Tuesday, July 29, 2008

Part III

Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Annual Notice of Findings on Resubmitted Petitions for Foreign Species; Annual Description of Progress on Listing Actions; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR [email protected]. Comments but precluded. A warranted-but- and supporting information will be precluded finding on a petition to list Fish and Wildlife Service available for public inspection, by means that listing is warranted, but that appointment, Monday through Friday the immediate proposal and timely 50 CFR Part 17 from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. at the above promulgation of a final regulation is address. precluded by higher priority listing [96000–1671–0000–B6] FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: actions. In making a warranted-but Endangered and Threatened Wildlife Mary M. Cogliano, PhD, at the above precluded finding under the Act, the and Plants; Annual Notice of Findings address or by telephone 703–358–1708; Service must demonstrate that on Resubmitted Petitions for Foreign fax, 703–358–2276; or e-mail, expeditious progress is being made to Species; Annual Description of [email protected]. add and remove species from the lists of Progress on Listing Actions endangered and threatened wildlife and SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: plants. AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Background Pursuant to section 4(b)(3)(C)(i) of the Interior. Act, when, in response to a petition, we The Endangered Species Act of 1973, ACTION: Notice of review. find that listing a species is warranted as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et but precluded, we must make a new 12- seq.), provides two mechanisms for SUMMARY: In this notice of review, we month finding annually until we considering species for listing. First, we announce our annual petition findings publish a proposed rule or make a can identify and propose for listing for foreign species, as required under determination that listing is not those species that are endangered or section 4(b)(3)(C)(i) of the Endangered warranted. These subsequent 12-month threatened based on the factors Species Act of 1973, as amended. When, findings are referred to as ‘‘resubmitted’’ contained in section 4(a)(1). We in response to a petition, we find that petition findings. This notice contains implement this through the candidate listing a species is warranted but our resubmitted petition findings for all program. Candidate taxa are those taxa precluded, we must complete a new foreign species previously described in for which we have sufficient status review each year until we publish the 2007 Notice of Review (72 FR information on file relating to biological a proposed rule or make a determination 20184) and that are currently the subject vulnerability and threats to support a that listing is not warranted. These of outstanding petitions. proposal to list the taxa as endangered subsequent status reviews and the or threatened, but for which preparation Previous Notices accompanying 12-month findings are and publication of a proposed rule is referred to as ‘‘resubmitted’’ petition The species discussed in this notice precluded by higher-priority listing findings. were the result of three separate actions. None of the species covered by Information contained in this notice petitions submitted to the U.S. Fish and this notice were assessed through the describes our status review of 50 foreign Wildlife Service (Service) to list a candidate program; they were the result taxa that were the subjects of previous number of foreign bird and butterfly of public petitions to add species to the warranted-but-precluded findings, most species as threatened or endangered Lists of Endangered and Threatened recently summarized in our 2007 Notice under the Act. We received petitions to Wildlife and Plants (Lists), which is the of Review (72 FR 20184). Based on our list foreign bird species on November other mechanism for considering current review, we find that 20 species 24, 1980, and May 6, 1991 (46 FR 26464 species for listing. and 56 FR 65207, respectively). On (see Table 1) continue to warrant listing, Under section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act, but that their listing remains precluded January 10, 1994, we received a petition when we receive a listing petition, we to list 7 butterfly species as threatened by higher-priority listing actions. For 30 must determine within 90 days, to the species previously found to be or endangered (59 FR 24117). maximum extent practicable, whether We took several actions on these warranted but precluded, the petitioned the petition presents substantial petitions. To notify the public on these action is now warranted. We will scientific or commercial information actions, we published petition findings, promptly publish listing proposals for indicating that the petitioned action listing rules, status reviews, and petition those 30 species (see Table 1). may be warranted (90-day finding). If finding reviews that included foreign With this annual notice of review we make a positive 90-day finding, we species in the Federal Register on May (ANOR), we are requesting additional are required to promptly commence a 12, 1981 (46 FR 26464); January 20, status information for the 20 taxa that review of the status of the species, 1984 (49 FR 2485); May 10, 1985 (50 FR remain warranted but precluded by whereby, in accordance with section 19761); January 9, 1986 (51 FR 996); higher priority listing actions. We will 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act we must make one July 7, 1988 (53 FR 25511); December consider this information in preparing of three findings within 12 months of 29, 1988 (53 FR 52746); April 25, 1990 listing documents and future the receipt of the petition (12-month (55 FR 17475); September 28, 1990 (55 resubmitted petition findings for these finding). The first possible 12-month FR 39858); November 21, 1991 (56 FR 20 taxa. This information will also help finding is that listing is not warranted, 58664); December 16, 1991 (56 FR us to monitor the status of the taxa and in which case we need not take any 65207); March 28, 1994 (59 FR 14496); in conserving them. further action on the petition. The May 10, 1994 (59 FR 24117); January 12, DATES: We will accept comments on second possibility is that we may find 1995 (60 FR 2899); and May 21, 2004 these resubmitted petition findings at that listing is warranted, in which case (69 FR 29354). Our most recent review any time. we must promptly publish a proposed of petition findings was published on ADDRESSES: Submit any comments, rule to list the species. Once we publish April 23, 2007 (72 FR 20184). information, and questions by mail to a proposed rule for a species, sections Since our last review of petition the Chief, Division of Scientific 4(b)(5) and 4(b)(6) govern further findings, we have taken two listing Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife procedures, regardless of whether or not actions related to this notice (see Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room we issued the proposal in response to Preclusion and Expeditious Progress 110, Arlington, Virginia 22203; by fax to the petition. The third possibility is that section for additional listing actions that 703–358–2276; or by e-mail to we may find that listing is warranted were not related to this notice). On

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December 17, 2007, we published a rufous-vented ground-cuckoo identify the taxa for which we find that proposed rule to list 6 species of foreign (Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis), listing is warranted but precluded by a Procellariids under the Act (72 FR Margaretta’s hermit (Phaethornis ‘‘C’’ in the category column, referring to 71298). We also published a final rule malaris margarettae), black-breasted these taxa as ‘‘candidates’’ under the on January 16, 2008, to list 6 foreign puffleg (Eriocnemis nigrivestis), Chilean Act. The other category is for those bird species as endangered under the woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), Esmeraldas species for which we find that proposed Act (73 FR 3146). woodstar (Chaetocerus berlepschi), listing is warranted, and we designate royal cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae), Findings on Resubmitted Petitions these taxa with a ‘‘P,’’ indicating that white-browed tit-spinetail proposed rules to list these taxa under This notice describes our resubmitted (Leptasthenura xenothorax), black- the Act will be published promptly. The petition findings for 50 foreign species hooded antwren (Formicivora column labeled ‘‘Priority’’ indicates the for which we had previously found erythronotos), fringe-backed fire-eye LPN for all taxa for which proposed proposed listing to be warranted but (Pyriglena atra), brown-banded antpitta listing is warranted but precluded. precluded. We have considered all of (Grallaria milleri), Kaempfer’s tody- Following the scientific name of each the new information that we have tyrant (Hemitriccus kaempferi), ash- taxon (third column) is the family obtained since the previous findings, breasted tit-tyrant (Anairetes alpinus), designation (fourth column) and the and we have updated the listing priority Peruvian plantcutter (Phytotoma common name, if one exists (fifth number (LPN) of each taxon for which raimondii), St. Lucia forest thrush column). The sixth column provides the proposed listing continues to be (Cichlherminia herminieri known historic range for the taxon. The warranted but precluded, in accordance sanctaeluciae), Eiao Polynesian warbler avian species in Table 1 are listed with our Listing Priority Guidance (Acrocephalus cafier aquilonis), taxonomically. published September 21, 1983 (48 FR medium tree-finch (Camarhynchus 43098). Such a priority ranking pauper), and cherry-throated tanager Findings on Species for Which Listing guidance system is required under (Nemosia rourei). Is Warranted section 4(h)(3) of the Act. Using this Our warranted finding is based on a Below are our 12-month resubmitted guidance, we assign each taxon an LPN species’ LPN, as well as a recent court petition findings on the 30 taxa found of 1 to 12, whereby we first categorize order. We have found all taxa with LPNs by this notice to be warranted for based on the magnitude of the threat(s) of 2 or 3, as reported in the 2007 Notice proposed listing under the Act. (high versus moderate-to-low), then by of Review (72 FR 20184), to be the immediacy of the threat(s) warranted for proposed listing under the Birds (imminent versus nonimminent), and Act, because these species face threats Junı´n Flightless Grebe (Podiceps finally by taxonomic status; the lower that are both imminent and high in taczanowskii) the listing priority number, the higher magnitude. In addition to the LPN the listing priority (i.e., a species with directing our findings, on January 23, The Junı´n flightless grebe is endemic an LPN of 1 would have the highest 2008, the United States District Court to Lake Junon, a large lake that covers listing priority). ordered the Service to propose listing 35,385 acres (ac) (14,320 hectares (ha)) As a result of our review of 50 foreign rules for five foreign bird species, in the central Andes of Peru at 13,386 species, we find that warranted-but- actions which had been previously feet (ft) (4,080 meters (m)) above sea precluded findings remain appropriate determined to be warranted but level (Fjeldsa˚ 1981; Fjeldsa˚ 2004; for 20 species. We emphasize that we precluded: the Chilean woodstar Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990; INRENA are not proposing these species for (Eulidia yarrellii), Andean flamingo 1996). Historically, the species was listing by this notice, but we do (Phoenicoparrus andinus), medium tree- likely distributed throughout the lake, anticipate developing and publishing finch (Camarhynchus pauper), black- but it is now absent from the northwest proposed listing rules for these species breasted puffleg (Eriocnemis nigrivestis), portion of the lake due to contamination in the future, with an objective of and the St. Lucia forest thrush from mining wastes (Fjeldsa˚ 1981). making expeditious progress in (Cichlherminia herminieri The lake is bordered by extensive reed addressing all 20 of these foreign sanctaeluciae). Of these five species, marshes and reaches a depth of 32.8 ft species within a reasonable timeframe. only one, the medium tree-finch (10 m) at the center. The reed marshes Also as a result of this review, we find (Camarhynchus pauper), did not have are continuous in some areas of the lake that proposing 30 taxa for listing under an LPN number of 2 or 3. To comply shore, but they form a mosaic with the Act is warranted. We will promptly with the court-order, however, we are stretches of open water in other areas. publish proposals to list these 30 taxa, declaring the medium tree-finch to be Considerable stretches of the lake are listed below in taxonomic order: Junı´n warranted for proposed listing at this shallow, supporting dense growth of flightless grebe (Podiceps taczanowskii), time, in addition to the 29 species that stonewort (Chara spp.) (del Hoyo et al. greater adjutant stork (Leptoptilos were reported with LPNs of 2 or 3 in our 1992). The Junı´n flightless grebe prefers dubius), Andean flamingo 2007 Notice of Review, for which we open lake habitat and remains in the (Phoenicoparrus andinus), Brazilian have already begun to prepare proposed center of the lake when it is not merganser (Mergus octosetaceus), listing rules. breeding. During the breeding season, Caucau Guan (Crax alberti), blue-billed Based on our review of 50 species, we however, it nests in stands of tall curassow (Penelope perspicax), did not find any taxa to be no longer Scirpus californicus tatora or bays and Cantabrian capercaillie (Tetrao warranted for listing. Table 1 provides channels along the outer edge of the urogallus cantabricus), gorgeted wood- a summary of all updated reed marshes surrounding the lake quail (Odontophorus strophium), Junı´n determinations of the 50 taxa in our (O’Donnel and Fjedsa˚ 1997). The Junı´n rail (Laterallus tuerosi), Jerdon’s Courser review. Any changes in LPN are flightless grebe feeds predominantly on (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), slender billed explained in the species summaries in fish (Orestias spp.), which constitute curlew (Numenius tenuirostris), the text of this notice. Taxa in Table 1 approximately 90 percent of its diet (del Marquesan imperial pigeon (Ducula of this notice are assigned to two status Hoyo et al. 1992). galeata), salmon-crested cockatoo categories, noted in the ‘‘Category’’ The Junı´n flightless grebe has (Cacatua moluccensis), southeastern column at the left side of the table. We experienced dramatic population

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declines since the early 1960s when by reducing their prey (Fjeldsa˚ 2004). greater adjutant stork is classified as there were at least 1,000 individuals (F. Threats to this species and its habitat ‘‘Endangered’’ by the IUCN Red List Gill and R.W. Storer, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ continue, and we find that proposing (BirdLife International 2007). 2004). Prior to the 1960s, the Junı´n this species for listing under the Act is Identified risks to this species include flightless grebe had been described as warranted. habitat destruction, particularly lowland ‘‘extremely abundant on the lake’’ deforestation and the felling of nest Greater Adjutant Stork (Leptoptilos trees (Hindu 2007; Singha et al. 2002; (Morrison 1939). However, by 1979, the dubius) population was estimated to be 250 to Singha et al. 2006; WCS 2007); habitat 300 birds, indicating a rapid and The current range of the greater modification from flooding and extensive decline (Harris 1981, as cited adjutant stork consists of two breeding hydrological changes brought about by in O’Donnell and Fjeldsa˚ 1997). From populations, one in India and the other Mekong River dam development 1979 through 2004, population in Cambodia. Recent sighting records of (Clements et al. 2007b; WCS 2007); estimates fluctuated between 50 to 375 this species from the neighboring direct exploitation, such as hunting and birds (J. Fjeldsa˚ 2005, as cited in countries of Nepal, Bangladesh, egg collection from nesting colonies Butchart et al. 2006; O’Donnel and Vietnam, and Thailand are presumed to (Clements et al. 2007a); and drainage, Fjeldsa˚ 1997). In 2004, the population be wandering birds from one of the two agricultural conversion, pollution, and estimate was 100 to 300 birds (BirdLife populations in India or Cambodia over-exploitation of wetlands (BirdLife International 2007); however, in dry (Birdlife International 2007). International 2007; Clements et al. 2007; years (e.g., 1983–1987, 1991, 1994– The greater adjutant stork frequents Singha et al. 2003). The Assam 1997), the population was reduced to marshes, lakes, paddy fields, and open population is also negatively impacted 100 birds or fewer (Elton 2000; Fjeldsa˚ forest, and may also be found in dry by the loss of a readily available food areas, such as grasslands and fields. In 2004). Short-term population increases source, due to the reduced number of India, much of the native habitat has ranging from 200 to 300 birds have open rubbish dumps for the disposal of been lost. The greater adjutant stork occurred in years with high rainfall carcasses and foodstuffs (BirdLife often occurs close to urban areas, levels related to the El Nin˜ o Southern- International 2007). Threats to this feeding in and around wetlands in the Oscillation (ENSO) (1997–1998 and species and its habitat are ongoing, and breeding season, and disperses to feed 2001–2002) (T. Valqui and we find that proposing this species for on carcasses and to scavenge at trash PROFONANPE 2002, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ listing under the Act is warranted. dumps, burial grounds, and slaughter 2004). In 2007, the population once houses at other times of the year. The Andean Flamingo (Phoenicoparrus more declined due to a high-mortality natural diet of the greater adjutant stork andinus) weather event (Hirschfeld 2007). consists primarily of fish, frogs, reptiles, The Andean flamingo is the rarest of The Junı´n flightless grebe is small mammals and birds, crustaceans, six flamingo species worldwide and one considered ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ by and carrion (BirdLife International 2007; of three endemic to the high Andes of the IUCN (International Union for Singha and Rahman 2006). South America (Arengo in litt. 2007; Conservation of Nature) Red List This species breeds in colonies during Caziani et al. 2007; del Hoyo et al. 1992; because of the species’ rapid decline, the dry season (winter) in stands of tall Johnson et al. 1958; Johnson 1967; Line highly restricted range, and increasing trees near water sources. In India, the 2004). The Andean flamingo is found in exposure to contaminants produced by breeding sites are commonly associated lakes in the Andean altiplano (high the mining industry (Birdlife with bamboo forests which provide plains) from southern Peru and International 2006). Variations in lake protection from wind (Singha et al. southwestern Bolivia to northern Chile water levels of up to 23 ft (7 m) at a time 2002). The greater adjutant stork and northwest Argentina. A small are linked to electrical power generation constructs platform nests made of sticks section of the population winters in the by a local hydroelectric power station. in the upper lateral limbs of large trees lowlands of central Argentina, mainly at These water-level fluctuations have (Singha et al. 2002). In Cambodia, the Mar Chiquita Lake (Blake 1977; Bucher reduced prey populations, resulting in greater adjutant stork breeds in 1992; Boyle et al. 2004; Caziani et al. increased food competition with white- freshwater flooded forest and disperses 2006; Caziani et al. 2007; Fjeldsa˚ and tufted grebes (Rollandia rolland). to seasonally inundated forest, tall wet Krabbe 1990; Hurlbert and Keith 1979; Frequent manipulation and drawdowns grasslands, mangroves, and intertidal Kahl 1975). There have been several of the lake’s water level also prevent flats to forage. At the Kulen Promtep documented occurrences of Andean foraging, nest building, and breeding in Wildlife Sanctuary, it is known to nest flamingos in Brazil, but it is unclear drought years (BirdLife International only in evergreen forests (Clements et al. whether the species is accidental or a 2007). In addition, contamination from 2007b). At two breeding sites near the more frequent visitor (Bornschein and mining wastes (Fjeldsa˚ 1981; Martin and city of Guwahati in the State of Assam, Reinert 1996; Sick 1993). McNee 1999) has reduced the amount of the most recent survey data show that Andean flamingo habitat consists of available habitat in the northern section the number of breeding birds has plankton-rich, high-elevation, shallow of the lake by diminishing or declined from 247 birds in 2005 to 118 lakes and salt flats (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe eliminating stands of submerged aquatic birds in 2007 (Hindu 2007). 1990). The range of the species becomes vegetation (Fjeldsa˚ 2004; ParksWatch During the nineteenth century, there more restricted in the winter as low 2006). Greater concentration of were vast colonies of millions of greater temperatures and aridity seasonally contaminants in the lake as a result of adjutant storks in Burma, and del Hoyo inhibit the suitability of some wetlands droughts (T. Valqui and J. Barrio in litt. et al. (1992) noted that in Calcutta there (Caziani et al. 2007; Mascitti and 1992, as cited in Collar et al. 1992) has was ‘‘almost one [stork] on every roof.’’ Bonaventura 2002). The Andean coincided with mortality of Junı´n However, during the twentieth century flamingo feeds in large flocks on flightless grebes (T. Valqui and J. Barrio the species experienced a rapid decline, diatoms of the genus Surirella from the in litt. 1992, as cited in Collar et al. and currently the population estimate is benthic interface in water less than 3 ft 1992), and is believed either to have 800 to 1,000 birds in two very small and (1 m) deep (Hurlbert and Chang 1983; directly caused the mortalities or to highly disjunct breeding populations Mascitti and Castan˜ era 2006; Mascitti have resulted in mortality of the grebes (BirdLife International 2007). The and Kravetz 2002).

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Population assessments for this through future generations (BirdLife recent record of the species from species vary greatly. In 1967, Charles International 2007). Misiones, Argentina (Benstead 1994; Cordier estimated the number of Experts consider the greatest threats Hearn 1994, as cited in Collar et al. Andean flamingos to be 250,000 to to the Andean flamingo to be habitat 1994), and it was last recorded in 300,000 birds (Johnson 1967). Kahl degradation caused by mining, Paraguay in 1984 (BirdLife International (1975) reviewed previous estimates and agricultural, and residential/urban 2007). noted that Cordier’s 1965 and 1968 development, and tourism (Arengo in Currently the species is found in population estimates varied by an order litt. 2007). Mining takes place in or near extremely low numbers at six highly of magnitude (from 50,000 to 500,000) many of the wetlands occupied by the disjunct localities, of which five are in during that same time period. By 1986, Andean flamingo, including successful southeastern Brazil, and one is in R. Schlatter estimated the population to breeding sites (Corporacio´n Nacional northeastern Argentina and, possibly, be fewer than 50,000 individuals, with Forestal 1996a; Soto 1996; Ugarte-Nunez extreme eastern Paraguay (BirdLife a declining population trend (Johnson and Mosaurieta-Echegaray 2000). Loss International 2007; Hughes et al. 2006). 2000). However, the accuracy of these of habitat due to excavations in the The species inhabits shallow clear-water early estimates has never been lakebed and extraction of water are streams and rapid rivers, preferably confirmed, making it difficult to attributed to mining, which also causes surrounded by dense tropical forests, establish trends. extensive degradation of water quality. and it is believed to be a highly Using a comprehensive sampling Chemical pollution produced by the sedentary, monogamous species, design and conducting simultaneous mining and metallurgical industries and presumably maintaining its territory all surveys at over 200 wetlands in Peru, recent petroleum spills are also year (del Hoyo et al. 1992; Bruno et al. Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina, Caziani et responsible for the degradation of water 2006; Ducks Unlimited 2007; Hughes et al. (2007) counted 33,918 Andean resources (OAS/UNEP and ALT 1999, as al. 2006). The Brazilian merganser is a flamingos in January 1997; 27,913 in cited in Rocha 2002). Pollution from good swimmer and diver, and feeds January 1998; 14,722 in June 1998; and mining wastes has been reported as a primarily on fish, and occasionally 24,442 in July 2000. In the summer of risk factor to flamingos in Argentina aquatic insects and snails (Collar et al. 2005, Caziani et al. (2006) reported (Laredo 1990 as cited in Administracio´n 1992). 31,617 Andean flamingos distributed de Parques Nacionales 1994), although Recent records from Brazil and a throughout 25 wetlands, with 50 it was not reported whether the risk was newly discovered northern range percent of the population located in five due to direct mortality of flamingos or extension indicate that the status of this wetlands in Chile and Bolivia. due to a reduction in their food supply. species is better than previously Long-lived species with slow rates of In Chile, where Andean flamingo considered, as several highly disjunct reproduction, such as the Andean breeding colonies are concentrated and populations were located in 2002 flamingo, may appear to have robust where mineral and hydrocarbon (BirdLife International 2007; Hughes et populations, but can rapidly decline if exploration and exploitation have al. 2006). However, the IUCN reproduction does not keep pace with increased in the last two decades, both categorizes the species as ‘‘Critically mortality. Andean flamingo recruitment the number of successful breeding Endangered’’ (BirdLife International was very low from the late 1980s to the colonies and the total production of 2007). Additionally, the population is mid-1990s, averaging only 800 chicks chicks of Andean Flamingos have estimated at between 50 to 249 per year from 1988 through 1997. declined since the 1980s (Parada 1992, individuals, and the trend is decreasing Recruitment appears to have improved Rodrı´guez and Contreras 1998, as cited (BirdLife International 2007). in recent years, with a total of 13,201 in Caziani et al. 2007). Identified risks to the species include Andean flamingo chicks hatched from Water consumption for agriculture habitat loss and degradation, 1997 through 2001 (Caziani et al. 2007), and domestic use can cause serious fragmentation, and hydrological changes and an average of 3,000 chicks per year declines in water levels at important with perturbation and pollution of has fledged since 2000 (Amado et al. breeding sites (Messerli et al. 1997), and rivers, which are predominately the 2007 as cited in Arengo in litt. 2007). increased tourism is likely to further result of deforestation, agriculture, and However, in some years breeding stress already tenuous water budgets as diamond mining in the Serra da success is extremely limited; in 1997, hotels and restaurants are established Canastra area (Bianchi et al. 2005; only 200 chicks were observed to have (RIDES 2005). Other potential risks to Bartmann 1994 and 1996, as cited in hatched (Caziani et al. 2007). The the species include overutilization of BirdLife International 2007; Bruno et al. reasons for such variation appear to be individuals (Valqui et al. 2000) and eggs 2006; Collar et al. 1994; Ducks related to annual climatic conditions (Caziani et al. 2007) as a food resource Unlimited 2007; Hughes et al. 2006; (Caziani et al. 2007). When climatic and collection of feathers (Valqui et al. Lamas and Santos 2004). Each breeding conditions are favorable, breeding takes 2000). Threats to the Andean flamingo pair of Brazilian mergansers requires place, whereas, when climatic and its habitat continue, and we find relatively long segments of river—up to conditions are unfavorable breeding is that proposing this species for listing ca. 7.5 miles (mi) (12 kilometers (km))— abandoned, very limited, or takes place under the Act is warranted. and the species is sensitive to human at alternative breeding grounds, which disturbance, including activities tend to be less productive (Bucher et al. Brazilian Merganser (Mergus associated with expanded human 2000). octosetaceus) presence such as tourism and scientific The IUCN categorizes the Andean The Brazilian merganser is a diving research programs (Braz et al. 2003; flamingo as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ because it has duck that occurred historically in Bruno et al. 2006). Dam construction undergone a rapid population decline, it riverine habitats throughout southern has destroyed suitable habitat, is exposed to ongoing exploitation and Brazil, northeastern Argentina, and especially in Brazil and Paraguay declines in habitat quality, and finally, eastern Paraguay (Hughes et al. 2006). (BirdLife International 2007). The although previous exploitation has The species is considered extinct in species is highly adapted to shallow, decreased, the longevity and slow Mato Grosso do Sul, Rio de Janeiro, Sao rapid-flowing riverine conditions and, breeding of flamingos suggest that the Paolo, and Santa Catarina (BirdLife therefore, cannot tolerate the lacustrine legacy of past threats may persist International 2007). There is only one (i.e., lake-like) conditions of reservoirs

