from developing countries. The carbon intensity (carbon per unit of primary energy) of the References global energy system fell by 0.3 percent a year in the 20th century BP (British Petroleum). 1999. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. London. because of substitutions of oil and gas for coal, the expansion of IEA (International Energy Agency). 1992. Energy Balances. Organisation hydropower, and the introduction of nuclear power. Figure D.2 for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris. shows carbon intensities for 1971–97. The drop in the carbon ______. 1999. Energy Balances. International Energy Agency of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development intensity of the energy system and the decline in the energy intensi- (OECD/IEA). Paris, France. ty of economic production have reduced the carbon intensity of GDP IPCC. 1996. Primer. In Climate Change 1995 - Impacts, Adaptations by 1 percent a year. Carbon emissions per capita have not changed and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses. R.T. Watson, M.C. Zinyowera, R.H. Moss, eds., Second Assessment much since 1971. In 1997 the average carbon intensity was 16.3 Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). grams of carbon per megajoule, the carbon intensity per unit of Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 879 pp.

468 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Annex D: Carbon Emissions editorial board

Brief biographies of Editorial Board members Dennis Anderson is a Professor and the Director of the and as Deputy Executive Director, Environment Strategies Directorate. Imperial College Centre of Energy Policy and Technology, London, From 1996 to 1998, DiSano was the Deputy Head of the Environment and a visiting Professor at the University College, London. Anderson Protection Group of that department. She has also held positions holds degrees in economics from the London School of Economics with the Canadian Employment and Immigration Commission and (1967) and in engineering from the University of Manchester the Treasury Board in Ottawa. (1963). He is a Research Associate at the Oxford University Centre for the Study of African Economies and a Member of St. Antony’s Gerald Doucet is the Secretary General of the World Energy College. A former Senior Economist for the World Bank and Chief Council, a position he has held since September 1998. A graduate Economist for Shell, Anderson has published several works on rural of Ottawa University, with a Masters in Economics from Carlton energy and development, economic and environmental interactions, University, Doucet worked for the Government of Canada in various and climate change technology. His current research interests economic and policy roles from 1967-1981. He then joined the include economic and environmental interactions, energy pricing Retail Council of Canada as Senior Vice President, and in 1988 he and regulation, and development policy. became the Agent General for Ontario in Europe for the Province of Ontario. From 1992 to 1994 he served as President and a Founding Safiatou Franciose Ba-N’Daw is a former Minister of Director of the Europe-Canada Development Association, and from Economic Infrastructure in the Ministry of Energy of Côte d’Ivoire. 1994 – 98 as President and CEO of the Canadian Gas Association. She holds an M.Sc. in Economic Sciences from the University of Abidjan, studied statistics at Georgetown University, Washington, Emad El-Sharkawi is chairman of the Egyptian National D.C., and received an MBA from Harvard University. She is also a Committee of the World Energy Council, vice-chair of WEC’s executive Certified Public Accountant. Ba-N’Daw has worked as Financial assembly for Africa, general coordinator for UN-financed energy Analyst for the World Bank, and has extensive experience in the projects in Egypt, and advisor to numerous energy organizations development of small and medium-sized businesses in Hungary, and commissions. He has a post-graduate diploma in electrical Turkey and Tunisia. She has served as Senior Financial Specialist power engineering from King’s College, University of Durham, and a with the Central Bank of Pakistan and the Government of Pakistan Ph.D. in electrical power systems from the University of Manchester. on the development of financial institutions in that country. She also After supervising engineering projects in Egypt early in his career, worked on financial issues in Sri Lanka until her promotion to the he taught and led research on electrical power systems and energy Ministry of Energy. at universities in Iraq. Returning to Egypt, El-Sharkawi joined the Ministry of Electricity and Energy and later the Nuclear Power Plants John W. Baker, Chairman of the World Energy Council from Authority as Manager of Technical Affairs (1977-78). Since that time 1995-98, currently serves as the Deputy Chairman of Celltech he has supervised many renewable energy programmes in Egypt Group, a pharmaceuticals company, and is a non-executive director and served as a member of the country’s specialised councils on for several other companies. He is also a member of the Education energies. In 1986 he was named Chairman of the Board of Directors Standards Task Force and the Welfare to Work Task Force for the for the Egyptian Electricity Authority. El-Sharkawi has co-authored British Government. An arts graduate of Oxford University, he spent many papers on energy and systems planning, and his efforts in the ten years dealing with transport policy and finance, and another field of energy led to his election to the Royal Swedish Academy for decade in the field of urban renewal and public housing. In 1979 he Engineering Sciences. moved into the energy sector to become the Corporate Managing Director of the Central Electricity Generating Board, and later led José Goldemberg is a member of the Brazilian Academy of the man-agement of the UK electricity privatisation and restructuring Sciences and the Third World Academy of Sciences. Trained in physics programme. He was Chief Executive Officer of National Power since at the University of Saskatchewan (Canada) and the University of its establishment in 1990, then serving as its Chairman from 1995 Illinois, Goldemberg holds a Ph.D. in Physical Sciences from the to 1997. University of São Paulo. During his long academic career, he has taught at the University of São Paulo (where he also served as Rector JoAnne DiSano is the Director of the Division for Sustainable from 1986–89), Stanford University, and the University of Paris Development for the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (Orsay). He was a Visiting Professor at Princeton University in DiSano has a degree in psychology and sociology from the University 1993–94, at the International Academy of the Environment in of Windsor, Ontario, and a Masters of Education from Wayne State Geneva in 1995, and at Stanford University in 1996–97. He served University (U.S.). Before joining the United Nations, she held several the Federal Government in Brazil as Secretary of State of Science senior management positions with the Government of Canada, and Technology in 1990–91, Minister of Education in 1991–92, and culminating in her work with the Department of Arts, Sport, the Acting Secretary of State of the Environment in 1992. The author of Environment, Tourism and Territories, where she served as the First several books and technical papers, Goldemberg is an internationally Assistant Secretary, Environment and Conservation Policy Division, respected expert on nuclear physics, the environment, and energy.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 471 Brief Biographies of Editorial Board Members In 1991 Goldemberg was the co-winner of the Mitchell Prize for Munich University and Harvard University. As an internationally Sustainable Development, and in 1994 he was honoured with the acknowledged expert in systems analysis, technical and socio- establishment of the José Goldemberg Chair in Atmospheric economic research, and policy evaluation, Jochem is a member of Physics at Tel Aviv University. In 2000, he was awarded the Volvo several national and international scientific organizations and advisory Environmental Prize, along with three of his colleagues on the committees, including the IPCC Bureau and the Enquête Commission World Energy Assessment. on “Sustainable Energy, Liberalization, and Globalization” of the German Parliament. He presented lectures at the universities in John P. Holdren is the Teresa and John Heinz Professor of Karlsruhe and Kassel until 1999 and since then in Zurich and Environmental Policy and Director of the Program on Science, Lausanne, Switzerland. He is a member of the Editorial Advisory Technology, and Public Policy in the John F. Kennedy School of Board of Energy Environment and Climate Policy. Government, and a Professor of Environmental Science and Public Policy in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Thomas B. Johansson, who is on leave from the University Harvard University. Trained in engineering and plasma physics at of Lund in Sweden, is the Director of the Energy and Atmosphere MIT and Stanford, from 1973–96 Holdren co-founded and co-led Programme of the Bureau for Development Policy of UNDP. the interdisciplinary graduate programme in energy and resources Johansson, who holds a Ph.D. in nuclear physics from the Lund at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of the Institute of Technology, is International Co-Chairman of the Working President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology Group on Energy Strategies and Technologies of the China Council (PCAST) and has chaired PCAST panels on protection of nuclear for International Cooperation on Environment and Development. He bomb materials, the U.S. fusion-energy R&D program, U.S. energy has served as Convening Lead Author, Energy Supply Mitigation R&D strategy for the climate-change challenge, and international Options (Working Group IIA of the Intergovernmental Panel on cooperation on energy. He is also a member of the U.S. National Climate Change); Vice-Chairman, UN Committee on New and Academy of Sciences (NAS) and National Academy of Engineering Renewable Sources of Energy and on Energy for Development; (NAE), Chairman of the NAS Committee on International Security Chairman, UN Solar Energy Group for Environment and and Arms Control, and Chairman of the NAS/NAE Committee on U.S.- Development; and Director of Vattenfall, the Swedish State Power India Cooperation on Energy. Board. He is has authored or co-authored numerous books and articles including Energy after Rio; Renewable Energy: Sources Michael Jefferson runs a consulting firm, Global Energy and for Fuels and Electricity; Electricity-Efficient End Use and New Environment Consultants, in the United Kingdom. A graduate of the Generation Technologies and their Planning Implications; and Universities of Oxford and the London School of Economics, Energy for a Sustainable World. Along with three other members Jefferson has worked extensively in the private sector, from of the editorial board, he was awarded the Volvo Environment Prize merchant banking to head of oil supply strategy and planning for in 2000. Europe at the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies. In 1990 Jefferson was seconded to the World Energy Council (WEC) as Hisham Khatib, an engineer and economist, serves as honorary Deputy Secretary General, and he later became director of studies Vice Chairman of the World Energy Council, as a member of the and policy development for WEC. He is the author of numerous Roster of Experts for the Global Environment Facility’s Scientific and books and articles related to energy and climate change, including Advisory Panel, and as the Advisory Editor to the Utilities Policy and Energy for Tomorrow’s World (written for a WEC commission in Energy Policy journals (U.K.) and the Natural Resources Forum 1993). He was a lead author and contributing author for the (U.S.). Khatib received an M.Sc. from the University of Birmingham, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Second and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of London, Assessment Report, a member of the drafting team for the IPCC’s where he also received a B.Sc. in economics. Khatib has more than Synthesis Report, and an IPCC peer review editor for the Third 40 years’ experience in matters relating to electricity, energy, water, Assessment Report. He is technical coordinator and lead consultant and environmental issues. He has consulted to the United Nations, to the G8 Renewable Energy Task Force. He also participated in the UNDP, UNEP, Global Environment Facility, UNIDO, World Bank, Arab UNDP report, Energy after Rio, written in 1997. Fund, Islamic Development Bank, and many other regional and international development agencies. Khatib also served as Minister Eberhard Jochem is the Senior Scientist at the Fraunhofer of Planning, Minister of Water and Irrigation, and Minister of Energy Institute of Systems and Innovation Research (Karlsruhe, Germany) and Mineral Resources for the government of Jordan. He is the and Co-director of the Centre for Energy Policy and Economics author of two books, Economics of Reliability in Electrical Power (Zurich, Switzerland). Jochem holds degrees in chemical engineering Systems and Financial and Economic Evaluation of Projects, and (Aachen, 1967) and economics (Munich, 1971), and a Ph.D. in of more than 100 articles and papers. In 1998 he was honoured with technical chemistry (Munich, 1971). He was a research fellow at the “Achievement Medal” of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.

472 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Brief Biographies of Editorial Board Members Kui-Nang Mak has been chief of the Energy and Transport Amulya Reddy was President of the International Energy Branch of the Division for Sustainable Development, UN Department Initiative until April 2000. Reddy received his Ph.D. in applied physical of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA) since 1990. He holds a M.Sc. chemistry from the University of London in 1958. From 1970–91 he in electrical engineering from the University of Illinois, where he was a professor at the Indian Institute of Science, in Bangalore, has completed all requirements except dissertation for a Ph.D. in India, and was a visiting Senior Research Scientist at the Center for electrical engineering; an I.E. degree in industrial economics and Energy and Environmental Studies at Princeton University in 1984. management from Columbia University and a Certificate from the From 1990–93, Reddy was a member of the Scientific and Technical Executive Programme on Climate Change and Development from Advisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility. He has also been Harvard University. He has worked for the United Nations since a member of the Energy Research Group of the International 1975, acting as an Economic Affairs Officer specializing in energy Development Research Centre in Canada; the Economic and for DESA from 1978 to 1990. He is the author of several papers Planning Council, Government of Karnataka; and a member of the and reports on global energy issues, particularly on international Panel of Eminent Persons on Power for the Minister of Power, India. cooperation and financing. His professional affiliations include serving He is the author of more than 250 papers, and co-author and editor as a member of the Sub-Committee on International Practices, of several books on energy, rural technology, and science and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; a member of the technology policy. Reddy was awarded the Volvo Environmental Committee on Cleaner Fossil Fuel Systems of the World Energy Council; Prize for 2000, along with three other members of the World Energy and an advisor for the China Coal Preparation Association. Assessment editorial board.

Nebojsa Nakicenovi ´ c ´ is the Project Leader of the Transitions Hans-Holger Rogner is the Head of the Planning and Economic to New Technologies Project at the International Institute for Studies Section in the Department of Nuclear Energy in the Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA). He is also the Convening Lead International Atomic Energy Agency. He holds an industrial Author of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios by the engineering degree and a Ph.D. in energy economics from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and Guest Professor at Technical University of Karlsruhe. He specialised in applying systems the Technical University of Graz. Nakićenović holds bachelor’s and analysis to long-term energy demand and supply issues and in master’s degrees in economics and computer science from Princeton identifying technologically and economically feasible paths to University and the University of Vienna, where he completed his Ph.D. sustainable energy systems. At the International Atomic Energy He also received an honoris causa Ph.D degree in engineering from Agency, Rogner’s activities focus on sustainable energy development the Russian Academy of Sciences. Before joining IIASA, Nakićenović and technology change. He contributes to UN efforts targeted at worked with the Research Centre (Karlsruhe, Germany) in the field Agenda 21, including combating climate change. of nuclear materials accountability. He is the author or co-author of many scientific papers and books on the dynamics of technological and social change, economic restructuring, mitigation of anthropogenic Kirk R. Smith is Professor of Environment Health Sciences, impacts on the environment, and response strategies to global Associate Director for International Programs at the Center for change. Nakićenović has been Associate Editor of the International Occupational and Environment Health, and Deputy Director of the Journal on Technological Forecasting and Social Change and of Institute for Global Health at the University of California, Berkeley. the International Journal on Energy, and he serves as an advisor to Smith holds a Ph.D. and M.P.H. in biomedical and environmental many groups, including the United Nations Commission on Sustainable health sciences from Berkeley. He has been a Senior Fellow at the Development. Currently, his research focuses on the diffusion of East-West Center’s Program on Environment (Honolulu), and was new technologies and their interactions with the environment. the founding head of the East-West Center’s Energy Program (1978- 1985). Smith is the author of more than 200 articles and 7 books, Anca Popescu is the Director of the Institute of Power Studies sits on the boards of 7 international scientific journals, and is advisor and Design in Romania. Popescu holds a B.Sc. in electrical engineering to the governments of several developing countries on environment. and a Ph.D. University in high-voltage technique from the Bucharest He is also a member of the India-U.S. Academies of Science Energy/ Polytechnic. An expert in energy policy, integrated resources planning, Environment Program and of the World Health Organisation’s and power sector development and investment planning, she has Comparative Risk Assessment and Air Quality Guidelines committees. served as a scientific and technical expert to the UN Framework In 1997, he was elected to the US National Academy of Sciences. Convention on Climate Change and was the Chief Scientific Investigator on the role of nuclear power plants in greenhouse gas Wim C. Turkenburg is Professor and Head of the Department emission reductions in Romania in a study sponsored by the of Science, Technology, and Society at Utrecht University. He is also International Atomic Energy Agency. The author of numerous a member of the Council on Housing, Physical Planning, and papers on energy planning, policy, and development, Popescu has Environment of the Netherlands, Vice Chairperson of the UN also served as a guest lecturer at Bucharest Polytechnic University Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for Development (UN- and at the National Electricity Company Training Centre. CENRD), and Chairperson of the Subcommittee on Energy of the

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 473 Brief Biographies of Editorial Board Members UN-CENRD. He studied physics, mathematics, and astronomy at Leiden University and the University of Amsterdam, and received his Ph.D. in science and mathematics from the University of Amsterdam in 1971. Turkenburg is an expert on energy, the environment, and systema analysis. He is author or co-author of many articles on renewables (wind energy, photovoltaics, biomass energy), energy efficiency improvement, cleaner use of fossil fuels (decarbonization technologies), and energy and climate change. He has been member of a number of national and international boards, committees and working groups on energy, energy research, and energy and environmental policy development, serving inter alia the Inter- national Solar Energy Society, the World Energy Council, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the Government of the Netherlands.

Francisco Lopez Viray is the Secretary of Energy in the Philippines, and chairs its subsidiary agencies, including the National Power Corporation, the Philippine National Oil Company, and the National Electrification Administration. Viray holds an M.Sc. in electrical engineering from the University of the Philippines and a Ph.D. in engineering from West Virginia University. His extensive career has included advisory and research positions on a number of energy and power planning projects. A specialist in the areas of power system engineering, computer applications in engineering and energy planning and management, Viray has received several citations and awards, including the ASEAN Achievement Award in Engineering, and the Outstanding Professional in Electrical Engineering from the Professional Regulation Committee of the Philippines.

Robert H. Williams is a Senior Research Scientist at Princeton University’s Center for Energy and Environmental Studies, with a Ph.D. in physics from the University of California, Berkeley (1967). He served on two panels of the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology: the Energy R&D Panel (1997), as chair of its Renewable Energy Task Force; and the International Energy Research, Development, Demonstration, and Deployment Panel (1999), as chair of its Energy Supply Task Force. Since 1993 he has been a member of the Working Group on Energy Strategies and Technologies of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development. He was a member of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel for the Global Environment Facility and chaired its Climate and Energy Working Group (1995-1998). He has written many articles and coauthored several books on a wide range of energy topics. He is recipient of the American Physical Society’s Leo Szilard Award for Physics in the Public Interest (1988), the U.S. Department of Energy’s Sadi Carnot Award (1991) for his work on energy efficiency, and a MacArthur Foundation Prize (1993). In 2000, along with three other members of the World Energy Assessment editorial board, he received the Volvo Environmental Prize.

474 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Brief Biographies of Editorial Board Members glossary