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that result from dam-building activities species (BirdLife International 2007). primary forest (Renjifo 2002; Kattan et within their occupied range (Hughes et However, the species has not been al. 2006; Rios et al. 2006). Its current al. 2006). observed again in that location since range is estimated to be less than 290 The Brazilian merganser is legally 1995 (Wege and Long 1995). mi2 (750 km2), of which only 216 mi2 protected in Brazil, and four of Brazil’s Cauca guan populations are (560 km2) is considered suitable habitat protected areas represent the major sites characterized as small, containing only (BirdLife International 2007; Kattan et where the species occurs (del Hoyo et tens of individuals or, in rare instances, al. 2006; Rios et al. 2006). It is estimated al. 1992; Hughes et al. 2006). These sites hundreds (Renjifo 2002). BirdLife that more than 30 percent of this loss of are critical for protecting some of the International (2007) reported that the habitat has occurred within the species’ key remaining subpopulations of the largest subpopulation contained an last 3 generations (30 years) (Renjifo Brazilian merganser (del Hoyo et al. estimated 50 to 249 individuals; 2002), and recent studies indicate that 1992; Braz et al. 2003; Bianchi et al. however, they did not specify to which the rate of habitat destruction is 2005; Bruno et al. 2006; BirdLife population this refers, and these figures accelerating (Butler 2006; FAO 2003). International 2007). The Instituto are not found in any other literature Cauca guans, the largest birds in their Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos regarding population surveys of the area of distribution, are considered Recursos Naturais Renova´veis (IBAMA) Cauca guan. Kattan et al. (2006) among those species most rapidly in Brazil has established eight conducted the only two population depleted by hunting (Redford 1992; committees to develop and monitor surveys in 2000 and 2001 (Mun˜ oz et al. Renjifo 2002). It serves as a major source conservation strategies for the country’s 2006). They estimated population of subsistence protein for indigenous ‘‘endangered’’ species, including the densities at two locations—Otu´ n- people (Brooks and Strahl 2000), Brazilian merganser (Marinia and Garcia Quimbaya Flora and Fauna Sanctuary although hunting by local residents is 2004). These committees developed an (Risaralda) and Reserva Forestal de illegal (del Hoyo et al. 1994; Mun˜ oz et Action Plan for Conservation of the Yotoco (Valle de Cauca)—to be between al. 2006; Renjifo 2002; Rios et al. 2006). Brazilian Merganser, which has recently 144 and 264 individuals and 35 to 61 Threats to the Cauca guan and its been published by the government of individuals, respectively (Kattan et al. habitat are ongoing, and we find that Brazil (Hughes et al. 2006). Despite 2006). Kattan et al. (2006) examined 10 proposing this species for listing under these protections, threats to the additional localities, based on locality the Act is warranted. Brazilian merganser continue. data reported by Renjifo (2002). Visual Blue-Billed Curassow (Crax alberti) Therefore, we find that proposing this confirmations were made at only 2 of species for listing under the Act is the 10 localities, and auditory The blue-billed curassow is a large, warranted. confirmations were made at 5 of the 10 mainly black, terrestrial cracid. The localities (Kattan et al. 2006). In 2006, species historically occurred in northern Cauca Guan (Penelope perspicax) Kattan (in litt., as cited in Mun˜ oz et al. Colombia, from the base of the Sierra The Cauca guan is a medium-sized 2006) estimated the global population to Nevada de Santa Marta, west to the Sinu´ cracid with a bright red dewlap. It is be between 196 and 342 individuals. valley, through the Rı´o Magdalena dull brownish-gray, with mainly The IUCN categorizes the species as (BirdLife International 2007; Cuervo and chestnut rear parts. It has whitish-scaled ‘‘Endangered’’ due to its small, Salaman 1999; del Hoyo et al. 1994). feather edges from head to mantle and contracted range, composed of widely The species’ historic range encompassed breast (BirdLife International 2008). The fragmented patches of habitat (BirdLife an approximate area of 41,197 mi2 Cauca guan is endemic to the slopes of International 2007) and considers the (106,700 km2) (Cuervo 2002). There the west and central Andes (Risaralda, overall population to be in decline were no confirmed observations of blue- Quindio, Valle del Cauca, and Cauca) in (BirdLife International 2007; Kattan billed curassows between 1978 and Colombia (Collar et al. 1992). The 2004; Renjifo 2002). The Cauca guan is 1997 (Brooks and Gonzalez-Garcia historic range is estimated to have been listed as ‘‘Endangered’’ under 2001), and surveys conducted in 1998 approximately 9,614 mi2 (24,900 km2) Colombian law, which prohibits failed to locate any males (BirdLife (Renjifo 2002). In the early part of the commercial and sport hunting of the International 2007), prompting twentieth century, the Cauca guan species (ECOLEX 2007). The level of researchers to believe the species to be inhabited the dry forests of the Cauca, enforcement is uncertain, however, extinct in the wild (del Hoyo et al. Dagua, and Patı´a Valleys (Renjifo 2002). despite this protection. Poaching 1994). However, a series of observations Today, most of the dry forests have been continues to be a problem for the Cauca reported in 1993 were later confirmed eliminated or highly fragmented, such guan and may play a role in the possible (Cuervo 2002). that continuous forest exists only above local extirpation of the species from at The current range of the blue-billed 6,562 ft (2,000 m) (Renjifo 2002). At the least two protected areas (Collar et al. curassow is estimated to be 807 mi2 beginning of the twentieth century 1992; del Hoyo et al. 1994; Strahl et al. (2,090 km2) (BirdLife International through the 1950s, the species was 1995). 2007) of fragmented, disjunct, and considered common (Renjifo 2002; Extensive habitat destruction and isolated tropical, moist, and humid BirdLife International 2007). Between fragmentation since the 1950s have lowlands and premontane forested the 1970s and 1980s, there was resulted in an estimated 95 percent foothills in the Rio Magdalena and extensive deforestation in the Cauca range reduction of this species lower Cauca Valleys of the Sierra Valley, and the species went (Chapman 1917; Collar et al. 1992; Nevada de Santa Marta Mountains, unobserved during this time, leading Kattan et al. 2006; Renjifo 2002; Rios et where it feeds on fruit, shoots, researchers to suspect that the Cauca al. 2006). As a result, although it prefers invertebrates, and possibly carrion. The guan was either extinct or on the verge mature, tropical, humid forests, the species is more commonly found below of extinction (Brooks and Strahl 2000; Cauca guan exists primarily in 1,968 ft (600 m) (del Hoyo et al. 1994), del Hoyo et al. 1994; Hilty 1985; Hilty fragmented and isolated secondary but can be found at elevations up to and Brown 1986). The species was forest remnants, forest edges, and in 3,937 ft (1,200 m) (Collar et al. 1992; rediscovered in 1987 (Renjifo 2002). In plantations of the nonnative Chinese Cuervo and Salaman 1999; del Hoyo et the late 1990s, Ucumarı´ Regional Park ash trees (Fraxinus chinensis) that are al. 1994; Donegan and Huertas 2005; was considered the stronghold of the located within 0.62 mi (1 km) of Salaman et al. 2001).

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In 1993, sightings were reported in curassow from a large portion of its Spain, which affords it protection from the northern Departments of Co´rdoba (at previous range and continues to impact hunting. Although hunting the La Terretera, near Alto Sinu´ ) and remaining populations (Brooks and capercaillie is prohibited in Spain, Bolı´var (in the Serranı´a de San Jacinto) Gonzalez-Garcia 2001; Collar et al. 1992; poaching still occurs. It is unknown (Williams in litt., as cited in BirdLife Cuervo and Salaman 1999). what the incidence of poaching is or International 2007). Additional Additionally, oil extraction, gold what impact it has on the subspecies observations were made in the mining, government defoliation of (Storch 2000, 2007). northernmost Department of La Guajira illegal drug crops, and increased human Habitat degradation, loss, and in 2003 (in the Valle de San Salvador encroachment put the blue-billed fragmentation influence the population Valley) (Strewe and Navarro 2003). curassow at risk (BirdLife International dynamics of the Cantabrian capercaillie More recently, individuals have been 2007). Blue-billed curassows are hunted throughout its range (Storch 2000, observed in the tropical forests of the by indigenous people and local 2007). This subspecies’ historic range more central Departments of Antioquı´a, residents for sustenance, sport, trade, has declined by more than 50 percent and Santander and Boyaca´ Departments, and entertainment (Brooks 2006; Brooks (Quevedo et al. 2006). The current range and in the southeastern Department of and Gonzalez-Garcia 2001; Brooks and is severely fragmented, with 22 percent Cauca (BirdLife International 2007; Strahl 2000; Cuervo and Salaman 1999), in low forest habitat, and most of the Cuervo 2002; Donegan and Huertas involving the species at all life stages, remaining suitable habitat is in small 2005; Ochoa-Quintero et al. 2005; with eggs and chicks collected in some patches of less than 25 ac (10 ha) (Garcia Uruen˜ a et al. 2006). Experts consider the areas for sale at local markets or for et al. 2005). Research conducted on most important refugia for this species domestic use (Brooks 2006; Cuervo other subspecies of capercaillie to be: (1) Serranı´a de San Lucas 2002). Threats to the blue-billed indicates that the size of forest patches (Antioquı´a); (2) Paramillo National Park curassow and its habitat are ongoing, is correlated to the number of males that (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Departments); and we find that proposing this species gather in leks (courtship grounds) to (3) Bajo Cauca-Nechı´ Regional Reserve for listing under the Act is warranted. display and that below a certain forest (Antioquı´a and Co´rdoba Departments); patch size, leks are abandoned Cantabrian Capercaillie (Tetrao and (4) Serranı´a de las Quinchas Bird (Quevedo et al. 2006). urogallus cantabricus) Reserve (Santander and Boyaca´ Patches of good quality habitat are Departments) (BirdLife International The Cantabrian capercaillie is a scarce and discontinuous, particularly 2007; Cuervo 2002). subspecies of the western capercaillie in the central portions of the species’ The blue-billed curassow is (T. ugogallus). Currently it is restricted range (Quevedo et al. 2006), and leks in categorized as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ to the Cantabrian Mountains in the smaller forest patches have been by the IUCN Red List (BirdLife northwest Spain. This grouse’s range is abandoned during the last few decades. International 2007) and is considered a separated by the Pyrenees Mountains The leks that remain are now located ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ species under from its nearest neighboring capercaillie farther from forest edges than those that Colombian law, pursuant to paragraph subspecies (T. u. aquitanus) by a were occupied in the 1980s (Quevedo et 23 of Article 5 of the Law 99 of 1993, distance of more than 186 mi (300 km) al. 2006). Recent studies indicate that as outlined in Resolution No. 584 of (Quevedo et al. 2006). habitat fragmentation may have a greater 2002 (ECOLEX 2007b). The blue-billed The Cantabrian capercaillie occurs in effect on this subspecies than previously curassow is identified as an immediate mature beech forests (Fagus sylvatica) recognized (Quevedo et al 2005; conservation priority by the Cracid and mixed beech and oak forests Vandermeer and Carvajal 2001), and if Specialist Group (Brooks and Strahl (Quercus robur, Q. petraea, and Q. further habitat fragmentation occurs, the 2000). There is little information on pyrenaica) at elevations ranging from Cantabrian capercaillie population population numbers for the various 2,625 to 5,900 ft (800 to 1,800 m). The could end up in a few isolated reported localities. In 2003, the Cantabrian capercaillie also inhabits subpopulations too small to ensure the population at Serranı´a de las Quinchas other microhabitat types such as broom subspecies’ long-term survival (Grimm (Boyaca´ Department) was estimated to (Genista spp.), meadow, and heath and Storch 2000). be between 250 and 1,000 birds. The (Erica spp.) selectively throughout the Forest silviculture practices affect only other information on the year (Quevedo et al. 2006). Bilberry both the quantity, as well as the quality, subpopulation level is a report from (Vaccinium myrtillus) is an important of suitable habitat for the Cantabrian Strewe and Navarro (2003), based on component of its diet, and it also feeds capercaillie. Forest structure plays an field studies conducted between 2000 on beech buds, catkins of birch (Betrula important role in determining habitat and 2001, that hunting had nearly alba), and holly leaves (Ilex aquifolium) suitability and occupancy for the extirpated the blue-billed curassow from (Rodriguez and Obeso 2000, as cited in subspecies. Quevedo et al. (2006) found a site in San Salvador. In 1994, the Pollo et al. 2005). that open forest structure with well- IUCN estimated the blue-billed In 2004, at the species level, the distributed bilberry shrubs, an curassow population at between 1,000 western capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) important component of the species’ and 2,499 individuals (BirdLife was assessed by the IUCN as a species diet (Rodriguez and Obeso 2000, as International 2007). In 2001, Brooks and of ‘‘Least Concern’’ (BirdLife reported in Pollo et al. 2005), was the Gonzalez-Garcia (2001) estimated the International 2004a). However, the preferred habitat type of Cantabrian total population to be much less than IUCN Species Survival Commission’s capercaillie. 2,000 individuals. In 2002, it was Grouse Specialist Group has noted that Management of forest resources for estimated that the species had lost 88 the subspecies qualifies to be listed as timber production causes significant percent of its habitat and half of its ‘‘Endangered’’ according to the IUCN changes in forest structure, such as population within the species’ previous Red List criteria (Storch 2000). In the species composition, tree density and 3 generations (30 years) (Cuervo 2002). year 1998–1999, it was estimated there height, forest patch size, and understory Rapid deforestation and habitat loss were 1,900 to 2,000 pairs and that the vegetation (Pollo et al. 2005). Such throughout the lowland forests across subspecies was in decline (BirdLife silviculture practices continue to northern Colombia over the past 100 International 2004b). This subspecies is negatively affect the quality, quantity, years has extirpated the blue-billed currently classified as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ in and distribution of suitable habitat

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available for this subspecies, the twentieth century, the gorgeted two local fishermen (Fjeldsa˚ 1983). particularly by reducing the availability wood-quail was known only in the oak Based on these accounts, BirdLife of bilberry food resources and forests in the Department of International (2000, 2007) estimated that potentially reducing the availability of Cundinamarca. However, extensive the population might range between suitably sized breeding grounds. deforestation and habitat conversion for 1,000 and 2,500 individuals. BirdLife Recurring fires have also been agricultural use nearly denuded all the International, however, acknowledged implicated as a factor in the decline of oak forests in Cundinamarca below that the data quality is poor and that the the subspecies (Lloyd 2007). Threats to 8,202 ft (2,500 m) (BirdLife International actual population size might be much the Cantabrian capercaillie and its 2007; Hilty and Brown 1986). smaller (BirdLife International 2000). habitat are ongoing, and we find that Subsequent surveys have not located the The Junı´n rail is categorized as proposing this subspecies for listing species in this area since 1954 (Collar et ‘‘Endangered’’ by the IUCN because its under the Act is warranted. al. 1992; Fuller et al. 2000; Sarria and range is limited to the shores of a single ´ lake where habitat quality is declining, Gorgeted Wood-Quail (Odontophorus Alvarez 2002), and researchers consider and the population is very small and strophium) the gorgeted wood-quail to be locally extirpated from Cundinamarca (BirdLife believed to be declining (BirdLife The gorgeted wood-quail is endemic International 2007; Fuller et al. 2000; International 2007). The Junı´n rail is to the west slope of the East Andes, in Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002; Wege and Long considered an ‘‘Endangered’’ species by the Magdalena Valley (Donegan and 1995). The species has recently been the Peruvian government under Huertas 2005). It is currently known confirmed to exist in three locations, Supreme Decree No. 034–2004–AG, only in the central Colombian and its current range is between 4 mi 2 which prohibits hunting, taking, Department of Santander, with less than (10 km 2) (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002) and transport, or trade of this species, except 10 sightings (del Hoyo et al. 1994; Fjelds 10.42 mi 2 (27 km 2) (BirdLife as permitted by regulation. and Krabbe 1990; Hilty and Brown International 2007). These localities are One of the key factors contributing to 1986). in two disjunct areas within the the species’ decline is adverse habitat The gorgeted wood-quail prefers Department of Santander. Serranoa de modification. Dam operations cause montane temperate and humid los Yarguoes is in northern Santander seasonal lake-level fluctuations of up to subtropical forests dominated by roble and the other two localities are adjacent 6 ft (2 m) (Martin and McNee 1999). (Tabebuia rosea), and secondary growth to each other in southern Santander Because few reed-beds are now forests in proximity to mature forests permanently inundated, tall reeds ´ (Donegan and Huertas 2005). The (Sarria and Alvarez 2002), especially species has lost 92 percent of its former (Scirpus tatora) have virtually those dominated by oak (Quercus habitat (Sarria and A´ lvarez 2002), and disappeared from the lake’s shoreline humboldtii). The species is most often habitat loss through logging and land (O’Donnel and Fjeldsa˚ 1997). Long-term found at elevations between 5,741 and conversion to agricultural purposes drawdowns of water levels lead to 6,726 ft (1,750 and 2,050 m) (BirdLife continues throughout its range (BirdLife desiccation of the Juncus spp. marshes, International 2007; Donegan et al. 2003; International 2007; Collar et al. 1992; and it has been suggested that the Junı´n Donegan and Huertas 2005; Sarria and Collar et al. 1994; Donegan et al. 2003; rail may be particularly susceptible to ´ Alvarez 2002; Turner 2006; Wege and Hilty and Brown 1986; Sarria and such effects because they tend to occupy Long 1995). The gorgeted wood-quail is A´ lvarez 2002; Stattersfield et al. 1998). dry or shallow-water lakeshore sites primarily terrestrial (Fuller et al. 2000), Threats to the gorgeted wood-quail and (Eddleman et al. 1988). living on the forest floor and feeding on its habitat continue, and we find that Marsh desiccation also provides easy fruit, seeds, and arthropods (Collar et al. proposing this species for listing under access to the shore for large livestock 1992; del Hoyo et al. 1994; Fuller et al. the Act is warranted. herds (primarily sheep, but also cattle, 2000). It is probably dependent on and to a lesser extent llamas and primary-growth forest for at least part of Junı´n Rail (Laterallus tuerosi) alpacas) to move into the wetlands its life cycle, although it has also been The Junı´n rail is endemic to Lake surrounding the lake, resulting in found in degraded habitats and Junı´n. The lake is large, covering 35,385 overgrazing and soil compaction secondary-growth forest (BirdLife ac (14,320 ha) in the central Andes of (INRENA 2000, as cited in ParksWatch International 2007). Peru at 13,386 ft (4,080 m) above sea 2006). Given the large number of The species is classified as ‘‘Critically level (BirdLife International 2000; livestock that are currently located Endangered’’ by the IUCN Red List due Fjeldsa˚ 1983). The Junı´n rail is known around the lake (approximately 60,000 to its small and highly fragmented from only two sites on the southwest to 70,000), habitat destruction and range, with recent population records lakeshore, near Ondores and Pari, but it trampling of nests and fledglings from only two areas. Logging and may occur in other portions of the negatively impact this species (BirdLife hunting are believed to be causing some 37,066 ac (15,000 ha) of marshlands International 2000; BirdLife declines in range and population size surrounding Lake Junı´n (Fjeldsa˚ 1983). International 2007; Collar et al. 1992). (BirdLife International 2004). The The species’ habitat preferences are Another threat to the Junı´n rail’s population is estimated at between 250 not fully understood, but it is known to habitat is the contamination of Lake and 999 individuals (BirdLife inhabit marshy vegetation located Junı´n from mining wastes. There are a International 2007). around the margins of Lake Junı´n. The number of mining operations (lead, Since the seventeenth century, the Junı´n rail has been observed in the copper, and zinc) to the north of Lake west slope of the East Andes has been interior of large stands of Juncus spp. on Junı´n, and wastewater from these mines extensively logged and converted to the southeast shoreline of the lake and runs untreated into the lake via the Rio agriculture (Stiles et al. 1999). Forest in mosaics of open marshes, in San Juan (Fjeldsa˚ 1981; Martin and habitat loss below 8,200 ft (2,500 m) has association with Juncus spp., mosses, McNee 1999). The Rio San Juan (the been almost complete (Stattersfield et al. and low herbs (Fjeldsa˚ 1983). primary input of water into the Lake) 1998), with habitat reduced in many Rigorous population estimates for the exhibits elevated levels of several trace areas to highly fragmented relict patches Junı´n rail have not been made. In 1983, metals in comparison to local on steep slopes and along streams however, the species was believed to be background values (Martin and McNee (Stiles et al. 1999). In the early part of common based on anecdotal reports of 1999). In addition, concentrations of

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fertilizer by-products such as intensive agricultural growth in recent that proposing this species for listing ammonium and nitrate have been found years (Senapathi et al. 2006). From 1991 under the Act is warranted. to be elevated (Martin and McNee 1999), through 2000, a net loss of 14.6 percent Slender-Billed Curlew (Numenius and agricultural insecticides, which of scrub habitat in the Cuddapah tenuirostris) wash into the lake from the surrounding District and parts of the Nellore District fields and through drainage systems in Andhra Pradesh took place, while the The slender-billed curlew migrates from villages around the lake, have been amount of land occupied by agricultural along a west-southwest route from detected (ParksWatch 2006). The fields more than doubled during the Siberia through central and eastern contaminant load increases same time period (Senapathi et al. Europe (predominantly Russia, substantially during the wet season 2006). The main cause for the loss of Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Hungrary, Romania, and Yugoslavia) to when agricultural run-off is greater scrub habitat was conversion to southern Europe (Greece, Italy, and (Martin and McNee 1999). agriculture, while gains in scrub habitat Turkey) and North Africa (Algeria, Cattail (Typha spp.) harvesting and came largely at the expense of native burning also destroy the Junı´n rail’s Morocco, and Tunisia). The species has deciduous forest due to mechanical habitat (ParksWatch 2006), resulting in only been confirmed breeding near Tara, clearing and fire (Jeganathan et al. long-term impacts to the species’ habitat Siberia, Russia, between 1909 and 1925, 2004b). Researchers believe that suitable (Eddleman et al. 1988). Cattails are and the only known nests were found harvested for handicrafts and livestock habitat conditions for the Jerdon’s on the northern limit of the forest- forage and are periodically burned to courser could be created through the use steppe habitat (Birdlife International encourage shoot renewal (ParksWatch of a combination of well-managed 2006). During seasonal migrations and 2006). Threats to the Junı´n rail and its animal grazing and woodcutting to the winter months, the slender-billed habitat continue, and we find that maintain optimal height, density, and curlew utilizes a wide variety of proposing this species under the Act is species composition of shrubs for the habitats, including coastal marshes, warranted. species. However, over-utilization of steppe grassland, fish ponds, saltpans, scrub habitat could also result in local brackish lagoons, tidal mudflats, semi- Jerdon’s Courser (Rhinoptilus courser extirpations (Jeganathan et al. desert, brackish wetlands, and sandy bitorquatus) 2004a; Senapathi et al. 2006). If not farmlands in close proximity to lagoons The Jerdon’s courser is endemic to the well-managed, increased levels of (Hirschfeld 2007). Eastern Ghats of the states of Andhra woodcutting and livestock grazing, as From the second half of the Pradesh and extreme southern Madhya well as mechanical clearing of scrub nineteenth century until 1920, the Pradesh in India. The species was habitat to create pasture, orchards, and slender-billed curlew was considered an thought to be extinct for approximately agricultural fields, are all land uses abundant bird (Chandrinos 2000). 86 years until 1986, when it was likely to create habitat that is low in Flocks of more than 100 slender-billed rediscovered in Lankamalai. It has since quality, highly-fragmented, and curlews were recorded in Morocco as been located at six additional sites in unsuitable for use by the Jerdon’s late as 1970. However, population the vicinity of the Velikonda and courser. From 1991 through 2000, the declines have been observed since 1980 Palakonda hills, in the southern State of patch size of scrub habitat declined (BirdLife International 2006). BirdLife Andhra Pradesh (Birdlife International significantly (Senapathi et al. 2006). International (2008) reports that in 1994 2006). It prefers sparse, thorny areas Continuing encroachment of human the population estimate was 50–270 dominated by Acacia spp., Zizyphus settlement into areas currently occupied individuals, but the lack of recent spp., and Carissa spp. (BirdLife by the courser is likely to result in confirmed sightings, despite extensive International 2006). The Jerdon’s increased livestock grazing pressure and survey efforts, indicates that the courser may also inhabit scrub forest additional land conversion for population may now include less than consisting of Cassia spp., Hardwickia agricultural purposes. 50 birds. Surveys were conducted spp., Dalbergia spp., Butea spp., and between 1987 and 2000 in various Anogeissus spp., interspersed with The Jerdon’s courser is categorized as sections of the species’ historic range patches of bare ground, in gently ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ on the IUCN and covered hundreds of miles (and the undulating rocky foothills (BirdLife Red List because of its small, declining corresponding number of kilometers) of International 2006). population and habitat that is being habitat. Not a single slender-billed This species’ population is estimated reduced by livestock overgrazing and curlew, however, was located during at 50 to 249 birds (Birdlife International disturbance (BirdLife International these efforts (CMS 2004; Gretton et al. 2006). Very few individuals have been 2004). The species is also listed under 2002). recorded thus far, mainly due to the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife The slender-billed curlew is classified species’ nocturnal and secretive habits Protection Act of 1972. Hunting of as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ by the IUCN, (BirdLife International 2006). Negative Schedule I-listed species is strictly because the species has an extremely impacts to the species include prohibited. The Indian Wildlife small population size, and the number exploitation of the scrub-forest, Protection Act provides for the of birds recorded annually continues to livestock grazing, disturbance by designation and management of fall, likely representing a continuing humans and livestock (BirdLife Sanctuaries and National Parks for the population decline (BirdLife International 2006), and construction of purposes of protecting, propagating, or International 2004). The species is listed canals (Jegananthen et al. 2005). developing wildlife or its environment. under Appendix I of CITES; commercial Jeganathan et al. (2004) found that Two areas have been established to trade of this species is strictly Jerdon’s courser occurrence is strongly protect the habitat of the Jerdon’s prohibited (UNEP–WCMC 2008). correlated with the density of bushes courser. Suitable habitat, however, The slender-billed curlew is also and trees, which is, in turn, negatively outside of these Protected Areas listed under Appendices I and II of the affected by mismanaged livestock continues to be lost through its Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) grazing, woodcutting, and land clearing conversion for development and (BirdLife International 2004). In an for agricultural production. The State of agriculture. Threats to Jerdon’s courser effort to safeguard the slender-billed Andhra Pradesh has experienced and its habitat continue, and we find curlew, a Memorandum of

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Understanding (MOU) was developed partially cultivated, and much of the means that the destruction or poaching under CMS auspices and became steppe has been developed for intensive of eggs or nests or the mutilation, effective on September 10, 1994. The agricultural purposes (Gretton 1996). destruction, capture, poaching, MOU area covers 30 Range States in Progress is underway in some range intentional disturbance, taxidermy, Southern and Eastern Europe, Northern nations to conserve habitat, prevent transport, peddling, use, possession, Africa and the Middle East. As of hunter misidentification of the species, offer for sale, or purchase of individuals December 31, 2000, the MOU had been and increase awareness about the is prohibited by law. Currently, there is signed by 18 Range States and three co- species’ precarious status; however, no evidence that collection for trade of operating organizations. An range nations have had differing levels this species is occurring. International Action Plan for the of success in the implementation of Loss of habitat is believed to have had Conservation of the slender-billed needed protections. Threats to the a large impact on the reduced Curlew has been prepared by BirdLife slender-billed curlew and its habitat are distribution of the Marquesan imperial- International (Council of Europe, 1996), ongoing, and we find that proposing this pigeon. Continued grazing by feral goats and approved by the European species for listing under the Act is prevents regeneration of trees, Commission and endorsed by the Fifth warranted. furthering the impacts to previously modified habitat (Thorsen et al. 2002) Meeting of the CMS. Conservation Marquesan Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula The introduced black rat (Rattus rattus) priorities include effective legal galeata) protection for the slender-billed curlew contributes to habitat degradation on and its look-alikes, locating its breeding The Marquesan imperial-pigeon, a Nuku Hiva by consuming flowers and grounds as well as key wintering and very large, broad-winged pigeon, is fruit, thereby inhibiting habitat passage sites, applying appropriate endemic to Nuku Hiva, the largest of the regeneration (Powlesland et al. 1997). protection and management of its Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia Transmittal of diseases from domestic habitat, and increasing the awareness of (BirdLife International 2007). Nuku pigeons or poultry, or from other politicians in the affected countries. The Hiva is a volcanic island 130 mi2 (337 introduced avian species imported to CMS website includes an update on the km2) in area; most of the island was Nuku Hiva, has been suggested as a progress being made under the slender- originally forested except for the drier potential risk to this species (Blanvillian billed curlew MOU. It states that north-western plain, where shrub et al. 2007). The introduced black rat, conservation activities have already savanna is now predominant. Following although not believed to be a significant been undertaken or are underway in conservation recommendations, small predator on adult pigeons (Villard et al. Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Italy, numbers of Marquesan imperial-pigeons 2003), preys on eggs and young pigeons, Morocco, Russian Federation, Ukraine were translocated beginning in 2000, to potentially putting the species at risk. and Iran. However, no details of these the Vaiviki Valley of a second island, Ua Rats are also believed to compete for activities are provided. Huka, which has been classified as a food resources that would otherwise be The slender-billed curlew is listed on protected area since 1997. This island available to the pigeons (Powlesland et Annex I of the European Union Wild contains suitable habitat for this species al. 1997). Feral cats have also been Bird Directive (BirdLife International and is free of mammalian predators introduced on the islands and are 2004), which provides a framework for (BirdLife International 2007; Blanvillian suspected to be a predator of adult and the conservation and management of et al. 2007). The remaining Marquesan juvenile pigeons when they are feeding wild birds in Europe. Although this imperial-pigeon populations are small, on low shrubs such as guava (Psidium Directive sets objectives for activities with an estimated 80 to 150 birds on guajava) (Rare Bird Yearbook 2008; intended to protect wild birds, the legal Nuku Hiva (Villard et al. 2003) and 32 Thorsen et al. 2002). implementation and achievement of birds on Ua Huka (Blanvillian et al. Hunting is believed to be one of the these objectives are at the discretion of 2007). primary contributors to this species’ each Member State (DEFRA 2008). This The Marquesan imperial-pigeon decline and to local extirpations on species is also listed on Appendix II of prefers remote wooded valleys from 820 neighboring islands (Villard et al. 2003). the Bern Convention (COE 1979), ‘‘a to 4,265 ft (250 to 1,300 m) in elevation Despite the ban on hunting in French binding international legal instrument in the west and north of Nuku Hiva. It Polynesia since 1967, and the fully in the field of nature conservation, also inhabits secondary forest and edge protected status of the Marquesan which covers the whole of the natural habitat near banana and orange imperial-pigeon species, illegal hunting heritage of the European continent and plantations (BirdLife International 2007; of the species still occurs. There are no extends to some States of Africa’’ (COE Blanvillian and Thorsen 2003). The estimates of the current extent of illegal n.d.). This agreement, however, would species appears to have strong site- hunting; but long-lived species such as not afford protections to the species’ fidelity for its feeding and night roosting the Marquesan imperial-pigeon with breeding habitats in the forest-steppe of sites (Villard et al. 2003). low fecundity rates are generally more Russia. The Marquesan imperial-pigeon has affected by the loss of breeding adults Historically, hunting levels have been been categorized as ‘‘Critically than species with shorter life-spans and high along the species’ entire migratory Endangered’’ by the IUCN since 1994, higher fecundity rates (Clout et al. flyway, especially Russia, and are because it has a very small population 1995). Threats to this species and its believed to be the primary factor for the size with a decreasing trend and only habitat are ongoing, and we find that species’ previous decline (BirdLife inhabits one tiny island (aside from the proposing the Marquesan imperial- International 2006). Threats to the population that is being established at pigeon for listing under the Act is species on its current breeding grounds Ua Huka through release efforts). The warranted. are largely unknown due to the lack of species appears to owe its survival to information on its nesting localities. the existence of habitat in several areas Salmon-Crested Cockatoo (Cacatua However, modification of the forest- which are difficult for hunters and moluccensis) steppe habitat within the species’ introduced species to access (BirdLife This cockatoo is endemic to the breeding range suggests that the species International 2007). islands of Ambon, Haruku, Seram, and may be at risk due to loss of its breeding The pigeon is protected under the Saparua in South Maluku, Indonesia. It habitat. The forest-steppe has been French Environmental Code, which was formerly a common species of the