Selected terminology Acid deposition: fallout of substances from the atmosphere Carbon sequestration: the capture and secure storage of (through rain, snow, fog or dry particles) that have the potential to carbon that would otherwise be emitted or remain in the atmosphere, increase the acidity of the receptor medium. They are primarily the either by (1) diverting carbon from reaching the atmosphere; or result of the discharge of gaseous sulphur oxides and nitrogen (2) removing carbon already in the atmosphere. Examples of the oxides from the burning of coal and oil e.g. in electricity generation, first type are trapping the CO2 in power plant flue gases, and smelting industries and transport. "Acid rain" is the result of the capturing CO2 during the production of decarbonised fuels. The combination of these gases in the air with vapor. Acidifying deposition common approach to the second type is to increase or enhance can be responsible for acidification of lakes, rivers and groundwater, carbon sinks. with resulting damage to fish and other components of aquatic ecosystems, and for damage to forests and other harmful effects on Carbon tax: a levy exacted by a government on the use of carbon- plants. (Note: precipitation is naturally acid as a result of the containing fuel for the purpose of influencing human behavior absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.) (specifically economic behavior) to use less fossil fuels (and thus limit greenhouse gas emissions). Agenda 21: a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally in every area in which human impacts on the Carbon sinks: places where CO2 can be absorbed, such as forests, environment. It was adopted by more than 175 governments at the oceans and soil. UN Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 (also known as the Rio Earth Summit). Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): is one of four ‘flexibility’ mechanisms adopted in the Kyoto Protocol to the UN Animate energy: energy derived from human or animal power. Framework Convention on Climate Change. It is a cooperative arrangement through which certified greenhouse gas emission Anthropogenic emissions: the share of emissions attributed reductions accruing from sustainable development projects in to human activities. developing countries can help industrialized countries meet part of their reduction commitments as specified in Annex B of the Protocol. API degree: the American Petroleum Institute has adopted a scale of measurement for the specific gravity of crude oils and Cogeneration: see combined heat and power petroleum products that is expressed in degrees. Combined cycle plant: electricity generating plant comprising Biofuels: fuels obtained as a product of biomass conversion a gas-turbine generator unit, whose exhaust gases are fed to a waste-heat (such as alcohol or gasohol). boiler, which may or may not have a supplementary burner, and the steam raised by the boiler is used to drive a steam-turbine generator. Biomass: organic, non-fossil material oil of biological origin, a part of which constitutes an exploitable energy resource. Although the different forms of energy from biomass are always considered as Combined heat and power (CHP) station: also referred renewable, it must be noted that their rates of renewability are to as a cogeneration plant. A thermal power station in which all the different. These rates depend on the seasonal or daily cycles of steam generated in the boilers passes to turbo-generators for solar flux, the vagaries of climate, agricultural techniques or cycles electricity generation, but designed so that steam may be extracted of plant growth, and may be affected by intensive exploitation. at points on the turbine and/or from the turbine exhaust as back- pressure steam and used to supply heat, typically for industrial Biogas: a gas composed principally of a mixture of methane and processes or district heating. carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass. Commercial energy: energy that is subject to a commercial Breeder reactor: a reactor which produces a fissile substance transaction and that can thus be accounted for. This contrasts to identical to the one it consumes and in greater quantity than the one non-commercial energy, which is not subject to a commercial it has consumed, that is, it has a conversion ratio greater than unity. exchange, and thus difficult to account for in energy balances. The term non-commercial energy thus is technically distinct from Business-as-usual: the projected future state of energy and traditional energy, but in practice they are often used interchangeably. economic variables in the event that current technological, economic, political, and social trends persist. Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD): was created in December 1992 to ensure effective follow-up of the Capacity building: developing skills and capabilities for technology United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, to innovation and deployment in the relevant government, private-sector, monitor and report on implementation of the agreements at the academic, and civil institutions. local, national, regional and international levels.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 477 Glossary of Selected Terminology Compressed natural gas (CNG): natural gas stored under Energy sector restructuring and reform: encouraging pressure in cylinders and used as fuel for automotive engines. market competition in energy supply (often by transfer of ownership from the public to the private sector), while removing subsidies and Cost buy-down: the process of paying the difference in unit other distortions in energy pricing and preserving public benefits. cost (price) between an innovative energy technology and a conventional energy technology in order to increase sales volume, Energy services: the utility of energy is often referred to by thus stimulating cost reductions through manufacturing scale-up engineers as energy services, although that term can be confusing and economies of learning throughout the production, distribution, since units vary between applications and sometimes are not defined deployment, use, and maintenance cycle. at all. For example, lumens is a natural unit in lighting services, and Thomas Edison proposed charging for lumens rather than kilowatt Developing countries: generally used in this report to refer hours when electricity was first used for lighting; for practical reasons to the countries that are members of the Group of 77 Countries he eventually settled on charging by the kilowatt hour instead. James and China. Watt charged for his steam engines not by their motive power, but by the difference in the costs of fuel he and his customers saved when they substituted his engine for their old one. However, when Digester: a tank designed for the anaerobic fermentation of biomass. the utility or ‘services’ provided by energy are felt through a hot shower, chilled drinks, refrigerated food, a comfortably warm or Dimethyl ether (DME): an oxygenated fuel that can be produced cool house, increased transport miles, or labour saved in washing from any carbonaceous feedstock by a process that begins with and ironing or in producing an innumerable array of industrial syngas production. goods and services, it is only practicable to charge for energy in energy units. Discount rate: the annual rate at which the effects of future events are reduced so as to be comparable to the effect of Environmental taxes (ecotaxes): levies on products or present events. services collected to account for environmental impacts associated with them. Economies in transition: national economies that are moving from a period of heavy government control toward lessened inter- Ethanol (ethyl alcohol): alcohol produced by the fermentation vention, increased privatization, and greater use of competition. of glucose. The glucose may be derived from sugary plants such as sugar cane and beets or from starchy and cellulosic materials by Energy innovation chain: the linked process by which an hydrolysis. The ethanol may be concentrated by distillation, and can energy-supply or energy-end-use technology moves from its be blended with petroleum products to produce motor fuel. conception in theory and the laboratory to its feasibility testing through demonstration projects, small-scale implementation and Exergy: the maximum amount of energy that can be converted into finally large-scale deployment. any other form or energy under given thermodynamic conditions; also known as availability of work potential. Energy intensity: ratio between the consumption of energy to a given quantity, usually refers to the amount of primary or final Externalities: benefits or costs resulting as an unintended energy consumed per unit of gross domestic or national product. byproduct of an economic activity that accrue to someone other than the parties involved in the activity. While energy is an economic ‘good’ that sustains growth and development and human well-being, Energy efficiency: the amount of utility or energy service there are by-products of energy production and use that have an provided by a unit of energy (U/E), which can be used as a measure undesirable effect on the environment (economic ‘bads’). Most of of energy efficiency in end-use applications. An increase in energy these are emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. efficiency enables consumers to enjoy an increase in utility or energy service for the same amount of energy consumed or to enjoy Final energy: is the energy transported and distributed to the the same utility of energy services with reduced energy consumption, point of final use. Examples include gasoline at the service station, U = (U/E) E. The usual situation is one in which an increase in energy electricity at the socket, or fuelwood in the barn. The next energy efficiency (U/E) boosts both energy use and the utility derived from transformation is the conversion of final energy in end-use devices, each unit of energy consumed. such as appliances, machines, and vehicles, into useful energy, such as work and heat. Useful energy is measured at the crankshaft of an Energy payback/time: the time of exploitation of an energy automobile engine or an industrial electric motor, by the heat of a installation, necessary for recuperating all the energy consumed household radiator or an industrial boiler, or by the luminosity of a in its construction and operation during the projected lifespan of light bulb. The application of useful energy provides energy services, the installation. such as a moving vehicle, a warm room, process heat, or illumination.

478 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Glossary of Selected Terminology Foreign direct investment (FDI): is net inflows of investment national income accounting, it is a measure of the performance of the to acquire a lasting management interest (10 percent or more of nation's economy, within a specific accounting period (usually a year). voting stock) in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of Higher heating value (HHV): quantity of heat liberated by earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital as shown the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel in the in the balance of payments. Gross foreign direct investment is the determination of which the water produced is assumed completely sum of the absolute values of inflows and outflows of foreign direct condensed and the heat recovered. Contrast to lower heating value. investment recorded in the balance of payments financial account. It includes equity capital, reinvestment of earnings, other long-term Industrialized countries: for purposes of this report, this capital, and short-term capital. Note that this indicator differs from term refers primarily to high-income OECD countries. While many the standard measure of foreign direct investment, which captures transitional economies are also characterized by a high degree of only inward investment. industrialization, they are often considered and discussed separately because of their specific development requirements. Fuel cells: devices that enable chemical energy to be converted directly into electrical energy without the intervention of the Infrastructure: the physical structures and delivery systems heat engine cycle, in which electrical power is produced in a necessary to supply energy and end-users. In the case of power controlled reaction involving a fuel, generally hydrogen, methanol plants, the infrastructure is the high-tension wires needed to carry or a hydrocarbon. the electricity to consumers; in the case of natural gas, it is the pipeline network; in the case of liquid fuels, it is the fueling stations. Fuelwood: wood and wood products, possibly including coppices, scrubs, and branches, bought or gathered, and used by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): direct combustion. a multilateral scientific organization established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Global Environment Facility (GEF): a financial institution Organization to assess the available scientific, technical, and socio- that provides grants and concessionary financing to developing economic information in the field of climate change and to assess countries and economies-in-transition for projects and activities technical and policy options for reducing climate change and that provide global benefits in four topical areas: climate change; its impacts. biological diversity; international waters; and stratospheric ozone. The GEF was established for the purpose of implementing agreements Irradiance: the quantity of solar energy falling per area of plane stemming from the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development including the UN Framework Convention on Climate surface and time. Change. The World Bank Group is one of the three implementing agencies for the GEF, together with the United Nations Development Kyoto Protocol (to the UN Framework Convention Program and the United Nations Environment Program. on Climate Change): contains legally binding emissions targets for industrialized (Annex I) countries for the post-2000 period. Green pricing: labelling and pricing schemes that allow Together they must reduce their combined emissions of six key consumers to pay a premium for environmentally friendly services greenhouse gases by at least 5% by the period 2008-2012, calculated and products if they choose. as an average over these five years. The Protocol will enter into force 90 days after it has been ratified by at least 55 Parties to the Climate Greenfield investment: starting up an entirely new plant, in Change Convention; these Parties must include industrialized countries contrast to rebuilding an older one. representing at least 55% of this group’s total 1990 carbon dioxide emissions. See also Clean Development Mechanism. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs): heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere that warm the Earth's surface by absorbing outgoing Leapfrogging: moving directly to most cleanest, most infrared radiation and re-radiating part of it downward. Water vapour advanced technologies possible, rather than making incremental is the most important naturally occurring greenhouse gas, but the technological progress. principal greenhouse gases, whose atmospheric concentrations are being augmented by emission from human activities are carbon Liberalisation: the doctrine that advocates the greatest possible dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and halocarbons. use of markets and the forces of competition to co-ordinate economic activity. It allows to the state only those activities which the market Grid extension: extending the infrastructural network that supplies cannot perform (e.g. the provision of public goods) or those that energy, such as transmission wires for electricity. are necessary to establish the framework within which the private enterprise economy cannot operate efficiently (e.g. the establishment Gross National Product (GNP): total production of goods of the legal framework on property and contract and the adoption and services by the subjects of a country at home and abroad. In of such policies and anti-monopoly legislation).

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 479 Glossary of Selected Terminology Lifecycle cost: the cost of a good or service over its entire lifetime. Nitrogen oxides (NOx): oxides formed an released in all common types of combustion at high temperature. Direct harmful Light water reactor (LWR): a nuclear reactor in which effects of nitrogen oxides include human respiratory tract irritation ordinary water, as opposed to heavy-water, or a steam/water mixture and damage to plants. Indirect effects arise from their essential is used as reactor coolant and moderator. The boiling water reactor role in photochemical smog reactions and their contribution to acid (BWR) and the pressurized water reactor (PWR) are examples of rain problems. light water reactors. Nuclear fuel cycle: a group of processes connected with Liquefied natural gas (LNG): natural gas made up mainly nuclear power production; using, storing, reprocessing and disposing of methane and ethane and which, generally to facilitate its of nuclear materials used in the operation of nuclear reactors. The transport, has been converted to the liquid phase by having its closed fuel cycle concept involves the reprocessing and reuse of temperature lowered. fissionable material from the spent fuel. The once-through fuel cycle concept involves the disposal of the spent fuel following its use Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): light hydrocarbons, in the reactor. principally propane and butane, which are gaseous under normal conditions, but are maintained in a liquid state by an increase of Opportunity cost: the cost of an economic activity foregone pressure or lowering of temperature. by the choice of another activity.

Lower heating value (LHV): quantity of heat liberated Organisation for Economic Co-operation and by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel in Development (OECD): a multilateral organization of 29 the determination of which the water produced is assumed to industrialized nations, producing among them two-thirds of remain as a vapour and the heat not recovered. Contrast to higher the world's goods and services. The objective of the OECD is the heating value. development of social and economic policies and the coordination of domestic and international activities. Macroeconomic: pertaining to a study of economics in terms of whole systems, especially with reference to general levels of output Pollution associated with energy use. This is usually and income and to the interrelations among sectors of the economy. measured as pollution per unit of energy use, or P = (P/E)E. Modern methods of pollution control and emerging energy tech- Marginal cost: the cost of one additional unit of effort. In nologies are capable of reducing the ratio P/E—and thus P—to terms of reducing emissions, it represents the cost of reducing emission by one more unit. very low levels, sometimes to zero. This means that if environmental policies focus on P rather than E, there is no reason why high levels Marginal cost pricing: a system of setting the price of energy of energy use (and the utility derived from it) cannot be enjoyed and equal to the marginal cost of providing the energy to a class of consumer. pollution virtually eliminated in the long term, a process known as delinking environmental concerns from energy use. Market barriers: conditions that prevent or impede the diffusion of cost-effective technologies or practices. Primary energy is the energy that is embodied in resources as they exist in nature: chemical energy embodied in fossil fuels (coal, Market penetration: the percentage of all its potential purchasers oil, and natural gas) or biomass, the potential energy of a water to which a good or service is sold per unit time. reservoir, the electromagnetic energy of solar radiation, and the energy released in nuclear reactions. For the most part, primary Market potential (or currently realizable potential): energy is not used directly but is first mined, harvested or converted the portion of the economic potential for GHG emissions reductions and transformed into electricity and fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel, or energy-efficiency improvements that could be achieved under heating oil, or charcoal. existing market conditions, assuming no new policies and measures. Public Benefits Fund (PBF): a financial mechanism created Methanol (methyl alcohol): alcohol primarily produced to serve the greater public interest by funding programs for environment by chemical synthesis but also by the destructive distillation of and public health, services to the poor and disenfranchised, energy wood. Methanol is regarded as a marketable synthetic motor fuel. technology innovation, or other public goods not accounted for by a restructured energy sector. New renewables: used in this report to refer to modern biofuels, wind, solar, small hydropower, marine and geothermal energy. Purchasing power parity (PPP): GDP estimates based on Geothermal energy cannot be strictly considered renewable, but is the purchasing power of currencies rather than on current included for practical reasons. exchange rates. Such estimates are a blend of extrapolated and

480 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Glossary of Selected Terminology regression-based numbers, using the result of the International means environmentally sound, safe, reliable, affordable energy; in Comparison Program. PPP estimates tend to lower per capita other words, energy that supports sustainable development in all its GDPs in industrialized countries and raise per capita GDPs in economic, environmental, social and security dimensions. developing countries. Syngas: a gaseous mixture composed mainly of carbon monoxide Research and development (R&D): the first two stages and hydrogen and synthesized from a carbonaceous feedstock such in the energy innovation chain. R, D & D refers to demonstration as coal or biomass. It is used as a building block for the production projects as well. of synthetic liquid fuels. Syngas-based systems can make it possible to extract energy services from carbonaceous feedstocks with very Reserves: those occurrences of energy sources or mineral low levels of pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions. that are identified and measured as economically and technically recoverable with current technologies and prices (see chapter 5). Transitional economies: see economies in transition

Resources: those occurrences of energy sources or minerals Unproven reserves: the estimated quantities, at a given date, with less certain geological and/or economic/technical recoverability which analysis of geologic and engineering data indicates might be characteristics, but that are considered to become potentially economically recoverable from already discovered deposits, with a recoverable with foreseeable technological and economic development sufficient degree of probability to suggest their existence. Because (see chapter 5). of uncertainties as to whether, and to what extent, such unproven reserves may be expected to be recoverable in the future, the Revenue neutral taxes: governmental levies placed on certain estimates should be given as a range but may be given as a single goods or services that replace other taxes and thus do not add to intermediate figure in which all uncertainties have been incorporated. total revenues collected, but rather attempt to change behaviours. Unproven reserves may be further categorized as probable reserves or possible reserves. Scenario: a plausible description of how the future may develop based on analysis of a coherent and internally consistent set of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate assumptions about key relationships and driving forces (e.g. rate Change (UNFCCC): a major global convention adopted in of technology changes, prices). Note that scenarios are neither 1992 that establishes a framework for progress in stabilizing predictions nor forecasts. atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at safe levels. It directs that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame Standards/performance criteria: a set of rules or codes mandating or defining product performance (e.g. grades, dimensions, sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, characteristics, test methods, rules for use). to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner". It Structural changes: changes in the relative share of GDP also recognizes the right of developing countries to economic produced by the industrial, agricultural or services sectors of an development, their vulnerability to the effects of climate change, economy; or, more generally, systems transformations whereby and that rich countries should shoulder greater responsibility for some components are either replaced or partially substituted by the problem. other ones. United Nations Conference on Environment and Subsidies: publicly supported cost reductions that may be Development (UNCED): also known as the Rio Earth granted to producers and consumers – directly, through price Summit. The first of a series of major United Nations conferences on reductions, or in less visible forms, through tax breaks, market global issues that were convened in the 1990s. support or inadequate metering. World Bank Group: a multilateral, United Nations affiliated

Sulphur oxides (S0x): oxides produced by the combustion of lending institution which annually makes available roughly $20 fossil fuels containing sulphur. Sulphur oxides, the most widespread billion in loans to developing countries, mainly but not exclusively of which is sulphur dioxide, a colorless gas having a strong and for large scale infrastructure projects. The World Bank Group acrid odor, are toxic at a given concentration for the respiratory comprises five agencies: the International Bank for Reconstruction system and gave harmful effects on the environment, in particular on and Development, the International Development Association, the buildings and vegetation. They contribute to the acid rain problem. International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Sustainable energy: as the term is used in this document, is Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). The World Bank Group not meant to suggest simply a continual supply of energy. Rather it raises capital from both public sources and financial markets.

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 481 Glossary of Selected Terminology contributors

World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and peer reviewers A n initial draft of the World Energy Assessment formed the Mark J. Mwandosya, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania basis for the first round of peer review at an Advisory Panel Raymond Myles, INFORSE, Integrated Sustainable Energy and meeting that took place in July, 1999 in Geneva. Based on comments Ecological Development Association, India from working groups at that meeting, as well as comments received Gary Nakarado, United Nations Foundation, U.S. from hundreds of experts around the world, a second draft was prepared. Merle S. Opelz, International Atomic Energy Agency, Switzerland The second draft of the report was circulated to the Advisory Janos Pasztor, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Panel, energy experts, governments and NGOs by mail and via a Change, Germany website. With input from that second round of comments, as well as Neculai Pavlovschi, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz-S.A.), Romania from careful scrutiny by the Editorial Board, the final versions of the H.E. Per Kristian Pedersen, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway chapters were produced. A list of Advisory Panel members and peer Atiq Rahman, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies, Bangladesh reviewers appears below. Morris Rosen, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria Pranesh Chandra Saha, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand Advisory Panel T. Lakshman Sankar, Administrative Staff College of India, India Mohamad Ali Abduli, Ministry of Energy, Iran E.V.R. Sastry, Ministry of Non-conventional Sources of Energy, India Mohammed Taoufik Adyel, Ministère de l’Energie et des Mines, Morocco Hari Sharan, DESI Power, India Jassim Al-Gumer, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Slav Slavov, Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva Countries, Kuwait Youba Sokona, Environment Development Action in the Third World Hani Alnakeeb, Organization for Energy Planning, Egypt (ENDA-TM), Senegal Boris Berkovski, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Lee Solsbery, Foundation for Business and Sustainable Development, U.K. Organisation, France Istvan Tokes, United Nations Development Programme, Hungary Rufino Bomasang, PNOC Exploration Corporation, Philippines Eric Usher, United Nations Environment Programme, France Hernán Bravo, Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad, Costa Rica Dmitri Volfberg, Ministry of Science and Technologies, Russia Timothy Brennand, University of East Anglia, U.K. Yasmin Von Schirnding, World Health Organization, Switzerland Anthony Derrick, IT Power Ltd., U.K. Bernard Devin, ADEME, UN-CERND, France Daniel Doukoure, Ministère de l’Energie, Côte d’Ivoire Peer Reviewers Danilo Feretic, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, Croatia Mark Reed Aberdeen H.E. Irene Freudenschuss-Reichl, Austrian Mission to the United Dean E. Abrahamson, University of Minnesota, U.S. Nations, Austria Jiwan Sharma Acharya, University of Flensburg, Germany Zdravko Genchev, Center for Energy Efficiency EnEffect, Bulgaria Jim Adam, Executive Assembly, World Energy Council, U.S. Gustav R. Grob, CMDC-WSEC (World Sustainable Energy Coalition), Adam Edow Adawa Switzerland Anthony O. Adegbulugbe, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria Filino Harahap, Institute of Technology of Bandung, Indonesia Bernard Aebisher, ETH Zentrum, Switzerland Anhar Hegazi, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Lebanon Carlos Alberto Aguilar Molina, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Sawad Hemkamon, Ministry of Science Technology and Environment, Recursos Naturales, El Salvador Thailand Husamuddin Ahmadzai, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Nesbert Kanyowa, Zimbabwe Mission, Switzerland (SIDA), Sweden Christian Katsande, Ministry of Transport and Energy, Zimbabwe Rafeeuddin Ahmed, United Nations Development Programme, U.S. Jean-Étienne Klimpt, Hydro-Québec, Canada Francois Ailleret, World Energy Council, France Ron Knapp, World Coal Institute, U.K. Ali Ainan Farah, Ministère de l’Industrie de l’Énergie et des Mines, Djibouti Mansika Knut, Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, Norway Arif Alauddin, Ministry of Water & Power, Pakistan Catherine P. Koshland, University of California at Berkeley, U.S. M. Albert, Union for the Coordination of Production and Transmission George Kowalski, Economic Commission for Europe, Switzerland of Electricity, Portugal Raymond Lafitte, International Hydropower Association, Switzerland Issam Al-Chalabi, Consultant, Jordan Hans Larsen, RISØ National Laboratory, Denmark Abdlatif Y. Al-Hamad, Arab Fund for Economic and Social Kevin Leydon, European Commission, Belgium Development (AFSED), Kuwait Paul Llanso, World Meteorological Organization, Switzerland Suleiman Abu Alim, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Jordan Alphonse MacDonald, United Nations Population Fund, Switzerland Hugo Altomonte Andrei Marcu, United Nations Development Programme, U.S. Popescu Anca, Institute of Power Studies and Design, Romania Manuel F. Martínez, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico Per Dannemand Andersen, Denmark William R. Moomaw, IVM Free University of Amsterdam, Netherlands Dean Anderson, Center for Economic Analysis r.e. (ECON), Norway