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lowlands within its range (del Hoyo et CITES listing, some 74,509 individual Southeastern Rufous-Vented Ground al. 1997). Although the species was salmon-crested cockatoos were exported Cuckoo (Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis) regarded as locally common in 1970, the from Indonesia from 1981 to 1990 The southeastern rufous-vented following decade saw a dramatic (BirdLife International 2000). The level ground-cuckoo is one of seven decline (Juniper and Parr 1998). of imports from Indonesia from 1983 to subspecies of the rufous-vented ground- Currently, the species is believed to 1987, as reported to CITES, averaged cuckoo (Neomorphus geoffroyi). The survive in one area on Ambon; however, 8,500 to 9,500 birds per year (CITES species as a whole ranges from almost the entire population is 1989b); trade reported in 1985 and 1987 Nicaragua to central South America, restricted to Seram, where, during the exceeded the quota set by Indonesia by occurring at several disjunct localities 1990s, it suffered declines of 20 to 40 over 1,300 and 3,661 birds, respectively (del Hoyo et al. 1997; Howard and percent in one region. The species is (CITES 1989a). In October 1989, the Moore 1980; Payne 2005; Sibley and still locally common in Manusela salmon-crested cockatoo was transferred Monroe 1990). There is currently little National Park and probably in east concern for the conservation status of Seram. There are no recent records of to CITES Appendix I, which precludes the whole species, but the N. g. dulcis the species on Haruku and Saparua commercial international trade. subspecies, the southeastern rufous- (BirdLife International 2000). However, trappers reportedly remained The salmon-crested cockatoo is active, and wild-caught birds were being vented ground cuckoo, has experienced largely a resident in lowland rainforest openly sold in the domestic market serious declines (BirdLife International below 3,280 ft (1,000 m) in elevation. (Metz and Nursahid 2004). Interviews in 2007). Historically, the southeastern The highest densities of cockatoos were villages suggest that perhaps as many as rufous-vented ground-cuckoo encountered in unlogged forest below 4,000 birds are still being captured each subspecies had a widespread distribution in southeastern Brazil from 590 ft (180 m), illustrating the year (BirdLife International 2001). Espirito Santo to Rio de Janeiro (del importance of primary lowland forest Currently, logging impedes salmon- (BirdLife International 2007). In a study Hoyo et al. 1997), where it has likely crested cockatoo conservation. Nearly of the density and distribution of the always been locally rare (IUCN 1981). 50 percent of Seram is held within salmon-crested cockatoo, Kinnaird et al. This subspecies may now, however, be (2003) confirmed that the highest logging concessions, with more than 75 extinct throughout its entire range; the densities of cockatoos occurred in percent held within lowland habitat, last confirmed sighting was in 1977 in primary forest sites with good forest prime salmon-crested cockatoo habitat. the Sooretama Biological Reserve north structure and found that the lowest Only 14 percent of the forests are in of the Doce River in Esprito Santo density was a logged site with low protected areas, and logging concessions (Payne 2005; Scott and Brooke 1985). A stature forest. Marsden (1998) found overlap more than 30 percent of these recent photographic record (ca. 2004) of that density estimates of salmon-crested protected areas, with conflicts over the a single bird indicates that the cockatoos in unlogged forest below 984 boundaries of parks and logging subspecies may still occur at Doce River ft (300 m) were more than double those concessions. Small-scale illegal logging State Park in Minas Gerais (Scoss et al. in logged forests. Habitat rich in also occurs within these protected areas. 2006), but there are no population strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and Unsustainable logging practices, which figures beyond this information. Octomeles sumatranus, the tree species destroy the forest canopy, dramatically The southeastern rufous-vented ground cuckoo inhabits tropical the cockatoos prefer for nesting, was reduce habitat available for cockatoos, lowland evergreen forests, where it also likely to produce the highest especially if large nest trees are feeds on large insects, scorpions, densities of cockatoos (Kinnaird et al. harvested (Kinnaird et al. 2003). 2003). The diet of salmon-crested centipedes, spiders, small frogs, lizards, cockatoos consists of seeds, nuts, young In addition, the salmon-crested and occasionally seeds and fruit (del coconuts (Cocos nucifera) (the birds cockatoo’s habitat is being degraded and Hoyo et al. 1997). It is a solitary chew through the outer layers of green threatened by agriculture, human subspecies that is dependent upon large coconuts to get at the soft pulp), berries, settlement, and hydroelectric power blocks of undisturbed tropical lowland and insects and their larvae (Forshaw projects (BirdLife International 2007a). forest within the Atlantic Forest biome 1989; Juniper and Parr 1998). The species has been considered a pest (del Hoyo et al. 1997; IUCN 1981; Payne The species is listed as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ to coconut palms, and consequently has 2005; Sick 1993). These birds can run on the IUCN Red List because it has been persecuted, at least historically and can flutter to an elevated perch to suffered a rapid population decline as a (BirdLife International 2000). lookout and to roost, but they are not capable of sustained flight (Payne 2005). result of trapping for the pet bird trade In 2000, a program was launched to Therefore, major rivers and other and because of deforestation in its small promote ecotourism which was linked extensive areas of non-habitat are range (BirdLife International 2004). to a local project to raise awareness Current populations are estimated at thought to impede their movements. about the plight of the salmon-crested 62,400 individuals, with a decreasing Since 1981, the southeastern rufous- cockatoo. Current conservation population trend; the decline for the vented ground-cuckoo, has been past 10 years or 3 generations is measures suggest continuing and categorized as ‘‘Endangered’’ on the estimated at 30 to 49 percent (BirdLife expanding the awareness program and IUCN Red List (IUCN 1981). It is International 2007b). using the salmon-crested cockatoo as formally recognized as ‘‘Endangered’’ in By the 1980s, salmon-crested the island’s flagship species to reduce Brazil, and is directly protected by cockatoo populations were declining trapping pressure and encourage local legislation promulgated by the Brazilian rapidly due to uncontrolled trapping for support for the survival of the species government (ECOLEX 2007; IUCN the pet bird trade (BirdLife International (BirdLife International 2007a). At the 1981). These protections prohibit the 2007a). Concerns about unrestricted present time, however, the threats to the following activities with regard to this trade of parrots, including the salmon- salmon-crested cockatoo and its habitat species: export and international trade, crested cockatoo, led to a CITES continue, and we find that proposing collection, research, and captive Appendix-II listing of all Psittaciformes this species for listing under the Act is propagation. They also provide spp. in 1981 (CITES 2008). After the warranted. measures which help to protect

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remaining suitable habitat, such as the great-billed hermit (Phaethornis species and severely alter understory prohibition of exploitation of the malaris) (Sick 1993). structure and dynamics, which can be remaining primary forests within the Margaretta’s hermit is found in coastal especially detrimental to pollinator Atlantic forest biome and management east Brazil and inhabits the understory species such as the Margaretta’s hermit. of various practices in primary and of inundated lowland forest, secondary Furthermore, even when forested lands secondary forests, such as logging, growth, bamboo thickets, and are formally protected, the remaining charcoal production, reforestation, shrubbery. This subspecies is currently fragments of habitat where the recreation, and water resources limited to forest remnants; subspecies may still occur will likely (ECOLEX 2007). The existing regulatory consequently, further habitat continue to undergo degradation due to mechanisms that apply to the destruction could be detrimental to this their altered dynamics and isolation southeastern rufous-vented ground- subspecies (del Hoyo et al. 1999). The (Tabanez and Viana 2000). Finally, cuckoo would appear to be largely Margaretta’s hermit is listed in secondary impacts that are associated adequate if fully enforced; however, Appendix II of CITES (CITES 2006). with the above activities include severe there is currently a lack of enforcement The last confirmed occurrence of the fragmentation of the remaining tracts of of them (BirdLife International 2003a; Margaretta’s hermit is from a relatively forested habitat potentially used by the Conservation International 2007c; Costa old (ca. 1978) sighting of the subspecies subspecies, and the potential 2007; Neotropical News 1997b; Peixoto on a privately-owned remnant forest introduction of disease vectors or exotic and Silva 2007; Scott and Brooke 1985; called Klabin Farm, which at the time predators within the subspecies’ historic 2 2 The Nature Conservancy 2007; was approximately 15.4 mi (40 km ) in range. As a result of the above Venturini et al. 2005). As a result, Espiritu Santo, and the subspecies likely influences, there is often a time lag significant threats to the subspecies’ occurred at the Sooretama Biological between the initial conversion or remaining habitats are ongoing. Reserve in Espiritu Santo until around degradation of suitable habitats and the 1977 (IUCN 1981). Based on a number of recent extinction of endemic bird populations Most of the tropical forest habitats (Brooks et al. 1999a; Brooks et al. estimates, 92 to 95 percent of the area believed to have been used historically historically covered by tropical forests 1999b). Therefore, even without further by the Margaretta’s hermit have been habitat loss or degradation, the within the Atlantic Forest biome has converted or are severely degraded due been converted or severely degraded as Margaretta’s hermit remains at risk from to human activities related to land past impacts to its suitable forested a result of various human activities clearing and urban and agricultural (Ho¨fling 2007; The Nature Conservancy habitats. development in coastal east Brazil, and Loss of this species’ habitat is likely 2007). In addition to the overall loss and the subspecies cannot occupy these to continue due to the high pressure for degradation of native habitat within this extensively altered areas (del Hoyo et al. coastal development. Threats to the biome, the remaining tracts of habitat 1999; Ho¨fling 2007; IUCN 1981; Sick Margaretta’s hermit and its habitat are are severely fragmented. Most of the 1993; The Nature Conservancy 2007). ongoing, and we find that proposing this tropical forest habitats believed to have While the Margaretta’s hermit is not subspecies for listing under the Act is been used historically by the strictly tied to primary forest habitats warranted. southeastern rufous-vented ground- and can make use of secondary-growth cuckoo have been converted or severely forests, this does not lessen the risk to Black-Breasted Puffleg (Eriocnemis degraded by human activities (del Hoyo the subspecies from the effects of nigrivestis) et al. 1997; IUCN 1981; Payne 2005; deforestation and habitat degradation. The black-breasted puffleg, endemic Scott and Brooke 1985; Sick 1993). This is because Atlantic Forest birds to Ecuador, is a member of the Terrestrial insectivorous birds, such as that are tolerant of secondary-growth hummingbird family (Trochilidae). It is the southeastern rufous-vented ground- forests, yet that are also rare or have confined to the northern ridge crests of cuckoo, are especially vulnerable to restricted ranges (i.e., less than 21,000 Volca´n Pichincha near Quito, Ecuador habitat modifications which increase square km (8,100 square mi)), are (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990; Ridgely and the variability of insect food supplies threatened by these impacts equally as Greenfield 1986a; Ridgely and (Goerck 1997), and the subspecies primary forest-obligate species (Harris Greenfield 1986b). Volca´n Pichincha cannot occupy these extensively altered and Pimm 2004). The last site known to reaches peaks at 15,699 ft (4,785 m) habitats. The subspecies is dependent be occupied by the Margaretta’s hermit (Phillips 1998). The species has not upon large blocks of undisturbed forest totaled only about 40 square km (15 been confirmed in the only other known habitat for its life-cycle requirements, square mi) (IUCN 1981). The sighting locality, the Volca´n Atacazo, and habitat destruction within the susceptibility of rare, limited-range since 1902 (Collar et al. 1992; BirdLife ground-cuckoo’s range results in a species that are tolerant of secondary- International 2007). patchy landscape, reducing the growth forests occurs for a variety of This species prefers temperate elfin availability of the type of forest habitat reasons. For example, many forests (comprised primarily of necessary for the subspecies. Threats to hummingbird species are susceptible to Polyepsis spp. trees) between 9,350 and the southeastern rufous-vented ground excessive sun and readily abandon their 11,483 ft (2,850 and 3,500 m) (Fjeldsa˚ cuckoo and its habitat continue, and we nests at altered forested sites with too and Krabbe 1990; Ridgely and find that proposing this subspecies for much exposure (Sick 1993), as can Greenfield 1986a; Ridgely and listing under the Act is warranted. occur with various human activities that Greenfield 1986b). It is an altitudinal Margaretta’s Hermit (Phaethornis result in partial clearing (e.g., selective migrant, spending the breeding season malaris margarettae, previously known logging). In addition, management of (November to February) in the humid as Phaethornis margarettae) plantations often involves intensive elfin forest and the rest of the year at control of the site’s understory cover lower elevations, as determined by Margaretta’s hermit was first (Rolim and Chiarello 2004; Saatchi et al. flowering of certain plants (Bleiweiss described as a new species in 1972 by 2001). Even if the forest canopy and Olalla 1983; Collar et al. 1992; del A. Ruschi (Sibley and Monroe 1990). structure remains largely intact, such Hoyo et al. 1999). Current taxonomic studies place management practices eventually result Habitat loss, specifically the felling of Margaretta’s hermit as a subspecies of in loss of native understory plant Polylepis spp. wood for conversion to

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charcoal, was the primary cause of showed that much of the area in puffleg woodstar populations are generally historical black-breasted puffleg habitat was already destroyed, with more widely dispersed than they are in declines (Phillips 1998). Following little remaining habitat above 9,186 ft September (Estades et al. 2007). more than 13 years without any (2,800 m). The black-breasted puffleg The Chilean woodstar inhabits observation of the species, the black- had previously been found at 10,171 ft riparian thickets, secondary growth, breasted puffleg was rediscovered on (3,100 m) in an upper extension from desert river valleys, arid scrub, Volca´n Pichincha in 1993 (Phillips the likely unsuitable forested zone agricultural lands, and gardens 1998). The number of specimens in lower down. The pipeline was proposed (Stattersfield et al. 1998). It relies on museum collections taken in the to pass through pasture slightly above nectar-producing flowers for food, but nineteenth century up until 1950 is over this patch, risking further habitat also relies on insects for a source of 100, suggesting the species was once destruction with the building of a road protein (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Estades et more common (Collar et al. 1992). (Mindo Working Group 2001). The al. 2007). The Chilean woodstar drinks The black-breasted puffleg is pipeline was recently constructed, nectar from the flowers of a variety of classified as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ on transecting every major ecosystem on native and ornamental plants, as well as the IUCN Red List because it has an the Volca´n Pichinche, including black- crops—including alfalfa, garlic, onion, extremely small range, and the breasted puffleg habitat. The pipeline and tomatoes (Estades et al. 2007). population is restricted to one location also deforested pristine habitat, making The IUCN Red List categorizes the (BirdLife International 2007). Its single these areas more accessible and opening Chilean woodstar as ‘‘Endangered’’ population is estimated at 50 to 250 them up to further human infiltration because it inhabits a very small range, adult individuals, with a declining (BirdLife International 2007). Threats to with all viable populations apparently trend (BirdLife International 2007; del the black-breasted puffleg and its habitat confined to remnant patches in two Hoyo et al. 1999). The population is are ongoing, and we find that proposing desert river valleys. These valleys are believed to have declined by 50 to 79 this species for listing under the Act is heavily cultivated, and the extent, area, percent in the past 10 years, or 3 warranted. and quality of suitable habitat are likely generations, with more than 20 percent declining (BirdLife International 2007). of this loss having occurred within the Chilean Woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii) The Chilean woodstar is listed as an past 5 years. This rate of decline is The Chilean woodstar is endemic to ‘‘Endangered and Rare’’ species in Chile predicted to continue (BirdLife several river valleys from Tacna, Peru, and was also designated as a ‘‘National International 2007). The species is also to northern Antofagasta, Chile, close to Monument’’ under Diario Oficial No. classified as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ the Pacific Coast. This area lies at the 38.501, which prohibits all hunting and under Ecuadorian law (ECOLEX 2007). northern edge of the Atacama Desert, capture of the species. These regulations Within the current range of the black- one of the driest places on Earth (Collar do not, however, address the current breasted puffleg (33 mi2 (88 km2)), et al. 1992). Breeding populations are and ongoing destruction and approximately 93 percent of its habitat only known to occur in the Vitor and degradation of this species’ habitat. The has been lost (BirdLife International Azapa Valleys in extreme northern Chilean woodstar is listed in Appendix 2007; Hirchfeld 2007). The ridge-crests Chile (BirdLife International 2000; II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC 2008). within the range of the black-breasted Estades et al. 2007). In the past, there The historic range of the Chilean puffleg are relatively level, and local were a few observations of the species woodstar has been severely altered by settlers have cleared the majority of in Tacna, Peru, close to the border of extensive planting of olive and citrus forested habitat within the species’ Chile, but the observations were groves in the valleys of northern Chile range and converted it to potato infrequent, and there have been no and southern Peru. The indigenous food cultivation and grazing (Bleiweiss and confirmed observations in the last 2 plants of the species may have been Olalla 1983; del Hoyo 1999). Some decades (Collar et al. 1992; Fjeldsa˚ and seriously reduced when habitat for the ridges are almost completely devoid of Krabbe 1990). species was converted to agriculture, natural vegetation, and even if black- The Chilean woodstar was described but the woodstar apparently adapted to breasted pufflegs still occur in these as a species of extremely limited range survive on introduced garden flowers areas, their numbers are most likely and very small total population size (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Estades et al. quite low (BirdLife International 2007). over 40 years ago (Johnson 1967). In 2007). However, loss of some native In 2001, the area around the Volca´ns September 2003, while using fixed- plant species may be a limiting factor Pichincha and Atacazo was established radius point counts to sample an area for the survival of the species. Estades as the Yanacocha Reserve, and charcoal larger than the species’ presumed range, et al. (2007) reported that one of the production within the reserve, which Estades et al. (2007) found that the reasons the Chilean woodstar was considered the primary cause for Chilean woodstar was restricted to the disappeared from the Lluta Valley is the species’ historical decline, was Azapa and Vitor Valleys of northern likely due to the destruction of almost restricted (Bird Conservation 2005; Chile, and that it was the rarest all of the chan˜ ares (Geoffrea Phillips 1998). The Yanacocha Reserve hummingbird in the Azapa Valley dicorticans), which is considered one of totals approximately 3,100 ac (1,250 ha) (Estades et al. 2007). Despite repeated the most important food resources for and contains approximately 2,372 ac searches, the species was not located in the species, but is unpopular with (960 ha) of Polylepis forest (Hirchfeld the Lluta Valley, where a breeding farmers who consider it undesirable and 2007; World Land Trust 2007). colony had been previously reported an attractant to mice. In addition, the In 2001, the Ecuadorian government (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990). The use of insecticides to control the agreed to construct a pipeline to population was estimated to be about Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis transport heavy oil from the Amazon 1,539 individuals. In April 2004, the capitata) in the 1960s and early 1970s basin to Esmaraldas on the Pacific Coast population was estimated at 758 correlates with declines in Chilean (Mindo Working Group 2001). The individuals. The authors warned against woodstar abundance (Estades et al. environmental impact study revealed interpreting their results as a population 2007). The use of such pesticides has that the proposed route went through crash from 2003 to 2004, because the been reduced since the 1970s; however, black-breasted puffleg habitat (Mindo surveys in 2004 were conducted in Estades et al. (2007) reported that other Working Group 2001). Satellite mapping April when food resources and insecticides that may harm the woodstar

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are still being used for some 1991). The current extent of the species’ areas, and extant forests will soon be applications. range is approximately 446 mi2 (1,155 eliminated. In Manabi Province, the Chilean woodstars appear to rely km2) in 3 disjunct and isolated areas Esmeraldas woodstar may occur in primarily on introduced olive trees for (BirdLife International 2007; Dodson Machalilla National Park (Collar et al. nesting. Although olive trees are not and Gentry 1991). 1992), but it does not receive adequate exposed to as many pesticides as other The Esmeraldas woodstar generally protection because its habitat is fruit trees in the region, the use of high- prefers lowland, moist forest habitat (del threatened by illegal settlement, pressure water spraying to control mold Hoyo et al. 1999). It has also been deforestation, livestock-grazing, and threatens nests, eggs, and chicks recorded in the canopy of semi-humid habitat clearance by people with land (Estades et al. 2007). secondary growth at 164 to 492 ft (50 to rights (BirdLife International 2007). Future land-cover projections from 150 m) in December through March, Threats to the Esmeraldas woodstar and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment when it is believed to breed (Becker et its habitat are ongoing, and we find that indicate that by 2050, 18 to 24 percent al. 2000). The species has not been proposing this species for listing under of the Chilean woodstar’s range is likely recorded in this habitat type at other the Act is warranted. to be unsuitable for the species (Jetz et times of year, and there is no evidence al. 2007). concerning its long-term ability to Royal Cinclodes (Cinclodes aricomae) Estades et al. (2007) hypothesized that survive in this type of forest habitat The royal cinclodes occurs in the rapid population increases of the (BirdLife International 2007). Andes of southeastern Peru (Cuzco, Peruvian sheartail hummingbird The Esmeraldas woodstar is Apurimac, and Puno) and adjacent (Thaumastura cora), which shares the considered a rare, range-restricted Bolivia (La Paz) (BirdLife International range of the Chilean woodstar, is a species with highly localized 2007). The species appears to be strong competitor for food or space populations in three general areas restricted to mature, humid Polylepis (Estades et al. 2007). The sheartail is (BirdLife International 2007; del Hoyo et spp. woodlands that can sustain mossy more aggressive than the Chilean al. 1999). There have been no ground-cover (Collar et al. 1992). Its diet woodstar; therefore, it is believed to population surveys of this species. consists primarily of invertebrates, displace the woodstar within its range. BirdLife International estimated that the small vertebrates (small frogs), and In Azapa, Peruvian sheartails occupy population includes between 186 and occasionally seeds (del Hoyo et al. the lower parts of the valley where there 373 individuals, based on density 2003). It seeks food by probing through is an ample supply of flowers in estimates using similar species of moss and debris on the forest floor residential areas year-round. Chilean hummingbirds (BirdLife International (Collar et al. 1992; Fjeldsa˚ 2002b; del woodstars, on the other hand, are 2007). Hoyo et al. 2003), and likely requires generally located in mid-valley This species is classified as territories as large as 5 to 7 ac (2 to 3 agricultural areas, where there is a much ‘‘Endangered’’ by the IUCN Red List on ha) due to its feeding strategy (Engblom higher risk of pesticide exposure. the basis of occupying a small and et al. 2002). Threats to the Chilean woodstar and its severely fragmented range with ongoing The total royal cinclodes population habitat continue, and we find that and very rapid declines in range and, was estimated to range between 100 and proposing this species for listing under presumably, population (BirdLife 150 individuals in 1990 (Fjeldsa˚ and the Act is warranted. International 2007). The species is listed Krabbe 1990). BirdLife International in Appendix II of CITES (UNEP–WCMC (2007) estimates the population size to Esmeraldas Woodstar (Chaetocercus 2008b). It is identified as an be between 50 and 249 individuals. berlepschi, previously known as ‘‘Endangered’’ species under Ecuadorian Detailed surveys of suitable habitat in Acestrura berlepschi) law (ECOLEX 2007f). As such, hunting Peru revealed only 189 individuals that The Esmeraldas woodstar was first for sport or commercial purposes is were restricted to 1,554 ac (629 ha) taxonomically described by Simon in prohibited (ECOLEX 2007g; ECOLEX (Chutas 2007). In Bolivia, the 1889, who placed the species in the 2007h). However, we do not consider population is estimated at 30 Trochilidae family, under the name hunting to be a risk to the Esmeraldas individuals that are located on 1,236 ac Chaetocercus berlepschi (BirdLife woodstar, so this law does not reduce (500 ha) of fragmented habitat (Purcell International 2007). The species is also any threats to the species. and Brelsford 2004). However, the royal known by the synonym Acestrura The Esmeraldas woodstar inhabits cinclodes does not always respond to berlepschi. CITES, BirdLife one of the most threatened forest the tape-playback method that was used International (BirdLife International habitats within the Neotropics (del to census the population; therefore, the 2007), and the Integrated Taxonomic Hoyo et al. 1999). All forest types within population estimate may not be Information System (ITIS 2008) the species’ range have diminished indicative of the actual population size recognize the species as Chaetocercus rapidly due to logging and clearing for (Gomez in litt. 2007). berlepschi. We accept the species as agriculture (Dodson and Gentry 1991). The IUCN Red List categorizes the Chaetocercus berlepschi, and change The woodstar inhabits a very small and royal cinclodes as ‘‘Critically our reference to this species from our severely fragmented range, which is Endangered’’ due to its extremely small 2007 Notice of Review. decreasing rapidly in size. Ongoing population, which consists of tiny The Esmeraldas woodstar is restricted declines in the bird’s population are subpopulations that are severely to a small area on the Pacific slope of linked to persistent habitat destruction fragmented and dependent upon a the Andes of western Ecuador which destroys nesting, breeding, and rapidly declining habitat (BirdLife (Esmeraldas, Manabi, and Guayas), feeding habitat (BirdLife International International 2007). The royal cinclodes where only very rare and localized 2007). Persistent grazing by goats and is completely dependent upon high- populations are found (BirdLife cattle damages the understory and elevation humid Polylepis forests for its International 2007). prevents regeneration of the forest that survival, and the ongoing loss of this It ranges along the slopes of the the woodstar utilizes (Dodson and habitat poses the greatest risk to this coastal cordillera up to 1,640 ft (500 m) Gentry 1991). Dodson and Gentry (1991) species. Based on comprehensive (del Hoyo et al. 1999; Ridgely and indicated that rapid habitat loss is surveys and analyses of maps and Greenfield 1986b; Williams and Tobias continuing, at least in unprotected satellite images, Fjeldsa˚ and Kessler

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(1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a) White-Browed Tit-Spinetail Engblom in litt. 2000). Trampling and estimated that Polylepis forests now (Leptasthenura xenothorax) grazing by sheep and cattle limit forest cover less than 247,105 ac (100,000 ha) The white-browed tit-spinetail is regeneration and can contribute to in Peru and 1,235,527 ac (500,000 ha) in restricted to high-elevation—12,139 to degradation of remaining forest patches ˚ Bolivia, and the majority of the forest is 14,928 ft (3,700 to 4,550 m) above sea (Fjeldsa 2002a; Purcell et al. 2004). very dispersed with extensive bushy level—semi-humid Polylepis and Remaining forest fragments are growth. Less than 1 percent of the Polylepis-Gynoxys woodlands (Collar et becoming more accessible to the Polylepis forest remains in the humid al. 1992). This species forages in pairs expanding population around Bolivia’s highlands, where Polylepis forests are or small family groups, often in mixed largest city through road building and ˚ mining projects, further threatening the able to grow tall and dense (Fjeldsa species flocks, gleaning insects from 2002a). The royal cinclodes is survival of Polylepis forests upon which bark crevices and moss and lichens on particularly sensitive to reduced forest the white-browed tit-spinetail depends twigs, branches, and trunks (BirdLife density, because decreased canopy (Purcell et al. 2004). International 2007; Engblom et al. 2002; cover permits desiccation of the mosses Ongoing loss of the Polylepis habitat Parker and O’Neill 1980). growing within humid Polylepis forests, is considered the primary threat to this Historically, the white-browed tit- which reduces foraging microhabitats species’ continued existence. Based on spinetail may have occupied the once for the species (Engblom et al. 2002). comprehensive surveys and analyses of Fire and livestock grazing are the large and contiguous expanses of maps and satellite images, Fjeldsa˚ and important factors affecting the Polylepis forests of the high-Andes of Kessler (1996, as cited in Fjeldsa˚ 2002a) ˚ distribution of Polylepis forests. The Peru and Bolivia (Fjeldsa 2002a), but it estimated that Polylepis forests now vegetation is restricted to stream is now limited to remnant Polylepis cover less than 247,105 ac (100,000 ha) ravines, loose rocks, rock ledges, and forests in the Andes mountains of in Peru. In Bolivia, 1,235,527 ac sandy ridges—all places where fires southeast Peru around Cuzco (Birdlife (500,000 ha) of Polylepis forest remain, cannot spread and livestock does not International 2007; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe but most of it is very dispersed and normally roam (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a; Fjeldsa˚ 1990; InfoNatura 2007). bushy. However, less than 1 percent ˚ 2002b). Burning land between patches Fjeldsa and Krabbe (1990) described persists in the humid highland habitat of Polylepis forests to stimulate the the white-browed tit-spinetail as for the white-browed tit-spinetail, where growth of grasses (chaqueo) for grazing common in suitable habitat and Polylepis forests can grow to be tall and prevents regeneration of native forests numbering ‘‘probably some hundreds,’’ dense (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a). According to and is considered the key factor limiting yet quite vulnerable to loss of its already Chutas (2007), the species is now the distribution of Polylepis forests restricted habitat. Other estimates of the confined to about 1,532 ac (620 ha) of (Fjeldsa˚ 2002b). Trampling and grazing species’ total population size range from habitat. From 1956 to 2005, the rate of by sheep and cattle further limit forest 250 to 1,000 (Fjeldsa˚ 2002b) to 500 to forest patch habitat decline to the north regeneration (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a) and can 1,500 (BirdLife International 2007; of Cuzco, Peru, was only about 1 contribute to the degradation of Engblom et al. 2002). Recently, only 305 percent; however, the remaining habitat remaining forest patches. Sheep and individuals were reported, based on patches in this area are very small cattle have solid, sharp hooves that detailed surveys of suitable Polylepis (mean patch size of 6.2 ac (2.5 ha)). churn up the earth, damaging vegetation forest habitat (Chutas 2007). During this same time-period, 10 and triggering erosion (Purcell et al. The IUCN categorizes the white- percent of existing forest patches 2004). The loss of nutrient-rich soils can browed tit-spinetail as ‘‘Endangered’’ showed a decline in density, indicating also cause degradation and ultimate due to its very small and severely that degradation might be a more destruction of Polylepis forests (Fjeldsa˚ fragmented range and population, serious threat than outright destruction 2002b; Purcell et al. 2004). which continue to decline with habitat in this area (Jameson and Ramsay 2007). As human populations increase in the loss and lack of habitat regeneration Threats to the white-browed tit-spinetail high-Andes of Bolivia, many farmers (BirdLife International 2007). The and its habitat are ongoing, and we find burn patches of Polylepis forests to white-browed tit-spinetail is listed as an that proposing this species for listing make agricultural fields for crops. The ‘‘Endangered’’ species by the Peruvian under the Act is warranted. scarcity of arable land has even caused government under Supreme Decree No. some farmers to burn Polylepis on steep 034–2004–AG, which prohibits hunting, Black-Hooded Antwren (Formicivora hillsides that would not normally be taking, transport, or trade of this erythronotos, previously known as considered suitable for cultivation species, except as permitted by Myrmotherula erythronotos) (Hensen 2002). These farming practices regulation. However, the species’ habitat The black-hooded antwren inhabits continue to result in the rapid loss of is not protected by this law. early successional secondary growth Polylepis forests and amplified soil The principal factor affecting the habitats and the understory of remnant erosion. Firewood harvest is another distribution of Polylepis forests, the old-growth secondary forests in coastal significant threat to remaining patches species’ habitat, is the intensity of southeastern Brazil (BirdLife of Polylepis forests. Road building and burning and grazing, which restricts International 2007; Harris and Pimm mining projects for the expanding vegetation growth to locations where 2004). This antwren species was human population around Bolivia’s fires cannot spread and cattle and sheep previously known only from 20 skins largest city, La Paz, have increased do not normally roam, such as ravines, that were collected during the accessibility to remaining Polylepis boulders, rock ledges, and sandy ridges nineteenth century (E. Mendonc¸a and forest fragments, further threatening the (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a and b). Many farmers, L.P. Gonzaga in litt. 2000, as cited in continued existence of the forests upon however, destroy Polylepis spp. by BirdLife International 2007; Buzzetti which the royal cinclodes depends planting crops on steep hillsides 1998), and was believed to be extinct (Purcell et al. 2004; Purcell and unsuitable for cultivation (Hensen until it was rediscovered in 1987 (Harris Brelsford 2004). Threats to the royal 2002). Harvesting of firewood from and Pimm 2004). There have been cinclodes and its habitat are ongoing, Polylepis forests is also a significant recent reports that the species has been and we find that proposing this species threat to the white-browed tit-spinetail’s seen with increased frequency at a for listing under the Act is warranted. habitat (Aucca and Ramsay 2005; coastal reserve near Rio de Janeiro, the

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Reserva Ecolo´gica de Jacarepia´ northern coast of Bahia at Conde and this species for listing under the Act is (Worldtwitch 2007). Jandaı´ra (Souza 2002, as cited in warranted. The IUCN Red List classifies the BirdLife International 2007). Although Brown-Banded Antpitta (Grallaria species as ‘‘Endangered,’’ because it has populations may have been vastly milleri) a very small and highly fragmented reduced over time, the species’ range. The black-hooded antwren preference for early successional The brown-banded antpitta is appears to be declining rapidly in secondary-growth habitat means its endemic to the Volcan Ruı´z-Tolima response to continuing habitat loss. range is likely to have been massif of the central Andes (Caldas, Currently, it is known to inhabit 7 sites, underestimated (BirdLife International Risaralda, Quindı´o, and Tolima), and the population is estimated at 1,000 2007). The fringe-backed fire-eye also Colombia (BirdLife International 2007). to 2,499 birds with a decreasing favors the tangled, dense undergrowth The species inhabits humid understory population trend (BirdLife International of lowland forests as well as other semi- and forest floors of mid-montane and 2007). The IUCN Red List notes, open habitats where horizontal perches cloud forests between 5,905 and 8,530 ft however, that data quality is poor for are located close to the ground (BirdLife (1,800 and 2,600 m) in areas with a high these estimates and that there is a International 2007). density of herbs and shrubs (del Hoyo et al. 2003; Kattan and Beltra´n 1999). serious need for new population Currently, the population is estimated The species’ current range is estimated demographic information on the at 1,000 to 2,499 individuals (BirdLife to be 116 mi2 (300 km2) (BirdLife species’ current population size International 2007), an increase from the International 2007g). The species is (BirdLife International 2007). This population estimate in 2000, which species is also formally recognized as known today in three areas in the upper indicated that between 250 and 999 ‘‘Endangered’’ under Brazilian law Rı´o Magdalena Valley: (1) The humid individuals remained in the wild (Order No. 1.522) (ECOLEX 2007). forests in the Central Andes of The black-hooded antwren resides in (BirdLife International 2000). The Colombia’s Ucumarı´ Regional Park one of the most densely populated increase in the population estimate (Risaralda Department); the site is regions of Brazil, where deforestation results from extension of the species’ approximately 17 mi2 (44 km2) in the has been occurring for more than 400 known range (del Hoyo et al. 2003), as Otu´ n River watershed (Kattan and years (BirdLife International 2003). The well as indications that the distribution Beltra´n 1999); (2) the south-east slope of species’ habitat is currently threatened was not as disjunct as previously Volca´n Tolima in the Rı´o Toche Valley by ongoing urbanization, thought (Souza 2002, as cited in on private land (Tolima Department); industrialization, and agricultural BirdLife International 2007). From 2000 this location is 0.02 mi2 (0.05 km2) in expansion. The antwren’s habitat has to 2004, the fringe-backed fire-eye was size at elevations ranging from 9,022 to been reduced to less than 10 percent of categorized as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ 9,514 ft (2,750 to 2,900 m) (Beltra´n and its original extent (Brown and Brown by the IUCN Red List, because of its Kattan 2002); and (3) the Rı´o Blanco 1992, as cited in BirdLife International extremely small range and declining river basin (Caldas Department); the site 2003; Ho¨fling 2007; The Nature habitat and because it was known from is a strip of land less than 124 linear mi Conservancy 2007). Remaining tracts of a few, highly-fragmented localities (200 linear km) on the Central Cordilla, suitable habitat near Rio de Janeiro and (IUCN 2002). While the fringe-backed between 7,546 and 10,171 ft (2,300 and Sao Paulo are threatened by ongoing fire-eye is now classified as 3,100 m) in elevation (Kattan and development of coastal areas, primarily ‘‘Endangered’’ by the IUCN Red List Beltra´n 2002). for tourism enterprises (e.g., hotel because the species’ range is more Between the years 1911 and 1942, complexes, beachside housing) and extensive than previously known only 10 specimens were collected at associated infrastructure, as well as (BirdLife International 2007), it does elevations of 9,004 to 10,299 ft (2,745 to widespread clearing for expansion of still have a very small, fragmented 3,140 m) in Caldas and Quindı´o (Kattan livestock pastures and plantations range, within which the extent and and Beltra´n 1997). The species was not (Birdlife International 2007). Threats to quality of its habitat are continuing to seen for more than 50 years, until it was the black-hooded antwen and its habitat decline and where it is only known rediscovered in May 1994, in Ucumarı´ are ongoing, and we find that proposing from a few localities (BirdLife Regional Park, Risaralda (Kattan and this species for listing under the Act is International 2007). The entire range of Beltra´n 1997). Surveys conducted warranted. the fringe-backed fire-eye encompasses between 1994 and 1997 estimated that only about 1,924 mi2 (4,990 km2), with 106 individuals were present in a 0.24 Fringe-Backed Fire-Eye (Pyriglena atra) only 20 percent of this area considered mi2 (0.63 km2) area (Kattan and Beltra´n The fringe-backed fire-eye is known occupied (BirdLife International 2007). 1997, 1999). Further observations of the from the narrow coastal belt of Atlantic Furthermore, the fringe-backed fire-eye species were made during 1998–2000 on forest in the vicinity of Salvador, coastal has not been located at several sites the southeast slope of Volca´n Tolima in Bahia (west of the town of Santo from where it was previously known in the Rı´o Toche Valley, where it is Amaro), forest patches along the Linha Bahia (del Hoyo et al. 2003). The fringe- considered uncommon and local Verde highway, and north to southern backed fire-eye is formally recognized as (Lo´pez-Lanu´ s et al. 2000, Lo´pez-Lanu´ s Sergipe (in the vicinity of Crasto and ‘‘Endangered’’ in Brazil and is directly in litt. 2000, and P.G.W. Salaman in litt. Santa Luzia de Itanhia), Brazil (Pacheco protected by legislation (Collar et al. 1999, 2000, as cited in BirdLife and Whitney 1995, J. Minns in litt. 1992; BirdLife International 2007; International 2007; Renjifo et al. 2002). 1998, B.M. Whitney in litt. 1999, and J. ECOLEX 2007), which prohibits or A census of the population in the Rı´o Mazar Barnett in litt. 2000; all as cited regulates international trade, hunting, Blanco river basin was undertaken in in BirdLife International 2007; Collar et collection, research, captive June 2000. Researchers estimated the al. 1992; del Hoyo et al. 2003). Recent propagation, and general harm to the presence of at least 30 individuals, fieldwork indicates that the species’ species. However, the greatest threat to based on vocalizations they elicited in distribution is not as disjunct as the species continues to be habitat loss response to recordings of the species’ previously considered because it has (BirdLife International 2007). Threats to alarm call (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002). been found in remnant forest and the fringe-backed fire-eye and its habitat The population of brown-banded secondary-growth patches along the are ongoing, and we find that proposing antpitta is estimated by the IUCN to be

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between 250 and 999 birds (BirdLife at Salto do Piraı´ near Villa Nova in expansion or further designation of International 2007). It is estimated that 1929, one specimen that was collected protected areas, it is likely that not all the species has lost up to 9 percent of at Brusque in 1950, and another in of the identified resource concerns for its population in the last 10 years, or 3 Reserva Particular do Patrimoˆnio the Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant (e.g., generations, and that this rate of decline Natural de Volta Velha, near Itapoa´ in residential and agricultural will continue over the next 10 years 1998 (Barnett et al. 2000; L.N. Naka in encroachment, resource extraction, (BirdLife International 2007). litt. 1999; as cited in BirdLife unregulated tourism, grazing) would be The IUCN has classified the brown- International 2007). It inhabits humid sufficiently addressed at these sites. banded antpitta as ‘‘Endangered’’ since lowland Atlantic forest. At one of these Threats to the Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant 1994, because it is known from very few localities, Salto do Piraı´, the species has and its habitat are ongoing, and we find locations, occupies a very small range, typically been found in habitats which that proposing this species for listing and habitat loss and degradation are include forest edge, well-shaded under the Act is warranted. continuing (BirdLife International secondary growth, and sections of low, Ash-Breasted Tit-Tyrant (Anairetes 2007). It is identified as an epiphyte-laden open woodland near alpinus) ‘‘Endangered’’ species under Colombian watercourses (Barnett et al. 2000). It law pursuant to paragraph 23 of Article feeds predominantly in the midstory of The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is a small 5 of the Law 99 of 1993 as outlined in medium-sized trees, and mated pairs New World flycatcher (family Resolution No. 584 of 2002 (ECOLEX appear to remain within small, well- Tyrannidae) (del Hoyo et al. 2004), 2007). defined areas (Barnett et al. 2000). confined to humid Polylepis forests in Deforestation has greatly affected the the Andes Mountains of Peru and In 2004, the IUCN changed the current population size and Bolivia (BirdLife International 2007; Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant’s decade-long distributional range of the brown- Collar et al. 1992; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe banded antpitta. Nearly all the other classification on the Red List from 1990; InfoNatura 2007). A. alpinus forested habitat below 10,827 ft (3,300 ‘‘Endangered’’ to ‘‘Critically consists of two subspecies, the nominate m) in the Central Andes, where the Endangered,’’ because the species has subspecies, A. alpinus alpinus, which brown-banded antpitta occurred an extremely small and fragmented occurs on the west Andean slope in historically, has been deforested and range, with recent records from only northern Peru (Ancash, La Libertad), cleared for agricultural land use two locations, and ongoing deforestation and A. alpinus bolivianus, which occurs (BirdLife International 2007). The is occurring in the vicinity of these sites in southeast Peru (Cuzco, Apurimac) remaining forests providing suitable (Birdlife International 2007). The and northwest Bolivia (La Paz) (BirdLife habitat for the brown-banded antpitta population estimate is 1,000 to 2,499 International 2007; del Hoyo et al. have become fragmented and isolated individuals and declining (BirdLife 2004). and are either surrounded by, or being International 2007). The Atlantic forest Historically, the ash-breasted tit- converted to, pasture and agricultural has been extensively deforested, and the tyrant may have been well-distributed crops (e.g. , coffee plantations, potatoes, lowland forest continues to be cleared in the previously large, contiguous beans) (Beltra´n and Kattan 2002; in the vicinity of the two remaining sites expanses of Polylepis forest of the high- BirdLife International 2007; Collar et al. (BirdLife International 2007; Ho¨fling Andes of Peru and Bolivia (Fjeldsa˚ 1992; Kattan and Beltra´n 1997; Kattan 2007; The Nature Conservancy 2007). 2002a); however, it is now restricted to and Beltra´n 2002). By 1998, The Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant is protected remnant patches of these forests in Peru approximately 85 percent of forested by Brazilian law. These protections (Cuzco, Apurimac, and Corredor habitat at altitudes between 6,234 ft prohibit the following activities with Conchucos) and Bolivia (La Paz) (1,900 m) and 10,499 ft (3,200 m), where regard to this species: export and (Birdlife International 2007; Collar et al. the species is most likely to be found, international trade, collection and 1992; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990; had been converted to other land uses research, captive propagation, and also InfoNatura 2007). (BirdLife International 2007; Cuervo provide measures which help to protect The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is 2002; Stattersfield et al. 1998), and remaining suitable habitat, such as restricted to high-elevations—12,139 to forest conversion has continued. Cuervo prohibition of exploitation of the 15,092 ft above sea level (3,700 to 4,600 (2002) estimated that the available remaining primary forests within the m) (del Hoyo et al. 2004). Individuals suitable habitat for this species totals no Atlantic forest biome and management forage alone, in pairs, groups of three, more than 310 mi2 (500 km2), although of various practices in primary and and occasionally in mixed-species the species is estimated to only occupy secondary forests, such as logging, flocks, making short trips to hover-glean an area 116 mi2 (300 km2) in size charcoal production, reforestation, or perch-glean near the tops and outer (BirdLife International 2007). Threats to recreation, and water resources edges of Polylepis spp. shrubs and trees the brown-banded antpitta and its (ECOLEX 2007). The species is (del Hoyo et al. 2004; Engblom et al. habitat continue, and we find that restricted to one 15 km2 (6 mi2) 2002). We are unaware of any proposing this species for listing under protected area and in adjacent forest information that is available on the the Act is warranted. (Barnett et al. 2000; BirdLife breeding behavior of the species. International 2007). This habitat area is Juveniles have been observed in March Kaempfer’s Tody-Tyrant (Hemitriccus insufficient for the long-term survival of and July around Cuzco, Peru (del Hoyo kaempferi, previously known as the Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant, particularly et al. 2004). Idioptilon kaempferi) since, for various reasons (e.g., lack of The ash-breasted tit-tyrant has been The Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant is very funding, personnel, or local described as generally quite rare and rare and has a very small, extremely management commitment), Brazil’s local, with one to two pairs per fragmented range in Brazil which is current capacity to achieve its stated occupied woodland (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe estimated to be about 7.3 mi2 (19 km2) natural resource objectives in protected 1990). BirdLife International (2007) and (BirdLife International 2007). The areas is limited (ADEJA 2007; Bruner et Fjeldsa˚ (2002b) placed the population species is only known from three al. 2001; Costa 2007; IUCN 1999; somewhere between 250 to 1,000 localities in Santa Catarina, Brazil (with Neotropical News 1996; Neotropical individuals. Gomez (2005, in litt. 2007) recent records from just two): one record News 1999). Therefore, even with the conducted intensive searches using song

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playback within 80 percent of the 1,245 ac (504 ha) of Polylepis forest ‘‘Endangered’’ by the Peruvian suitable habitat in Bolivia and found remains in La Paz, Bolivia (Purcell and government under Supreme Decree No. 180 individuals distributed within 14 Brelsford 2004). Habitat estimates for 034–2004–AG which prohibits hunting, forest patches. Chutas (2007) reported Corredor Conchucos (Peru), the area taking, transport, or trade of endangered only 461 individuals, based on detailed occupied by the northern ash-breasted species, except as permitted by surveys of suitable habitat, which tit-tyrant subspecies (A. alpinus regulation. However, the species’ habitat contained the highest concentration of alpinus), are not available, but Chutas is not protected by this law. Polylepis forest in southeastern Peru. (2007) reported only 30 individuals The major threat to the Peruvian The IUCN categorizes the ash-breasted from this area. In Bolivia, approximately plantcutter is believed to be loss of tit-tyrant as ‘‘Endangered’’ because of its 507 ac (205 ha) of habitat have been habitat due to agriculture, burning, very small population, which is destroyed by clear-cutting since the grazing, timber cutting, and human use. confined to a severely fragmented early 1990s; if the current rate of Extirpation of the species from many habitat undergoing a continuing decline deforestation continues, projections sites occurred as conversion of heavily in extent, area, and quality (BirdLife indicate that all of the Polylepis forest wooded coastal river valleys to irrigated International 2007). The ash-breasted in Bolivia will be destroyed within the agriculture took place (Lanyon 1975; tit-tyrant is considered an ‘‘Endangered’’ next 3 decades (Purcell and Brelsford Collar et al. 1992). Extensive stands of species by the Peruvian government 2004). The rate of habitat decline is small- to medium-size trees, such as under Supreme Decree No. 034–2004– lower north of Cuzco, Peru (Cordillera mesquite (Prosopis spp.), acacia (Acacia AG which prohibits hunting, taking, de Vilcanota), with the loss of only 1 spp.), willow (Salix spp.), and Capparis transport, or trade of this species, except percent of forest patches from 1956 to spp., previously occupied the river as permitted by regulation. However, 2005; however, the remaining habitat valleys, but wooded areas are now the species’ habitat is not protected by patches in this area were already quite confined to land where the lack of this law. We are not aware of any small (mean patch size is 6.2 ac (2.5 irrigation discourages cultivation (del regulations in Bolivia that are effective ha)), and 10 percent of forest patches Hoyo et al. 2004; Williams 2005). The at protecting the habitat of the ash- showed a decline in forest density over remaining forest fragments are breasted tit-tyrant. this time period, indicating that habitat threatened by burning, grazing, timber The principal factor affecting the degradation might be more problematic cutting, firewood and charcoal distribution of Polylepis forests, the to the species than total destruction of production, and ongoing conversion for species’ habitat, is the intensity of forests in this area (Jameson and Ramsay cultivation, primarily sugarcane. These burning and grazing, which restrict 2007). Threats to the ash-breasted tit- factors are believed to have contributed vegetation growth to locations where tyrant and its habitat are ongoing, and to the destruction of previously fires cannot spread, and cattle and we find that proposing this species for occupied plantcutter habitat, which sheep do not normally roam, such as listing under the Act is warranted. reduced or eliminated forage and ravines, boulders, rock ledges, and nesting sites necessary for the species to sandy ridges (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a and b). Peruvian Plantcutter (Phytotoma thrive (BirdLife International 2000; del Many farmers, however, destroy raimondii) Hoyo et al. 2004). Polylepis forests to plant crops, even on The Peruvian plantcutter is endemic Talara, owned by PetroPeru, the State- steep hillsides unsuitable for cultivation to the coastal desert of northwestern owned petroleum company, retains the (Hensen 2002). Harvesting of firewood Peru, from sea level to 1,640 ft (500 m) largest contiguous area of intact habitat from Polylepis forests is also a (del Hoyo et al. 2004). The species is currently occupied by the Peruvian significant threat to the ash-breasted tit- restricted to Peru’s Talara region, which plantcutter. PetroPeru strictly bans tyrant’s habitat (Aucca and Ramsay contains 60 to 80 percent of the trespassing; therefore, the population in 2005; Engblom in litt. 2000). Trampling population and highly fragmented forest this area has not been exposed to the and grazing by sheep and cattle limit patches around the Chiclayo area of same risk factors that it is subject to in forest regeneration and can contribute to Lambayeque (del Hoyo et al. 2004). the other forested areas. Estimates of the degradation of remaining forest patches BirdLife International (2007) estimates amount of habitat suitable for the (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a). Remaining forest the total population to range between plantcutter at Talara vary widely, from fragments are becoming more accessible 500 and 1,000 individuals. 123,553 ac (50,000 ha) (del Hoyo et al. to the expanding population around Peruvian plantcutters inhabit sparse 2004) to 4,942 ac (2,000 ha) (Williams Bolivia’s largest city through road desert scrub and coastal dunes scattered 2005). Talara supports approximately building and mining projects, further with large shrubs (del Hoyo et al. 2004). 400 to 600 individuals or 60 to 80 threatening the survival of Polylepis They also occupy riparian thickets and percent of the global population of forests upon which the ash-breasted tit- woodlands dominated by Prosopis spp. Peruvian plantcutters (del Hoyo et al. tyrant depends (Purcell et al. 2004; and Acacia spp. (del Hoyo et al. 2004). 2004; Williams 2005). Although Purcell and Brelsford 2004). This species appears to prefer a high PetroPeru historically held the land The ash-breasted tit-tyrant is diversity of plant species, including rights to the whole province of Talara, completely dependent upon high- specific shrubs and trees with low- the land is now reverting to the elevation humid Polylepis forest for hanging branches (Elton 2004; Williams Peruvian government, which is selling it survival, and the ongoing loss of this 2005). Plantcutters are the only to buyers who are likely to develop the habitat is believed to be the primary passerines with a predominantly leaf- beachfront property (Elton 2004). threat to this species. Less than 1 eating diet (Bucher et al. 2003). Attempts to create a protected reserve percent of this forest habitat remains in The Peruvian plantcutter is for the plantcutter on approximately the humid highlands, where Polylepis categorized as ‘‘Endangered’’ by the 12,000 ac (4,860 ha) around Talara are forests can grow to be tall and dense IUCN Red List due to ongoing habitat reportedly not progressing as originally (Fjeldsa˚ 2002a), providing habitat for destruction and continuing degradation proposed (Elton 2004; Williams 2005). the ash-breasted tit-tyrant. Only about of its small and severely fragmented Future land-cover projections from the 1,554 ac (629 ha) of habitat remain for range (BirdLife International 2000; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment the ash-breasted tit-tyrant in Cuzco and BirdLife International 2007). The indicate that by 2050, 11 to 16 percent Apurimac, Peru (Chutas 2007), and Peruvian plantcutter is listed as of the Peruvian plantcutter’s range is