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 485 World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and Peer Reviewers Dean Anderson, Royal Institute of International Affairs, U.K. Rob Bradley, Climate Network Europe, Belgium Michael J. Antal, Jr., University of Hawaii at Manoa, U.S. Roberto Brandt, World Energy Council, U.K. H.E. Bagher Asadi, Permanent Mission of the Islamic Republic of Klaus Brendow, World Energy Council, Switzerland Iran to the United Nations, U.S. Henri Bretaudeau, World Bank, U.S. Mie Asaoka, Yanaginobanba-dori, Japan Lucien Y. Bronicki, ORMAT Industries Ltd., Israel Harry Audus, International Energy Agency, France Jenny Bryant, United Nations Development Programme, Fiji Mohamaed M. Awad, Egyptian Electricity Authority, Egypt Tommy Buch, INVAP, Argentina Kazi Obaidul Awal, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Bangladesh Marites Cabrera, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand A. Awori, Kenya Energy and Environment Organisations (KENGO), Kenya Andre Caille, Hydro-Québec, Canada Emine Aybar, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Turkey Martin Cames, Institute for Applied Ecology, Germany Murfat Badawi, Arab Fund for Economic & Social Development, Kuwait Allen Chen, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S. Sheila Bailey, NASA Glen Research Center, U.S. Viravat Chlayon, Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, Thailand Venkatrama Bakthavatsalam, Indian Renewable Energy Development Joy Clancy, University of Twente, Netherlands Agency, Ltd., India Gerald Clark, Uranium Institute, U.K. Juraj Balajka, Profing, s.r.o., Slovak Republic Andrew Clarke, World Association of Nuclear Operators, U.K. Guillermo R. Balce, Asean Centre for Energy, Indonesia Denis Clarke, World Bank, U.S. Alexander Barnes, World Energy Council, France Suani Teixeira Coelho, National Reference Center on Biomass Fritz Barthel, World Energy Council, Germany (CENBIO), Brazil A. Bartle, International Hydropower Association, U.K. Gerry Collins, Canadian International Development Agency, Canada Reid Basher, International Research Institute for Climate Prediction Helene Connor, Helio Global Sustainable Energy Observatory, France (IRI), U.S. Stefano Consonni Sujay Basu, Jadavpur University, India Michael Corrigall, World Energy Council, South Africa Bauer, Mexican Autonomous National University (UNAM), Mexico Jos Cosijnsen, The Environmental Defense Fund, Netherlands Pierre Beaudouin, Federation Rhone-Alpes de Protection de la Nature Teodorescu Cristinel-Dan, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz (FRAPNA), France S.A.), Romania Carol Bellamy, United Nations Children’s Fund, U.S. James Currie, European Commission, DG XI, Belgium Abdelali Bencheqroun, Ministry of Energy and Mines, Morocco Zhou Da Di, Energy Research Institute, State Planning Commission, China Natan Bernot, World Energy Council, Slovenia Anibal de Almeida, University of Coimbra, Portugal Gustavo Best, Food and Agriculture Organization, Italy Piet de Klerk, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria Jos Beurskens, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN), Dmitry Derogan, Ukraine Netherlands Jean Pierre Des Rosiers, International Energy Agency, France Somnath Bhattacharjee, Tata Energy Research Institute, India V. V. Desai, ICICI, India Zbigniew Bicki, Zbigniew Bicki Consulting, Poland Eric Donni, European Commission, DG VIII, Belgium Jakob Bjornsson, Iceland Seth Dunn, Worldwatch Institute, U.S. Edgar Blaustein, Energy21, France Knut Dyrstad, Statkraft, Norway Arie Bleijenberg, Centrum voor Engergiebesparing en Scvhone Anton Eberhard, University of Cape Town, South Africa Technologie, Netherlands Simon Eddy, Ministry of Energy, Cote d’Ivoire Kornelis Blok, Ecofys Cooperatief Advies- en Onderzoeksbureau, Dominique Egré, Hydro-Québec, Canada Netherlands Mohamed T. El-Ashry, Global Environment Facility, U.S. David Bloom, Harvard Institute for International Development, U.S. Mohamed El-Baradei, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria Brenda Boardman, St. Hilda’s College, University of Oxford, U.K. Baldur Eliasson, ABB Corporate Research, Switzerland Teun Bokhoven, Netherlands R. Bryan Erb, Sunsat Energy Council, U.S. Bert Bolin, Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden Andre Faaij, Utrecht University, Netherlands James Bond, World Bank, U.S. Malin Falkenmark, Stockholm International Water Institute, Sweden Pal Borjesson, Sweden Ugo Farinelli, Conferenza Nazionale Energia E Ambiente, Italy Daniel Bouille, Hydro-Québec, Canada Lilian Fernandez, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, Japan Messaoud Boumaour, Silicon Technology Development Unit, Algeria Susan Fisher, University of California at Berkeley, U.S. Jean-Marie Bourdaire, International Energy Agency and Organisation Pamela Franklin, University of California at Berkeley, U.S. for Economic Co-operation and Development, France Jean-Romain Frisch, Environmental Defense Fund, France Christophe Bourillon, European Wind Energy Association, U.K. Yasumasa Fujii, University of Tokyo, Japan Gunnar Boye Olesen, International Network for Sustainable Energy Howard Geller, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, U.S. (INFORSE), Denmark Shokri M. Ghanem, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Duncan Brack, Royal Institute of International Affairs, U.K. Countries, Austria Adrian John Bradbrook, University of Adelaide, Australia Marc Georges Giroux, International Atomic Energy Agency, France

486 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and Peer Reviewers S. Goethe Vattenfall, Sweden Tom Kram, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN), Netherlands Donna Green, Australia Florentin Krause, International Project for Sustainable Energy Paths Reg Green, International Federation of Chemical, Energy & General (ISEP), U.S. Workers’ Unions, Belgium Emilio La Rovere, Federal School of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Inna Gritsevich, Center for Energy Efficiency, Russia Oddvar Lægreld, Royal Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Norway Violetta Groseva, European Commission Energy Centre Sofia, Bulgaria Ari Lampinen, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland Gaétan Guertin, Hydro-Québec, Canada Jonathan Lash, World Resources Institute, U.S. Shen Guofang, Permanent Mission of the People’s Republic of China Tõnu Lausmaa, Renewable Energy Center TAASEN, Estonia to the United Nations, U.S. Gerald Leach, Stockholm Environment Institute, U.K. H.E. Ali Hachani, Permanent Mission of Tunisia to the United Barrie Leay, New Zealand Nations, U.S. Thierry Lefevre, Centre for Energy-Environment Research & Development; Oystein Haland, Statoil, Norway Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand Richard Heede, Rocky Mountain Institute, U.S. Jostein Leiro, Permanent Mission of Norway to the United Nations, U.S. Peter Helby, University of Lund, Sweden Stella Lenny, Hydro-Québec, Canada Sam Holloway, British Geological Survey, U.K. Jip Lenstra, Ministry of the Environment, Netherlands Ian Hore-Lacy, Uranium Information Centre, Australia Andre Liebaert, European Commission, DG VIII/E/5, Belgium Roberto Hukai, BVI Technoplan, Brazil Krister Lönngren, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Finland Hassan Ibrahim, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, Japan Laurraine Lotter, Chemical and Allied Industries’ Association, South Africa Istrate Ioan Ilarie, Romanian Gas Corporation (Romgaz S.A.), Romania Philip Lowe, European Commission, DG VIII, Belgium Jon Ingimarsson, Ministries of Industry and Commerce Arnarhvoli, Iceland Haile Lul Tebicke, TERRA plc, Ethiopia H.E. Samuel Rudy Insanally, Permanent Mission of Indonesia to the Joachim Luther, Germany United Nations, U.S. Erik Lysen, University of Utrecht, Netherlands Karin Ireton, Industrial Environmental Forum of Southern Africa, Robert Mabro, Oxford Energy Policy Club, England South Africa Tim Mackey, Department of Industry, Science and Resources, Australia A. Jagadeesh, Nayudamma Centre for Development Alternatives, India Birger Madson, Denmark Antero Jahkola, Finnish Academies of Technology, Finland Preben Maegaard, Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, Denmark Rodney Janssen, Helio International, France Maswabi M. Maimbolwa, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Zambia Gilberto Januzzi, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S. Alexj Makarov, Energy Research Institute, Russia Tamas Jaszay, Technical University of Budapest, Hungary Markku J. Makela, Geological Survey of Finland, Finland Karl Jechoutek, World Bank, U.S. Jose Malhaes da Silva, Developing Countries Committee, Brazil Sathia Jothi, New Clean Energy Development Society (NERD), India Julio Torres Martinez, Ministerio de Ciencia Technologia y Medio Tian Jun, China Ambiente, Cuba Yonghun Jung, Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre, Japan John Michael Matuszak, U.S. Olav Kaarstad, Statoil R&D Centre, Norway Charles McCombie, Pangea Resources International, Switzerland Vladimir Kagramanian, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria Gene McGlynn, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Daniel M. Kammen, University of California at Berkeley, U.S. Development, France Owen MacDonald Kankhulungo, Ministry of Water Development, Malawi J. F. Meeder, International Gas Union, Netherlands René Karottki, International Network for Sustainable Energy, Zimbabwe Anita Kaniz Mehdi Zaidi, Pakistan Public Health Foundation, Pakistan Arun Kashyap, The Rockefeller Foundation, U.S. Wafik M. Meshref, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for Badr Kasme, Syrian Mission to the United Nations, Switzerland Development (UN-CENRD), Egypt Martti Kätkä, World Energy Council, Finland Tim Meyer, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE, Germany Yoichi Kaya, World Energy Council, Japan Axel Michaelowa, France William Kennedy, United Nations Fund for International Partnerships, U.S. Joseph Milewski, Hydro-Québec, Canada Andrzej Kerner, Energy Information Centre, Poland David Mills, University of Sydney, Australia Nancy Kete, World Resources Institute, U.S. Sandor Molnar, Systemexpert Consulting Ltd., Hungary Hyo-Sun Kim, Korea Gas Corporation, Korea Barros Monteiro, Ministry of Economy, Portugal Evans N. Kituyi, Kenya National Academy of Sciences, Kenya Claus Montenem, Technology for Life, Finland Tord Kjellstorm, Health and Environment International Consultants, Robert B. Moore, U.S. New Zealand José Roberto Moreira, Biomass Users Network, Brazil Israel Klabin, Fundacao Brasileira Para O Desenvolvimento John O. Mugabe, African Centre for Technology Studies, Kenya Sustentavel, Brazil Surya Mulandar, Climate Action Network South East Asia, Indonesia Hans Jurgen Koch, International Energy Agency, France Pablo Mulás del Pozo, World Energy Council, Mexico Serguei Kononov, International Atomic Energy Agency, Austria J. M. Muller, International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Keith Kozloff, World Resources Institute, U.S. (OICA), France

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 487 World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and Peer Reviewers Michel Muylle, World Bank, U.S. Randall Spalding-Fecher, University of Cape Town, South Africa Emi Nagata, Japan Helga V.E. Steeg, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Germany Weidou Ni, Tsinghua University, China Achim Steiner, World Commission on Dams, South Africa Lars J. Nilson, Lund University, Sweden Jeffrey Stewart, U.S. Ainun Nishat, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Andy Stirling, University of Sussex, U.K. Bangladesh Peter Stokoe, Natural Resources Canada, Canada M. Nizamuddin, United Nations Population Fund, U.S. Carlos Enrique Suárez, Fundación Bariloche, Argentina Richard Noetstaller, Registered Consulting Office, Austria Budi Sudarsono, National Nuclear Energy Agency, Indonesia Kieran O’Brien, EirGrid, Ireland R. Taylor, International Hydropower Association, U.K. Jose Ocampo, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Teng Teng, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences; Tsinghua University, China Caribbean, Chile Jefferson Tester, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, U.S. Peter Odell, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands Jacques Theys, Ministère de l’Equipement, du Logement, des Transports Andy Oliver, International Petroleum Industry, U.K. et du Tourisme, France Derek Osborn, U.K. Steve Thorne, Energy Transformations cc, South Africa Richard Ottinger, Pace University, U.S. Yohji Uchiyama, Central Research Institute of Electric Power Nataa Oyun-Erdene, Mongolia Industry, Japan Rajenda K. Pachauri, Tata Energy Research Institute, India Matthew Vadakemuriyil, Malanadu Development Society, India Jyoti P. Painuly, RISØ National Laboratory, Denmark Giap van Dang, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo Maarten J. van der Burgt, Energy Consultancy B.V., Netherlands Alain Parfitt, Energy Charter Secretariat, Belgium Nico van der Linden, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation Jyoti Parikh, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, India (ECN), Netherlands Jean-Michel Parrouffe, ENERZONIA, Canada Frank van der Vleuten, Free Energy Europe, Netherlands Maksimiljan Peènik, Slovenian Nuclear Safety Administration, Slovenia Jean-Marc van Nypelseer, Association for the Promotion of Stanislaw M. Pietruszko, Warsaw University of Technology – Solar Renewable Energies (APERE), Belgium Energy – Photovoltaics, Polish Society for Solar Energy (ISES), Poland Rangswamy Vedavalli, U.S. Asif Qayyum Qureshi, Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Pakistan Toni Vidan, Green Action, Zelena Akcija Zagreb, Croatia Pierre Radane, Institut d’Evaluation des Strategies sur l’Energie et Antonio Vignolo, Regional Electrical Integration Commission l’Energie et l’Environnement, France (CIER), Uruguay Jamuna Ramakrishna, Hivos, India Delia Villagrasa, Climate Network Europe, Belgium Robert L. Randall, The RainForest ReGeneration Institute, U.S. Arturo Villevicencio Chris Rapley, British Antarctic Survey, U.K. Michael S. Von Der, United Nations Development Programme, Iran Jean-Pierre Reveret, Université du Quebec à Montreal, Canada Shem O. Wandiga, Kenya National Academy of Sciences, Kenya John B. Robinson, University of British Columbia, Canada Xiaodong Wang, Global Environment Facility, U.S. Zoilo Rodas, Environmental Assessment, Paraguay Werner Weiss, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erneuerbare Energie – AEE, Austria Humberto Rodriguez, National University, Colombia John Weyant, Stanford University, U.S. Carlos Rolz, Guatemalan Academy of Sciences, Guatemala H.E. Makarim Wibisono, Permanent Mission of Indonesia to the Felix A. Ryan, Ryan Foundation, India United Nations, U.S. Jacques Saint-Just, Gaz de France, France Quentin Wodon, World Bank, U.S. Hiroshi Sakurai, The Engineering Academy of Japan, Japan Nobert Wohlgemuth, RISØ National Laboratory, Denmark Liam Salter, Climate Network Europe, Belgium Beth Woroniuk, Goss Gilroy Inc, Canada Angelo Saullo, ICC Energy Commission, Italy Ernst Worrell, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, U.S. Fulai Sheng, World Wildlife Fund, U.S. Raymond M. Wright, Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica PCJ Resource Ralph E.H. Sims, Massey University, U.S. Center, Jamaica Rajendra Singh, Pricing Energy in Developing Countries Committee Anatoli Yakushau, Institute Power Engineering Problem, National Wim C. Sinke, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN), Academy of Sciences, Belarus Netherlands Remko Ybema, Netherlands Energy Research Foundation (ECN), Doug Smith Netherlands Eddy Kofi Smith, Committee on Energy and Natural Resources for Keiichi Yokobori, Asia Pacific Research Centre, Japan Development (UN-CENRD), Ghana S. Zarrilli, United Nations Commission on Trade and Development, Bent Sørensen, Roskilde University, Denmark Switzerland Manuel Soriano, PT Hagler Bailly, Indonesia Guocheng Zhang, Ministry of Science and Technology, China S. Kamaraj Soundarapandian, Non-conventional Energy and Rural ZhongXiang Zhang, University of Groningen, Netherlands Development Society, India Fengqi Zhou, State Development Planning Commission, China

488 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY World Energy Assessment Advisory Panel and Peer Reviewers index Note: Page numbers followed GDP in urban, 49, 49f, 73–77 aerosols and, 86 by letters b, f, n, and t indicate and consumption, 398f in developing countries, coal energy in material presented in boxes, per capita, 343t 76–77 resources of, 148, 148t, 149t figures, notes, and tables, geothermal energy in in industrialised countries, security of, 126 respectively. potential of, 165t 74–76 coalbed methane resources use of, 255t long-term control of, 77 in, 145, 146t household fuel choice in, 65t Air quality, value of, 98–100 consumption in, 397t A hydroelectricity in Air travel, efficiency of, 177, 205, 211 of primary energy, 33, 33t dams for, 79 Alcohols economic efficiency potential a-Si. See Amorphous silicon potential of, 154, 154t, as alternative automotive in, 189–190, 189t ABB/Combustion Engineering 155f, 253t fuels, 293–294 environmental policies System, 313 improved cooking stoves in, biomass production of, 225 in, effects on sulphur Absolute poverty, 44, 59n dissemination of, 371, 371t emissions from, 293–294 dioxide emissions, 403f Absorption cooling, 249 intensity trends in, 180–181, 180t Aluminum, production intensity GDP in, per capita, 343t ABWR. See Advanced Boiling leaded fuel in, 76b for, 178b geothermal energy in Water Reactor natural gas resources in, Americas. See also Latin America; potential of, 165t Access 145t, 146t North America; specific countries use of, 255t to electricity, global population oil exportation by, projections wind energy programme in, 231t household fuel choice in, 65f and, 374t for, 357f, 358 Ammonia emissions, regional hydropower in, 77 market liberalisation and oil reserves in, 139t, impacts of, 81 potential of, 154t, 155f, 253t increase in, 409–410 140t–141t Amorphous silicon (a-Si), photo- intensity trends in, 180–181 to modern energy forms, solar energy potential in, 163t voltaic cell, 238t projections for, 343, 344f benefits of, 397–399 sulphur dioxide emissions in, 82 Anaerobic digestion, of biomass, market in poverty and, 47 thorium resources in, 152 224t, 224–225 liberalisation of, 129 to urban transportation uranium resources in, 150t, 151t Animal biomass, 156. See also Dung trade patterns of, 34 systems, 55 urban population in, 421 Antarctica, water balance in, 153, 153t natural gas energy in widening urbanisation in, 54–55 Anthracosis, 72 grids for, 125 and energy regulation, 410 water balance in, 153t APERC. See Asia Pacific Energy resources of, 145t, 146t responding to challenge water resources in, 159t Research Centre nitrogen oxide emissions in, 83 of, 420–422 wind energy resources in, 164t Appliances nuclear power in, 126 strategies for, 421 programme for, 231t efficiency of oil energy in Acid deposition, 83–84 Agenda 21, 26n, 419, 443 labels regarding, 428, 429 importation of, 120 causes of, 81, 83 on energy in sustainable obstacles to, 203 reserves of, 139t, 140t–141t impacts of, 11, 83–84, 83b development, i, 3 policies on, 208–209, 209t ozone concentrations in, 85 projections for, 102, 359, 361f on need for change, 3, 42–43 fuel cycle of, 100 particulate concentrations in, 85 Adequacy, and security, 114, Programme for the Further in United States, 57 regional emissions in, 80t 115–118 Implementation of, 419, 445 Aquifer(s), deep, carbon dioxide solar energy potential in, 163t Adsorption cooling, 249 Agriculture storage in, 289–290, 319n–320n sulphur dioxide emissions Advanced Boiling Water Reactor vs. biomass production, 158 Aquifer gas in, 82, 82f, 403f (ABWR), 313 efficiency of definition of, 147 thorium resources in, 152 Advanced energy technologies, barriers to, 205 resources of, 146t, 147 uranium resources in, 150t, 151t 14–18, 273–318 in China, 194, 194t Arctic Ocean, in global water urban population in, 421 fossil, 14–17, 274, 275–306 in India, 193, 193t balance, 153t urbanisation in, 54–55 nuclear, 17–18, 274, 306–318 policies on, 210 ARES. See Advanced Reciprocating water balance in, 153t residual problems of, 379 environmental impacts of, Engine Systems water resources in, 159t Advanced Reciprocating 64f, 161 Argentina wind energy in Engine Systems (ARES) productivity of, climate economic efficiency potential programme on, 231t programme, 286 change and, 90–91, 105n in, 195 resources for, 164t Aerosols, impacts of, 95 residues from (See Crop residues) geothermal electricity Asia Alternative Energy Program on climate change, 86 water use in, 155 generation capacity in, 256t (ASTAE), 432 on global energy balance, 88t Agrochemicals, biomass energy intensity trends in, 180t Asia Least Cost Greenhouse Gas projections for, 360–361 systems and, 226 market reform in, 426 Abatement Strategy, 189 AFBC. See Atmospheric pressure Air conditioners rural energy development Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation fluidised-bed combustion geothermal heat pumps for, 257 in, concession scheme (APEC), 122, 123b Affordability solar, 249 for, 382b Asia Pacific Energy Research concept of, 382 Air pollution. See also specific urban PM10 concentrations Centre (APERC), 122 of energy services pollutants in, 75f Assistance, development factors limiting, 383 from biomass consumption, 397 Armenia, intensity trends in, 179 conditionality in, 432 and sustainable development, in China, 374, 384–385 Arrhenius, Svante, 86 decline in, 440 383–384 from crop-residue burning, Asia. See also specific countries inadequacy of, 420–421 Africa. See also specific countries 66, 384–385 acid deposition in, 84, 97b official, 6, 37 acid deposition in, 84 from fossil fuels, cost of, projections for, 359, 361f ASTAE. See Asia Alternative biogas experience in, 373 277, 277t ammonia emissions in, 81 Energy Program biomass potential in, 158t, 159 health effects of, 97 biomass energy in Atlantic Ocean, in global water carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f indoor, 11, 66–69, 67f, 70f conversion of, 224 balance, 153t changes in, 444t near-zero potential of, 158t, 159 Atmospheric pressure fluidised- coal resources in, 148t, 149t promising technological use of, 227–228 bed combustion (AFBC), 303–304 consumption in, 395t options for, 278, 279 carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f and carbon dioxide of primary energy, 33, 33t technologies and strategies changes in, 444t emissions, 321n ratio to GDP, 398f for, 279–302 carbon monoxide Australia economic efficiency potential projections for, 359–360 emissions in, 83 in APEC, 123b in, 197–200, 197t regional, 80–86 climate change in, sulphate coal reserves in, 148