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likely to be unsuitable for the species erosion and loss of soil productivity, Polynesia in the Pacific Ocean. The (Jetz et al. 2007). Threats to the Peruvian two factors which contribute to Marquesas Archipelago is one of the plantcutter and its habitat continue, and destruction of forest habitat in some most remote island chains in the world, we find that proposing this species for areas and degradation of forest habitat lying between 404 and 600 mi (650 and listing under the Act is warranted. in other locations (Bond 1990). 965 km) south of the equator and Traditionally, forest resources have been approximately 994 mi (1,600 km) St. Lucia Forest Thrush (Cichlhermina used for many household products in northeast of Tahiti. Eiao Island is one of lherminieri sanctaeluciae) daily use on St. Lucia. Currently, the northernmost islands in the The St. Lucia forest thrush is endemic heating and cooking in the homes of Archipelago, encompassing 17 mi2 (43.8 to the island of St. Lucia in the West island residents utilize forest resources; km2) in area, and ranging in altitude Indies (Raffaele et al. 1998). This charcoal and firewood use combined from sea level to 1,890 ft (576 m) subspecies occupies mid- and high- account for 83 percent of St. Lucia’s fuel (Wikipedia 2007). The Eiao Polynesian altitude primary and secondary moist supply (Forestry Department warbler’s preferred habitat is dry forest forest habitat in the coastal areas of the Proceedings, 2000). (Raust 2007). island. The St. Lucia forest thrush feeds Tropical storms and hurricanes Population densities of the Eiao on insects and berries that are found frequently occur in the Caribbean Sea, Polynesian warbler are thought to be from ground level all the way up into and can have severe, widespread high within remaining suitable habitat, the forest canopy (Raffaele 1998). The impacts on the terrestrial ecosystems of based on a recent study which found island of St. Lucia encompasses 151,905 small islands. High winds are a primary individual singing birds approximately ac (61,500 ha). Of this area, 31,048 ac threat to forest habitats due to the every 130 to 165 ft (40 to 50 m). Total (12,570 ha) are natural forest, 56 percent damage caused to the trees. They are numbers are estimated to be greater than of which is located in Forest Reserves often blown over or sustain severe 2,000 birds (Dr. P. Raust, pers. comm. to and the remaining 43 percent of forest damage to trunks and limbs, which can Amedee Brickey, USFWS 2007). This is situated on private lands (Delegation result in critical habitat loss to the St. estimate is much higher than the 100 to of the European Commission 2004). Lucia forest thrush. During the last three 200 individuals estimated in 1987 by Commercial harvest of timber is allowed decades, there has been an increase in Thibault (as previously cited in USFWS on private land, but it is strictly the number of hurricanes and severe 2007). It is not clear if the subspecies’ prohibited within the Forest Reserves tropical storms experienced by St Lucia. population actually increased from 1987 (Forestry Department Proceedings After hurricane Allen in 1980, at least to 2007, or if the different population 2000). 55 percent of all dominant tree species estimates can be attributed to the use of Although the St. Lucia forest thrush’s had broken branches and many trees different survey methodologies. We population was considered numerous in lost large portions of their crowns have no reliable information on the the late-1800s (Keith 1997), the (Whitman 1980, as reported in GOSL population trend of this subspecies. The subspecies’ current population status is 1993). Threats to the St. Lucia forest Eiao Polynesian warbler is a protected unknown. Recent sightings are rare, thrush are ongoing, and we find that subspecies in French Polynesia. The with only six confirmed sightings proposing this species for listing under conservation status of this newly during the last few years (Dornelly the Act is warranted. designated subspecies has not been 2007). The entire species of forest categorized on the IUCN Red List. thrush (Cichlhermina lherminieri) is Eiao Polynesian Warbler (Acrocephalus Although currently uninhabited by classified as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by the IUCN percernis aquilonis, previously known humans, Eiao Island’s natural vegetation Red List due to human-induced as Acrocephalus mendanae aquilonis has been heavily impacted by deforestation and introduced predators and Acrocephalus caffer aquilonis) introduced domestic livestock (sheep (IUCN 2006). The St. Lucia forest thrush The reed warblers of Polynesia have and swine); part of the island has even is a fully protected species under St. been divided into two species, the been denuded of all vegetation. As a Lucia’s Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) Tahiti reed-warbler (Acrocephalus result, only 10 to 20 percent of the of 1980 (Schedule 1), which has caffer) and the Marquesas-reed warbler island contains the Eiao Polynesian prohibited hunting of the subspecies (Acrocephalus mendanae) (Birdlife warbler’s preferred dry forest habitat since 1980. In addition, the WPA International 2007a and b). However, (Raust 2007). Suitable subspecies’ prohibits taking, damaging or destroying new genetic research using habitat is limited to steep slopes that are nests, eggs, or offspring of a fully mitochondrial DNA markers to develop inaccessible to domestic livestock. protected species. a phylogeny of the eastern Polynesian While Eiao Island was declared a Nature Identified risks to this species include taxa of reed-warblers of the Marquesas Reserve by French Polynesia in 1992, habitat loss, competition with the bare- Archipelago has led to further proposed we are not aware of any plans to protect eyed robin (Turdus nudigenis), brood taxonomic changes for the reed-warblers the habitat of the Eiao Polynesian parasitism by the invasive shiny on these islands. This proposed change warbler. cowbird (Molothrus bonarientsis), separates the reed-warblers on the four Introduced mammals and birds have hunting by humans for food, and northernmost islands in the Marquesas been implicated in loss of endemic birds predation by mongoose and other Archipelago into a separate species in the Marquesas and may impact the introduced predators (Raffaele et al. (Acrocephalus percernis) from those on Eiao Polynesian warbler. Two species of 1998). The demand for agricultural land the southern islands (Acrocephalus nonnative rats, the Polynesian rat on St. Lucia has resulted in mendanae). The proposed taxonomic (Rattus excluans) and the black rat, were deforestation; approximately 33.7 change maintains the subspecies introduced to Eiao Island during the late percent of the island is under delineations between the islands; the nineteenth century (Thibault and Myers agricultural production (GOSL 2000). reed-warblers on Eiao Island remain a 2000, as reported in Thibault et al. 2002) Another contributing factor to habitat subspecies, now renamed Acrocephalus and are thought to have contributed to loss is soil erosion. Approximately 80 percernis aquilonis (Cibois et al. 2007). the decline of the Eiao Polynesian percent of the island is composed of The Eiao Polynesian warbler is warbler. However, recent research steep terrain, and poor agricultural endemic to a single island (Eiao) in the indicates that reed-warblers in the practices have resulted in excessive soil Marquesas Archipelago of French Marquesas Archipelago nest sufficiently

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high in trees to avoid significant (Philornis downsi) on Floreana Island demonstrating the government of predation from rats (Thibault et al. (Kleindorfer et al. MS, as cited in Grant Ecuador’s commitment to reducing the 2002). The most destructive introduced et al. 2005) has raised concerns about threat of invasive species to the islands. avian predator in the Marquesas, the the impact this parasite might be having At the present time, however, threats to common myna (Acridotheres tristis), has on the medium tree-finch (Fessl et al. the medium tree-finch and its habitat not been found on Eiao Island. If the 2006). In an experimental study caused by introduced species continue, myna expands its range and colonizes conducted on nearby Santa Cruz Island, and we find that proposing this species Eiao Island, there is a chance it could Fessl et al. (2006) found that high for listing under the Act is warranted. impact the Eiao Polynesian warbler mortality of nestlings was directly Cherry-Throated Tanager (Nemosia (Thibault et al. 2002). attributable to parasitism by P. downsi, rourei) Another potential risk to the Eiao as evidenced by a near threefold Polynesian warbler is destruction of increase in fledgling success in a The cherry-throated tanager inhabits habitat by tsunamis and cyclones. parasite-reduced group versus a primary forest habitats in Espı´rito Santo French Polynesia, and in particular the parasite-infested control group. Further, and, possibly, Minas Gerais and Rio de Marquesas Archipelago, are frequently because species with small broods have Janeiro, Brazil (Bauer et al. 2000; affected by tsunamis; the waves been found to suffer higher parasite BirdLife International 2007; Venturini et observed in the Marquesas are generally loads and therefore higher nestling al. 2005). Because the cherry-throated 2 to 10 times higher than waves mortality (Fessl and Tebbich 2002), tanager was only known from a single recorded in Tahiti (Hebert et al. 2001). infestation of P. downsi on species with specimen collected in the 1800s and a The Eiao Polynesian warbler is also naturally low clutch sizes, such as the reliable sighting of eight individuals exposed to high winds during tropical medium tree-finch, is of particular from 1941, the species was presumed to cyclones, which often displace concern (Fessl et al. 2006). be extinct (Collar et al. 1992; Ridgely individuals. Indirect effects occur In 1959, Ecuador designated 97 and Tudor 1989; Scott and Brooke during the aftermath of a storm when percent of the Galapagos land area as a 1985). However, the species was subspecies are impacted by the loss of National Park, leaving 3 percent of the rediscovered in 1998 (Bauer et al. 2000; food supplies, foraging substrates, and remaining land area distributed between Venturini et al. 2005). Since then, the roost sites, increasing their vulnerability Santa Cruz, San Cristo´bal, Isabela, and cherry-throated tanager has been to predators and disease. Large-scale Floreana Islands. National Park documented at three sites of remnant climate models predict increased protection, however, does not mean the primary forest in south-central Espı´rito intensity of tropical cyclones impacting area is to be maintained in a pristine Santo (Bauer et al. 2000; Scott 1997; island chains in the Pacific, including condition. The park land area is divided Venturini et al. 2005). Two of the the Marquesas Archipelago (Meehl et al. into various zones signifying the level of currently occupied sites are in private 2007). Threats to this subspecies and its human use (Parque Nacional Galapagos ownership and the third, which is habitat are ongoing, and we find that Ecuador n.d.). Although Floreana Island believed to be used only sporadically by proposing this species for listing under includes a large ‘‘conservation and the species, is within the Augusto the Act is warranted. restoration’’ zone, it does include a Ruschi Biological Reserve (Venturini et significant sized ‘‘farming’’ zone (Parque al. 2005). Medium Tree-Finch (Camarhynchus Nacional Galapagos Ecuador n.d.), The cherry-throated tanager is pauper) where agricultural and grazing activities endemic to the Atlantic Forest biome The medium tree-finch is endemic to may continue to impact the habitat. and inhabits the upper canopies of trees Floreana in the Galapagos Islands, The Galapagos Islands were declared within humid, montane, primary forests Ecuador (BirdLife International 2007). a World Heritage Site in 1979, as they (Bauer et al. 2000; BirdLife International Its habitat is montane evergreen and were recognized to be ‘‘cultural and 2007; Venturini et al. 2005). It is a tropical deciduous forest (Stotz et al. natural heritage of outstanding universal primary forest-obligate species that 1996), primarily above 328 ft (100 m). value.’’ The aim of establishment as a typically forages for insects within the Population numbers of this species are WHS is conservation of the site for interior crowns of tall, epiphyte-laden poorly known, with indirect estimations future generations (UNESCO World trees and occasionally lower down—ca. at 1,000 to 2,499 birds (BirdLife Heritage Centre 2008). However, due to 6.6 ft (2 m)—at the forest edge (Bauer et International 2007). However, Stotz et threats to this site posed by invasive al. 2000; BirdLife International 2007; al. (1996) consider the relative species, increasing tourism, and Venturini et al. 2005). Cherry-throated abundance of the species to be immigration, in June, 2007, the World tanagers can be found in mixed-species ‘‘common.’’ Population trends are Heritage Committee placed the flocks and appear to require relatively unknown. Galapagos on the ‘‘List of World large territories—ca. 1.544 mi2 (3.99 This poorly known species is Heritage in Danger,’’ with the intent of km2) (Venturini et al. 2005). Within its considered ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by the IUCN increasing support for their current distribution, the species makes because it has a very small range and is conservation (UNESCO World Heritage sporadic use of coffee (Coffea spp.), pine restricted to a single island where Centre News 2007). In March 2008, the (Pinus spp.), and eucalyptus introduced species are a potential threat UNESCO World Heritage Centre/United (Eucalyptus spp.) plantations, (BirdLife International 2004) due to Nations Foundation project for invasive presumably as travel corridors between herbivore degradation and loss of species management provided funding remaining patches of primary forest habitat and possibly predator-caused of 2.19 million U.S. dollars (USD) to the (Venturini et al. 2005). Little is known mortality (BirdLife International 2007; Ecuadorian National Environmental about the breeding behavior of the Jackson 1985). In addition, agricultural Fund’s ‘‘Galapagos Invasive Species’’ cherry-throated tanager (Venturini et al. activities (Cruz and Cruz 1996) and free- account to support invasive species 2002). ranging domestic livestock continue to control and eradication on the islands. The IUCN categorizes the species as destroy and degrade the habitat of the In addition, the Ecuador government ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ because its medium tree-finch (BirdLife previously had contributed 1 million extant population is estimated to be International 2007). The recent USD to this fund (UNESCO World between 50 and 249 individuals. The discovery of an introduced parasitic fly Heritage Centre News 2008), population is extremely small and

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highly fragmented, and presumed to be likely that not all of the identified Peruvian race since 1969 (BirdLife declining (BirdLife International 2007). resource concerns for the cherry- International 2008). There is even speculation that the IUCN throated tanager (e.g., residential and The southern helmeted curassow population estimate is too high, agricultural encroachment, resource inhabits dense, humid, lower montane considering that the maximum number extraction, unregulated tourism, forest and adjacent evergreen forest at of individuals recorded in the only 2 grazing) would be sufficiently 1,476 to 3,936 ft (450 to 1,200 m) confirmed populations is 19 (Venturini addressed. (Cordier 1971; Herzog and Kessler et al. 2005). Threats to the cherry-throated tanager 1998). This species prefers nuts of the Based on a number of recent and its habitat are ongoing, and we find almendrillo tree (Byrsonima estimates, 92 to 95 percent of the area that proposing this species for listing wadsworthii) as its major source of food historically covered by tropical forests under the Act is warranted. (Cordier 1971). It also consumes other within the Atlantic Forest biome has nuts, seeds, fruit, soft plants, larvae, and been converted or severely degraded as Findings on Species for Which Listing insects (BirdLife International 2000). a result of various human activities (The Is Warranted but Precluded The southern helmeted curassow was Nature Conservancy 2007; Ho¨fling We have found that, for the 20 taxa previously classified as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ on 2007). In addition to the overall loss and discussed below, publication of the IUCN Red List. After further degradation of native habitat within this proposed listing rules will continue to assessment, it was uplisted in 2005 to biome, the remaining tracts of habitat be precluded over the next year due to ‘‘Endangered’’ because the species is are severely fragmented. Most of the the need to complete pending, higher- estimated to be declining very rapidly tropical forest habitats believed to have priority listing actions. We will due to uncontrolled hunting and habitat been used historically by the cherry- continue to monitor the status of these destruction. It has a small range and is throated tanager have been converted or species as new information becomes known from few locations in a narrow severely degraded by human activities available (see Monitoring, below). Our elevational band, which continues to be (Bauer et al. 2000; BirdLife International review of new information will subject to habitat loss (BirdLife 2007; Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Even determine if a change in status is International 2004). The population is when they are formally protected, the warranted, including the need to estimated at 10,000 to 19,999 birds, with remaining fragments of primary forest emergency list any species or change the a future projected decline over the next habitat where the species may still LPN of any of the species. 10 years or 3 generations of 50 to 79 occur will likely undergo further percent (BirdLife International 2007b). degradation due to their altered Birds Professional hunters have caused a dynamics and isolation between forest Southern Helmeted Curassow (Pauxi decline in this species in Bolivia; the fragments (Tabanez and Viana 2000). unicornis) species is often hunted for meat and its The cherry-throated tanager is casque, or horn (Collar et al. 1992), formally recognized as ‘‘Endangered’’ in The southern helmeted curassow is which the local people use to fashion Brazil and is directly protected by known from central Bolivia and central cigarette-lighters (Cordier 1971). Other legislation promulgated by the Brazilian and eastern Peru (Collar et al. 1992). In risks to the species include forest government (BirdLife International Bolivia, the subspecies (P. unicornis clearing for staple and export crops, 2007; ECOLEX 2007). These protections unicornis) is known from the adjacent road building, and rural development prohibit the following activities with Amboro´ and Carrasco National Parks (Dinerstein et al. 1995, as cited in regard to this species: Export and (Herzog and Kessler 1998). The southern BirdLife International 2007a; Fjeldsa˚ in international trade, collection and helmeted curassow is one of the least litt. 1999, as cited in BirdLife research, captive propagation, and also frequently encountered bird species in International 2007a; Herzog and Kessler provide measures which help to protect South America because of the 1998). In Peru, potential oil exploration remaining suitable habitat, such as inaccessibility of its preferred habitat threatens the species’ habitat (MacLeod prohibition of exploitation of the and its apparent intolerance of human in litt. 2000, as cited in BirdLife remaining primary forests within the disturbance (Herzog and Kessler 1998). International 2007a) and is opening the Atlantic forest biome and management It has been reported from only two foothills to colonization and additional of various practices in primary and Peruvian and three Bolivian localities, hunting (BirdLife International 2007a). secondary forests, such as logging, which are fairly close together (Collar et Large parts of the southern helmeted charcoal production, reforestation, al. 1992; Cox et al., as cited in Herzog curassow’s range are protected, at least recreation, and water resources and Kessler 1998). In Bolivia, it on paper, by inclusion in the Amboro (ECOLEX 2007). The owners of Fazenda remained unknown to science until and Carrasco National Parks (300,000 ha Pindobas IV and Caetes, two sighting 1937 (Cordier 1971). In Amboro´ (750,000 ac) and 616,413 ha (1,175,000 areas, have cooperated in protecting National Park, the curassows are sighted ac), respectively), which nominally cherry-throated tanager habitat in these regularly on the upper Rio Saguayo protect the species from hunting and areas, and efforts are underway to (Wege and Long 1995). Field surveys on declining habitat resulting from solidify protection of these privately the Peru-Bolivia border, including one development and road-building, owned areas (BirdLife International in 2004, have failed to locate any birds although hunting of the curassow for 2007; Venturini et al. 2005). Elsewhere, (BirdLife International 2007a; Herzog et meat is still reported throughout its for various reasons (e.g., lack of funding, al. 1999; Herzog and Kessler 1998; Mee range (BirdLife International 2000). The personnel, or local management et al. 2000), and limited local reports Association Armonia has being commitment), Brazil’s current capacity suggest that the bird is rare (Herzog et conducting field surveys to estimate the to achieve its stated natural resource al. 1999; Herzog and Kessler 1998). In population and identify the most objectives in protected areas is limited 2005, a team from Armonia Association important sites for this species, and are (ADEJA 2007; Bruner et al. 2001; Costa (BirdLife in Bolivia) saw one and heard evaluating human impact on the 2007; IUCN 1999; Neotropical News three southern helmeted curassows (P. species’ natural habitat (Llampa 2007). 1996; Neotropical News 1999). unicornis koepckeae) in the Sira In addition, Armonia is carrying out an Therefore, even with the further Mountains of central Peru—this is the environmental awareness project to designation of protected areas, it is first sighting of the distinctive endemic inform local people about this unique

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bird (BirdLife Intenational 2008) and occur in protected areas such as high carbohydrate concentrations in the training workshops with the park guards Chingaza National Park and Carpanta rhizomes of the fern to meet the (Llampa 2007). Biological Reserve. However, most metabolic requirement of The southern helmeted curassow does savanna wetlands are virtually thermoregulation in the mid-winter, not represent a monotypic genus. It unprotected. subfreezing temperatures. The island faces threats that are moderate in The Bogota rail does not represent a populations eat introduced grasses magnitude as the population is fairly monotypic genus. Because there are still (BirdLife International 2007). Takahe large; however, the population trend has a number of substantial subpopulations form pair bonds that persist throughout been declining rapidly. The threats to and the species has been recorded at life and generally occupy the same the species are imminent and ongoing. over 21 localities, we find it is subject territory throughout life (Reid 1967). Therefore, it receives a priority rank of to threats that are moderate in Their territories are large, and Takahe 8. magnitude. We find that the threats are defend them aggressively against other imminent due to the ongoing Bogota Rail (Rallus semiplumbeus) Takahe, which means that they will not degradation of the species’ wetland form dense colonies even in very good The Bogota rail is found in the East habitat. Therefore, it receives a priority habitat. They are long-lived birds, Andes of Colombia on the Ubate´-Bogota´ rank of 8. probably between 14 and 20 years Plateau in Cundinamarca and Boyaca´. It (Heather and Robertson 1997), which occurs in the temperate zone, at 2,500– Takahe (Porphyrio hochstetteri, previously known as P. mantelli) have a low reproductive rate, with 4,000 m (8,202–13,123 ft) (occasionally clutches consisting of 1–3 eggs. Only a as low as 2,100 m (6,890 ft)) in savanna The Takahe, a flightless rail endemic few pairs manage to consistently rear and pa´ramo marshes (BirdLife to New Zealand, is the world’s largest chicks each year. Although under International 2007). This rail frequents extant member of the rail family (del normal conditions this is generally wetland habitats with vegetation-rich Hoyo et al. 1996). The species, sufficient to maintain the population, shallows that are surrounded by tall, Porphyrio mantelli, has been split into populations recover slowly from dense reeds and bulrushes. It feeds P. mantelli (extinct) and P. hochstetteri catastrophic events (Crouchley 1994). along the water’s edge, in flooded (extant) (Trewick 1996). BirdLife The Takahe is listed as ‘‘Endangered’’ pasture land, and along small International (2000) incorrectly assigned on the IUCN Red List, because it has an overgrown dikes and ponds (Varty et al. the name P. mantelli to the extant form, extremely small population (BirdLife 1986; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990 as cited while the name P. hochstetteri was International 2006). When rediscovered in BirdLife International 2006). This incorrectly assigned to the extinct form. in 1948, it was estimated that the species is omnivorous, consuming a diet Fossils indicate that this bird was once population was about 260 pairs (del that includes aquatic invertebrates, widespread throughout the North and Hoyo 1996; Heather and Robertson insect larvae, worms, molluscs, dead South Islands. The Takahe was thought 1997). By the 1970s, Takahe populations fish, frogs, tadpoles, and plant material to be extinct by the 1930s until its had declined dramatically and it (Varty et al. 1986; BirdLife International rediscovery in 1948 in the Murchison appeared that the species was at risk of 2006). Mountains, Fjordland (South Island) extinction. In 1981, the population The Bogota rail is listed as (Bunin and Jamieson 1996; New reached a low at an estimated 120 birds. ‘‘Endangered’’ by IUCN, primarily Zealand Department of Conservation Since then, the population has because its range is very small and is (NZDOC) 2008b). Soon after its fluctuated between 100 and 180 birds contracting due to widespread habitat rediscovery, a Takahe Special Area of (Crouchley 1994). At first, translocated loss and degradation. Furthermore, 193 mi2 (500 km2) was set aside in populations increased only slowly, available habitat has become widely Fiordland National Park for the probably due to young pair-bonds and fragmented (BirdLife International conservation of Takahe (Crouchley the quality of the founding population 2007). The Ubate´-Bogota´ Plateau 1994; NZDOC 2008c). Today, the (Bunin et al. 1997). In recent years, the formerly held enormous marshes and species is present in the Murchison and total Takahe population has had swamps, but few lakes with suitable Stuart Mountains and has been significant growth; in 2004, there was a habitat now remain. All major savanna introduced to four island reserves 13.6 percent increase in the number of wetlands are seriously threatened, (Kapiti, Mana, Tiritiri Mantangi, and adult birds, with the number of breeding mainly by drainage, but also by Maud) (Collar et al. 1994). The pairs up 7.9 percent (BirdLife agricultural encroachment, erosion, population in the Murchison Mountains International 2005). As of August 2007, diking, eutrophication, insecticides, is important because it is the only birds in the Takahe Special Area had tourism and hunting activities, burning, mainland population that has the increased to 168, and the current trampling by cattle, harvesting of reeds, potential for sustaining a large, viable national population was 297. Island fluctuating water levels, and increased population (NZDOC 1997). reserves appeared to be at carrying water demand (BirdLife International Originally, the species occurred capacity (NZDOC 2007). Overall, 2007). The current population is throughout forest and grass ecosystems. population numbers are slowly estimated to range between 1,000 and Today, Takahe occupy alpine grasslands increasing due to intensive management 2,499 individuals, and the trend is (BirdLife International 2007). They feed of the island reserve populations, but decreasing (BirdLife International 2007). on tussock grasses during much of the fluctuations in the remnant mainland Although the Bogota rail is declining, it year, with snow tussocks (Chionochloa population continue to occur (BirdLife is still uncommon to fairly common, pallens, C. flavescens, and C. International 2000). with some notable populations, crassiuscula) being their preferred food The main cause of the species’ including nearly 400 birds at Laguna de (Crouchley 1994). By June, the snow historical decline was competition for Tota, some 50 territories at Laguna de la cover usually prevents feeding above tussock grasses by grazing red deer Herrera, approximately 110 birds at tree line, and birds move into forested (Cervus elaphus), which were Parque La Florida, and other valleys in the winter and feed mainly on introduced after the 1940s (Mills and populations at La Conejera marsh and the rhizome of a fern (Hypolepis Mark 1977). The red deer overgrazed the Laguna de Fuquene (BirdLife millefolium). Research by Mills et al. Takahe’s habitat, eliminating nutritious International 2007). Some of the birds (1980) suggested that Takahe require the plants and preventing some grasses from

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seeding (del Hoyo et al. 1996). The recommended (Jamieson 2003). Further The Chatham Island group comprises NZDOC has controlled red deer through research on Takahe established on two large, inhabited islands (Chatham an intensive hunting program in the Tiritiri Matangi Island estimated that and Pitt) and numerous smaller islands. Murchison Mountains since the 1960s, the island can support up to 8 breeding Two of the smaller islands (Rangatira and now the tussock grasses are close to pairs, but suggested that the ability of (also referred to as South East) and their original condition (BirdLife the island to support Takahe is likely to Mangere) are nature reserves, which International 2005). decrease as the grass/shrub ecosystem provide important habitat for the Predation by introduced stoats reverts to forest. The researchers Chatham oystercatcher. The Chatham (Mustela erminea) is believed to be a concluded that although the four island Island group has a biota (i.e., plants and current risk to the species (Bunin and populations fulfilled their role as an animals in a particular area) quite Jamieson 1995; Bunin and Jamieson insurance against extinction on the different from the mainland. The remote 1996; Crouchley 1994). The NZDOC is mainland at the time of the study, given marine setting, distinct climate, and running a trial stoat control program in impending habitat changes on the physical makeup have led to a high a portion of the Takahe Special Area to islands, it is unclear whether these degree of endemism (i.e., the occurrence measure the effect on Takahe survival island populations will continue to be of species in a limited area) (Aikman et and productivity. Initial assessment viable in the future without an active al. 2001). The southern part of the indicates a positive influence (NZDOC management plan (Baber and Craig oystercatcher’s range is dominated by 2007). Other potential competitors or 2003a; Baber and Craig 2003b). Maxwell rocky habitats with extensive rocky predators include the introduced brush- and Jamieson (1997) studied survival platforms. The northern part of the tailed possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) and recruitment of captive-reared and range is a mix of sandy beach and rock and the threatened weka (Gallirallus wild-reared Takahe on Fiordland. They platforms (Aikman et al. 2001). australis), a flightless woodhen endemic concluded that captive rearing of Pairs of oystercatchers occupy their to New Zealand (BirdLife International Takahe for release into the wild territory all year, while juveniles and 2007). In addition, severe weather is a increases recruitment of juveniles into subadults form small flocks or occur natural limiting factor to this species the population. alone on a vacant section of the coast. (Bunin and Jamieson 1995). Weather There is growing evidence that The nest is a scrape usually on a sandy patterns in the Murchison Mountains inbreeding can negatively affect small, beach just above spring-tide level or vary from year to year. High chick and isolated populations. Jamieson et al. among rocks above the shoreline. On adult mortality may occur during (2006) suggested that limiting the offshore islands, nests are usually well extraordinarily severe winters, and poor potential effects of inbreeding and loss away from the territories of brown skua breeding may result from severe stormy of genetic variation should be integral to (Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi) and weather during spring breeding season any management plan for a small, are often under the cover of small (Crouchley 1994). Research confirms isolated, highly-inbred island species, bushes or rock overhangs (Heather and that severity of winter conditions such as the Takahe. Failure to address Robertson 1997). adversely affects survivorship of Takahe these concerns may result in reduced This species is classified as in the wild, particularly of young birds fitness potential and much higher ‘‘Endangered’’ on the IUCN Red List, (Maxwell and Jamieson 1997). susceptibility to biotic and abiotic because it has an extremely small Since 1983, the NZDOC has been disturbances in the short term and an population (BirdLife International involved in managing a captive- inability to adapt to environmental 2006). It is listed as ‘‘Critically breeding and release program to boost change in the long term. Endangered’’ by the NZDOC (2008a), Takahe recovery. Excess eggs from wild The Takahe does not represent a making it a high priority for nests are managed to produce birds monotypic genus. The current wild conservation management (NZDOC suitable for releasing back into the wild population is small and the species’ 2007). In the early 1970s the population population in the Murchison distribution is extremely limited. It was approximately 50 birds (del Hoyo Mountains. Some of these captive- faces threats that are moderate in 1996). In 1988, based on past reared birds have also been used to magnitude because the NZDOC has productivity information, it was feared establish four predator-free offshore taken measures to aid the recovery of that the species was at risk of extinction island reserves. Since 1984, these birds the species. The NZDOC has within 50–70 years (Davis 1988, as cited have increased the total population on implemented a successful deer control in Schmechel and Paterson 2005). islands to about 60 birds (NZDOC program and implemented a captive- However, the population increased by 2008a). Captive-breeding efforts have breeding and release program to 30 percent overall between 1987 and increased the rate of survival of chicks augment the mainland population and 1999, except trends varied in different reaching 1 year of age from 50 to 90 establish four offshore island reserves. areas—increasing (northern Chatham percent (NZDOC 1997). However, Predation by introduced species and Island, eastern Pitt Island), stable Takahe that have been translocated to reduced survivorship resulting from (Mangere Island), or decreasing (south the islands have higher rates of egg severe winters, combined with the Chatham Island, Rangatira) (Moore et al. infertility and low hatching success Takahe’s small population size and 2001). A survey during the summer of when they breed, contributing to the naturally low reproductive rate are 1987–88 recorded 100 to 110 birds slow increase in the islands’ threats to this species that are imminent (Marchant and Higgins 1993). A census populations. Researchers postulated that and ongoing. Therefore, this species is conducted in 1998 revealed 142 birds, the difference in vegetation between the assigned a priority rank of 8. with 34 to 41 breeding pairs (Schmechel native mainland grassland tussocks and and O’Connor 1999). A survey that found on the islands might be Chatham Oystercatcher (Haematopus undertaken in the breeding season affecting reproductive success. After chathamensis) 1999–2000 counted 125 to 126 birds, testing nutrients from all available food The Chatham oystercatcher is with 50 pairs (at least 40 breeding sources, they concluded that there was endemic to the Chatham Island group pairs). By 2004, the oystercatcher no effect, and advised that a (Marchant and Higgins 1993; Schmechel population included 88 breeding pairs supplementary feeding program for the and Paterson 2005), which lies 534 mi and 311 birds, more than double the birds was not necessary or (860 km) east of mainland New Zealand. number of birds counted in 1998, when