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 491 Index coalbed methane production Belgium, urban PM10 concentrations methanol production from, 225 BRG. See Bundesanstalt für in, 145 in, 75f modern, 222 Geowissenschaften und geothermal electricity generation Benzene, reducing levels of, 293 contribution of, 220 Rohstoffe capacity in, 256t BIG/CC. See Biomass integrated plantation production of, Brine gas, 147 intensities in gasification/combined 157–162, 160t Brundtland Commission, 449n for automobile fuel, 429b cycle systems costs of, 162 definition of sustainable trends in, 179f Bilateral insurance schemes, 430 environmental impacts development, 419 oil shale resources in, 141 Bio-oil, biomass production of, 225 of, 161–162 Brundtland Report, 26n solar collectors in, 248t performance data for, 226t polygeneration strategy for, Brunei Darussalam, in APEC, 123b solar energy technologies in, 246 Biocrude, 225 229–230 Build-own-operate-transfer solar thermal electricity Biodiversity producer gas derived from, (BOOT) schemes, 433 developments in, 244b on biomass plantations, 162, 226 373–374 Build-own-transfer (BOT) schemes, 433 thorium resources in, 152 hydropower impact on, 252 resource base of, 156–162 Building(s) tidal current model Biofuels adequacy of, 117–118 design of, and passive solar demonstration in, 260 particulate emissions from, 85 potential of, 14, 157–160, energy use, 250 regional impacts of, 80–81, 85 158t, 222t, 223 efficiency of urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f Biogas problems with, 157 obstacles to, 203 water balance in, 153t household use of risks of, 31 policies on, 208, 208b wind energy in for cooking, 373 sources of, 156–157, 157t potential for, 188 potential of, 164t greenhouse gas emission degradation of, 47, 59n Bulgaria programme on, 231t from, 70, 71f technologies, 221t, 223–225 geothermal energy production Austria limitations of, 379 current status of, 266t in, 257t biomass energy in, 162, 226, 227t production of, 225, 373 traditional intensity trends in, 180t energy research and Biomass, 222–230 contribution of, 220 urban PM10 concentrations development funding in, 448 advantages of, 222–223, 224, 230 sustainability of, 222 in, 75f solar collectors in, 248t air pollution from, 66–67, 66b, transportation of, 160 Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften 372, 397 Biomass integrated gasification/ und Rohstoffe (BRG) (Federal urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f anaerobic digestion of, 224t, combined cycle (BIG/CC) Institute for Geosciences and Automobiles 224–225 systems, 224, 224t Natural Resources), 139 alternative, 77, 78b biogas derived from, 225, 373 Birds, wind turbines and, 233 Burundi, improved cooking stoves fuels for, 293–294 vs. charcoal, in cooking stoves, Births, desired number of, 52 disseminated in, 371t CIDI hybrids, 294 371–372 Bitumen, natural (tar sands), 141t, Bush, George, 57–58 combustion of, 224, 224t, 226 142, 142b Buy-down programmes, costs of environmental damage emissions from, 66–67, 66b, Bituminous coal, 147 technology, 437 from, 278t, 279t 372, 395 resources of, 148, 148t, 149t in developing countries, 439 fuel cell, 17, 280b, 299–302 commercial collection of, 70–71 Black carbon, 85 gasoline hybrids, 294 competitiveness of, 225 Black shale deposits, uranium hybrid internal combustion consumption of, 4–5 concentrations in, 151 C engine, 301–302 household, 65–70, 396f BOOT. See Build-own-operate-transfer pollution from contribution of, 220, 222, BOS. See Balance-of-system Cadmium emissions, sources in developing countries, 77 222t, 223 BOT. See Build-own-transfer of, 10t, 64t health costs of, 99–100 conversion routes for, 223f, BPEV. See Battery-powered Cadmium telluride (CdTe), photo- in industrialised countries, 74 223–225, 224t electric vehicle voltaic cell, 238t in United States, 57 as cooking fuel, 371–372 Brazil health concerns regarding, 240 Azores, geothermal electricity relative to GNP per capita, 396f biomass energy in materials availability for, 239 generation capacity in, 256t costs of, 15t, 162, 220, 223, 227, conversion of, 225, 227t, 228 CAFE standards. See Corporate 228, 402t production of, 162, 169n Average Fuel Economy standards B definition of, 221, 222 biomass integrated gasification/ Canada and demographic indicators, combined cycle (BIG/CC) in APEC, 123b 53, 53t project in, 224 Bay of Fundy, tidal energy Bachu, Stefan, 290 economics of, 226–227 consumption in, 396t potential of, 259 Backyard industries, in urban and electricity production, 223f, demand in, income and, 7, 9f, 45f carbon dioxide emissions in, areas, 55 224, 224t efficiency in changes in, 444t Balance, global energy, 168f environmental aspects of, 46, economic potential of, 195, consumption in, 395t history of changes in, 88f 161–162, 225–226 196, 197b efficiency in Balance-of-system (BOS), term, 238 ester production from, 225 programme for, 428 economic potential of, Bangladesh ethanol production from, 225 electricity conservation 187–189, 187t financing of renewable energy externalities offered by, 230 programme in, 427 policies on, 209t in, 432 fossil energy technology electricity subsidies in, 425 heavy crude oil resources photovoltaic programme in, 383b advances and, 277 ethanol production in, 157, 439 in, 142 rural electrification cooperatives fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b, 103b eucalyptus plantations in, 227 hydroelectric dams in, 78 in, 381 and fuel production, 223f, 225 foreign direct investment in, 431 intensities in Baruch plan, 310b performance data, 226t gasification-based projects for automobile fuel, 429b Basic human needs, energy gasification of, 224, 224t, 225, 226 in, 298t trends in, 177, 179f requirements for satisfying, health risks with, 46, 49 hydroelectricity in, 154 research and development in 369–370, 420 and heat production, 223f, intensity trends in, 180t decline in support for, 406b Battery-powered electric vehicle 223–224, 224t LPG programme in, 372, 410 private sector spending (BPEV), 300 hydrocarbon production from, 225 market reform in, 426 on, 447 Beijing Fourth World Conference on hydrogen production from, 225 PRO-ALCOOL programme tar sands in, 116, 142 Women, 26n implementation issues, 227–230 in, 225, 229b thorium resources in, 152 Belarus industrial uses of, 228b thorium resources in, 152 urban PM10 concentrations intensity trends in, 179, 180t land use requirements for, urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f 222b, 228 in, 75f wind energy programme in, 231t

492 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index Capacity 21 Programme, UNDP, 431 geothermal potential in, 165t and coal-based polygeneration wind energy in Capacity building household fuel choice in, 65f strategies, 297 programme for, 231t and sustainable energy hydroelectricity in, potential coal reserves in, 148 resources for, 164t technologies, 440–441 of, 154t, 253t coal use in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), as World Bank and, 431 natural gas resources delivery costs of, 148 greenhouse gases, 87 Capacity Development Initiative in, 145t, 146t health costs of, 98–99 Choice, fuel, poverty and, 45 (CDI), 431 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t mining deaths from, 73 CIDI. See Compression-ignition Capacity factor, definition of, 262 solar energy potential in, 163t pollutants from, 68, 98–99 direct-injection Car(s). See Automobiles thorium resources in, 152 projections for, 276 CIGS. See Copper-indium/ Carbon, emissions of uranium resources in, 150t, 151t security of, 126 gallium-diselenide from deforestation vs. dams, water resources in, 159t coalbed methane resources Circulation, atmospheric and oceanic, 79–80 wind energy resources in, 164t in, 145 climate change and, 90 fates of, 86–87, 87t Cars. See Automobiles consumption in, 396t CITES, 440 vs. fossil fuel resource base, Carter, Jimmy, and synfuel of primary energy, 33, 33t Cities. See Urban areas 148–149 development efforts, 275 ratio to GDP, 398f Clean Air Act (United States) sources of, 87t, 91–92, 91t Cascaded energy use, 199 crop-residue-derived modern and acid deposition, 84 Carbon dioxide emissions Catalytic converters, reduced air energy carriers in, 384–388 and sulphur dioxide atmospheric pressure pollution with, 74, 76b demand in, shifts in, 118f emissions, 82, 360 fluidised-bed combustion CDI. See Capacity Development efficiency in Clean Development Mechanism, (AFBC) and, 321n Initiative economic potential of, Kyoto Protocol, 431, 433, 444 changes in, 443–444, 444t CdTe. See Cadmium telluride 194–195, 194t, 195b CLFR. See Compact linear in coal mining, 72 Cement, final energy use for, 181t obstacles to, 205 fresnel reflector from direct coal liquefaction, 305 Central America. See Latin America programme for, 428 Climate change, 86–95 from fossil fuels, options for Central Europe. See also electrical grids in, 385 awareness of, 41 reducing, 278–279 specific countries foreign direct investment in, 431 computer models of, 88, 105n geographic distribution of, 91–92 carbon dioxide emissions in, fossil fuel subsidies in, 425 consequences of, 89–91 from geothermal fields, 258 changes in, 444t gasification-based projects forms of, 88 and global energy balance, 88t coal resources in, 148t, 149t in, 298t fossil fuels and concerns as greenhouse gas, 86 GDP in, per capita, 343t gasifiers used in, problems posed about, 278 history of, 86–87, 87f hydroelectric potential in, by, 374 greenhouse gas emissions as from hydrogen production, 299 154t, 253t GDP in cause of, 81, 86–89 ocean thermal energy conversion intensities in, projections for, 344f and consumption, 398f international agreements on, 94–95, 96 (OTEC) and, 261 natural gas resources per capita, 343t geothermal energy in international cooperation on, optimism about elimination in, 145t, 146t electricity generation 443–445 of, 408 oil reserves in, 139t,140t–141t capacity for, 256t magnitude of, 88–89, 103 pressurised fluidised-bed solar energy potential in, 163t potential of, 165t mitigating, 404–408 combustion and, 321n thorium resources in, 152 production of, 257t observations of, 88–89 projections for, 91–94, 92f, uranium resources in, 150t, 151t greenhouse gas emissions in, population growth and, 51 93t, 361–363, 362f, 363f, water resources in, 159t win-win strategies for, 97b projections for, 88–89, 91–94, 405–406, 407f Central receiver, solar, 245–246 heavy crude oil resources in, 142 102, 360–364 recovery and disposal of Ceramic Jiko initiative (Kenya), 198b household use in rate of, 103 alternative strategies for, Cetane number, 320n fuel choice for, 65–66, 65f regional, 86, 90 performance and cost CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons wind systems for, 377 technological options for calculations for, 290t, Chains, energy hybrid wind, battery, and mitigation of, 422 291–293 definition of, 4 diesel systems in, 233b win-win strategies for reduction fuel cells and, 288–289 efficiency of, 32 hydropower in of, 96–98 savings example of, 5f dams, 77, 78, 79 Clinch River Breeder Reactor photovoltaic solar energy Charcoal small-scale stations, 375 demonstration project, U.S., 323n and, 239 production of, and wood resource intensities in Co-combustion, cost of, 227 solar thermal electricity and, depletion, 66 history of, 8f Coal 246–247 stoves, 371–372 projections for, 343, 344f cost of, 276 sequestration strategies Chernobyl accident, 308 recent trends in, 180t direct liquefaction of, 305 for, 289–293, 423 Children, as wage earners, and NMVOCs in, 81 drawbacks and attractions of, 276 deep aquifer, 289–290, desired number of births, 52 nuclear forecasts for, 321n electricity from, cost of, 292t, 319n–320n Chile oil shale resources in, 141 292–293 deep ocean, 288b, 289 in APEC, 123b ozone concentrations in, 85 energy density of, 370 sources of, 10t, 11, 63, 64t economic efficiency potential producer gas option in, 374 fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b, 103b taxes on, 264, 423, 424, 424b in, 195 projections for, 360b gasification of, 15–16, 282– Carbon monoxide urban PM10 concentrations rural regions of, 378 284, 303 emissions in, 75f solar energy in health costs of, 99, 99t in coal mining, 72 China collectors for, 248, 248t household use of, 65–67, 370 regional impacts acid deposition in, 84 for cookers, 250 emissions from, 66b, 67–68 of, 80–81, 80t air pollution in, 374, 384–385 market for, 248 hydrogen manufacture from, 320n future of, 83, 101–102 from biomass consump- stove programme in, 370b, 371 mining of poisoning, risk of tion, 397 sulphur dioxide emissions health risks with, 71–72, 73 charcoal and, 372 in APEC, 123b in, 82, 82f mortality rates for, 73 producer gas and, 374, 379 biogas experience in, 373, 439 thorium resources in, 152 power production based on, vs. Cardiovascular disease, household biomass potential in, 158t Two Control Zone policy of, 82 biomass energy, 224 solid fuel use and, 69, 69b carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f urban areas of price of, 35, 36, 276 Caribbean reductions in, 443–444 air pollutant concentrations production of biomass potential in, 158t climate change in, sulphate in, 76–77 global, 35, 148 coal resources in, 148t, 149t aerosols and, 86 PM10 concentrations in, 75f health risks with, 72

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 493 Index regional impacts of, 85 efficiency in Convention on Nuclear Safety, 127 of coal, 98–99, 148, 276 resource base of, 116t, 147–150, economic potential of, 191– Conventional energy. See also of electricity 148t, 149t 192, 192b, 192t Traditional energy with alternative engine- adequacy of, 117 obstacles to, 202 definition of, 26n generators, 386t units for, 139 policies on, 207 subsidies for from coal and natural gas, supplies of, 276 intensity trends in, 177–179, 180t phasing out, 264, 424–425 292t, 292–293 security of, 126 Communities, environmental and problems with, 382, 425 in rural areas, 369 trade of, 35, 148 health risks in, 73–80 Conversion security with, 115, 115b transportation of, health risks projections for, 101 vs. consumption, 31 storage, 263, 263t with, 72 Compact linear fresnel reflector technology in, 32 of externalities, 423 types of, 147 (CLFR), 246 Cooking fixed vs. variable, 45 versatility of, 114 Comparative risk assessments, biogas for, 373 of geothermal energy, 220, 256 Coal dust, health hazards of, 72 100–101, 102b–103b with biomass direct use, 256 Coal integrated gasifier combined Competition, market barriers to, 423 combustion in, 66–67 of health impacts, 99–100 cycle (IGCC). See Integrated encouragement of, 426 and demographic indicators, from emissions, 319n gasifier combined cycle introducing in energy sector, 426 53, 53t of hydropower, 220, 251, 254 Coal plants and sustainable energy clean fuels for, 276, 277, to marginal producers, and air pollutant emissions from, development, 417 373–374 prices, 35 costs of, 277t Compressed natural gas vehicles, 78b improving access to, 421 of marine energy, 260, 260t carbon dioxide emissions Compression-ignition direct- dimethyl ether for, 379 of modern energy options, 382 from, alternative strategies injection (CIDI) engines, electricity for, 374 of NGCC operation, 280 for reducing, 290t, 291 hybrids based on, 294 energy ladder for, 45 of non-fossil fuel technologies, Coalbed methane Compression-ignition engines, fuel choice for, 65, 65f uncertainties about, 405 definition of, 145 syngas-derived fuels for, 294–295 fuel demand for, 65 of nuclear fuel, 307–308 resources of, 145, 146t CONAE programme, 428 fuel preferences for, 411n of pollution control, 402–403 Coale, A. J., 52 Concentrating solar power tech- needs, energy requirements polygeneration strategies and Cogeneration strategies, 15–16 nologies, 243 for satisfying, 369, 420 reductions in, 276 with conventional steam turbine key elements of, 244 producer gas for, 373–374 vs. prices, 36 technology, 283–284, 285t Concessions case study, 385 of renewable technology, 15t, forms of, 198–199 renewable energy, 235 solar, 250 220, 402t (See also with integrated gasifier rural energy, 382, 382b, 422 synthetic liquefied petroleum specific technologies) combined cycle, 283, 285t and technological innovation, 438 gas for, 379 of solar energy, 236 in Japan, 190b Construction, in urban areas, 56 Cooking stoves photovoltaic, 240t, 240–241, 241t, 402t with natural gas combined Consumption biomass, 371–372 solar domestic hot water cycle, 282, 282t approaches to charcoal, 371–372 system, 248–249 for near-zero emissions, 279 conventional, 41 combustion in, 66–68, 69 solar thermal electricity, 220, obstacles to, 205 new, 41–43 with commercial and 246, 402t output ratios of electricity to early advances in, 3, 41 non-commercial fuels, space-based, 243 steam, 281f, 281–282 economic development and, comparison of, 370f technology, buying down, policies on, 210–211 34, 34f efficiency of, 198 437, 439 for rural areas, 380t energy emissions from, 66–70, 66b, 67f of wind energy, 230, 234 vs. separate production of vs. conversion, 31 health effects of, 68–69 potential reductions in, 234f electricity and steam, 282t and economic well-being, energy flows in, 67f and women, 47 small engines for, 284–287 395–399 improved, 371–372 Cost efficiency, and energy Coke, conversion of coal to, health efficiency as limitation on, 58 kerosene, 372–373 regulation, 410 risks with, 72 global, 116, 116t liquefied petroleum gas, 372–373 Cost Reduction Study for Solar Colombia, urban PM10 concentrations income level and, 396t, Cooling devices Thermal Power Plants, 243 in, 75f 399, 399t geothermal heat pumps for, 257 Costa Rica Combustion increases in, and solar, 249 geothermal energy in biomass, 224, 224t, 226 environmental Cooperation electricity generation pollution from, 66–67, 66b, protection, 400–408 international, 441–445 capacity with, 256t 372, 397 population size encouraging, 446–447 use of, 255, 256 cost of, 227 and, 51–52, 398t policies for, 25–26 urban PM10 concentrations fuel-cycle analysis of, 103b in rural areas, 52–53 regional, 442–443 in, 75f in households, 66–70 poverty and, 46 Cooperatives, rural electrification, 381 Credit schemes, innovative, 432 emissions from, 66–70, 66b projections for, 5, 395 COP-6 (Sixth Conference of the Parties Croatia, urban PM10 concentrations Commercial energy, consumption of ratio to GDP, 398f, 399, 428 to the Climate Convention), 444 in, 75f data on, 4 urbanisation and, 54 Copenhagen Social Summit, 26n Crop drying, solar, 250 global rate of, 4 by world region, 395t Copper-indium/gallium-diselenide world practical potential impacts of, 64t environmental problems from, (CIGS), photovoltaic cell, 238t estimation for, 250t Commercial use of energy, economic awareness of, 41 health concerns regarding, 240 Crop residues efficiency potential for GDP and, 5, 7f, 34, 34f, 58 materials availability for, 239 as biomass, 160 in Asia, 189–190, 189t industry vs. residential, taxes Corporate Average Fuel Economy burning of, air pollution from, in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191 on, 36 (CAFE) standards, 204, 428 384–385 in Latin America, 195, 196t per capita, and demand, 51 Cost(s). See also Environmental costs harvesting of, environmental in Western Europe, 186, 186t trends in, 58 of biomass energy, 15t, 162, 220, impact of, 66 Commission on Sustainable Conti, Piero Ginori, 255 223, 227, 228, 402t household use of, greenhouse Development (CSD), ninth Contract markets, 36 biomass integrated gas emissions from, 71f session of, focus of, i Convention on Climate Change. gasification/combined thermochemical gasification Commonwealth of Independent See United Nations cycle (BIG/CC) unit, 224 of, 384–388 States. See also Soviet Framework Convention on of carbon dioxide emissions Crude oil Union, former Climate Change avoided, 290t, 291 heavy, 140t–141t, 141–142, 142b