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the intensive management program a research program aimed at assessing crash following rat invasions in 1990– began (NZDOC 2008c). Although the the effects of predators, flooding, and 2000, and it now has a tiny, severely population has significantly increased management on breeding success have fragmented, and declining population’’ over the last 20 years, the population on been underway for several years (BirdLife International 2006). It is listed Rangatira, an island free of mammalian (BirdLife International 2006). in Appendix II of CITES (CITES 2008). predators, has gradually declined since The Chatham oystercatcher does not The NZDOC (2008c) considers the the 1970s. The reason for the decline is represent a monotypic genus. The orange-fronted parakeet, or kekeriki, to unknown (Schmechel and O’Connor current population has 311 individuals be the rarest parakeet in New Zealand. 1999), but population sizes can fluctuate and the species only occurs on the small Because it is classified as ‘‘Nationally even on islands free from predators Chatham Island group. It faces threats Critical’’ with a high risk of extinction, (BirdLife International 2006). that are moderate in magnitude because the NZDOC has been working Predation, habitat modification, the NZDOC has taken measures to aid intensively with the species to ensure natural disasters, and disturbance are the recovery of the species. Threats are its survival. The population is estimated factors that negatively impact the imminent and ongoing. Therefore, it at 100 to 200 individuals in the wild Chatham oystercatcher population receives a priority rank of 8. and declining (NZDOC 2008c). (NZDOC 2001). Domestic cats (Felis There are several reasons for the Orange-Fronted Parakeet domesticus), weka (Gallirallus species’ continuing decline; one of the (Cyanoramphus malherbi) australis), possum (Trichosurus most prominent risks to the species is vulpecuta), hedgehog (Erinaceus The orange-fronted parakeet, also believed to be predation by introduced eropaeus), pigs (Sus domestica), black- known as Malherbe’s parakeet, was species, such as stoats (Mustela backed gulls (Larus dominicanus), and treated as an individual species until it erminea) and rats (Rattus spp.) (BirdLife harriers (Circus approximans) are was proposed to be a color morph of the International 2007a). Large numbers of potential predators of the Chatham yellow-crowned parakeet, C. auriceps, stoats and rats in beech forests cause oystercatcher eggs and young chicks, in 1974 (Holyoak 1974). Further large losses of parakeets. Stoats and rats with cats possibly also preying on taxonomic analysis suggested that it are excellent hunters on the ground and adults. Of these potential predators, cats should once again be considered a in trees. When they exploit parakeet and weka have been recorded on film distinct species (Kearvell et al. 2003; nests and roosts in tree holes, they predating on the species (NZDOC 2001). ITIS 2008). particularly impact females, chicks, and Rangatira and Mangere Islands are free At one time, the orange-fronted eggs (NZDOC 2008d). The NZDOC of mammalian predators. Habitat parakeet was scattered throughout most introduced ‘‘Operation ARK,’’ an modification by coastal vegetation— of New Zealand, although the two initiative to respond to predator marram (European beachgrass) records from the North Island are problems in beech forests to prevent (Ammophila arenaria)—appears to have thought dubious (Harrison 1970). This species’ extinctions, including orange- adversely affected oystercatcher species has never been common (Mills fronted parakeets. Predators are breeding in northern locations on and Williams 1979). During the methodically controlled with traps, Chatham Island. At sites where marram nineteenth century, the species’ toxins in bait stations, bait bags, and has become established, the beach distribution included South Island, aerial spraying, when necessary profile becomes steeper and the dune Stewart Island, and a few other offshore (NZDOC 2008e). Despite these controls, face moves closer to the high-water islands of New Zealand (NZDOC 2008c). predation by introduced species is still mark. Since oystercatchers prefer to nest Currently, there are four known a threat because they have not been in more open areas, the occurrence of remaining populations, all located eradicated from this species’ range. marram appears to have forced the within an 18.6-mi (30-km) radius in Habitat loss and degradation are also oystercatchers to nest further down the beech (Nothofagus spp.) forests of considered threats to the orange-fronted beach, where the spring tides or storm upland valleys within Arthur’s Pass parakeet (BirdLife International 2007b). surges are more likely to destroy nests. National Park and Lake Sumner Forest Large areas of native forest have been The vegetation also creates a relatively Park in Canterbury, South Island felled or burnt, decreasing the habitat dense cover that can conceal predators. (NZDOC 2008b) and two populations available for parakeets (NZDOC 2008d). During nesting, Chatham oystercatchers established on Chalky and Maud Islands Silviculture of beech forests aims to are sensitive to disturbance by people, (Elliott and Suggate 2007). This species harvest trees at an age when few will farm stock, and dogs. Also, vehicles run inhabits southern beech forests, with a become mature enough to develop over nests, and domestic sheep and preference for locales bordering stands suitable cavities for orange-fronted cattle, which regularly use the beaches of mountain beech (N. solandri) (del parakeets (Kearvell 2002). The habitat is in northern Chatham Island, trample Hoyo 1997; Snyder et al. 2000; Kearvell also degraded by brush-tailed possum nests (NZDOC 2001). 2002). It is reliant on old mature beech (Trichosurus vulpecula), cattle, and deer The birds of the Chatham Island trees with natural cavities or hollows for browsing on plants and changing the group are protected due to human nesting. Breeding is linked with the forest structure (NZDOC 2008d). This is intervention and management. The irregular seed production by a problem for the orange-fronted NZDOC focused conservation efforts in Nothofagus; in mast years with a high parakeet which uses ground and low the early 1990s on predator trapping abundance of seeds, parakeet numbers growing shrubs while feeding (Kearvell and fencing to limit domestic stock can increase substantially. In addition to et al. 2002). access to nesting areas. Some nests were eating seeds, the orange-fronted Snyder et al. (2000) reported that moved away from the high tide mark, parakeet feeds on fruits, leaves, flowers, hybridization with yellow-crowned and nest manipulation may have helped buds, and invertebrates (BirdLife parakeets had been observed at Lake to increase hatching success (NZDOC International 2000). Sumner. Other risks include increased 2008b). In 2001, the NZDOC published The orange-fronted parakeet has an competition between the orange-fronted a Chatham Island oystercatcher recovery extremely small population and limited parakeet and the yellow-crowned plan covering the period 2001 through range. The species is listed as ‘‘Critically parakeet in a habitat substantially 2011. Nest manipulation, fencing, Endangered’’ on the IUCN Red List, modified by humans, competition with signage, intensive predator control, and ‘‘because it underwent a population introduced finch species, and

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competition with introduced wasps E. uvaeensis (BirdLife International illegal pet trade, mainly for the domestic (Vespula vulgaris and V. germanica) for 2007a). The Uvea parakeet is found only market (BirdLife International 2007a). invertebrates as a dietary source on the small island of Uvea in the Nesting holes are cut open to extract (Kearvell et al. 2002). Loyalty Archipelago, New Caledonia nestlings, rendering the holes unsuitable The NZDOC closely monitors all (Territory of France); the island is only for future nesting. The increasing lack of known populations of the orange- 42 mi2 (110 km2) (Juniper and Parr nesting sites is believed to be a limiting fronted parakeet. Nest searches are 1998). The Uvea parakeet is found factor for the species (BirdLife conducted, nest holes are inspected, and primarily in old-growth forests, notably, International 2007a). Also, Robinet et al. surveys are carried out in other areas to those dominated by Agathis australis (1996) suggested that although the look for evidence of other populations. pines (del Hoyo et al. 1997). Most birds impact of capture of juveniles on the In fact, the surveys successfully located occur in about 7.7 mi2 (20 km2) of forest viability of populations is not obvious another orange-fronted parakeet in the north, although some individuals with long-lived species that are capable population in May 2003 (NZDOC are found in strips of forest on the of re-nesting, such as the Uvea parakeet, 2008e). A new population was northwest isthmus and in the southern the current capture of 30 to 50 young established in 2006 on the predator-free part of the island, with a total area of Uvea parakeets each year by humans for Chalky Island. Eggs were removed from potential habitat of approximately 25.5 pets may be unsustainable. In a study of nests in the wild and foster parakeet mi2 (66 km2) (BirdLife International the reproductive biology of the Uvea parents incubated the eggs and cared for 2007a; CITES 2000b). The Uvea parakeet parakeet, Robinet and Salas (1999) the hatchlings until they fledged and feeds on the berries of vines and the found that the main causes of chick were transferred to the island. flowers and seeds of native trees and death were starvation of the third chick Monitoring later in the year (2006) shrubs (del Hoyo et al. 1997). It also during the first week, raptor indicated that the birds had successfully feeds on crops in adjacent cultivated (presumably the native brown goshawk nested and reared chicks. Additional land, and the greatest number of birds (Accipiter fasciatus)) predation of birds will be added to the Chalky Island occurs close to gardens with papayas, fledglings, and human harvest for the population, in an effort to increase the which they utilize as food (BirdLife pet trade. genetic diversity of the population International 2007a). The species nests Although the Uvea parakeet has a (NZDOC 2008e). A second self- in cavities of native trees, and has a number of predators, the absence of the sustaining population has been clutch size of 2 to 3 eggs with some ship rat (Rattus rattus) and Norwegian established on Maud Island (NZDOC double clutches (Robinet and Salas rat (R. norvegicus) on Uvea is a major 2008a). 1999). factor contributing to its survival. There The orange-fronted parakeet does not Early population estimates were is concern that these rats may be represent a monotypic genus. The alarmingly low—70 to 90 birds and introduced in the future (CITES 2000b). current wild population ranges between declining (Hahn 1993). Surveys by Introductions of Uvea parakeets to the 100 and 200 individuals, and the Robinet et al. (1996) in 1993 yielded adjacent island of Lifou (to establish a species’ distribution is extremely estimates of approximately 600 birds. In second population) in 1925 and 1963 limited. It faces threats that are 1999, it was believed that 742 failed (BirdLife International 2007a), moderate in magnitude because the individuals lived in northern Uvea, with possibly due to the presence of ship rats NZDOC has taken important measures 82 birds living in the south (Primot and Norwegian rats (Robinet in litt. to aid in the recovery of the species. The 1999, as cited in BirdLife International 1997, as cited in Snyder et al. 2000). NZDOC implemented a successful 2007a). Robinet et al. (1998) studied the impact captive-breeding program for the The species is listed as ‘‘Endangered’’ of rats in Uvea and Lifou on the Uvea orange-fronted parakeet. Using captive- in the IUCN Red List, because it parakeet. They concluded that Lifou is bred birds from the program, NZDOC occupies a very small, declining area of not a suitable place for translocating established two self-sustaining forest on one small island (BirdLife Uvea parakeets unless active habitat populations of the orange-fronted International 2004). The species was management is carried out to protect it parakeet on predator-free islands. The uplisted from Appendix II to Appendix from ship rats. They also suggested that NZDOC monitors wild nest sites and is I of CITES in July 2000, due to its small it would be valuable to apply low constantly looking for new nests and population size, restricted area of intensity rat control of the Pacific rat (R. new populations, as evidenced by the distribution, loss of suitable habitat, and exulans) in Uvea immediately before the 2003 discovery of a new population. unsustainable trade of the species parakeet breeding season. Finally, the NZDOC determined that the (CITES 2000b). A recovery plan for the Uvea parakeet species’ largest threat is predation and Identified risks to the Uvea parakeet was prepared for the period 1997–2002, initiated a successful program to remove include habitat loss, capture of juveniles which included strong local predators. The threats of competition for for the pet trade, and predation participation in population and habitat food and highly altered habitat are (BirdLife International 2007b). The monitoring (Robinet in litt. 1997, as imminent and ongoing. Therefore, this forest habitat of the Uvea parakeet is cited in Snyder et al. 2000). The species species is assigned a priority rank of 8 threatened by clearance for agriculture has recently increased in popularity and (Note: the priority rank was mistakenly and logging. In 30 years, approximately is celebrated as an island emblem listed as 4 in the 2007 Notice of Review; 30 to 50 percent of primary forest has (Robinet and Salas 1997; Primot in litt. a species that has imminent threats of been destroyed (Robinet et al. 1996). 1999, as cited in BirdLife International moderate to low magnitude is assigned The island has a young and increasing 2007a). Conservation actions, including a priority ranking of 8, as per the human population of almost 4,000 in-situ management (habitat protection Service’s 1983 Listing Priority Guidance inhabitants. The increase in population and restoration), recovery efforts (48 FR 43098)). will most probably lead to more (providing nest boxes and food), and destruction of forest for housing, public education on the protection of Uvea Parakeet (Eunymphicus uvaeensis) cultivated fields, and plantations, the parakeet and its habitat, are This species, previously known as especially coconut palms, the island’s underway (Robinet et al. 1996). Eunymphicus cornutus, is currently main source of income (CITES 2000a). Increased awareness of the plight of the treated as two species, E. cornutus and The species is also put at risk by the species and improvements in law

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enforcement capability are helping to (2008c) estimated there are between 50 and is legally protected in Bolivia address illegal trade of the species. In and 249 mature individuals in the wild, (Juniper and Parr 1998). The Eco Bolivia 1998, a captive-breeding program was and the population has some Foundation patrols existing macaw initiated to restock the southern portion fragmentation and is decreasing. habitat by foot and motorbike, and the of Uvea. Measures are now being taken This species was historically at risk Armonia Association is searching the to control predators and prevent further from trapping for the national and Beni lowlands for more populations colonization by rats (BirdLife international cage-bird trade, and some (Snyder et al. 2000). Additionally, the International 2007a). Current Uvea illegal trade may still be occurring. Armonia Association is building an parakeet numbers are increasing, but Between the early 1980s and early awareness campaign aimed at the any relaxation of conservation efforts or 1990s, approximately 400 to 1,200 birds cattlemen’s association to ensure that introduction of nonnative rats or other were exported from Bolivia, and many the protection and conservation of these predators could lead to a rapid decline are now in captivity in the European birds is at a local level (e.g., protection of the species (BirdLife International Union and in North America (World of macaws from trappers and the 2007a). Parrot Trust 2003). In 1984, Bolivia sensible management of key habitats, The Uvea parakeet does not represent outlawed the export of live parrots such as palm groves and forest islands, a monotypic genus. It faces threats that (Brace et al. 1995). However, in 1993 on their property) (BirdLife are moderate in magnitude because (Jordan and Munn 1993) it was reported International 2008a; Llampa 2007; important management efforts have that an Argentinian bird dealer was Snyder et al. 2000). been put in place to aid in the recovery offering illegal Bolivian dealers a high The blue-throated macaw does not of the species. However, all of these price for blue-throated macaws. represent a monotypic genus. It faces efforts must continue to function, Armonia Association (BirdLife in threats that are moderate in magnitude because this species is an island Bolivia) monitored the wild birds that because wild birds are no longer taken endemic with restricted habitat in one passed through a pet market in Santa for the legal wild-bird trade as a result location. Threats to the species are Cruz from August 2004 to July 2005. of the species’ CITES listing, and it is imminent because illegal trade still Although nearly 7,300 parrots were also legally protected in Bolivia. occurs and the removal of 30 to 50 recorded in trade, the blue-throated Wildlife managers in Bolivia are percent of the old-growth forest, which macaw was absent in the market during actively protecting the species and the birds are dependent upon for the monitoring period, which may point searching for additional populations. nesting holes, negatively impacts the to the effectiveness of the ongoing Threats to the species are imminent and reproductive requirements of the conservation programs in Bolivia ongoing because hunters still trap the species. We assign this species a priority (BirdLife International 2007). There are birds for the illegal bird trade and rank of 8. a number of blue-throated macaws in annual burning on private ranches captivity, with over 1,000 registered in continues. Therefore, we assigned this Blue-Throated Macaw (Ara the North American studbook. Because species a priority rank of 8. glaucogularis) these birds are not too difficult to breed, Helmeted Woodpecker (Dryocopus The blue-throated macaw is endemic the supply of captive-bred birds has galeatus) to forest islands in the seasonally increased (Waugh 2007), helping to flooded Beni Lowlands (Lanos de alleviate pressure on illegal collecting of The helmeted woodpecker is endemic Mojos) of Central Bolivia (Jordan and wild birds, but not completely to the southern Atlantic forest region of Munn 1993; Yamashita and de Barros eliminating illegal collection. southeastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, 1997). It inhabits a mosaic of seasonally The blue-throated macaw is also at and northeastern Argentina (BirdLife inundated savanna, palm groves, forest risk from habitat loss and possible International 2007). It is found in tall islands, and humid lowlands. This competition from other birds, such as lowland and montane primary forest, in species is found in areas where palm- other macaws, toucans, and large forest that has been selectively logged, fruit food is available, especially Attalea woodpeckers (BirdLife International and generally near large tracts of intact phalerata (Jordan and Munn 1993; 2008b; World Parrot Trust 2008). All forest (BirdLife International 2007). This Yamashita and de Barros 1997). It known sites of the blue-throated macaw woodpecker feeds on beetle larvae inhabits elevations between 656 and 984 are on private cattle ranches, where which live beneath tree bark. The ft (200 and 300 m) (BirdLife local ranchers typically burn the pasture species forages primarily in the middle International 2008c; Brace et al. 1995; annually (del Hoyo 1997). This results canopy of the forest interior (del Hoyo Yamashita and de Barros 1997). These in almost no recruitment of palm trees, et al. 2002). macaws are not found to congregate in which are central to the ecological Recent field work on the helmeted large flocks; but are seen most needs of the blue-throated macaw woodpecker revealed that the species is commonly traveling in pairs, and on (Yamashita and de Barros (1977)). In less rare than once thought (BirdLife rare occasions may be found in small addition, in Beni many palms are cut International 2007). It is listed as flocks (Collar et al. 1992). The blue- down by the local people for firewood ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by the IUCN (BirdLife throated macaw nests between (Brace et al. 1995). Thus, although the International 2007). The current November and March in large tree palm groves are more than 500 years population is estimated at between cavities where one to two young are old, Yamashita and de Barros (1977) 10,000 and 19,999 individuals and raised (BirdLife International 2000). concluded that the palm population decreasing (BirdLife International 2000). The taxonomic status of this species structure suggests long-term decline. This estimate has a wide range, because was long disputed, primarily because This species is categorized as the species is almost certainly the species was unknown in the wild to ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ on the IUCN underreported due to the difficulty of biologists until 1992. Previously it was Red List, ‘‘because its population is locating birds except when vocalizing, considered an aberrant form of the blue- extremely small and each isolated and since they are silent for much of the and-yellow macaw (A. ararauna), but subpopulation is probably tiny and year. Numerous sightings since the mid- the two species are now known to occur declining as a result of illegal trade’’ 1980s include a pair in the Brazilian sympatrically without interbreeding (del (BirdLife International 2004). It is listed State of Santa Catarina in 1998, where Hoyo et al. 1997). BirdLife International in Appendix I of CITES (CITES 2006) the species had not been seen since

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1946 (del Hoyo et al. 2002). Research is located between Japan and Taiwan loss of old-growth and mature forest to needed to clarify the species’ current (Brazil, 1991; Stattersfield et al. 1998; logging, dam construction, agricultural distribution and status (del Hoyo et al. Winkler et al. 2005). This species is clearing, and golf course construction. 2002). confined to Kunigami-gun, or Yambaru, Its limited range and tiny population The greatest threat to the species is with its main breeding areas located make it vulnerable to extinction from widespread deforestation, and the along the mountain ridges between Mt. disease and natural disasters such as species is not common at any known Nishime-take and Mt. Iyu-take, although typhoons (BirdLife International 2004). site (BirdLife International 2007; Cockle it also nests in well-forested coastal During the 1930s, the Okinawa 2008). In the Atlantic forest, more than areas (Research Center, Wild Bird woodpecker was considered nearly 90% of the forest has been replaced by Society of Japan 1993, as cited in extinct. By the early 1990s, the breeding crops and pastures, and nearly all BirdLife International 2001). It prefers population was estimated to be about 75 remaining forest has been subject to undisturbed, mature, subtropical birds (BirdLife International 2008a). The selective logging of large trees, with evergreen broadleaf forests, with tall current population estimate ranges potentially severe consequences for trees greater than 7.9 in (20 cm) in between 146 and 584 individuals, with cavity nesting birds such as diameter (del Hoyo 2002; Short 1982). a projected future 10-year decline of 30 woodpeckers; selectively logged forest Trees of this size are generally more to 49 percent (BirdLife International contains significantly fewer nesting than 30 years old and are confined to 2008b). The species is legally protected cavities than primary forest (Cockle hilltops (Brazil 1991). Places with in Japan and occurs in small protected 2008). conifers appear to be avoided (Short areas on Mt. Ibu and Mt. Nishime The helmeted woodpecker is 1973; Winkler et al. 1995). The Okinawa (BirdLife International 2008a). The protected by Brazilian law and woodpecker has been sighted just south Yambaru, a forest area in the Okinawa populations occur in numerous of Tanodake in an area of entirely Prefecture, was designated as a national protected areas throughout its range secondary forest that was too young for park in 1996, and conservation (BirdLife International 2007). These nest building, but Brazil (1991) thought organizations have purchased sites protections prohibit the following this may have involved birds displaced where the woodpecker occurs to activities with regard to this species: by the clearing of mature forests. The establish private wildlife preserves (del export and international trade, Okinawa woodpecker feeds on large Hoyo et al. 2002). collection and research, captive arthropods, notably beetle larvae, The Okinawa woodpecker faces propagation, and also provide measures spiders, moths, and centipedes, fruit, threats that are moderate in magnitude which help to protect remaining berries, seeds, acorns, and other nuts because the species is legally protected suitable habitat, such as prohibition of (del Hoyo 2002; Short 1982; Winkler et in Japan and its range occurs in several exploitation of the remaining primary al. 2005). They forage in old-growth protected areas. However, the threats to forests within the Atlantic forest biome forests with large, often moribund trees, the species are imminent because the and management of various practices in accumulated fallen trees, rotting old-growth habitat, upon which the primary and secondary forests, such as stumps, debris, and undergrowth (Brazil species is dependent, continues to be logging, charcoal production, 1991; Short 1973). This woodpecker removed, and preferable habitat reforestation, recreation, and water nests in holes excavated in large old continues to be altered for agriculture resources (ECOLEX 2007). However, for trees, often a hollow in Castanopsis and golf courses. It therefore receives a various reasons (e.g., lack of funding, cuspidata trees (del Hoyo 2002; Short priority rank of 8 (Note: The priority personnel, or local management 1982). number was changed from 7 to 8 commitment), Brazil’s current capacity Until recently the Okinawa because of the recent research showing to achieve its stated natural resource woodpecker was considered to belong to that the Okinawa woodpecker belongs objectives in protected areas is limited the monotypic genus Sapheopipo. This to a different genus and is no longer (ADEJA 2007; Bruner et al. 2001; Costa view was based on similarities in color considered a monotypic species). 2007; IUCN 1999; Neotropical News patterns, external morphology, and Yellow-Browed Toucanet 1996; Neotropical News 1999). foraging behavior. Winkler et al. (2005) (Aulacorhynchus huallagae) Therefore, it is likely that not all of the analyzed partial nucleotide sequences of habitat protections for the helmeted mitochondrial genes and concluded that The yellow-browed toucanet is known woodpecker would be sufficiently this woodpecker belongs in the genus from only two localities in north-central addressed at these sites. The helmeted Dendrocopos. Given the other species in Peru—La Libertad, where it is woodpecker does not represent a this genus, the Okinawa woodpecker is uncommon, and Rio Abiseo National monotypic genus. The magnitude of no longer considered to belong to a Park, San Martin, where it is very rare threat to the species is moderate because monotypic genus. (BirdLife International 2008; del Hoyo et the population is much larger than The Okinawa woodpecker is al. 2002; Wege and Long 1995). Its previously thought; however, the threat considered one of the world’s rarest estimated range is only 174 mi2 (450 is imminent because the forest habitat, extant woodpecker species (Winkler et km2) (BirdLife International 2008). in particular, the availability of nesting al. 2005). The elimination of forests by There have been recent reports of the cavities upon which the species logging and the cutting and gathering of species from Leymebambe (T. Mark in depends, is being reduced by human wood for firewood are the main causes litt. 2003, as cited in BirdLife activities. It therefore, receives a priority of its small and lessening numbers International 2008). It inhabits a narrow rank of 8. (Short 1982), but the greatest danger to altitudinal range between 6,970 and this woodpecker is the fragmentation of 8,232 ft (2,125 and 2,510 m), preferring Okinawa Woodpecker (Dendrocopos its population into scattered tiny the canopy of humid, ephiphyte-laden noguchii, previously known as colonies and isolated pairs (Short 1973). montane cloud forests, particularly Sapheopipo noguchii) The species is categorized on the IUCN areas that support Clusia trees (del Hoyo The Okinawa woodpecker lives in the Red List as ‘‘Critically Endangered,’’ et al. 2002; Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990; northern hills of Okinawa Island, Japan. because it is comprised of a single Schulenberg and Parker 1997). This Okinawa is the largest island of the diminutive, declining population, narrow distributional band may be Ryukyus Islands, a small island chain which is put at risk by the continued related to the occurrence of the larger