494 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index prices of, 35 Demand-side management, and poverty in, 43–46 District heating, solar energy and, 249 projections for, 123, 123t energy efficiency, 428 private investment in power DME. See Dimethyl ether as source of insecurity, Dematerialization, and demand, sectors of, 409t, 431 Dominican Republic, photovoltaic 122–124 178b conditions for attracting, system in, 377 resource base of, adequacy Demographic transitions, 7, 9t, 430b, 431 Droughts, climate change and, 89 of, 116 50–51, 340b privatisation of electric sector DU. See Distributed utility security with, 119–124 Demonstrated resources, 138 in, 254 Dung importance of, 114 Demonstration projects, 437 and research and development, harvesting of, environmental stocks of, 121 in developing countries, need 435, 449 impact of, 66 trade of, 34–35 for, 439 rural areas of, 21–22 household use of, greenhouse transportation of, 122 Denmark energy needs of, 368–388 gas emissions from, 71f versatility of, 114 biomass energy conversion in, lack of adequate energy Crystalline silicon films (f-Si), 224, 227t, 228 services in, 369 photovoltaic cell, 238t efficiency in, policies on, 209t security in E CSD. See Commission on energy R&D in, funding for, 448 economic growth and, 127 Sustainable Development intensity trends in, 179f problems with, 114–115 EAR-I resources, 151 Current energy, tidal and marine, renewables obligation in, 427 of supply, 118 EAR-II resources, 151 259–260 solar district heating in, 249 technological innovation in, Earth Summit, 419, 443 encouraging, 438–441 goals developed in, 3, 42–43 current status of, 260t urban PM10 concentrations Cyprus, solar collectors in, 248t in, 75f technology transfer in, private- Eastern Europe. See also Czech Republic wind energy programme sector led, 440 specific countries gasification-based projects in, 231t, 266 transportation in, 55 carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f in, 298t costs of, 234f under-pricing of electricity in, 425 changes in, 444t IGCC project in, 283t, 284 Desertification urban areas of, air pollution coal resources in, 148t, 149t intensity trends in, 179, 180t causes of, 66 in, 76–77 efficiency in sulphur dioxide emissions in, 402f fuel demand and, 66 Development economic potential of, 190– economic (See Economic 192, 190t urban PM10 concentrations Desiccant cooling, 249 in, 75f Developing countries. See also development) obstacles to, 202, 205 specific countries of energy systems, 6–7, 36–37 policies on, 207 air quality goals in, challenge human, 3, 44, 340–341 GDP in, per capita, 343t D of addressing, 319n Development assistance geothermal potential in, 165t carbon dioxide emissions in conditionality in, 432 household fuel choice in, 65– 66, 65f Dams, hydroelectric changes in, 444t decline in, 440 inadequacy of, 420–421 hydroelectric potentials in, construction of, advanced scenarios of, 405–406, 407f official, 6, 37 154t, 155f, 253t technologies for, 252 carbon emissions in, 92, 92f, Diesel-engine generators, electrifi- intensity trends in, 177–179, 180t energy densities of, 156 93–94 cation with, 375, 376b projections for, 343, 344f impact of, 77–80 comparative advantage in Diesel fuel natural gas resources in, on ecosystems, 79, 79t using renewable energy, 405 esters suited to replace, 225 145t, 146t future of, 102 consumption in, 33–34, 33t prices of, 74 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t on greenhouse gas projections for, 395 Diesel vehicles regional emissions in, 80t emissions, 79–80 rates of, 4–5 air pollutant emissions, costs solar energy potential in, 163t on humans, 78–79, 156 by wealthy, 51 of, 278t sulphur dioxide emissions in, prevalence of, 77–78 definition of, 26n exhaust from, in coal mining, 72 81–82, 82f Debt, national demand in particulate emissions from, 85 thorium resources in, 152 vs. natural debt, 94b projections for, 23 Diffusion, technological uranium resources in, 150t, 151t oil prices and, 23, 41 rise in, 394 projections for, implications of, water resources in, 159t Decentralisation demographic transition in, 51 353–355, 356–357 wind energy resources in, 164t regulatory options for, 425–427 demonstration projects supporting, 439–440 Economic costs. See Cost(s) of rural energy planning, 375–379, in, need for, 439 Digestion, anaerobic, of biomass, Economic development 381, 421–422 efficiency in, 399 224t, 224–225 assistance for, inadequacy Deforestation intensity trends and, 180– Dimethyl ether (DME), 294, 295 of, 420–421 greenhouse gas emissions 181, 180t advantages of, 379 consumption and, 34, 34f from, 91 measures to increase, 428 applications of, 276 and demand, shifts in, 118f vs. dam systems, 79–80 obstacles to, 202–205 crop residues converted distribution of, 341, 342f household fuel demand and, 66 policies on, 207 into, 387, 388 and electrification, 375 Demand, energy technology transfer and, 181–183 production of, liquid-phase reactor energy access and, 421 climate change and, 91 environmental problems in, 23, 51 technology for, 298 and environmental risk in developing countries, rise and global warming, 402 Direct current, renewed interest transitions, 95–96 in, 394 health concerns in, for women, 49 in, 261 projections for, 340–342, 342f economic development and, improved cooking stoves in, Direct investments, foreign, 6, 37, 37f, Economic efficiency, and energy shifts in, 118f dissemination of, 370b, 371 430b, 431 regulation, 410 factors affecting, 399–400 intensities in, 127, 180–181, 180t Disease(s) Economic potentials, definition of, 138 focus on, vs. supply, 41–42 investment needs of, 430 burden of Economic prosperity and GDP (See Intensity) living standards in, 44 definition of, 104n energy and, 23–24, 393–402 by households, for woodfuel, 66 oil trade and, 34–35, 35f global, 70f environmental policies and, 394 per capita use and, 51 policies for, 25 from household solid fuel Economic and Social Council population growth and, 51, 409 pollution in use, 69, 69b (ECOSOC), 138 projections for, 127–128, 395, 399 from biomass consump- climate change and, 90, 91 Economy, energy intensity of, 399 efficiency and, 199–200 tion, 397 hydroelectric dams and, 79 ECOSOC. See Economic and spatial distribution of, options for reducing, 401–404 Dish/engine power plants, 246 Social Council 352, 352f in urban areas, 76–77 Distributed utility (DU), concept Ecuador, urban PM10 concentrations recent trends in, 178b population growth in, 51 of, 261–262 in, 75f

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 495 Index Edison, Thomas, 261 supplies of, unreliable, of technological innovation, 438 European Business Council for Education dysfunctional markets Environmental policies Sustainable Energy Future, 444 liberal market policies and, 408b and, 423b and economic prosperity, 394 European Energy Charter, 122 of women, 50, 53 Electricity system market liberalisation and, 409 European pressurised water reactor Efficiency, energy design, rethinking of, 262 trade and, 420 (EPR), 314 and consumption, 58 institutional innovations and, 261 Environmental protection European Union definition of, 26n pillars of, 261 energy efficiency and, 400 carbon dioxide emissions and demand, 400 technical innovations and, 261 increased energy consumption in, changes in, 444t in developing countries, 399 Electrification programmes, 374–379 and, 400–408 geothermal energy use in, 255t economic centralised approach, 374–375 Environmental quality, 61–104 photovoltaic solar energy and energy regulation, 410 decentralised approach, 375– awareness of problems with, 41 programme in, 242b increasing, 423–429 379, 381, 421–422 impacts on, 9–11, 10t, 63, 64t Evaporation end-use (See End-use efficiency) Electropaulo, 421, 425 community-level, 73–80 climate change and, 89 funding for, 435 Emissions. See also Air pollution; cross-scale, 95–101 in global water balance, 153t improvements in, poverty specific types future of, 101–104 Experience curves, 435, 436f reduction with, 46 contaminant content of fuels global, 86–95 with renewable technologies, and intensity, 128 and, 66 household-level, 65–70 14, 16f market barriers for, 427 health damages from, cost projections for, 358–360 Exportation, security and, 118 raising, 427–429 of, 319n regional, 80–86 projections for, 357–358 security and, 128 from households, 66–70, 66b, 67f population growth and, 51 Externalities transition to modern fuels and physical form of fuels and, 66 and security, 128 biomass energy and, 230 gains in, 398 trading of, greenhouse gases, 424 urbanisation and, 54, 55 including in energy prices, 423–424 Egypt Encephalitis, hydropower and, win-win strategies for, 96–98 consumption in, 396t 252–253 and women, 49 economic efficiency potential Encyclopaedia of Occupational Environmental risk transitions, F in, 198 Safety and Health (Stellman), 70 95–96, 95f solar thermal electricity End-use efficiency, 13–14, 173–211 EPR. See European pressurised f-Si. See Crystalline silicon films developments in, 244b intensities and, 13, 175–181 water reactor F-T process. See Fischer- obstacles to, 13, 200–205, 206f urban PM10 concentrations Equity issues Tropsch process in, 75f policies on, 14, 24–25, economic development Fast breeder reactors (FBRs), 315–316 El Niño/Southern Oscillation, global 205–211, 206f and, 340–342, 342f Federal Institute for Geosciences warming and, 90 potentials for, 13–14, 175, photovoltaic technology and Natural Resources, 139 176f, 184b El Salvador and, 377b Feedbacks long-term, 199–200 geothermal development in, 256 Erosion in climate change, 86, 89, 105n by region and sector, 184–198 geothermal electricity generation biomass energy systems definition of, 104n systemic approach to, capacity in, 256t and, 225 Fertilisers, biomass energy 198–199 Electric vehicles, 78b on biomass plantations, 161–162 systems and, 226 types of, 183–184, 183f Electricity Eskom, photovoltaic programme Fertility technology transfers for, benefits access to, global population of, 376–377, 421 benefits and costs of, 7, 52–53 of, 181–183 and, 374t Energy Charter Conference, 125 Ester, biomass production of, 225 commercial energy use and, 42f biomass conversion routes, 223f, Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Estonia definition of, 59n 224, 224t Efficiency and Related Environ- intensity trends in, 179 transitions in cost of, 227 mental Aspects, 211 oil shale resources in, 141 and population size, 50–51 from coal and natural gas, cost Energy Charter Treaty, 12, 26n, 114, Ethanol preconditions for of, 292t, 292–293 122, 124–125, 442 as alternative automotive decline, 7, 52–53 for cooking, 374 Energy Efficiency and Related fuel, 293–294 Final energy coproduction with synthetic Environmental Aspects biomass production of, 225 conversion of, efficiency of, 32 liquefied petroleum protocol, 122 emissions from, 293–294 requirements of, projections gas, 387–388 Energy Research Corporation, 287 Ethiopia for, 348–351, 350f costs of, with alternative Energy after Rio: Prospects and economic efficiency potential Financing engine-generators, 386t Challenges (UNDP), 43 in, 198 of hydroelectric power diesel-engine generators Energy sector improved cooking stoves projects, 254 for, 375, 376b components of, 32 disseminated in, 371t of pollution control, 403 fuel-cycle analysis of, 103b liberalisation of, 24, 32 Eucalyptus plantations, 162, 169n private sector generation of, efficiency of, 36–37 occupational hazards in, 70–73 cost of, 227 attracting, 431–432 grids for, regional, 130 restructuring of, 24, 425–427 energy production from, 224 in developing countries, 409t hydrogen compared with, 280b regulations for, 25 water-use efficiency of, 225–226 for R&D, 435, 447–448 hydropower generation trends in, 261–262 Europe. See also specific countries public sector, for R&D, 433–434, of, 251–255 Energy technology innovation acid deposition in, 83–84 437, 448–449 small-scale, 375–376 pipeline, 265 biomass potential in, 159 of renewable energy technolo- lack of, health impacts of, 7 Energy for Tomorrow’s World coal prices in, 276 gies, 264, 431, 435 nuclear, costs of, 307–308 (World Energy Council), 83 consumption in, 395t of research and development, 435 photovoltaics for, 376–377 Energy Work Group, 122 geothermal energy use in, 255t trends in, 447–449 price of, 36 Environmental costs health impacts in, costs of, 99, 99t of rural energy projects, 382–383, in rural areas, 374t, 374–379 with biomass use, 46 hydroelectric dams in, 78 383b, 422 costs of, 369 of fossil fuels, 277t, 277–278, 278t ozone concentrations in, 85 of sustainable energy technological options for, 380t internalising, 264, 423–424 solar collectors in, 248t systems, 430–433 security with, 113, 114–115 of nuclear power production, 306 solar domestic hot water systems Finland cost of, 115, 115b reductions in in, 248t biomass in energy system solar thermal, 243–247 policies for, 422–423 solar energy market in, 248 of, 227t storage of, 262–263 transition to modern fuels water balance in, 153t research and development in, costs for, 263, 263t and, 398 wind energy programme in, 231t funding for, 448

496 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index solar crop drying in, 250 risks of, 31 Fuel cycles FPR programme in, 323n sulphur dioxide emissions in, shortages due to resource analysis of, 100–101, 102b–103b gasification-based projects trends in, 402f constraints, projections definition of, 100 in, 298t urban PM10 concentrations regarding, 264 insults vs. impacts of, 100 geothermal energy production in, 75f vs. solar thermal electricity, 247 Fuelwood. See Woodfuel in, 257t wind energy programme subsidies for, 423 Funding. See Financing IGCC project in, 284 in, 231t supply considerations, and fossil Fusion, 17, 317 industry use in, 175 Fires, forest, particulate emissions energy innovation, 275–276 market liberalisation in, 426 from, 85 transition away from, 167 photovoltaic solar energy Firm capacity, solar capacity Foundries, efficiency of, 193b G programme in, 242b transformed into, 246f Frame 7H technology, 283 RD&D in, decline in, 406b Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) process, 295, Framework Convention on Garbage, burning of, air pollution solar collectors in, 248t 298, 387 Climate Change. See United from, 77 solar district heating in, 249 Gas syngas requirements for, 321n Nations Framework Convention urban PM10 concentrations Fish, impacts on on Climate Change hydrates, 146–147, 146t, 147b in, 75f with hydropower, 252 France natural (See Natural gas) voluntary agreements in, 429 with marine energy technol- consumption in, 119b tight formation, 146, 146t wind energy programme ogies, 261 ratio to GDP, 398f Gas-fired combined-cycle power in, 231t, 427 Fissile materials. See also FPR prototype in, 323n plant, costs of, 402t Ghana specific types fuel ethanol programme in, 225 Gas turbines, experience curve consumption in, 396t reserves and resources geothermal energy in for, 16f, 436f economic efficiency potential of, 150–152 electricity generation Gasification in, 198 of biomass, 224, 224t, 225, 226 Fission, vs. fusion, 317 capacity for, 256t urban PM10 concentrations Fixed costs, 45 production of, 257t of coal, 15–16, 282–284, 303 in, 75f Fixed tariff systems, as incentive IGCC projects in, 283t Gasifiers, efficiency of, 388n Global Environment Facility for renewable energy use, 235 intensity trends in, 179f Gasoline (GEF), 405, 432 Flooding natural gas importation by, 124 air pollutant emissions, costs recommendations for, 430 climate change and, 89 nuclear power in, 126 of, 278t and solar thermal electricity from dams, 78–79 RD&D in, decline in, 406b benzene levels in, reducing, 293 development, 244b Flows, capital, 37 security in, enhancement of, 119b coal-derived, 305 Global Knowledge Partnership, 431 Fluidised-bed gasifiers, 284, 321n solar collectors in, 248t lead in, 76, 76b Global Scenario Group, 335 Food security, 43 tidal barrage in, 259 vs. natural gas, 78b Global warming. See Climate change price of Foreign direct investments, 6, 37, uranium recovery from seawater Globalisation, 24 vs. diesel fuel, 74 37f, 431 in, 151b and capital flows, 37 leaded vs. unleaded, 76b conditions for attracting, 430b urban PM concentrations implications for energy 10 in United States, 57 Forest(s) in, 75f industry, 408–409 processing onboard cars, 300 acid deposition in, 83–84 vehicular pollution in, health and security, 128 GCC. See Gulf Cooperation Council depletion of, fuelwood costs of, 99, 100t and trade, 34–35 GDP. See Gross domestic product demand and, 66 wind energy programme in, 231t Goals GEF. See Global Environment Facility fires in, particulate emissions Franchises, and technological Generators, insecurity and use definition of, 59 from, 85 innovation, 438 of, 114 policy, for sustainable devel- Forestry Free-rider problem, energy R&D Geological reservoirs, carbon opment, 417t, 418–423 health hazards of, 71 and, 435, 449n dioxide sequestration in, 289–290 Government, role in mortality rates in, 73 Fuel(s). See also specific fuels Geopressed thermal energy, 165 markets, 129–130 number of workers in, 70–71, 73 advanced, 293–302 Geopressured gas, 146t, 147 Government programmes residues from, as biomass, 160 policy framework needed Georgia for energy research and Fossil energy technologies, for, 294 efficiency in, barriers to, 201 development, 433–434, advanced, 14–17, 274, 275–306 alcohol, 293–294 geothermal energy production 437, 448–449 goal-setting for, 276–279 biomass conversion routes, in, 257t need for, 417–418 and sustainable development, 223f, 225 Geothermal energy, 255–258 short-term orientation of, 423 14, 276 cost of, 227 costs of, 15t, 220, 256, 402t Grameen Shakti, 383b, 432 Fossil fuels performance data for, 226t definition of, 165, 221 Granite rocks, uranium vs. bio-energy, 230 oxygenated, 293 direct application of, 255, concentrations in, 151 carbon dioxide emissions from in rural areas, 370–374, 380t 255t, 256 Greece atmospheric concentrations solar, research on, 246 electricity production, 255t, solar collectors in, 248t of, 86 Fuel cell(s), 17, 287–289 255–256 solar thermal electricity changes in, 443–444, 444t and carbon dioxide recovery environmental aspects of, 258 developments in, 244b options for reducing, and disposal, 288–289 heat pump applications of, urban PM10 concentrations 278–279 hybrid, with gas turbine/steam 256–257 in, 75f competition with renewable turbine, 288 market developments, potential, wind energy programme energy, 407 vs. microturbines, 286 257t, 257–258 in, 231t consumption of, 149t types of, 287–288 potential of, 255 Green Light Programme (China), 195b costs of Fuel cell vehicles, 78b, 280b resources for, 165, 165t Greenhouse gas. See also vs. costs of renewable competitiveness of, 301–302 technologies, 221t, 255–257 specific types energy, 405 efforts toward development current status of, 266t definition of, 86 environmental, 277t, 277– of, 301t, 320n types of, 165 Greenhouse gas emissions. See 278, 278t competition in, 300 Germany also Climate change regional impacts of, 80–81 gasoline, 300 consumption in, 396t comparative risk assessment resource base of, 116t, 148– hydrogen, 299–302 ratio to GDP, 398f for, 103b 150, 149t efficiency gain of, 320n efficiency in current vs. cumulative, 94b adequacy of, 115–118, 148 methanol, 300 economic benefits of, 185b by households, 67f, 69–70, 71f projections for, 166–167 Fuel choice, poverty and, 45 policies on, 208b hydropower and, 79–80, 152, 251

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 497 Index mitigation of, costs of, 402 global, 86–95 harvesting for, 66 occupational hazards with, 72 as natural debt, 94b in households, 65–70 indoor air pollution in, 11, 66–68 potential of, 251, 253t near-zero reduction in, goal hydropower and, 252–253 health effects of, 69, 70f prevalence of, 4, 77 of, 279 photovoltaic solar cell poverty in, 43–47 resource base for, 152–156 projections for, 91–94, 360–364 modules and, 240 projections for, 101 adequacy of, 117 trading, 424 producer gas and, 374 requirements of, calculation economic potential win-win strategies for reduction regional, 80–86 of, 58 of, 154–155, 154t of, 96–98 in workplaces, 70–73 taxes on use by, 36 technical potential Greenland, thorium resources in, 152 improvements in, modern HTGRs. See High-temperature of, 153–154, 154t Greenpeace, 336 energy forms and, 397 gas-cooled reactors theoretical potential of, Grid(s) value of, 98–100 HTU. See Hydrothermal upgrading 153, 154t and efficiency improvements, of women, 49 Human development small-scale, 375–376 201, 202 Hearing loss, among coal miners, 72 definition of, 340–341 system aspects of, 253 for electricity, regional, 130 Heart disease, household solid energy in, 3 technologies, 221t, 251–253 supplies for, costs of, 402t fuel use and, 69, 69b poverty and, 44 current status of, 266t Grid-connected electricity systems, Heat, biomass conversion routes, Human Development Index (HDI), 44 Hydropower complementation, 253 value of renewables for, 263 223f, 223–224, 224t Human disruption index, 9–10, Hydropressured gas, 147 Grid-connected ground-based Heat pumps 10t, 63, 64t Hydrothermal energy, 165 photovoltaic systems, energy geothermal, 256–257 Human energy, on energy ladder, 369 Hydrothermal upgrading (HTU), 225 payback time of, 239 ground source, 256 Human poverty index, 44 Grid-connected rooftop photovoltaic solar, 248, 249 Hungary I systems, energy payback time Heating systems electricity subsidies in, of, 239, 239t efficiency of elimination of, 201b Gross domestic product (GDP) obstacles to, 205 geothermal energy production IAEA. See International Atomic and consumption, 5, 7f, 34, technology transfer and, 182 in, 257t Energy Agency 34f, 58 solar energy and, 247, 249 intensity trends in, 179, 180t Ice, sea, global warming and, 90 demand and (See Intensity) Heavy crude oil sulphur dioxide emissions in, Iceland ratio to energy consumption, definition of, 141 trends in, 402f geothermal electricity generation capacity in, 256t 398f, 399, 428 extraction of, 142, 142b urban PM10 concentrations and research and development reserves and resources of, in, 75f geothermal energy use in, 255, funding, 448t 140t–141t, 141–142 Hurricanes, climate change and, 90 256, 257t Ground-based photovoltaic systems, Hedonistic pricing, 423 Hybrid vehicles, 78b, 294, 301–302 urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f energy payback time of, 239 Heliostats, 245 Hydrates, gas Identified resources, definition of, 138 Ground source heat pumps, 256 Helsinki Protocol, 82 definition of, 146, 147b IEA. See International Energy Agency Groundwater contamination High-efficiency concentrator recovery of, 146–147, 147b IEP. See International Energy from methanol, 320n cells, 238t resources of, 146–147, 146t Programme from methyl tertiary butyl High-efficiency tandem cells, 238t Hydrocarbon(s) IGCC. See Integrated gasifier ether, 293, 294 High-temperature gas-cooled biomass production of, 225 combined cycle Guadeloupe, geothermal electricity reactors (HTGRs), 314–315, performance data for, 226t IIASA. See International Institute generation capacity in, 256t 322n–323n non-methane emissions, for Applied Systems Analysis Guatemala High Temperature Winkler gasifier, 284 sources of, 10t, 11, 64t Illiteracy. See Literacy geothermal electricity generation Hitachi, heating system in, 190b polycyclic aromatic emissions, Illumination of Mexico (ILUMEX) capacity in, 256t Honduras, urban PM10 concentrations with coal use, 72 programme, 209b urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f Hydrogen Impacts. See also under in, 75f Hong Kong (China) as energy carrier, 17 Environmental quality; Health Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in APEC, 123b strategic importance of, 280b definition of, 26n, 104n states, and oil security, 120 urban PM10 concentrations fuel cell vehicles, 299–302 scale of, 63 Gulf region, oil exportation in, 120, in, 75f and near-zero emissions, 299 Incentive programmes 121f, 123 Hot dry rock energy, 165 production for renewable energy use, 235, Gulf War, and energy security, 120 House(s), size of, 57, 175 advanced technologies 250, 264–265 Households, 65–70 for, 302 for solar energy use, 250 H combustion in, 66–70 from biomass, 225 for wind energy use, 235, 235t economic efficiency potential for from coal, 320n Income in Africa, 197t, 198 from fossil fuels, 299 and energy requirements, 7, 58 H2-O2 Rankine cycle plant, 290t, 291 in China, 194–195, 194t from syngas, 321n growth in, and energy Habitat II (United Nations in Commonwealth removal, by inorganic consumption, 399, 399t Conference on Sustainable of Independent membranes, 293 per capita, and modern energy Human Settlements), 26n, 54 States, 191t, 192 safety considerations, 299, 299b forms, 396t, 397 Halocarbons, and global energy in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191 storage for motor vehicles, 300b poverty of, 44 balance, 88t in India, 193, 193t Hydrolysis, ethanol production India Harvesting, of woodfuel, for in Japan, 189, 189t through, 225 air pollution from biomass households, 66 in Latin America, 195, 196t Hydropower, 251–255. See also Dams consumption in, 397 HDI. See Human Development Index in North America, 187t constraints to expansion biogas in Health, 61–104 in Southeast Asia, 189, 189t of, 155–156 experience with, 373 impacts on, 9–11, 10t in Western Europe, contribution of, 220 production of, 225 assessment of, 98–101 185–186, 186t cost of, 15t, 220, 251, 254 biomass use in, 227 biomass stoves and, 372 energy ladder for, 65 economic and financial climate change in, sulphate in communities, 73–80 fuel choice in aspects of, 254 aerosols and, 86 costs of, 99–100 income and, 45 environmental and social coal reserves in, 148 cross-scale, 95–101 by region, 65f impacts of, 152–153, 251, coal use in, costs of, 148 by emissions, 319n greenhouse gas emission 252–253, 254 coalbed methane production future of, 101–104 by, 69–70, 71f fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b in, 145