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grey-breasted mountain toucan the Federal District, and Minas Gerais, the extent of suitable habitat. Therefore, (Andigena hypoglauca) above 7,544 ft Brazil (Negret and Cavalcanti 1985, as it receives a priority rank of 8. (2,300 m) and to the occurrence of the cited in Collar et al. 1992; Collar et al. Codfish Island Fernbird (Bowdleria emerald toucanet (Aulacorhynchus 1992; BirdLife International 2007). The punctata wilsoni) prasinus) below 6,888 ft (2,100 m) Brasilia Tapaculo will occasionally (Schulenberg and Parker 1997). The colonize disturbed areas near streams The Codfish Island fernbird is found species’ restricted range remains (BirdLife International 2003). This only on Codfish Island—a Nature unexplained, and recent information species has only been recorded locally Reserve of 3,448 ac (1,396 ha)—located indicates that both of the suggested within Formas in Goia´s, around Brası´lia. 1.8 mi (3 km) off the northwest coast of competitors have wider altitudinal Particular sites where the species has Stewart Island, New Zealand (IUCN ranges which completely encompass the been located, at low densities, include 1979; McClelland 2007). There are five range of the yellow-browed toucanet Serra Negra (on the upper Dourados subspecies of fernbirds, each restricted (Clements and Shany 2001, as cited in River) and the headwaters of the Sa˜o to a single island and its outlying BirdLife International 2008; Collar et al. Francisco, both in Minas Gerais; and islands. The North and South Islands’ 1992; del Hoyo et al. 2002; J. Serra do Cipo´ and Carac¸a in the hills subspecies are widespread and locally Hornbuckle in litt. 1999, as cited in and tablelands of central Brazil common. The Stewart Island and BirdLife International 2008). The (BirdLife International 2003). Snares’ subspecies are moderately yellow-browed toucanet does not appear Although the species was once abundant (Heather and Robertson, 1997). In 1966, the status of the Codfish to occupy all potentially suitable forest considered rare (Sick and Texeira 1979, Island subspecies was considered available within its range (Schulenberg as cited in Collar et al. 1992), it is now relatively safe (Blackburn 1967), but and Parker 1997). Although it occurs found in reasonable numbers in certain estimates dating from 1975 indicated a within the large Rio Abiseo National areas of Brasilia (D. M. Teixeira, in litt. gradually declining population Park, the population in the reserve is 1987, as cited in Collar et al. 1992). The numbering approximately 100 thought to be small (BirdLife population is estimated at more than individuals (Bell 1975, as cited in IUCN International 2004; del Hoyo 2002). 10,000 birds, with a decreasing 1979). McClelland (2007) wrote that in Deforestation has been widespread in population trend (BirdLife International the past the subspecies was restricted to this region, but has largely occurred 2007). The IUCN categorizes Scytalopus below the toucanet’s altitudinal range low shrubland on the top of Codfish novacapitalis as ‘‘Near Threatened’’ Island with a few individuals around (BirdLife International 2008; Barnes et (BirdLife International 2007). The al. 1995). However, coca growers have the coastal shrubland; the birds are species occupies a very limited range taken over forests within its altitudinal thought to have been eliminated from and is presumably losing habitat around range, probably resulting in some forest habitat by the Polynesian rat Brasilia. However, its distribution now reductions in the species’ range and (Rattus exulans) (McClelland 2007). The appears larger than initially believed, population (BirdLife International 2004; IUCN (1979) concluded that the and the swampy gallery forests where it Plenge in litt. 1993, as cited in BirdLife subspecies’ absence from areas of is found are not conducive for forest International 2008). Nevertheless, much Codfish Island that it had formerly clearing, leaving the species’ habitat less forest remains within the range of the occupied in the mid-1970s evidenced a vulnerable to this threat than previously yellow-browed toucanet, and most of decline. thought. However, dam building for the area is only lightly settled by Fernbirds are sedentary, and their irrigation on rivers which normally humans; the limited range of this flight is weak. They are secretive and flood gallery forests is an emerging species is not well explained relative to reluctant to leave cover. They feed in threat (Antas 2007; D. M. Teixeira in litt. the threats reported (BirdLife low vegetation or on the ground, eating 1987, as cited in Collar et al. 1992). The International 2008; Schulenberg and mainly caterpillars, spiders, grubs, majority of locations of this species lie Parker 1997). beetles, flies, and moths (Heather and It is listed as ‘‘Endangered’’ on the within established reserves, and both Robertson, 1997). IUCN Red List, because of its very small fire risk and drainage impacts are Codfish Island’s native vegetation has range and extant population records reduced in these areas (Antas 2007). The been modified by the introduced from only two locations (BirdLife Brasilia tapaculo is currently protected herbivore, the Australian brush-tailed International 2004). The current by Brazilian law (Bernardes et al. 1990, possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). population size is unknown, but the as cited in Collar et al. 1992), and it is Fernbird populations have also been population trend is believed to be found in six protected areas (Machado reduced due to predation by weka decreasing (BirdLife International 2008). et al. 1998, Wege and Long 1995; as (Gallirallus australis scotti) and The yellow-browed toucanet does not cited in BirdLife International 2007). Polynesian rats (Merton 1974, pers. represent a monotypic genus. The Annual burning of adjacent grasslands comm., as cited in IUCN 1979). Several magnitude of threat to the species is limits the extent and availability of conservation measures have been moderate, since habitat loss is largely suitable habitat, as does wetland undertaken by the New Zealand DOC. recorded outside its range, and non- drainage and the sequestration of water The weka and possum were eradicated imminent due to the uncertainty of for irrigation (Machado et al. 1998, as from Codfish Island in 1984 and 1987, ongoing habitat loss from cocoa growers. cited in BirdLife International 2007). respectively (McClelland 2007). The Therefore, it receives a priority rank of The Brasilia tapaculo does not Polynesian rat was eradicated in 1997 11. represent a monotypic genus. The (Conservation News 2002; McClelland magnitude of threat to the species is 2007). The Codfish Island fernbird Brasilia Tapaculo (Scytalopus moderate because the population is population is rebounding strongly with novacapitalis) much larger than previously believed the removal of invasive predator The Brasilia tapaculo is found in and preferred habitat is swampy and species. The fernbird invaded the forest swampy gallery forest, disturbed areas difficult to clear. Threats are imminent, habitat, which greatly expanded the of thick streamside vegetation, and however, because habitat is being species’ available habitat. Although dense secondary growth of the bracken drained or dammed for agricultural there is no accurate estimate on the fern Pteridium aquilinum, from Goia´s, irrigation, and grassland burning limits current size of the population (estimates

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are based on incidental encounter rates The IUCN Red List classifies this widespread loss of habitat for in the various habitat types on the species as ‘‘Endangered,’’ because of its beachfront development and island), the current population is very small population that is considered occasionally appears in the illegal cage- believed to be several hundred. Thus, to be declining due to habitat loss. It bird trade (BirdLife International 2006). McClelland (2007) concluded that it is further notes that the species would be The black-backed tanager does not likely that the population has peaked classified as ‘‘Critically Endangered’’ if represent a monotypic genus. The threat and is now stable. the species’ range was judged to be to the species is low to moderate in To safeguard the Codfish Island severely fragmented (BirdLife magnitude due to the species’ fairly fernbird, the NZDOC established a International 2007c). The population large population size and range. The second population on Putauhinu estimate for this species is 250 to 999 threat is, however, imminent because Island—a small (356-ac (144-ha)), birds. While there are no data on the species is put at risk by ongoing privately owned island located population trends, the species is rapid and widespread loss of habitat approximately 25 mi (40 km) south of suspected to be declining due to habitat due to beachfront development. Codfish Island. The Putauhinu degradation (BirdLife International Therefore, we give this species a priority population established rapidly, and 2007b). The very tall old-growth forest rank of 8 (Note: the priority rank was McClelland (2007) reported it is on Ghizo is still under some threat from mistakenly listed as 9 in the 2007 Notice believed to be stable. While there are no clearance for local use as timber, of Review; a species that has imminent accurate data on the population size or firewood, and gardens, and the areas of threats of moderate to low magnitude is trends, the population is estimated to be other secondary growth, which are assigned a priority ranking of 8, as per 200 to 300 birds spread over the island suboptimal habitats for this species, are the Service’s 1983 Listing Priority (McClelland 2007). under considerable threat from Guidance (48 FR 43098)). The Codfish Island fernbird is a clearance for agricultural land (BirdLife subspecies that is now facing threats Lord Howe Pied Currawong (Strepera International 2007a). graculina crissalis) that are low to moderate in magnitude The Ghizo white-eye does not because the removal of invasive represent a monotypic genus. It faces The Lord Howe pied currawong is a predator species and the establishment threats that are moderate in magnitude separate subspecies from the five of a second population have allowed for because forest clearing, while a concern, Australian mainland pied currawongs. It a strong rebound in the subspecies’ does not appear to be proceeding at a is endemic to the Lord Howe Island, population. Threats are non-imminent pace to rapidly denude the habitat. New South Wales, Australia. The highly because conservation measures have Threats are imminent because the old- mobile birds can be found anywhere on eradicated nonnative predatory species growth forest which the species is the 7.7-mi2 (20-km2) island (Hutton from Codfish Island. However, even dependent upon is still being cleared for 1991), as well as on offshore islands though efforts to remove nonnative local use, and secondary growth is being such as the Admiralty group (Garnett predators have been successful, there is converted for agricultural purposes. and Crowley 2000). The Lord Howe a continued risk that predators will be Therefore, we assign the species a pied currawong breeds in rainforests re-introduced to the island by boats priority rank of 8. and palm forests, particularly along transporting conservation and research streams. Their territories include staff to the islands. Given continued low Black-Backed Tanager (Tangara sections of streams or gullies that are numbers, with two populations in the peruviana) lined by tall timber (Garnett and low hundreds, we find that introduced The black-backed tanager is endemic Crowley 2000). The highest densities of predators remain a threat to this to the coastal Atlantic forest region of nests are located on the slopes of Mt. subspecies, though non-imminent. southeastern Brazil, with records from Gower and in the Erskine Valley, with The subspecies, therefore, receives a Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Parana, Santa smaller numbers on the lower land to priority rank of 12 (Note: the priority Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul, and the north (Knight 1987, as cited in rank was mistakenly listed as 9 in the Espirito Santo (Argel-de-Oliveira in litt. Garnett and Crowley 2000). The nest is 2007 Notice of Review; a subspecies that 2000, as cited in BirdLife International placed high in a tree and is made of a has non-imminent threats of moderate 2006). It is largely restricted to coastal cup of sticks lined with grass and palm to low magnitude is assigned a priority sand-plain forest and littoral scrub, or thatch (Department of Environment & ranking of 12, as per the Service’s 1983 restinga, and has also been located in Climate Change (DECC) 2005). Most of Listing Priority Guidance (48 FR secondary forests (BirdLife International the island is still forested, and the 43098)). 2007). The black-backed tanager is removal of introduced feral animals has generally not considered rare within resulted in the recovery of the forest Ghizo White-Eye (Zosterops luteirostris) suitable habitat (BirdLife International understory (World Wildlife Fund The Ghizo white-eye is endemic to 2007). It has a complex distribution (WWF) 2001). Ghizo, a very densely populated island with periodic local fluctuations in The Lord Howe pied currawong is in the Solomon Islands in the South numbers owing to seasonal movements, omnivorous and eats a wide variety of Pacific (BirdLife International 2007a). at least in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paolo food, including native fruits and seeds Birds are locally common in the (BirdLife International 2007). (Hutton 1991), and is the only remaining tall or old-growth forest, Clarification of the species’ seasonal remaining native island vertebrate which is very fragmented and comprises movements will provide an improved predator (DECC 2005). It has been less than 0.39 mi2 (1 km2). It is less understanding of the species’ recorded taking seabird chicks, poultry, common in scrub close to large trees population status and distribution and chicks of the Lord Howe woodhen and in plantations (Buckingham et al. (BirdLife International 2007). (Tricholimnas sylvestris) and white tern 1995 and Gibbs 1996, as cited in Population estimates range from 2,500 (Gygis alba). Currawongs also feed on BirdLife International 2007a), and it is to 10,000 individuals (BirdLife dead rats and have been observed to not known whether these two habitats International 2007), and it is considered catch live rats and eat them (Hutton can support sustainable breeding ‘‘Vulnerable’’ by the IUCN (BirdLife 1991). A Department of Environmental populations (Buckingham et al. 1995, as International 2007). The species is Conservation (DEC) scientist observed cited in BirdLife International 2007a). negatively impacted by the rapid and that food brought to nestlings was, in

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decreasing order, invertebrates, fruits, interactions (Garnett and Crowley 2000). Harris’ mimic swallowtail was reptiles, and nestlings of other bird Prior to the 1970s, locals would shoot previously known in Espirito Santo and species (Lord Howe Island Board (LHIB) currawongs due to the bird’s habit of Rio de Janeiro (Collins and Morris 1985; 2006). preying on nestling birds (Hutton 1991), New and Collins 1991). However, there The Lord Howe pied currawong is and the currawongs remain unpopular are no recent confirmations in Espirito listed as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ under the New with some residents. It is unknown Santo. In Rio de Janeiro, Harris’ mimic South Wales Threatened Species what effect this localized killing has on swallowtail has recently been confirmed Conservation Act of 1995, because it has the overall population size and in three localities. Two colonies are a limited range, only occurring on Lord distribution of this species (Garnett and located on the east coast of Rio de Howe Island (DECC 2004). It also is Crowley 2000). Also, currawongs often Janeiro, at Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o and Macae´, listed as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ under the prey on ship (black) rats and and the other in Poc¸o das Antas Commonwealth Environment Protection consequently may suffer mortality from Biological Reserve, further inland. The and Biodiversity Conservation Act of non-target poisoning during rat-baiting Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o colony is the best- 1999. These laws provide a legislative programs (DEC 2006b). Close studied colony. Since 1984, it has framework to protect and encourage the monitoring of the population is needed maintained a stable size, varying recovery of vulnerable species (DEC because this small, endemic population between 50 to 250 individuals (Brown 2006a). The Lord Howe Island Act of is susceptible to the introduction of 1996; K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004; Collins 1953, as amended, established the Lord avian disease or of new predators Howe Island Board (LHIB); made and Morris 1985), and was reported to (Garnett and Crowley 2000). There is a be viable, vigorous, and stable in 2004 provisions for the LHIB to care for, long history of introduction of control, and manage the island; and (K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). There are nonnative fauna (e.g., 18 introduced no estimates of the size of the colony in established 75 percent of the land area land birds, and 3 mammals now as a Permanent Park Preserve (DEC Poc¸o das Antas Biological Reserve, resident), and the introduction to Lord where it had not been seen for 30 years 2006a). In 1982, the island was Howe Island of new exotic fauna and prior to its rediscovery there in 1997 (K. inscribed on the World Heritage List for flora (including disease), by air or ship, Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). Population its outstanding natural universal values is considered a major ongoing threat to estimates are lacking for the colony at (Department of the Environment and endemic species, including the Lord Macae´, where the subspecies was netted Water Resources 2007). Howe pied currawong (DEC 2006a). In the Action Plan for Australian in Jurubatiba National Park in the year Birds 2000 (Garnett and Crowley 2000), The Lord Howe pied currawong is a 2000, after having not been seen in the the population was estimated at subspecies facing threats that are low in area for 16 years (Monteiro et al. 2004). approximately 80 mature individuals. In magnitude and non-imminent. The Brazilian Institute of the 2006, initial results from a color band Therefore, it receives a priority rank of Environment and Natural Resources survey suggested that the population 12. (Instituto Brasileiro do a Meio Ambiente size was about 180 to 200 individual Invertebrates de do Recursos Naturais Renova´veis; birds (LHIB 2006). Complete results IBAMA) considers this subspecies to be reported by the Foundation for National Harris’ Mimic Swallowtail (Eurytides critically imperiled (MMA 2003; Parks & Wildlife (2007) estimated the (syn. Mimoides) lysithous harrisianus) Portaria No. 1,522 1989) and ‘‘strictly breeding population to be 80 to 100 protected,’’ such that collection and pairs, with a nesting territory in the tall Harris’ mimic swallowtail is a trade of the subspecies are prohibited forest areas of about 12 ac (5 ha) per subspecies endemic to Brazil (Collins (Brown 1996). Harris’ mimic pair. The population size is limited by and Morris 1985). Although the species’ swallowtail was categorized on the the amount of available habitat and the range includes Paraguay, the subspecies IUCN Red List as ‘‘Endangered’’ in the lack of food during the winter has not been confirmed there (Collins 1988, 1990, and 1994 IUCN Red Lists and Morris 1985; Finnish University (Foundation for National Parks & (IUCN 1996). However, it has not been and Research Network (Funet) 2004). Wildlife 2007). re-evaluated using the 1997 IUCN Red Occupying the lowland swamps and The Lord Howe Island draft List criteria, nor has it been sandy flats above the tidal margins of Biodiversity Management Plan, which incorporated into the 2007 IUCN Red the coastal Atlantic Forest, the was out for comment in 2006, will List database (IUCN 2007). become the formal National and NSW subspecies prefers alternating patches of Recovery Plan (Plan) for threatened strong sun and deep shade (Brown 1996; Habitat destruction is the main threat species and communities of the Lord Collins and Morris 1985). This to this subspecies (Brown 1996; Collins Howe Island Group (DEC 2006a). The subspecies is polyphagous, meaning and Morris 1985), especially main current threat identified for the that its larvae feed on more than one urbanization in Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o, Lord Howe Island currawong is habitat plant species (Kotiaho et al. 2005). industrialization in Macae´ (Jurubatiba clearing and modification (DEC 2006b). Information on preferred hostplants and National Park), and previous fires in the Lord Howe Island is unique among adult nectar-sources was published in Poc¸o das Antas Biological Reserve. As inhabited Pacific Islands in that less the 12-month finding (69 FR 70580). described in detail for the fluminense than 10 percent of the island has been This subspecies mimics at least three swallowtail (below), Atlantic forest cleared (WWF 2001) and less than 24 Parides species, including the habitat has been reduced to 5 to 10 percent has been disturbed (DEC 2006a). fluminense swallowtail; details on percent of its original cover. More than Although large-scale clearing of native mimicry were provided in the 12-month 70 percent of the Brazilian population vegetation no longer occurs on Lord finding (69 FR 70580) and in the 2007 lives in the Atlantic forest, and coastal Howe Island, the impact of vegetation Notice of Review (72 FR 20184). development is ongoing throughout the clearing on a small scale needs to be Researchers believe that this mimicry Atlantic forest region (Butler 2007; assessed (DEC 2006a). A lesser current system may cause problems in Conservation International 2007; risk to the species, but one which may distinguishing this subspecies from the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund account for its historical decline and species that it mimics (Brown, in litt. (CEPF) 2007a; Ho¨fling 2007; Hughes et continued low numbers, is human 2004; Monteiro et al. 2004). al. 2006; The Nature Conservancy 2007;

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Peixoto and Silva 2007; Pivello 2007; Harris’ mimic swallowtail does not Collins and Morris 1985; Garraway et al. World Food Prize 2007; WWF 2007). represent a monotypic genus, but it is a 1993; Smith et al. 1994). It experiences Both Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o and the Poc¸o subspecies. Based on the above episodic population explosions, as das Antas Biological Reserve, two of the information, we have determined that described in the 12-month finding (69 known Harris’ mimic swallowtail habitat destruction is a threat to the FR 70580) and in the 2007 Notice of localities, lie within the Sa˜o Joa˜o River subspecies. The magnitude of the threat Review (72 FR 20184). The species is Basin. The current conditions at Barra is low because suitable habitat protected under Jamaica’s Wildlife de Sa˜o Joa˜o appear to be suitable for continues to exist for this polyphagous Protection Act of 1998 and is included long-term survival of this subspecies. subspecies; the best-studied colony has in Jamaica’s National Strategy and The Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o River Basin maintained a stable and viable size for Action Plan on Biological Diversity, encompasses a 535,240-ac (216,605-ha) nearly 2 decades; an additional locality which has established specific goals and area, 372,286 ac (150,700 ha) of which has been confirmed; the subspecies is priorities for the conservation of is managed as protected areas. The strictly protected by Brazilian law; and Jamaica’s biological resources preferred landscape of open and shady two colonies are located within (Schedules of The Wildlife Protection areas (Brown 1996; Collins and Morris protected areas. While the protected Act 1998). Beginning in 1985, the 1985) continues to be present in the areas in which this subspecies is found Jamaican kite swallowtail was region, with approximately 541 forest continue to be threatened with potential categorized on the IUCN Red List as patches averaging 314 ac (127 ha) in habitat destruction from urbanization ‘‘Vulnerable;’’ it has not been re- size, covering nearly 68,873 ha (170,188 and industrialization, the threat of evaluated using the 1997 criteria ac), and a minimum distance between habitat destruction is non-imminent (Gimenez Dixon 1996). forest patches of 0.17 mi ( 276 m) because such destruction within those Habitat modification is the primary (Teixeira 2007). In studies between 1984 protected areas is not ongoing at this threat to the Jamaican kite swallowtail. and 1991, Brown (1996) determined that time. Therefore, the subspecies is Monophagous butterflies tend to be Harris’ mimic swallowtails in Barra de designated a priority rank of 12. more threatened than polyphagous Sa˜o Joa˜o flew a maximum distance of species, in part due to their specific 0.62 mi (1000 m); it follows that the Jamaican Kite Swallowtail (Eurytides habitat requirements (Kotiaho et al. average flying distance would be less marcellinus) 2005). West Indian lancewood, the than this figure. Thus, the average (0.17 The Jamaican kite swallowtail is Jamaican kite’s only known larval food mi (276 m)) distance between forest endemic to Jamaica, preferring wooded, plant, has been cleared for cultivation patches in the Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o River undisturbed habitat containing the West and felled for the commercial timber Basin is clearly within the flying Indian lancewood (Oxandra lanceolata), industry (Collins and Morris 1985; distance of this subspecies. The colony the only known larval hostplant for this Windsor Plywood 2004). Although West at Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o has maintained a monophagous species (Bailey 1994; Indian lancewood remains widely stable population size for 20 years, Collins and Morris 1985), meaning that dispersed throughout the island (R. indicating that the conditions available its larvae feed only on a single plant Robbins, in litt. 2004), the harvest and there remain suitable. species (Kotiaho et al. 2005). Adult clearing of West Indian lancewood Harris’ mimic swallowtail ranges plant preferences have not been habitat reduces the availability of the within two protected areas: Poc¸o das reported. Since the 1990s, adult plant (Bailey 1994; Collins and Morris Antas Biological Reserve and Jurubatiba Jamaican kite swallowtails have been 1985). National Park. These protected areas are observed in the Parishes of St. Thomas In Rozelle, the only known breeding described in detail for the fluminense and St. Andrew in the east; westward in site for this species (Bailey 1994; Collins swallowtail. In summary, the Poc¸o das St. Ann, Trelawny, and St. Elizabeth; and Morris 1985; Garraway et al. 1993; Antas Biological Reserve (Reserve) was and in the extreme western coast Parish Smith et al. 1994), there has been established to protect the golden lion of Westmoreland (Bailey 1994; Harris extensive habitat modification for tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) (Decree 2002; Mo¨hn 2002; Smith et al. 1994; agricultural and industrial purposes, No. 73,791 1974), but the Harris’ mimic WRC 2001). The species was most such as mining (Gimenez Dixon 1996; swallowtail, which occupies the same recently sighted in mid-2007 in the Blue WWF 2001). The effect of historical range, may benefit indirectly by efforts and John Crow Mountains National Park habitat modification negatively impacts to conserve golden lion tamarin habitat (see description below), where 4 the swallowtail today, because the (De Roy 2002; Teixeira 2007; WWF individuals were observed (Jamaica Jamaican kite does not thrive in 2003). Habitat destruction caused by Conservation and Development Trust disturbed habitats (Collins and Morris fires in Poc¸o das Antas Biological (JCDT) and Green Jamaica 2007a). There 1985). Rozelle is also subject to Reserve appears to have abated, and the is only one known breeding site in the naturally occurring, high impact revised management plan indicates that eastern coast town of Rozelle (St. stochastic events, such as regularly- the Reserve will be used for research Thomas Parish) (Bailey 1994; Collins occurring hurricanes, as elaborated in and conservation, with limited public and Morris 1985; Garraway et al. 1993; the 2007 Notice of Review (72 FR access (CEPF 2007a; IBAMA 2005). The Smith et al. 1994). Rozelle may also be 20184). According to the Economic Jurubatiba National Park (Park) is referred to in the literature as Roselle Commission for Latin America and the located in a region that is undergoing (e.g., Anderson et al. 2007). According Caribbean (ECLAC), United Nations continuing development pressures from to Dr. Robert Robbins (in litt. 2004), it Development Programme (UNDP), and urbanization and industrialization is possible that other breeding sites exist Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) (Brown 1996; CEPF 2007b; IFC 2002; given the widely dispersed nature of the (2004), hurricane-related weather Khalip 2007; Otero and Brown 1984; larval food plant. The Jamaican kite damage in the last 2 decades along the Savarese 2008), and there is no swallowtail maintains a low population coastal zone of Rozelle has been more management plan in place for the Park level and occasionally becomes locally intense than in previous decades, (CEPF 2007b). However, as discussed abundant in Rozelle during the breeding resulting in the erosion and virtual for the fluminense swallowtail, the Park season in early summer and disappearance of this once-extensive is considered to be in a very good state occasionally again in early fall (Bailey recreational beach. In 1988, it was of conservation (Rocha et al. 2007). 1994; Brown and Heineman 1972; estimated that Hurricane Gilbert caused