498 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index cogeneration in, 205 Industrial collaboration, and biomass, 387 government role in, 129 consumption in, 396t technology transfer, 440 coal, 15, 282–284, 303 longevity of, 36 ratio to GDP, 398f Industrialised countries. See also air pollution emissions in natural gas, political risks in rural areas, 52, 60n specific countries from, costs of, 277t with, 125 efficiency in biomass use in, projections carbon dioxide recovery official development economic potential of, 192– for, 157 from syngas in, 291 assistance, 6, 37 194, 193b, 193t carbon dioxide emissions in, 92, carbon dioxide separation policies on, 25 obstacles to, 205 92f, 93–95 and disposal in, cost private, 37 policies on, 209, 210b consumption in of, 292 attracting, 431–432 technology transfers and, 182 and environmental cogeneration with, 283, 285t in developing countries, financing of renewable energy problems, 51 commercial-scale plants, 409t, 431 in, 432 rates of, 4 world-wide, 283t projections for, 355–356 gas hydrates in, 146 definition of, 26n cost and performance public, in energy R&D, 437 gasification-based projects demographic transition in, 51 characteristics of, 281t returns on, 36, 37 in, 298t low-polluting technologies in, 402 solid waste management in sustainable development, household fuel choice in, 65f nuclear power in, 126 advantages of, 283 430–433, 446 health effects of, 69, 69b poverty in, 46–47 Integrated rural development, 380–381 and system development, 6–7 pollutants from, 66b, 70, 71f urban areas of, air pollution Intensity vs. total investments, 36 intensities in in, 74–76 definition of, 33 Invisible trees, 66 history of, 8f Industry, energy, occupational efficiency and, 13, 175–181 IPCC. See Intergovernmental recent trends in, 180, 180t hazards of, 70–73 projections for, 127, 342– Panel on Climate Change LPG programme in, 372, 381 Industry energy use 344, 344f Iran, Islamic Republic of microfinance scheme in, economic efficiency potential for recent trends in, 7f, 175–181 oil resources in, 120 in Africa, 197t, 198 proposal for, 382 security and, 127–128 urban PM10 concentrations natural gas grids in, 125 in China, 194, 194t Intergovernmental Panel on in, 75f nuclear energy installations in Commonwealth Climate Change (IPCC), 43 Iraq in, safety status of, 322n of Independent on biomass use, 157 heavy crude oil resources in, 142 ozone concentrations in, 85 States, 191t, 192 on fuel efficiency, 205 invasion of Kuwait by, 120–121 photovoltaic solar energy in Eastern Europe, projections by, 88–93, 278, 280b oil resources in, 120 programme in, 242b 190–191, 190t Interlaboratory Working Group Ireland in India, 192–193, 193t photovoltaic technology for on Energy-Efficient and urban PM10 concentrations rural areas in, equity in Japan, 189, 189t Low-Carbon Technologies, 188 in, 75f in Latin America, 195, 196t issues relating to, 377b Intermittent renewables wind energy programme in, 231t in North America, 187t, 188 plutonium recycling in, 322n and energy storage, 262–263 IS92a scenario, 278, 280b in Southeast Asia, 189, 189t producer gas in, 378 grid integration of, 262 Israel in Western Europe, 185, 186t rural electrification programme vs. stable, 262 geothermal energy production taxes on, 36 in, 375 Internal combustion engine, vs. in, 257t Infant mortality solar collectors in, 248t fuel cell vehicle, 301 solar collectors in, 248t commercial energy use and, 42f solar cookers in, 250 Internal combustion engine Itaipu dam, 77 and desired number of births, 52 solar thermal electricity reductions in, energy technologies vehicles, hybrid, 301–302 Italy developments in, 244b and, 53 International agreements. See aquifer gas in, 147 stove programme in, 370b, 371 Inferred reserves, 138 also specific agreements geothermal electricity generation thorium resources in, 152 Inferred resources, 138 on climate change, 94–95, 96 capacity in, 256t urban areas of Infrastructure, projections on energy efficiency, 211 geothermal energy use air pollutant concentrations for, 348, 348f on nuclear non-proliferation, 310 in, 255, 257t in, 76–77 Inner Mongolia, household wind and security, 122 IGCC projects in, 283t PM10 concentrations in, 75f systems in, 377 International Atomic Energy Agency photovoltaic solar energy wind energy programme in, 231t Innovation, energy (IAEA), 127, 150–151, 310b, 322n programme in, 242b Indian Ocean, in global water in developing countries, International cooperation, 441–445 research and development in balance, 153t encouraging, 438–441 encouraging, 446–447 decline in, 406b Indicated reserves, 138 policy options for promoting, 25, International Energy Agency private sector spending Indonesia 437–438 (IEA), 122, 335 on, 447 in APEC, 123b public policies in support of, expenditures in, 406b urban PM10 concentrations appliance use in households rationale for, 435–437 International Energy Programme in, 75f with electricity, 397t spending on, 435 (IEP), 122 wind energy programme in, 231t biomass energy conversion Innovation chain/pipeline, energy, International Fuel Cycle in, 224 265, 434–435 Evaluation, 312 financing of renewable energy stages in, 433, 434t International industrial collaboration, J in, 432 Inorganic membrane reactors, and technology transfer, 440 fires in, particulate emissions 293, 302 International Institute for Applied Japan from, 85 Insolation, average monthly, Systems Analysis (IIASA), advanced light water reactors geothermal electricity generation variations in, 236, 236f scenarios by, 335, 337–340, in, 313–314 capacity in, 256t Institution building, and sustainable 338t, 339t in APEC, 123b geothermal energy use in, 255 energy technologies, 440–441 International Labour Organisation, 442 aquifer gas in, 147 intensity trends in, 180t Institutional structures, for rural Investments, energy, 36–37 cogeneration in, 190b photovoltaic solar energy energy services, 422 capital flows in, 37 consumption in, ratio to programme in, 242b Insults, environmental. See also conditions conductive to, GDP, 398f urban PM10 concentrations specific types 430b, 431 efficiency in, economic potential in, 75f definition of, 26n, 104n current status of, 36 of, 189–190, 189t, 190b Indoor air pollution, in house- Insurance schemes, bilateral, 430 and efficiency improvements, FPR programme in, 323n holds, 11, 66–68, 67f Integrated gasifier combined 200–201, 203 gas hydrates in, 146 health effects of, 69, 70f cycle (IGCC) foreign direct, 6, 37, 37f gasoline hybrid vehicles in, 294

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 499 Index geothermal electricity generation Kyoto Protocol, 443 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t Lithuania, urban PM10 concentrations capacity in, 256t Clean Development Mechanism photovoltaic system in, 377 in, 75f geothermal energy use of, 431, 433, 444 solar energy potential in, 163t Living standards, in developing in, 255, 257t criticism of, 95 sulphur dioxide emissions in, 82 countries, 44 intensities in and efficiency, 211 thorium resources in, 152 LMFBR. See Liquid-metal cooled automobile fuel, 429b goals of, 351 uranium resources in, 150t, 151t fast breeder reactor history of, 8f implementation of, 128 urban population in, 421 LNG. See Liquid natural gas recent trends of, 175, 179f status of, 95 urbanisation in, 54 Loans, energy, 432 nuclear forecasts for, 321n Kyrgyzstan, intensity trends in, 179 water balance in, 153, 153t Low-polluting technologies, 402 nuclear power in, 126 water resources in, 159t relative pollution intensities photovoltaic solar energy wind energy in and costs of, 401t programme in, 242b L programme on, 231t Low-temperature solar plutonium recycling in, 322n resources for, 164t energy, 247–251 RD&D in La Rance scheme, France, 259 Latitude, solar radiation by, 163 active conversion, 247 decline support for in, 406b Labelling, efficiency Latvia cost of, 15t spending on, 447, 448 for appliances, 428, 429 intensity trends in, 179 implementation issues, 250–251 market developments, 247– solar collectors in, 248t for buildings, 208 urban PM10 concentrations solar energy market in, 248 Labour in, 75f 248, 248t technological experience savings in, modern energy Leach, Gerald, 66 passive conversion, 247 curves in, 16f, 436f forms and, 397 Lead emissions potential of, 247 tidal current model demonstration by women, 48, 48f from gasoline, 76, 76b technologies, 248–250 in, 260 Ladder, energy, 45 health effects of, 76 current status of, 266t uranium recovery from seawater for households, 65 sources of, 10t, 64t LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas in, 151b leapfrogging on, 369, 379 Leadership, technological, Lung cancer coke production and, 72 urban PM10 concentrations barriers to trade and, opportunities for, 439 in, 75f 439–440 Leapfrogging, on energy household solid fuel use and, 69b jiko (stove), 371 developing countries and, ladder, 369, 379 LWRs. See Light water reactors Joint Implementation and Clean 438–439 barriers to trade and, 439–440 Development Mechanism, 405 encouraging, 422 developing countries Jordan, oil shale resources in, 141 movement along, 370 and, 438–439 M poverty and, 45 encouraging, 422 rungs on, 369 Liberalisation, market, 24 Macedonia FYR, geothermal energy production in, 257t K rural populations and, 22 constraints on, 425 Magma geothermal energy, 165 Land availability, for biomass and education policies, 408b Malaria Kazakhstan, FPR programme in, 323n production, 158–159 and environmental policies, 409 dam systems and, 79 Keeling, Charles, 104n Land use implications for energy hydropower and, 252–253 Kenya biomass energy and, 222b, 228 industry, 408, 426 Malaysia air pollution from biomass current global patterns of, 158t and increased energy in APEC, 123b consumption in, 397 hydroelectricity generation access, 409–410 biomass energy conversion Ceramic Jiko initiative in, 198b and, 253, 254 in Latin America, 426 in, 224 economic efficiency potential solar thermal electricity and, 247 and security, 129 gasification-based projects in, 198 Landfill gas, conversion to Life expectancy in, 298t geothermal development in, 256 electricity, 225 commercial energy use and, 42f synthetic middle distillate geothermal electricity generation Large gasification, of biomass, increases in, 51 plant in, 295 capacity in, 256t 224, 224t poverty and, 44 urban PM10 concentrations improved cooking stoves Latin America. See also Lifestyles, 57–58 in, 75f disseminated in, 371t specific countries Light water reactors (LWRs), 274, Mali, diesel engines in, 376b photovoltaic solar energy acid deposition in, 84 308, 322n Manufacturing, insults caused by, 64t programme in, 242b biomass potential in, 158t, 159 advanced, 313–315 Manure, biomass energy systems rural electrification in, 421 carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f vs. fast breeder reactors and, 226 urban PM10 concentrations changes in, 444t (FBRs), 315 Marginal producers, costs to, and in, 75f coal resources in, 148t, 149t fuel-reprocessing prices, 35 Kerosene, household use of, 68, consumption in, 395t systems, 310–311 Marine energy, 258–261 372–373 of primary energy, 33, 33t safety of, 17 cost of, 15t greenhouse gas emissions ratio to GDP, 398f Lignite, 147 definition of, 221 from, 71f efficiency in resources of, 116t, 148, 148t, 149t economic aspects of, 260, 260t Korea, Republic of economic potential of, 195– Liquefaction, direct, 305 environmental aspects in APEC, 123b 197, 196t Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) of, 260–261 consumption in, 396t obstacles to, 205 for household use, 372–373 implementation issues, 261 energy efficiency programme GDP in, 343t, 398f preferences for, 411n potential of, 258–260 in, 428 geothermal energy in residual problems of, 379 technologies, 221t, 259–260 energy transition in, 372, potential of, 165t synthetic (SLPG), 379 current status of, 260t, 266t 372f, 397 use of, 255t crop residues converted Market(s) nuclear power in, 126 household fuel choice in, 65f into, 387–388 vs. administered systems, 423 urban PM10 concentrations hydropower in, 77 Liquid-metal cooled fast breeder benefits of, 129 in, 75f potential of, 154t, 155f, 253t reactor (LMFBR), 315 competitive, and sustainable Kuwait intensity trends in, 180–181 Liquid natural gas (LNG) facilities, 298 energy development, 417 heavy crude oil resources in, 142 liberalisation and privatisation Liquid-phase reactors, 297 contract vs. spot, 36 invasion by Iraq, 120–121 in, effects of, 426 Literacy dysfunctional, and unreliable oil resources in, 120 LPG programmes in, 372 commercial energy use and, 42f electric supplies, 423b Kuznets, Simon, 96b natural gas resources poverty and, 44 efficiency of, increasing, 423– Kuznets curve, 96b, 412n in, 145t, 146t among women, 50 429, 445

500 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index and energy efficiency geothermal electricity generation MTBE. See Methyl tertiary butyl ether Needs, basic human, energy improvements, 200–201 capacity in, 256t Multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), requirements for satisfying, government role in, 129–130 geothermal energy use in, 255 photovoltaic cell, 238t 369–370, 420 liberalisation of, 24, 32, 129 heavy crude oil resources in, 142 Multilateral agencies. See also Nepal constraints on, 425 intensity trends in, 180t specific agencies air pollution from biomass and education policies, 408b lead content of fuel in, 76b role of, 431 consumption in, 397 and environmental solar thermal electricity Multilateral Investment Guarantee biogas experience in, 373b policies, 409 developments in, 244b Agency, 430 urban PM10 concentrations implications for energy urban PM10 concentrations Municipal waste, as biomass, 160–161 in, 75f industry, 408 in, 75f Netherlands and increased energy wind energy programme in, 231t efficiency in, barriers to, 204 access, 409–410 Microcredit schemes, 432 N electricity storage systems in, policies for, 24–25 Microfinance schemes, 382–383, 383b studies of, 262–263 privatisation of, 426 Microturbines, 286–287, 378 National Board for Industrial IGCC projects in, 283t projections for, 349f Middle East. See also and Technical Development intensity trends in, 179f and security, 12, 121–122, specific countries (NUTEK), 429 tax incentives for renewable 128–130 carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f National Energy Strategy, 207 energy use in, 265 changes in, 444t urban PM concentrations short-term orientation of, 423 Natural bitumen (tar sands), 141t, 10 coal resources in, 148t, 149t in, 75f Mbeki, Thabo, 420–421 142, 142b consumption in, 395t voluntary agreements in, 429 MC Power, 287 Natural debt, 94b mc-Si. See Multi-crystalline silicon of primary energy, 33, 33t wind energy programme in, 231t GDP in, per capita, 343t Natural gas New renewables, definition of, 26n MCFCs. See Molten carbonate alternatives to, need for, 275 fuel cells geothermal potential in, 165t New Zealand household fuel choice in, 65f consumption of, 124 in APEC, 123b McKelvey box, 137f, 138 projections for, 124 Megacities, 369 hydroelectric potentials in, geothermal electricity generation 154t, 155f, 253t electricity from, cost of, 292t, capacity in, 256t Mercosur customs union, 442 292–293 Mercury emissions, sources intensity trends in, 180–181 geothermal energy use leaded fuel in, 76b fuel-cycle analysis of, 103b in, 255, 257t of, 10t, 64t national markets for, 125–126 natural gas resources urban PM10 concentrations Metal-cooled fast reactors, 316 occupational hazards with, 72 Meters, barriers to, 202 in, 145t, 146t in, 75f oil exportation by, projections pipeline grids for, 125 wind energy programme in, 231t Methane political risks with, 124–125 coalbed, 145, 146t for, 357f, 358 NGCC. See Natural gas oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t preferences for, 411n combined cycle emissions of oil resources in production of, global NGOs. See Nongovernmental in coal mining, 72 exportation of, 120 cumulative, 144 organisations from dam systems, 79–80 and security, 120 recovery of, 144–146 Nicaragua and global energy solar energy potential in, 163t enhanced, carbon dioxide electricity production from balance, 88t sulphur dioxide emissions in, 82 injection for, 289 bagasse in, potential as greenhouse gas, 86 thorium resources in, 152 resource base of, 116t, 144–147 for, 228b history of, 87 uranium resources in, 150t, 151t adequacy of, 116 geothermal development in, 256 from households, 69 water resources in, 159t conventional, 144–145, 145t geothermal electricity generation regional impacts of, 80– wind energy programme in, 231t capacity in, 256t 81, 80t unconventional, 145– wind energy resources in, 164t 147, 146t urban PM10 concentrations sources of, 10t, 64t Mixed-oxide uranium-plutonium in, 75f Methane clathrate hydrate units for, 139 (MOX), 310–311 shortages due to resource Nigeria carbon content of, 321n Mobility, in urban transportation economic efficiency potential technology, 277 constraints, projections systems, 55 regarding, 264 in, 198 Methane hydrates, 146, 146b Modern energy forms generator use in, 114 natural gas resources associated supplies of, 275 access to, benefits of, 397–399 supply security of, 124–126 urban PM10 concentrations with, 275–276 conflicting perspectives on, 395 in, 75f Methanol trade of, 35 transition to, 396–397 transportation of, 124, 125 Nitrogen, in soil, biomass production as alternative automotive Molten carbonate fuel cells and, 161 fuel, 293–294 versatility of, 114 (MCFCs), 287 Natural gas combined cycle Nitrogen dioxide emissions, in biomass production of, 225 Monazite, as source of thorium, 152 urban areas, 74 (NGCC), 275, 280–282 performance data for, 226t Monopoly, public, challenges of Nitrogen fixation, sources of, 10t, 64t air pollution emissions from, DME production from, 295 breaking up, 425 Nitrogen oxides emissions cost of, 277t emissions from, 293–294 Monsoons, global warming and, 90 from automobiles, 279t processing onboard cars, 300 Montreal Protocol, 440, 443b carbon dioxide separation and as greenhouse gas, 86 toxicity of, 294 Morocco disposal in, cost of, 292 history of, 87 trigeneration vs. separate solar thermal electricity cogeneration with, 282, 282t from hydrogen production, 299 production of, 296t developments in, 244b cost and performance from NGCC operation, 280 Methyl tertiary butyl ether uranium resources in, 151 characteristics of, 281t from reciprocating engines, 286 (MTBE), 293 Mortality economic and environmental regional impacts of, 80–81, 80t groundwater contamination from air pollution, 97 benefits of, 282 future of, 83, 101–102 from, 293, 294 infant, 42f, 52, 53 health costs of, 99, 99t sources of, 10t, 64t Mexico occupational, for energy pro- Natural gas vehicles, compressed, 78b NMVOC. See Non-methane in APEC, 123b duction and distribution, 73 NEA. See Nuclear Energy Agency volatile organic compounds efficiency in transitions in, and population Near-zero emissions Non-commercial energy, definition economic potential of, size, 7, 50–51 hydrogen and, 299 of, 26n 195, 196–197 MOX. See Mixed-oxide promising technological Non Fossil Fuel Obligation, policies on, 209b uranium-plutonium options for, 278, 279 England, 235 programme on, 428 Mozambique, economic efficiency technologies and strategies Non-methane hydrocarbon foreign direct investment in, 431 potential in, 198 for moving toward, 279–302 emissions, sources of, 10t, 11, 64t

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 501 Index Non-methane volatile organic proliferation risks with, 17, intensities in, 127 OWC. See Oscillating water column compounds (NMVOC), regional 127, 308–311, 322n recent trends in, 175– Oxygen-blown coal gasification, 282– impacts of, 80t, 81 prospects for, 321n 177, 177f 284, 303 future of, 83, 101–102 rationale for reconsidering, oil importation to, 120, 120t Oxygenated fuels, 293 Non-OECD Europe, primary energy 306–307 RD&D in, 435 Ozone use in, 33, 33t resource base for, adequacy decline in public support stratospheric, depletion of, Nongovernmental organisations of, 117 for, 406b 86, 88t (NGOs), and sustainable risks of, 31 security in, markets and, 118, 129 tropospheric, increases in, 84– development, 445 to community, 80 trade patterns in, 34 85, 87, 88t North America occupational, 72–73 use by, 33–34, 33t acid deposition in, 84 routine emissions from, 80 Oil. See also specific types ammonia emissions in, 81 safety issues, 308 alternatives to, need for, 275 O biomass potential in, 159 security of, 12, 126–127 costs of, 143, 149 coal resources in, 148, 148t, 149t and waste disposal, 17–18, enhanced recovery of, carbon Pa Mong Dam, 78 coalbed methane resources 311–313, 322n dioxide injection for, 289 Pacific Ocean, in global water in, 145, 146t NUTEK. See National industry health hazards with, 72 balance, 153t consumption in, of primary Board for Industrial and in oceans, sources of, 10t, 64t Pacific OECD energy, 33, 33t Technical Development prices of coal resources in, 148t, 149t economic efficiency potential Nutrients, biomass energy systems OPEC influence on, 122 consumption in, of primary in, 187–189, 187t and, 226 projections for, 12, 143, 149 energy, 33, 33t GDP in, per capita, 343t Nutrition resource base of, 139–144 GDP in, per capita, 343t geothermal energy in connection with energy, 43 conventional, 139t, hydroelectric potentials in, potential of, 165t fuelwood shortages and, 68b 140–141, 149–150 154t, 155f use of, 255t distribution of, 118 intensities in, projections for, 344f hydroelectric potentials economists' view of, 142–144 natural gas resources in, 154, 154t, 155f, 253t O geologists' view of, in, 145t, 146t intensities in, projections for, 344f 139–142, 143–144 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t natural gas resources Obligations to buy, for renewables global, 116t solar energy potential in, 163t in, 145t, 146t promotion, 265 production and, 139–140, thorium resources in, 152 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t successful examples of, 427 144, 144f uranium resources in, 150t, 151t ozone concentrations in, 85 Obligations to supply, for projections for, 149–150 water resources in, 159t regional emissions in, 80t renewables promotion, 265 unconventional, 140–144, PAFCs. See Phosphoric acid fuel cells solar energy potential in, 163t Occupational hazards, 70–73 140t–141t, 142b, Pakistan, urban PM concentrations 149–150 10 sulphur dioxide emissions in biomass collection, 70–71 in, 75f units for, 139 in, 81–82, 82f in coal industry, 71–72 Panama, urban PM concentrations security with, 118 10 thorium resources in, 152 mortality rates for, 73 in, 75f shortages due to resource uranium resources in, 150t, 151t with nuclear power, 72–73 Paper production, final energy use constraints, projections water balance in, 153t in oil and gas industries, 72 for, 181t regarding, 264 water resources in, 159t projections for, 101 Papua New Guinea supplies of, 275 wind energy resources in, 164t with renewable power, 72 Oil products, trade of, 34–35 air pollution from biomass Norway Occurrences, other, definition of, 138 Oil shale consumption in, 397 energy R&D in, private sector Ocean(s) definition of, 141 in APEC, 123b spending on, 447 carbon dioxide sequestration extraction of, 141, 142b Parabolic dish systems, 246 intensity trends in, 179f in, 288b, 289 reserves and resources Parabolic trough system (solar market liberalisation in, 426 oil in, sources of, 10t, 64t of, 140t, 141 farm), 245 solar crop drying in, 250 Ocean energy Oilseeds, ester production from, 225 Particulate emissions, 278 urban PM10 concentrations resources of, 166, 166t One kilowatt per capita scenario costs associated with, 294 in, 75f types of, 166 and population growth, 53–54 and global warming, 87–88, Nuclear Energy Agency Ocean thermal energy, 166, 166t in poverty alleviation, 46 95, 104n (NEA), 150–151 Ocean thermal energy conversion OPEC. See Organisation health effects of, 74, 95 Nuclear energy parks, (OTEC), 260 of the Petroleum as indicator of air quality, 74 internationalised, 317 current status of, 260t Exporting Countries projections for, 92, 360–361 Nuclear energy technologies environmental impact of, 261 Organic photovoltaic cells, 238t provisional guidelines for, advanced, 17–18, 274, 306–318 Oceania Organisation for Economic Co- 74–76, 76f nuclear weapons proliferation geothermal energy use in, 255t operation and Development regional impacts of, 80–81, risks posed by, 309b water balance in, 153t (OECD). See also OECD countries 85, 95 Nuclear-explosive materials, 322n Octane ratings, 320n on uranium reserves, 150–151 sources of, 10t, 11, 64t Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 17, OECD. See Organisation for Organisation of the Petroleum strategies for reduction of, 98 309, 310b Economic Co-operation Exporting Countries (OPEC) Partnership for a New Generation status of, 127 and Development control of market by, 34–35 of Vehicles (PNGV), 294 Nuclear power OECD countries. See also influence on oil prices, 122 Passive solar energy use, 250 challenges related to, 307–313 Pacific OECD Oscillating water column (OWC), 259 Payments system, definition of, 26n confidence in, 126 carbon dioxide emissions in, Oslo Protocol, 82 PBMR. See Pebble bed cost of, 126, 131n changes in, 444t OTEC. See Ocean thermal modular reactor current status of, 17 demand by, shifts in, 118f energy conversion Pebble bed modular reactor environmental cost of, 306 development assistance from, Our Common Future (World (PBMR), 17, 314–315, 323n fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b decrease in, 440 Commission on Environment electricity generation cost for, 315t future technology efficiency in and Development), definition PEMFCs. See Proton exchange development, 315–317 obstacles to, 200–201, of sustainable development membrane fuel cells history of, lessons from, 407 203–204 in, 31 Persian Gulf, dependence on oil peaceful vs. military uses of, 17 policies on, 207 Output, world, women’s contribution from, 275 prevalence of, 4, 126 hydroelectric potential in, 253t to, 48, 48f Peru, in APEC, 123b

502 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index Pest(s), global warming and, 90 Plantations, biomass, 157–162, demographic transitions in, 7, role in sustainable Pesticides 160t, 222 9t, 50–51, 340b development, 442 biomass energy systems costs of, 227 growth rate of, 50–51 of uranium, 322n and, 226 impact on biodiversity, 226 projections for, 340b Price efficiency, and energy impacts of, 161 land availability for, 223 momentum of, 51 regulation, 410 Petroleum-based liquid and Plutonium nexus with energy, 51–52 Primary energy gaseous fuels, household use fast breeder reactors, 17, at global level, 53–54 consumption of of, emissions from, 68 315–316 rural, 52, 369 global, 6t, 33, 33t, 345f Petroleum gas, liquefied, house- recycling of, 310–311, 322n urban, 421 growth in, 33–34, 33t hold use of, 68 waste repositories, recovery urbanisation and, 54 intensities for, 5, 8f greenhouse gas emissions from, 312–313 Portfolio approach, to technology per capita, 4, 6f conversion efficiency for, 13, 32 from, 71f PM10 concentrations, 104n development, 438 Pew Center on Global Climate in cities, 74, 75f Portugal requirements and supply of Change, 444 human development and, 96b gasification-based projects history of, 345f PFBC. See Pressurised fluidised- Pneumoconiosis, coal workers, 72 in, 298t projections for, 20, 20f, 22f, bed combustion Pneumoconiosis silicosis, 71–72 geothermal electricity generation 23, 344–348, 345f, 346f Private investments, 37 Philippines PNGV. See Partnership for a New capacity in, 256t attracting, 431–432 in APEC, 123b Generation of Vehicles solar collectors in, 248t in developing countries, 409t, 431 energy efficiency programme Point absorber, 259 urban PM10 concentrations in, 75f in research and development in, 428 current status of, 260t (R&D), 435, 447–448 geothermal electricity generation Poland wind energy programme in, 231t Potentials, technical vs. Private sector, and technology capacity in, 256t coalbed methane production transfer, 440 geothermal energy use in, 145 economic, 138 Poverty, 43–46 Privatisation, of energy markets, 426 in, 255, 256 consumption in, increase in PRO-ALCOOL programme, urban PM concentrations GDP and, 428 consumption patterns with, 7 10 in developing countries, 7, 43–46 Brazil, 225, 229b in, 75f geothermal energy production Probable reserves, 138 Phosphate(s), biomass energy in, 257t strategies for alleviation of, 9t, 23, 45–46 PROCEL programme, 197b, 427, 428 systems and, 226 intensity trends in, 179, 180t Producer gas Phosphate deposits, uranium urban PM concentrations dimensions of, 43–44 10 energy ladder and, 45 combined heat and power concentrations in, 151 in, 75f using, 385–387 Phosphoric acid fuel cells Policy(ies), 24–26 eradication of, and sustainable development, 419 cooking with, 373–374 (PAFCs), 287 definition of, 59 case study, 385 and fuel choice, 45 Photovoltaic panels on end-use efficiency, 205– electrification with, 377–378 in industrialised countries, 46–47 fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b 211, 206f limitations of, 379 nexus with energy, 9, 44–45 risks of, 31 for international Production, environmental problems as obstacle to widening energy Photovoltaic solar cell modules cooperation, 25–26 from, awareness of, 41 access, 420 carbon dioxide mitigation on investments, 25 Programme for the Further Implemen- prevalence of, 44 potential of, 239 perspectives on, 409–411 tation of Agenda 21, 419, 445 prices of energy and, 9 components of, 238 scenarios and, 353 Proliferation, nuclear, risks of, 17, Poverty index, human, 44 308–311, 322n cost of, 240, 240t for sustainable Power stations, coal use in, health efficiency of, 237, 238, 238t development, 416–449 Proton exchange membrane fuel risks of, 72 cells (PEMFCs), 287 energy payback time of, 239, 239t goals, 417t, 418–423 Power tower, solar, 245–246 health issues regarding, 240 on technological innovations, 25 competitiveness of, 301 Precipitation vs. microturbines, 286 materials availability for, 239 and women, 47–48 climate change and, 89 performance ratio of, 239 Policy instruments, for sustainable Prototype Carbon Fund, World in global water balance, 153t Bank, 444 storage needs of, 238–239 development, 418 Pregnancy, adverse outcomes types of, 237–238 Pollution. See also Air Public benefits fund, 427 of, household solid fuel use Public monopolies, challenges of Photovoltaic solar energy, 235–243 pollution; Emissions and, 69, 69b economic aspects of, 15t, local and regional, options for breaking up, 425 Pressurised fluidised-bed combustion Public-private partnerships, for 240t, 240–241, 241t, 402t reducing, 401–404, 422 (PFBC), 290t, 291, 303–305 environmental aspects prevention and control technology innovation, 431– and carbon dioxide 432, 438 of, 239–240 costs of, 402–403 emissions, 321n Public procurement policies, and equity issues, 377b potential for, 411 Pressurised water reactor (PWR), 313 energy efficiency, 429 experience curve for, 16f, 436f reductions in Price(s), 35–36 Public sector use, economic implementation issues, 241–242 and economic output, 410 changes in, effects of, 5, 35 efficiency potential for market development of, 237, 237f modern energy forms of coal, 35, 36, 276 in Asia, 189–190, 189t national and international and, 397, 400–408 vs. costs, 36 in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191 programmes, 242b Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon to marginal producers, 35 in Latin America, 195, 196t potential of, 236t, 236–237 emissions, with coal use, 72 of crude oil, 35, 122–124, in Western Europe, 186, 186t for rural areas, 22, 241, 376– Polygeneration strategies, 15–16 123, 123t Pulp and paper production, final 377, 382 for biomass energy, 229–230 and developing countries, energy use for, 181t source characteristics, 236 and cost reductions, 276 economies of, 35, 35f PWR. See Pressurised water reactor system aspects of, 238–239 for near-zero emission, 279 of diesel fuel, 74 Pyrolysis, bio-oil production technologies, 237–238, 238t for synthetic fuel production, of electricity, 36 through, 225 (See also Photovoltaic 277, 295–299, 296t of gasoline, 57, 74, 76b solar cell modules) coal-based, 297 high, effects of, 5, 35 current status of, 266t natural gas-based, 297–298 including externalities in, 423–424 Q Pinon Pine IGCC Power Project, Polymer, production intensity for, 178b marginal producer costs and, 35 Nevada, 321n Population(s), 50–54 of oil, 122 Qatar Plant(s) and consumption, 51–52, 398t projections for, 12, 143, 149 oil resources in, 120 as biomass, 156, 157t in rural areas, 52 privatisation and, 426 synthetic middle distillate (SMD) global warming and, 90 and demand, 51, 409 of renewable energy sources, 14 plant in, plans for, 295

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 503 Index Quadgeneration, 296t, 297 categories of, 221t (See also urban PM10 concentrations Quality of service, and energy specific categories) in, 75f S regulation, 410 competition from fossil fuels, 407 Rooftop photovoltaic systems, energy Quota systems, as incentive for costs of, 15t, 220, 404t payback time of, 239, 239t Salt gradient energy, 166, 166t renewable energy use, 235 vs. costs of fossil fuels, 405 Runoff, in global water balance, Salter Duck, 259 current status of, 266t 153t, 155 Sanitation, 49 development of, 264–267, 427 Rural areas Saturation, consumption, income R experience curves with, 14, 16f access to electricity in, 374t and, 58 financing of, 264, 431, 435 biopower in, 377–378 Saudi Arabia, oil resources in, 120 Radiation exposure, as occupational hazards with, 72 consumption in, and population sc-Si. See Single crystal silicon occupational hazard, 73 policies regarding, 410–411 growth, 52–53 Scenarios, 18–21, 333–365 Radioactive products, from system aspects of, 261–264 in developing countries, 21–22 alternative development paths nuclear fission, 80 transition to, 220 energy needs of, 368–388 in, 335–336 Radon, in uranium mining, 73 Renewables. See Renewable lack of adequate energy definition of, 335 RAINS-ASIA model energy sources services in, 369 descriptive vs. normative, 335 on nitrogen oxide emissions, 83 Research, development, and diesel-engine electricity economic development and generation in, 375, 376b on sulphur deposition, 97b demonstration (RD&D), public equity in, 340–342, 342f electrification programmes on sulphur dioxide emissions, 82 support for, decline in, 406b environmental issues in, 358–360 for, 374–379, 431 Rankine cycle, 291 Research and development (R&D) final energy requirements funding for barriers to, 421 Rape methyl esters. See RME centralised approach in, 348–351, 350f RCC. See Roller compacted concrete GDP and, 448t history in, 352–353 returns on, 435 to, 374–375 R&D. See Research and development decentralised approach to, of IIASA/WEC study, 19t, RD&D. See Research, development, trends in, 447–449 337–340, 338t, 339t government programmes 375–379, 381, 421–422 and demonstration examples of successful, 421 implications of, 353–364 Reciprocating engines, 284–286 for, 433–434, 437 intensities in, 342–344, 344f interpreting data on, 447b energy development in nitrogen oxide emissions accelerating, 380–381 international trade in, security from, 286 policy initiatives to support, 433 and, 357–358, 357f returns on, 435 time horizon for, 379–380 Recoverable resources energy services in and policies, 353 definition of, 138 Reserves primary energy in, requirements definitions of, 115, 138 lack of adequate, 369 oil, 139–142 strategies for and supply of, 344–348, Recycling, of biomass economic potentials of, 138 345f, 346f global, estimates of, 116t expanding, 381–382 remainders, 226 strategies for making review of literature on, 336–337 production costs of, 138 Refuse, burning of, air pollution affordable, 382–384 spatial scales of, 351–352, 352f vs. resources, 138 from, 77 fuels in, 370–374, 380t sustainability in, 20, 21t, 336 types of, 138 Regional climate change, 86, 90 hydropower in, small- technology in, 348, 348f Residential use. See Households Regional cooperation, 442–443 scale, 375–376 temporal scales of, 335, 351–352 Resource(s), 135–167. See also Regional pollution, impacts on photovoltaic electricity Schistosomiasis specific types ecosystems and humans, 80–86 for, 22, 241, 376–377, 382 dam systems and, 79 adequacy of, 12–13 projections for, 101–102, equity issues in, 377b hydropower and, 252–253 classification of, 137f, 138 pollution in, 49, 49f 358–360 cost estimates for, 138 Scotland Regulation(s) population in, 369 northwest coast of, wave definitions of, 115, 138 renewable energy projects in, 431 air quality, vs. actual emission distribution of, 118, 167 energy potential of, 259 levels, 278, 279t sustainable development tidal current model global, estimates of, 116t, 166t goals for, 22 economic efficiency and, 410 vs. reserves, 138 demonstration in, 260 and energy sector technological options for, 380t SDHW. See Solar domestic hot technical potentials of, 138 wind power in, 377 restructuring, 425–427 types of, 138 water system and security, 129–130 woodfuel harvest in, 66 Sea level, climate change and, 90, 91 units of, 139 Russia. See also Russian Federation; Relative poverty, 44 Resource base Seasonal storage, of solar energy, 249 Renewable energy sources, 219–267 Soviet Union, former Seawater, uranium recovery definition of, 115 coalbed methane production abundance of, 404–405 global, 116t from, 150, 151, 151b, 316–317 advantages of, 221 in, 145 Secretary-General, United Nations, and women, 47 efficiency in competitiveness of, 222 1997 report of, 419–420 Respiratory diseases, household economic potential consumption of, 117 Sector, energy. See Energy sector solid fuel use and, 69, 69b of, 191–192, 192t global, 4, 14 Security, 11–12, 111–130 Rio Declaration, 443 obstacles to, 201, 202 fuel-cycle analysis of, 103b Rio Earth Summit, goals policies on, 207 adequacy and, 114, 115–118 incentives for use of, 235, developed in, 3, 42–43 fossil fuel subsidies in, 425 challenges of, 113–115 235t, 264–265 Risk assessments, comparative, FPR programme in, 323n costs of, 120 intermittent 100–101, 102b–103b geothermal electricity generation definition of, 11, 113 and energy storage, 262–263 Risk transitions, capacity in, 256t dimensions of, 113–115 grid integration of, 262 environmental, 95–96, 95f geothermal energy production efficiency and, 128 vs. stable, 262 Rivers, dam construction on, in, 257t enhancement of, 11–12, 115 new, definition of, 26n advanced technologies for, 252 intensity trends in, 179, 180t long-term, 119 policies regarding, 264–267, 427 RME (rape methyl esters), biomass plutonium recycling in, 322n environment and, 128 prices of, 14 production of, 225 subsidies in, 202 intensity and, 127–128 resource base for, 138, 167t performance data for, 226t Russian Federation markets and, 128–130 adequacy of, 12, 117–118 Rock energy, hot dry, 165 in APEC, 123b projections for, 357– potential of, 14, 220, 221–222 Roller compacted concrete (RCC) coal resources in, 148 358, 357f types of, 221 (See also dams, 252 oil shale deposits in, 116 significance of, 113 specific types) Romania urban PM10 concentrations of supply, 118–128 value of, 263 geothermal energy production in, 75f Sedimentation, hydropower and, 252 Renewable energy technologies, 14 in, 257t Rwanda, improved cooking Self-reliance, 59n barriers to, 14 intensity trends in, 180t stoves disseminated in, 371t importance of, 41

504 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index Separations Technology and value of, 263 wind energy programme in, 231t human disruption index for, 9–10 Transmutation Systems Solar farm (parabolic trough wind energy resources in, 164t sources of, 10t, 63, 64t (STATS), committee on, 312 system), 245 Space-based solar energy, 242–243 Sulphur dioxide emissions Separations and transmutation Solar insolation, developing Space heating, solar, 249 in Asia, environmental policies (S&T) proposals, 312 countries and, 405 Spain and, 403f Serbia, geothermal energy Solar radiation, 236 energy R&D in, private sector reduction of production in, 257t Solar thermal electricity spending on, 447 goals for, 101 Services, energy (STE), 243–247 IGCC projects in, 283t strategies for, 98 components of, 32 advantages of, 245 solar energy technologies in, 246 regional impacts of, 80–81, 80t definition of, 4 costs of, 15t, 220, 246, 402t solar thermal electricity projections for, 81–83, 82f, demand for, 32–34 dish/engine system, 244 developments in, 244b 101, 359–360, 361f driving forces in, 32–33 dispatchable applications, urban PM10 concentrations trends in selected countries, 402f priorities in, 41–42 243–244 in, 75f Supply, energy Shares, of energy in trade, 34 distributed applications, 244 wind energy programme in, 231t focus on, vs. demand, 41–42 Siemens Westinghouse, and environmental and social Special Report on Emissions global, share of fuels in, 116f SOFC development, 288 aspects of, 246–247 Scenarios (IPCC), 335 security of, 118–128, 275 Sierra Leone, economic efficiency market introduction of, 243– Spot markets, 36 cooperative efforts to potential in, 198 244, 245f S&T. See Separations and ensure, 277, 442–443 Silica, in coal mining, health potential of, 243 transmutation disruptions and, 118–119 risks of, 71–72 technologies, 244–246 Standalone electricity systems, unreliable, market dysfunction Singapore current status of, 266t value of renewables for, 263 and, 423b in APEC, 123b Solid fuels. See Biomass; Coal Standalone photovoltaic systems, Sustainable development IGCC projects in, 283t Solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC), 287– energy payback time of, 239 advanced fossil energy leaded gasoline in, 76b 288, 290t, 291 STATS. See Separations Technology technologies and, 14, 276 urban PM10 concentrations Soluz, photovoltaic programme and Transmutation Systems advanced nuclear energy in, 75f of, 377 STE. See Solar thermal electricity technologies and, 17–18 Single crystal silicon (sc-Si), Somalia, improved cooking stoves Steel affordability factor in, 383–384 photovoltaic cell, 238t disseminated in, 371t final energy use in, 181t barriers to, 423 Sixth Conference of the Parties Sources of energy, early, 41 production intensity for, 178b capacity and institution building to the Climate Convention South Africa Stocks, oil, and security, 121 for, 440–441 (COP-6), 444 coal reserves in, 148 Storage definition of, 419 Slovak Republic gasification-based projects electricity, 262–263 industrialisation as instrument geothermal energy production in, 298t costs for, 263, 263t for, 440 in, 257t nuclear disarmament of, 310b energy international cooperation urban PM10 concentrations photovoltaic solar energy hydroelectric, 253 and, 441–445 in, 75f programme in, 242b intermittent renewables investments in, 430–433, 446 Slovenia, intensity trends in, 180t photovoltaic systems in, 376–377 and, 262–263 market failure to support, 423 SLPG. See Synthetic liquefied R&D spending in, 448 solar, 249 nongovernmental organisations petroleum gas urban PM10 concentrations Storms, climate change and, 90 (NGOs) and, 445 Small gasification, of biomass, in, 75f Stoves. See Cooking stoves objectives of, 7–12 224, 224t South America. See Latin America Strategy, definition of, 59 options for, 12–18 Small-particle pollution. See Soviet Union, former. See also Stratospheric ozone, depletion policies for, 24–26, 416–449 Particulate emissions specific states of, 86, 88t poverty eradication and, 419 SMDs. See Synthetic carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f Sub-bituminous coal, 147 regulatory options for middle distillates coal resources in, 148, 148t, 149t resources of, 148, 148t, 149t encouraging, 425–427 SNA. See System of coalbed methane resources Subsidies role of energy in, i, 3, 31 National Accounts in, 145, 146t conventional energy in rural areas, goal for, 22 Social issues, 7–9, 9t. See also consumption in, 395t phasing out, 264, 424–425 scenarios for, 20, 21t, 336 specific issues of primary energy, 33, 33t problems with, 382, 425 strategies to encourage, 416, approaches to, 41–43, 43f ratio to GDP, 398f for developing countries, poor 425–427, 433–438 SOFC. See Solid-oxide fuel cell economic efficiency potentials areas of, 23 technological innovation Soil, on biomass plantations, 161–162 in, 191–192, 191t and energy regulation, 410 and, 433–438 Solar capacity, transformed into GDP in, 343t, 398t fossil fuel, 423 traditional biomass and, 222 firm capacity, 246f geothermal potential in, 165t fuel, vs. equipment, 372 Sweden Solar domestic hot water system heavy crude oil resources in, 142 hidden, 425 biomass energy in, 162 (SDHW), 247, 248–249 household fuel choice in, 65f as obstacle to efficiency, 202, 207 conversion of, 224, 227t, costs of, 248–249 hydroelectricity in phasing out, 24 228, 229b energy payback time of, 249 dams for, 78 renewable energy, biomass integrated gasification/ Solar energy potential of, 154, 154t, recommendation for, 264 combined cycle (BIG/CC) cost of, 236 155f, 253t rural, 22 project in, 224 fuel-cycle analysis of, 102b intensities in and sustainable development, carbon dioxide taxes in, 264 low-temperature, 247–251 history of, 8f 383–384 efficiency in, policies on, 209t occupational hazards with, 72 projections for, 343, 344f Sudan, improved cooking stoves energy R&D in, private sector photovoltaic, 235–243 oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t disseminated in, 371t spending on, 447 potential of, 221, 236–237 projections for, 358b, 359f Sugar(s), ethanol production geothermal energy production resource base for, 162f, 163, 163t regional emissions in, 80t from, 225 in, 257t solar thermal electricity, 243–247 solar energy potential in, 163t performance data for, 226t nuclear waste disposal in, 312 source characteristics, 236 sulphur dioxide emissions Sugarcane, ethanol from, 157 recycling of biomass space-based, 242–243 in, 81–82, 82f Sulphate aerosols, in climate remainders in, 226 technologies, 221t (See also thorium resources in, 152 change, 86 solar district heating in, 249 specific technologies) uranium resources in, 150t, 151t Sulphur, emissions of urban PM10 concentrations current status of, 266t water resources in, 159t from geothermal fields, 258 in, 75f

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 505 Index wind energy programme Tar sands environmental impact of fossil fuels, 148 in, 231t definition of, 142 of, 260–261 Trash burning, air pollution from, 77 Switzerland environmental impacts of Tidal energy, 166, 166t Trees. See also Forest(s) carbon tax in, proposals for, 424 use, 142b Tidal and marine current invisible, 66 efficiency in extraction of, 142, 142b energy, 259–260 Trigeneration, 296t, 297 approach to improving, 429 reserves and resources current status of, 260t Tropospheric ozone, increases policies on, 209t of, 141t, 142 Tight formation gas in, 84–85, 87, 88t energy R&D in, funding for, 448 Tax(es), 24, 36 definition of, 146 Tuberculosis, household solid fuel geothermal energy production carbon dioxide, 264, 423, resources of, 146, 146t use and, 69b in, 257t 424, 424b Time, savings in, modern energy Tunisia, geothermal energy geothermal heat pumps in, 256 case for, 410 forms and, 397 production in, 257t solar crop drying in, 250 on leaded vs. unleaded Tophat cycle, 280 Turkey urban PM10 concentrations gasoline, 76b Town gas, 299 geothermal electricity generation in, 75f mix of, 423 operation of reciprocating capacity in, 256t Synfuels, projections for, 348, 349f revenue-neutral, 449n engines on, 286 geothermal energy production Syngas (synthesis gas), 15, 17, 279 Tax incentives, for renewable quadgeneration vs. separate in, 257t carbon dioxide recovery energy use, 265 production of, 296t urban PM10 concentrations from, 291 Technological diffusion, Trade in, 75f coal-derived, polygeneration projections for, implications barriers to, and technological Two Control Zone policy (China), 82 based on, 297 of, 353–355, 356–357 leapfrogging, 439–440 Typhoons, climate change and, 90 fuels derived from, for Technological innovation, 265 of coal, 35, 148 compression-ignition in developing countries, of crude oil, 34–35, 120 engines, 294–295 encouraging, 438–441 and environment, policies on, 420 U hydrogen manufacture diffusion of, supporting, 439–440 globalisation and, 34–35 from, 321n leadership in, opportunities of natural gas, 35 Uganda natural gas-derived, polygen- for, 439 of oil products, 34–35 economic efficiency potential eration based on, 297–298 policy options for and security, 121–122, in, 198 Synthesis gas. See Syngas promoting, 437–438 123–124 improved cooking stoves Synthetic fuels, 15 portfolio approach to, 438 projections for, 357–358, 357f disseminated in, 371t applications of, 276 public policies in support of, security and, 118, 120 UI. See Uranium Institute development efforts for, oil rationale for, 435–437 Traditional energy Ukraine crises of 1970s and, 275 spending on, 435 definition of, 26n coalbed methane production polygeneration strategies for stages in, 433, 434t insults caused by, 9, 64t in, 145 production of, 277, 295– and sustainable use of, 3 economic efficiency potentials 299, 296t development, 433–438 data on, 4 in, 191t, 192 Synthetic liquefied petroleum Technological innovations, policies Transition economies intensity trends in, 180t gas (SLPG) for, 25 definition of, 26n subsidies in, 202 advantages of, 379 Technology(ies) demand by, shifts in, 118f urban PM concentrations crop residues converted 10 components of, 32 efficiency in in, 75f into, 387–388 Synthetic middle distillates costs of, buying down, 437, 439 intensity trends and, 177– Ultrasupercritical pulverised coal (SMDs), 294–295 experience curves, 435, 436f 179, 180t steam turbine plant, 290t, System(s), energy small-scale, 438 obstacles to, 201–202, 291, 303 adequacy of, 114 Technology Development Board 204, 205 limitations of, 303 climate change and, 91 (India), 182 policies on, 207 UN. See United Nations definition of, 4 Technology transfer, international technology transfer Unconventional resources development of, investments industrial collaboration and, 440 and, 181–182 projections for, 149–150 and, 6–7 Temperatures, climate change Transportation, 7 resource base of efficiency of, 32 and, 88–90 of biomass, 160 natural gas, 145–147, 146t evolution of, 31–32 Thailand in cities, strategies for, 55–56, oil, 140–144, 140t–141t, 142b goals of, 31–32, 59 in APEC, 123b 77, 198 types of, 138 health effects of, comparisons biomass energy conversion of crude oil, security in, 122 UNCTAD. See United Nations of, 98–101 in, 224 economic efficiency potential for Conference on Trade history of, 346f, 347 efficiency in, 190 achieving, 429b and Development projections for, 345–348, 346f programme for, 428 in Africa, 197t, 198 Undernutrition, 43 sustainability of current, 3 geothermal electricity generation in Asia, 189t, 190 UNDESA. See United Nations System of National Accounts capacity in, 256t in China, 194t, 195 Department of Economic (SNA), 48, 59n ozone concentrations in, 85 in Commonwealth and Social Affairs Systems benefits charges, 427 urban areas of of Independent Undiscovered resources, 138 air pollution in, 77 States, 191t, 192 UNDP. See United Nations PM10 concentrations in, 75f in Eastern Europe, 190t, 191 Development Programme T Thermal power plants, efficiency in India, 193–194, 193t UNECE. See United Nations of, and air pollution, 74 in Japan, 189t, 190 Economic Commission Taiwan, China Thermonuclear fusion, 317 in Latin America, 196– on Europe gasification-based projects Thin-film photovoltaic 197, 196t UNFC. See United Nations in, 298t modules, 237, 238 in North America, 187t, International Framework in APEC, 123b materials availability for, 239 188–189 Classification for nuclear power in, 126 Thorium, resource base of, 150, obstacles to, 204–205 Reserves/Resources solar collectors in, 248t 152, 152t policies on, 209–210 UNFCCC. See United Nations Taj Mahal, acid deposition and, 84 Three Gorges dam, 77, 78 in Southeast Asia, 189t, 190 Framework Convention on Tajikistan, intensity trends in, 179 Three Mile Island accident, 308 in Western Europe, 186t, 187 Climate Change Tanzania, improved cooking Tidal barrage energy, 259 energy use for, recent trends United Arab Emirates, oil stoves disseminated in, 371t current status of, 260t in, 175–177, 179f resources in, 120

506 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index United Kingdom United States market for, 248 leaded fuel in, 76b biomass gasification air pollution in, reduction technologies for, 245–246 oil reserves in, 116 demonstration in, 224 of, 74, 82 thermal electricity urban PM10 concentrations biomass production and use in APEC, 123b developments in, 244b in, 75f in, 162 appliance use in households sulphur dioxide emissions in, Viet Nam climate change levy in, plans with electricity, 397t trends in, 402f in APEC, 123b for, 424 aquifer gas in, 147 technological experience economic efficiency potential coalbed methane production biomass in curves in, 16f, 436f in, 189 in, 145 gasification thorium resources in, 152 hydropower stations in, small- consumption in, 396t demonstration, 224 tight gas resources in, 146 scale, 375 ratio to GDP, 398f potential of, 159 urban PM10 concentrations Vision 21 Program, U.S. energy R&D in, spending production of, 162 in, 75f Department of Energy, 319n on, 447, 448 biomass in energy system voluntary agreements in, 429 Voluntary agreements, and energy FPR prototype in, 323n of, 227t wind energy programme efficiency, 429 market liberalisation in, 426 carbon dioxide emissions in, 231t Non Fossil Fuel in, 92f, 93 windpower capacity in, 427 Obligation, 235, 427 changes in, 444t Yucca Mountain, Nevada, V Severn Estuary, tidal energy Clean Air Act of, 82, 84, 360 311, 312, 322n potential of, 259 Clinch River Breeder Reactor Uranium Wafer-type photovoltaic sulphur dioxide emissions in, demonstration project, 323n cost of, 126, 131n, 150, 151 modules, 237–238 trends in, 402f coal prices in, 276 occupational hazards with, 72–73 Waste, municipal, as tidal current resources in, 259 coal reserves in, 148 price of, 322n biomass, 160–161 urban PM10 concentrations consumption in, 57–58, 395t, 396t recovery of Waste disposal, nuclear, 17–18, in, 75f ratio to GDP, 398f cost of, 150, 151 311–313, 322n wind energy programme Corporate Average Fuel from seawater, 150, 151, Water balance, annual world, 153, in, 231t Economy (CAFE) 151b, 316–317 153t, 155–156 United Nations Commission on standards, 204, 428 reprocessing of, 150 Water heating systems, solar, 249 Sustainable Development, efficiency in resource base of, 116t, 150– Water quality, hydropower impact 159, 420, 441 economic benefits of, 185b 151, 150t, 151t on, 252 United Nations Conference on economic potential of, 187– adequacy of, 117 Water supply Environment and Development. 189, 187t unconventional, 151 and biomass production, 159–160 See Earth Summit policies on, 209t units for, 139 in developing countries, rural United Nations Conference on FPR prototype in, 323n resource constraints, 17, 315 areas of, 49 Trade and Development fuel ethanol programme in, 225 Uranium Institute (UI), 150, 167–169n environmental decline and, 49 (UNCTAD), 442 gas hydrates in, 147 Uranium-thorium, denatured, LWR shortages in, 155–156 United Nations Conference on gasification-based projects operated on, 314 sufficiency of, 159t Population, 26n in, 298t Urban areas Water use, biomass energy United Nations Conference on geothermal energy in air pollution in, 73–77 systems and, 225–226 Small Island Developing electricity generation concentrations of, 49, 49f Water vapor States, 26n United Nations Conference capacity for, 256t in developing atmospheric concentrations on Sustainable Human heat pumps for, 256 countries, 76–77 of, 86, 104n Settlements (1996), 26n, 54 use of, 255, 257t in industrialised as greenhouse gas, 86 United Nations Department of heavy crude oil resources in, 142 countries, 74–76 Wave energy, 166, 166t, 259 Economic and Social Affairs hydroelectricity in long-term control of, 77 current status of, 260t (UNDESA), i dams for, 78 transportation in, strategies WCED. See World Commission on United Nations Development generation of, 254 for, 55–56, 77, 198 Environment and Development Programme (UNDP) potential of, 154–155 Urbanisation, 7, 54–57 Weather, and solar energy definition of human IGCC projects in, 283t challenges of, 421 resources, 163 development, 340 intensities in, 127 construction and, 56 WEC. See World Energy Council human poverty index of, 44 automobile fuel, 429b and fuelwood market, 71 Western Europe. See also outreach effort by, i history of, 8f population growth and, 54 specific countries United Nations Economic recent trends in, 175– rate of, 54 ammonia emissions in, 81 Commission on Europe 177, 179f strategies for improvements carbon dioxide emissions in, 92f (UNECE), 138 oil importation by, 57 in, 56–57 coal resources in, 148t, 149t United Nations Environment oil shale resources in, 141 transportation and, 55–56 economic efficiency potentials Programme, 104n photovoltaic solar energy trends, 369 in, 185–187, 186t Capacity 21 Programme, 431 programme in, 242b U.S. Department of Energy GDP in, per capita, 343t United Nations Framework Public Utility Regulatory fossil energy programme of, 278 geothermal potential in, 165t Convention on Climate Policy Act (1978), 432 Vision 21 Program, 319n hydroelectric potential in, 154, Change (UNFCCC), 42–43, RD&D in U.S. Energy Star labeling scheme, 429 154t, 155f, 253t 433, 443, 443b decline in support for, 406b Use. See Consumption intensities in, projections for, 344f goals of, 94–95 funding for, 435, 447, 448 natural gas resources on greenhouse gas renewables portfolio standards in, 145t, 146t emissions, 3, 318n in, 427 V oil reserves in, 139t, 140t–141t implementation of, 26, 128 security in regional emissions in, 80t status of, 94 with coal, 126 Valuation, economic, of solar energy potential in, 163t United Nations General Assembly cost of, 115, 115b, 120 health, 98–100 sulphur dioxide emissions Special Session on Small intensity and, 127 Variable costs, 45 in, 81–82, 82f Island Developing States, 26n with natural gas, 125 Vehicles. See Automobiles thorium resources in, 152 United Nations International with oil, 120 Venezuela uranium resources in, 150t, 151t Framework Classification for solar energy in heavy crude oil resources in, 142 water resources in, 159t Reserves/Resources (UNFC), 138 collectors for, 248t intensity trends in, 180t wind energy resources in, 164t

WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY 507 Index Western Germany, sulphur dioxide World Bank emissions in, trends in, 402f Asia Alternative Energy Westinghouse AP600, 313 Program (ASTAE), 432 WHO. See World Health Organization and capacity building, 431 Willingness to pay, in economic hydroelectric power projects valuation of health, 98–100 financed by, 254 Win-win strategies, for environmental main energy-related activity improvements, 96–98 of, suggestion for, 430 Wind-battery-diesel hybrid photovoltaic solar energy systems, 377 programme of, 242t Wind energy, 230–235 Prototype Carbon Fund, 444 costs of, 15t, 220, 234, 404t World Business Council for potential reductions in, 234f Sustainable Development, definition of, 221 336, 337, 444 economic aspects of, 234 World Commission on environmental aspects Dams, 104n, 156 of, 233–234 World Commission on experience curve for, 16f, 436f Environment and Development growth of, scenarios for, 231–232 (WCED), 26n, 449n implementation issues for, 234 World Energy Council (WEC) incentives for use of, 235, 235t definition of resources, 137–138 installed wind power, 231, 231t on oil reserves, 141 occupational hazards with, 72 outreach effort by, i potential of, 230–231 recommendations by, 3 resource base for, 163–165, 164t scenarios by, 335, 336–340, adequacy of, 117 338t, 339t potential of, 164t, 165 17th Congress of, 3 for rural needs, 377 on uranium reserves, 150 system aspects of, 232–233 World Energy Outlook (International technologies, 221t, 232, 232t Energy Agency), 337 current status of, 266t World Food Summit, 26n Wind turbines, 232–233 World Health Organisation (WHO), 97 decommissioning of, 233–234 World Meteorological energy output of, estimates Organisation, 104n of, 234 World Trade Organisation household-scale, 377 (WTO), 441 Women, 47–50 and security, 128–129 economic activities of, 47, 49–50 education of, 50 environmental quality and, 49 Y fuelwood collection by, 70 health of, 49 Yucca Mountain, Nevada, 311, policies and, 47–48 312, 322n position of, 48 Yugoslavia, former, intensity and desired number trends in, 180t of births, 52 strategies for improvement in, 50 Z resource base for, 47 world output by, 48, 48f Zambia, economic efficiency Woodfuel potential in, 198 coal compared with, 370 Zero-emission-vehicle (ZEV), 300 commercial collection of, 70–71 ZEV. See Zero-emission-vehicle household use of, 65–68 Zimbabwe emissions from, 67f, 71f biomass consumption in, 227t shortages of, 66 air pollution from, 397 health effects of, 68b economic efficiency potential Workplaces in, 198 hazards in, 70–73 fuel ethanol programme projections for, 101 in, 225 World Association of Nuclear improved cooking stoves Operators, 127 disseminated in, 371t

508 WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY Index