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a 75 percent reduction of Rozelle Beach considered one of the best-managed species continues to be viable. The due to erosion (UNEP-CEP 1989). Most protected areas in Jamaica (JCDT 2006). threat from habitat modification is recently, Hurricane Ivan, a Category 5 Since 2006, regular patrols by Park imminent because habitat destruction is hurricane that hit the island in 2004, Rangers have averaged 11 per month, ongoing. Therefore, it receives a priority caused severe local damage to Rozelle resulting in interdiction of illegal rank of 8. Beach, including erosion of the cliff face activities including hunting, logging, Fluminense Swallowtail (Parides and shoreline (ECLAC et al. 2004). and dumping (JCDT and Green Jamaica ascanius) Thus, while we do not consider 2007b). Moreover, since December 2006, stochastic events to be a primary threat the Park has instituted ‘‘Kite butterfly The fluminense swallowtail is factor for this species, the damage patrols’’ to locate the Jamaican kite endemic to Brazil’s ‘‘restinga’’ habitat caused by hurricanes that have been swallowtail, which resulted in the most within the Atlantic Forest region increasing in severity and frequency recent observation of 4 individuals in (Thomas 2003). Restingas form on within the past two decades is an mid-2007 (JCDT and Green Jamaica sandy, acidic, and nutrient-poor soils in unpredictable contributor to habitat 2007a). However, deforestation is the tropical and subtropical moist loss. currently a threat to the species’ habitat broadleaf forests of coastal Brazil. Habitat destruction occurs in western in the Blue Mountains (Tole 2006), and Restinga habitat, also referred to as Parishes, where adult Jamaican kite enforcement within the Park is ‘‘fluminense vegetation,’’ is swallowtails have been observed. hampered by lack of vehicles, limited characterized by medium-sized trees Cockpit Country, encompassing 30,000 computer access, and a lack of clearly and shrubs that are adapted to coastal ha (74,131 ac) of rugged forest-karst (a defined Park boundaries. conditions (Kelecom 2002). The species specialized limestone habitat) terrain, The Jamaican kite swallowtail has is monophagous (Otero and Brown spans four western Parishes, including been collected for commercial trade 1984), meaning that its larvae feed only Trelawny and St. Elizabeth, where adult (Collins and Morris 1985; Melisch 2000; on a single plant species (Kotiaho et al. Jamaican kite swallowtails have been Schu¨ tz 2000) and has been protected 2005); information on larval hostplant observed (Gordon and Cambell 2006). under the Jamaican Wildlife Protection preferences is provided in the 2007 Although eighty-one percent of Cockpit Act since 1998. This Act carries a Notice of Review (72 FR 20184). Country remains forested (Tole 2006), maximum penalty of 1,439 USD The species was historically reported fragmentation is occurring as a result of (100,000 Jamaican dollars (J$)) or 12 in Rio de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and human-induced activities. Current months imprisonment and appears to be Sao Paulo. However, there are no recent threats to Cockpit Country include effectively protecting this species from confirmations in Espirito Santo or Sao bauxite mining, unregulated plant illegal trade (NEPA 2005). This species Paulo. In Rio de Janeiro, the species is collecting, extensive logging, conversion is not listed under CITES, nor is it listed reported in five localities, including: of forest to agriculture, illegal drug on the European Commission’s Annex B Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o and Macae´ (in the cultivation, and expansion of human (Eur-Lex 2008), both of which regulate Restinga de Jurubatiba National Park), settlements. These activities contribute international trade in animals and along the coast; and, Poc¸o das Antas to degradation of the hydrology system plants of conservation concern. Biological Reserve, further inland (Keith from in-filling, siltation, accumulation However, we are not aware of any recent S. Brown, Jr., Livre-Docent, of solid waste, and invasion by seizures or smuggling of this species Universidade Estadual de Campinas, nonnative, invasive species (Cockpit into or out of the United States (Office Brazil, in litt. 2004; Soler 2005). Uehara- Country Stakeholders Group and JEAN of Law Enforcement, U.S. Fish and Prado and Fonseca (2007) recently (Gordon and Cambell 2006; Jamaica Wildlife Service, Arlington, Virginia, in reported a verified occurrence within Environmental Advocacy Network 2007; litt. 2008) and we are unaware of any A´ rea de Tombamento do Mangue do rio Tole 2006). In 2003, the Jamaican ongoing trade in this species. Therefore, Paraı´ba do Sul. Fluminense swallowtail National Environment and Planning we believe that overutilization is not has also been reported in Parque Natural Agency identified Rozelle and Cockpit currently a contributory risk factor to Municipal do Bosque da Barra (Instituto Country (which spans at least four the Jamaican kite swallowtail. Iguacu 2008). western Parishes, including Trelawny The Jamaican kite swallowtail does The fluminense swallowtail is and St. Elizabeth, where adult Jamaican not represent a monotypic genus. sparsely distributed throughout its kites have been observed) as priority Habitat modification is the primary range, reflecting the patchy distribution locations to receive protected area status threat to this species and we have of its preferred habitat (Otero and within the next 5 to 7 years (NEPA determined that overutilization is not Brown 1984; Tyler et al. 1994; Uehara- 2003). The status of this proposal is not currently a contributory risk factor. The Prado and Fonseca 2007). However, the included in the 2007 Environmental current threat from habitat modification species can be seasonally common, with Action Plan Status Report (NEPA 2007). includes: (1) Historical habitat sightings of up to 50 individuals in one Currently, the Blue and John Crow modification at the species’ only known morning in the Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o Mountains National Park is the only breeding site, which has lasting impacts location. The population estimate in protected area in which adult Jamaican on this species given that the species Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o ranges from 20 to 100 kite swallowtails have been observed, does not thrive in disturbed habitats; (2) individuals (Otero and Brown 1984). including the most recent observation in ongoing habitat alteration throughout its The colony within Poc¸o das Antas mid-2007 (Bailey 1994; JCDT 2006; adult range (including the felling of this Biological Reserve (Reserve) was JCDT and Green Jamaica 2007a). species’ larval plant food); and (3) the rediscovered in 1997, after a nearly 30- Located on the inland portions of St. potential for stochastic events, such as year absence from this locality (K. Thomas and St. Andrew and the hurricanes, to contribute to habitat loss. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). Researchers southeast portion of St. Mary Parishes, However, this threat is moderate in noted only that ‘‘large numbers’’ of the Park was created in 1993, magnitude because Jamaica has taken swallowtails were observed (K. Brown, encompassing 122,367 ac (49,520 ha) of regulatory steps to preserve the species Jr., in litt. 2004; Dr. Robert Robbins, mountainous, forested terrain that and its habitat, and adults are being Research Entomologist, National ranges in elevation from 492 to 7,402 ft regularly observed within at least one Museum of Natural History, Department (150 m to 2,256 m). The Park is protected area, indicating that the of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution,

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Washington, D.C., in litt. 2004). There 2007). While the presence of suitable (Brown 1996; Otero and Brown 1984). are no population estimates for the other habitat should not be used to infer the Rocha et al. (2007) described the habitat colonies. However, individuals from the presence of a species, this research as being in a very good state of viable population in Barra de Sa˜o Joa˜o should facilitate more focused efforts to conservation, but lacking a formal migrate widely in some years, which is identify and confirm additional management plan (Rocha et al. 2007). likely to enhance inter-population gene localities and conservation status of the Threats to the Macae´ region include flow among existing colonies (K. Brown, fluminense swallowtail (Uehara-Prado industrialization for oil reserve and Jr., in litt. 2004). and Fonseca 2007). Analyzing the power development (IFC 2002) and Brazil considers the fluminense correlation between the distribution of intense population pressures (including swallowtail to be ‘‘Imperiled’’ (MMA fluminense swallowtail and the existing migration and infrastructural 2003; Portaria No. 1,522 1989). protected areas within Rio de Janeiro, development) (Brown 1996; CEPF According to the 2007 IUCN Red List Uehara-Prado and Fonseca (2007) found 2007b; IFC 2002; Khalip 2007; Otero (Gimenez Dixon 1996), the fluminense that only two known occurrences of the and Brown 1984; Savarese 2008). swallowtail has been categorized as fluminense swallowtail correlated with Commercial exploitation has been ‘‘Vulnerable’’ since 1983, based on its protected areas, including the Poc¸o das identified as a potential threat to the small distribution and a decline in the Antas Biological Reserve. The fluminense swallowtail (Collins and number of populations caused by researchers concluded that the existing Morris 1985; Melisch 2000; Schu¨ tz habitat fragmentation and loss. protected area system may be 2000). The species is easy to capture, However, this species has not been re- inadequate for the conservation of this and species with restricted distributions evaluated using the 1997 IUCN Red List species. or localized populations, such as the categorization criteria. The Poc¸o das Antas Biological fluminense swallowtail, tend to be more Habitat destruction has been the main Reserve and the Jurubatiba National vulnerable to over-collection than those threat to this species (Brown 1996; Park are the only two protected areas with a wider distribution (K. Brown, Jr., Collins and Morris 1985; Gimenez considered large enough to support in litt. 2004; R. Robbins, in litt. 2004). Dixon 1996). Monophagous butterflies viable populations of the fluminense This species has not been formally tend to be more threatened than swallowtail (K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004; considered for listing in the Appendices polyphagous species (Kotiaho et al. Otero and Brown 1984; R. Robbins, in of CITES (http://www.cites.org). 2005), and the restinga habitat preferred litt. 2004). The Poc¸o das Antas However, the European Commission by fluminense swallowtails is a highly Biological Reserve (Reserve), established listed fluminense swallowtail on Annex specialized environment that is in 1974, encompasses 13,096 ac (5,300 B of Regulation 338/97 in 1997. (Dr. Ute restricted in distribution (K. Brown, Jr., ha) of inland Atlantic Forest habitat Grimm, German Scientific Authority to in litt. 2004; Otero and Brown 1986; (CEPF 2007a; Decree No. 73,791 1974). CITES (Fauna), Bonn, Germany, in litt. Uehara-Prado and Fonseca). Moreover, According to the 2005 revised 2008), and the species continues to be fluminense swallowtails require large management plan (IBAMA 2005), the listed on this Annex (Eur-Lex 2008). areas to maintain viable populations (K. Reserve is used solely for protection, This listing requires that imports from a Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004; Otero and research, and environmental education. non-European Union country be Brown 1986; Uehara-Prado and Public access is restricted, and there is accompanied by a permit that is only Fonseca). The Atlantic Forest habitat, an emphasis on habitat conservation, issued if the Scientific Authority has which once covered 540,543 mi2(1.4 including protection of the R˜ o Sa˜o Joa˜o. made a positive non-detriment finding, million km2), has been reduced to 5 to This river runs through the Reserve and a determination that trade in the species 10 percent of its original cover and is integral to creating the restinga will not be detrimental to the survival harbors more than 70 percent of the conditions preferred by the fluminense of the species in the wild (U. Grimm, in Brazilian population (Butler 2007; swallowtail. The Reserve was plagued litt. 2008). There has been no legal trade Conservation International 2007; by fires in the late 1980s through the in this species into the European Union Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund early 2000s, but there have been no since its listing on Annex B (U. Grimm, (CEPF) 2007a; Hfling 2007; The Nature recent reports of fires. Between 2001 in litt. 2008), and we are not aware of Conservancy 2007; World Wildlife Fund and 2006, there was an increase in the any recent reports of seizures or (WWF) 2007). The restinga habitat upon number of private protected areas near smuggling in this species into or out of which this species depends, has been or adjacent to the Poc¸o das Antas the United States (Office of Law reduced by 6.56 mi2 (17 km22) each year Biological Reserve and Barra de Sa˜o Enforcement, U.S. Fish and Wildlife between 1984 and 2001, equivalent to a Joa˜o (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Service, Arlington, Virginia, in litt. loss of 40 percent of restinga vegetation Fund (CEPF) 2007a). Corridors are being 2008). The fluminense remains strictly over the 17-year period (Temer 2006). created between existing protected areas protected from commerce in Brazil (K. The major ongoing human activities that and 13 privately protected forests, by Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). For the reasons have resulted in habitat loss, planting and restoring habitat outlined above, we believe that degradation, and fragmentation include previously cleared for agriculture or by overutilization is not currently a conversion for agriculture, plantations, fires (De Roy 2002). contributory threat factor for the livestock pastures, human settlements, The Jurubatiba National Park (14,860 fluminense swallowtail. hydropower reservoirs, commercial ha; 36,720 mi), located in Macae´ and Parasitism could be a factor logging, subsistence activities, and established in 1998 (Decree of April 29 threatening the fluminense swallowtail. coastal development (Butler 2007; 1998), is one of the largest contiguous Recently, Tavares et al. (2006) Hughes et al. 2006; Pivello 2007; The restingas (specialized sandy, coastal discovered four species of parasitic Nature Conservancy 2007; Peixoto and habitats) under protection in Brazil chalcid wasps (Brachymeria and Conura Silva 2007; World Food Prize 2007; (CEPF 2007b; Rocha et al. 2007). The species; Hymenoptera family) associated WWF 2007). Macae´ River Basin forms the outer edge with fluminense swallowtails. Uehara-Prado and Fonseca (2007) of the Jurubatiba National Park (Park) Parasitoids are species whose immature estimated that Rio de Janeiro contains (International Finance Corporation (IFC) stages develop on or within an insect 4,140,127 ac (1,675,457 ha) of suitable 2002) and creates the restinga habitat host of another species, ultimately habitat (Uehara-Prado and Fonseca preferred by the fluminense swallowtail killing the host (Weeden et al. 1976).

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This is the first report of parasitoid and adult hostplant preferences was of Law Enforcement, U.S. Fish and association with fluminense provided in the 12-month finding (69 Wildlife Service, Arlington, Virginia, in swallowtails (Tavares et al. 2006). To FR 70580) and in the 2007 Notice of litt. 2008). This species has not been date, there is no information as to the Review (72 FR 20184). formally considered for listing in the extent and effect that these parasites are Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail is Appendices of CITES (www.cites.org), having on the fluminense swallowtail. known in three localities along the but has been listed on Annex B of the Although Harris’ mimic swallowtail tributaries of the middle and lower European Union’s (EU) Regulation 338/ and the fluminense swallowtail face Amazon River basin in the states of 97 since 1997 (Eur-Lex 2008); Annex B similar threats, there are several Amazonas and Para´ (Brown 1996; listings are described under the dissimilarities that influence the Collins and Morris 1985; New and fluminense swallowtail, above. magnitude of these threats. Fluminense Collins 1991; Tyler et al. 1994). Two of According to Dr. Ute Grimm (German swallowtails are monophagous (Otero these colonies were rediscovered in the Scientific Authority to CITES (Fauna), and Brown 1984), meaning that its 1970s (Brown 1996; Collins and Morris Bonn, Germany, in litt. 2008), there has larvae feed only on a single plant 1985). The species is highly localized, been no legal trade in this species in the species (Kotiaho et al. 2005). In contrast, reflecting the localized distribution of EU since its listing. However, a French Harris’ mimic swallowtail is its highly specialized preferred habitat importer of exotic specimens is selling polyphagous (Brown 1996; Collins and (K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). We are Amazonian swallowtail on the internet; Morse 1985), such that its larvae feed on unaware of any population estimates for multiple specimens of males, females more than one species of plant (Kotiaho this species, other than the fact that ‘‘the and pairs are available for 18 Euros (28 et al. 2005). In addition, although their area of its range is very lightly USD); 20 Euros (32 USD); and 35 Euros ranges overlap, Harris’ mimic populated’’ (K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004). (55 USD), respectively. This species is swallowtails tolerate a wider range of This species is not nationally protected not nationally protected in Brazil (MMA habitat than the highly specialized (MMA 2003; Portaria No. 1,522 1989), 2003; Portaria No. 1,522 1989). restinga habitat preferred by fluminense although Para´ has included this species Although the state of Para´ recently swallowtail. Also unlike the Harris’ as ‘‘Endangered’’ on its newly created prohibited capture of this species for mimic swallowtail, fluminense list of threatened species (Decreto No. purposes other than research (Decreto swallowtails require a large area to 802 2008; Resoluc¸a˜o 054 2007; Secco No. 802 2008), insufficient time has maintain a viable population (K. Brown, and Santos 2008). This listing requires elapsed to determine how effectively Jr., in litt. 2004; Monteiro et al. 2004). the Para´ government to monitor, protect, this will prevent any wild collection of The fluminense swallowtail does not conserve, and restore the species and its the species. There have been no recent represent a monotypic genus. The habitat within the state, which will add discoveries of additional populations of species is currently at risk from habitat to our understanding of the species’ Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail (K.S. destruction and potentially from ecology (Resoluc¸a˜o 054 2007). This Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004) and, of the three parasitism; however, we have species continues to be listed as ‘‘Data known localities, two populations are in determined that overutilization is not Deficient’’ by the IUCN Red List the State of Amazonas (Brown 1996; currently a contributory threat factor for (Gimenez Dixon 1996). Collins and Morris 1985). Thus, of the the fluminense swallowtail. The current Habitat alteration (e.g., for dam populations, two-thirds are not threat of habitat destruction is of high construction and waterway crop protected from collection. According to magnitude because the species: (1) transport) and destruction (e.g., clearing experts, species with restricted Occupies highly specialized habitat; (2) for agriculture and cattle grazing) are distributions or localized populations, requires large areas to maintain a viable ongoing in the states of Para´ and such as the Hahnel’s Amazonian colony; and (3) is only found within two Amazonas, where this species is found swallowtail, are more vulnerable to protected areas considered to be large (Fearnside 2006; Hurwitz 2007). over-collection than those with a wider enough to support viable colonies. Because of this species’ dependence on distribution (K. Brown, Jr., in litt. 2004; However additional populations have highly localized and extremely limited R. Robbins, in litt. 2004). Therefore, we been reported, increasing previously habitat, habitat alteration could be believe that overutilization for known population numbers and deleterious to the species (New and commercial purposes, combined with distribution. The threat of habitat Collins 1991; Wells et al. 1983). insufficient regulatory mechanisms, destruction is non-imminent because However, because this species’ constitute a threat to the Hahnel’s most habitat modification is the result of ecological requirements continue to be Amazonian swallowtail. historical destruction that has resulted poorly understood, we are unable to Competition has been identified as a in fragmentation of the current determine whether this species is potential threat to this species. landscape; however, the potential for currently being threatened by habitat Researchers have posited that the continued habitat modification exists, alteration. Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail might and we will continue to monitor the Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail is suffer from host-plant competition with situation. On the basis of this collected for commercial trade (Collins any of three other butterfly species that information, the fluminense swallowtail and Morris 1985; Melisch 2000; Schu¨ tz occupy a similar range (Brown 1996; receives a priority rank of 5. 2000), as described in the 2007 Notice Collins and Morris 1985; Wells 1983) of Review (72 FR 20184). In the United (See 2007 Notice of Review (72 FR Hahnel’s Amazonian Swallowtail States, there continues to be limited 20184)). Therefore, competition may be (Parides hahneli) trade in the species over the internet, a contributory threat factor for the Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail is although it is unclear whether the Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail. endemic to Brazil, found only on specimens were recently collected. It is Hahnel’s Amazonian swallowtail does ancient sandy beaches, where the not illegal to trade this species in the not represent a monotypic genus. The habitat is overgrown with dense scrub United States, but possession of wildlife main threat to this species is vegetation (Collins and Morris 1985; must be declared upon crossing U.S. overcollection combined with New and Collins 1991; Tyler et al. borders. We are not aware of any recent inadequate regulatory mechanisms to 1994). The species is likely to be seizures or smuggling of this species mitigate this threat. Habitat destruction monophagous; information on larval into or out of the United States (Office and host-plant competition may be

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contributory threats. We are currently Chaturvedi, Curator, Bombay Natural degradation and loss caused by aware of only a small amount of trade History Society, Mumbai, India, in litt. deforestation and land conversion for in this species, so we rank the threat of 2007). agricultural purposes is a primary threat overutilization as low to moderate and Laos: The species has been reported to the species in Thailand (Hongthong non-imminent. Thus, this species (Osada et al. 1999), but no further 1998; FAO 2001). The species is receives a priority rank of 11. information is available (Southiphong afforded some protection from habitat Vonxaiya, CITES Coordinator, destruction in Vietnam, where it has Kaiser-I-Hind Swallowtail (Teinopalpus Vientiane, Lao, in litt. 2007). imperialis) been confirmed in three Nature Reserves Myanmar: The species has been that have low levels of disturbance The Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail is reported in Shan, Kayah (Karen) and (Tordoff et al. 1999; Trai and native to the Himalayan regions of Thaninanthayi (Tenasserim) states Richardson 1999). Bhutan, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, (Collins and Morris 1985; Gimenez The Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail is Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam (Baral et Dixon 1996). There is no status highly valued and has been collected for al. 2005; Food and Agriculture information. commercial trade, despite range country Organization (FAO) 2001; FRAP 1999; Nepal: The species has been reported regulations prohibiting or restricting Igarashi 2001; Masui and Uehara 2000; in Nepal (Collins and Morris 1985; such activities (Collins and Morris 1985; Osada et al. 1999; Shrestha 1997; Gimenez Dixon 1996), in the Central Schutz 2000). In China, where the TRAFFIC 2007; Tordoff et al. 1999; Trai Administrative Region at two localities: species is protected by the Animals and and Richardson 1999). This species Phulchoki Mountain Forest (Baral et al. prefers undisturbed (primary), 2005; Collins and Morris 1985) and Plants (Protection of Endangered heterogeneous broad-leaved evergreen Shivapuri National Park (Nepali Times Species) Ordinance (1989), which forests or montane deciduous forests, 2002; Shrestha 1997). There is no status restricts import, export and possession and flies at altitudes of 4,921 to 10,000 information. of the species, species purportedly ft (1,500 to 3,050 m) (Collins and Morris Thailand: The species has been derived from Sichuan were being 1985; Igarashi 2001; Tordoff et al. 1999). reported in the northern province of advertised for sale on the internet for 60 Information on this polyphagous Chang Mai (Pornpitagpan 1999). The USD. In India, the Kaiser-I-Hind species’ biology and food plant Scientific Authority of Thailand swallowtail is listed on Schedule II of preferences is provided in the 2007 recently confirmed that the species has the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of Notice of Review (72 FR 20184). It limited distribution in the high 1972, which prohibits hunting without should be noted that Collins and Morris mountains (>1,500 m (4,921 ft)) of a license (Collins and Morris 1985; (1985) reported that the adult Kaiser-I- northern Thailand and is found within Indian Wildlife Protection Act 2006). Hind swallowtails do not feed. This is three national parks. However, no However, between 1990 and 1997, a correction to the 2007 Notice of biological or status information was illegally collected specimens were Review (72 FR 20184), which stated that available (S. Choldumrongkul, Forest selling for 500 Rupees (12 USD) per the adult food plant preferences were Entomology and Microbiology Group, female and 30 Rupees (0.73 USD) per unknown. Since 1996, the Kaiser-I-Hind Department of National Parks, Bangkok, male (Bahuguna 1998). In Nepal, the swallowtail has been categorized on the Thailand, in litt. 2007). Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail is protected IUCN Red List as a species of ‘‘Least Vietnam: The species has been by the National Parks and Wildlife Concern’’; it has not been re-evaluated confirmed in three Nature Reserves Conservation Act of 1973 (His Majesty’s using the 1997 criteria (Gimenez Dixon (Tordoff et al. 1999; Trai and Government of Nepal (HMGN) 2002). 1996). The species is considered ‘‘Rare’’ Richardson 1999), and the species is However, the Nepal Forestry Ministry by Collins and Morris (1985). Despite its listed as ‘‘Vulnerable’’ in the 2007 determined in 2002 that the high widespread distribution, local Vietnam Red Data Book, due to commercial value of its ‘‘Endangered’’ populations are not abundant (Collins declining population sizes and area of species on the local and international and Morris 1985). The known localities occupancy (Dr. Le Xuan Canh, Director market may result in local extinctions of and conservation status of the species of the Institute of Ecology and Biological species such as the Kaiser-I-Hind within each range country follows: Resources, CITES Scientific Authority, (HMGN 2002). In Thailand, the Kaiser- Bhutan: The species was reported to Hanoi, Vietnam, in litt. 2007). I-Hind swallowtail and 13 other be extant in Bhutan (Gimenez Dixon Habitat destruction is the greatest invertebrates are listed under Thailand’s 1996; FRAP 1999), although details on threat to this species, which prefers Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act localities or status information were not undisturbed high altitude habitat (WARPA) of 1992 (B.E. 2535 1992), provided. (Collins and Morris 1985; Igarashi 2001; which makes it illegal to collect wildlife China: The species has been reported Tordoff et al. 1999). In China and India, (whether alive or dead) or to have the in Fuji, Guangxi, Hubei, Jiangsu, the Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail species in one’s possession (S. Sichuan, and Yunnan Provinces (Collins populations are at risk from habitat Choldumrongkul, in litt. 2007; FAO and Morris 1985; Gimenez Dixon 1996; modification and destruction due to 2001; Hongthong 1998; Pornpitagpan Igarashi and Fukuda 2000; Sung and commercial and illegal logging (Yen and 1999). In addition to prohibiting Yan 2005; United Nations Environment Yang 2001; Maheshwari 2003). In Nepal, possession, WARPA prohibits hunting, Programme-World Conservation the species is at risk from habitat breeding, and trading; import and Monitoring Center (UNEP–WCMC) disturbance and destruction resulting export are only allowed for conservation 1999). The species is classified by the from mining, fuel wood collection, purposes (Jeerawat Jaisielthum, CITES 2005 China Species Red List as agriculture, and grazing animals (Baral Management Authority, Bangkok, ‘‘Vulnerable’’ (China Red List 2006). et al. 2005; Collins and Morris 1985; Thailand, in litt. 2007). According to the India: Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Shrestha 1997). Nepal’s Forest Ministry Thai Scientific Authority, there are no Sikkim, and West Bengal (Bahuguna considered habitat destruction to be a captive breeding programs for this 1998; Collins and Morris 1985; Gimenez critical threat to all biodiversity, species; however, the species is offered Dixon 1996; Ministry of Environment including the Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail, for sale by the Lepidoptera Breeders and Forests 2005). There is no recent in the development of their biodiversity Association (2008), being marketed as status information on this species (N. strategy (HMGN 2002). Habitat derived from a captive breeding

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program in Thailand. In Vietnam, proposal of listing rules for the 20 St. Lucia forest thrush (Cichlherminia Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtails are reported species described above. In addition, we herminieri sanctaeluciae). We, to be among the most valuable of all summarize the expeditious progress we therefore, have a court-ordered butterflies (World Bank 2005). The are making, as required by section responsibility to publish proposed species was recently listed on Schedule 4(b)(3)(B)(iii)(II) of the Act, to add listing rules for these five species by IIB of Decree No. 32 (2006) on qualified species to the lists of December 31, 2008. ‘‘Management of endangered, precious endangered or threatened species and to The government of Mexico, through and rare forest plants and animals.’’ A remove from these lists species for the National Commission for the Schedule IIB-listing restricts the which protections of the Act are no Understanding and Use of Biodiversity exploitation or commercial use of longer necessary. (CONABIO), has petitioned us to delist species with small populations or Section 4(b) of the Act states that the the Morelet’s crocodile (Crocodylus considered by the country to be in Service may make warranted-but- moreletii), a species that is under its danger of extinction (L.X. Canh, in litt. precluded findings only if it can jurisdiction and is listed under the Act. 2007). In a recent survey conducted by demonstrate that (1) An immediate The petition was received by the Service TRAFFIC Southeast Asia (2007), of 2000 proposed rule is precluded by other on May 26, 2005. A 90-day finding was residents in Hanoi, Vietnam, the Kaiser- pending proposals and that (2) published on June 28, 2006 (71 FR I-Hind swallowtail was among 37 expeditious progress is being made on 36743), indicating that the petitioned Schedule IIB-species that were actively other listing actions. Preclusion is a action may be warranted. The status being collected, and the majority of the function of the listing priority of a review is currently in progress, and we survey respondents were unaware of species in relation to the resources that must complete work on the 12-month legislation prohibiting collection of are available and competing demands finding on this petition, consistent with Schedule IIB-species. Thus, for those resources. Thus, in any given our responsibilities under section overutilization for illegal domestic and fiscal year (FY), multiple factors dictate 4(b)(3) of the Act. possibly international trade via the whether it will be possible to undertake The government of Argentina has internet is a threat to this species, and work on a proposed listing regulation or petitioned us to reclassify the broad- within-country protections are whether promulgation of such a snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) in inadequate to protect the species from proposal is warranted but precluded by Argentina from endangered to illegal collection throughout its range. higher priority listing actions. threatened under the Act. The petition The Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail has The listing of foreign species under was dated November 5, 2007. A 90-day been listed in CITES Appendix II since the Act is carried out by a different finding was published on June 16, 2008 1987 (UNEP–WCMC 2008a). Between Service program than the domestic (73 FR 33968), indicating that the 1991 and 2005, 160 Kaiser-I-Hind Endangered Species Program. The petitioned action may be warranted. The swallowtail specimens were traded Division of Scientific Authority (DSA), status review is currently in progress, internationally under CITES permits within the Service’s International and we must complete work on the 12- (UNEP WCMC 2006). The most recent Affairs program, is solely responsible for month finding on this petition, CITES trade data are available for the the development of all listing proposals consistent with our responsibilities year 2006. The only recorded for foreign species and promulgation of under section 4(b)(3) of the Act. international trade in this year was one final rules, whether internally driven or We are also in the process of making shipment of two specimens, imported as as the result of a petition. a final determination on whether to personal effects into the United States In the upcoming year, publication of delist the Mexican bobcat (Lynx rufus from Vietnam (UNEP WCMC 2008b). proposed rules for the 20 species escuinapae). The United States, with Reports that the Kaiser-I-Hind described above is precluded by the support from Mexico and other swallowtail is being captive-bred in need to complete pending listing actions countries, proposed to transfer the Taiwan (Yen and Yang 2001) remain as described below. Of the actions listed Mexican bobcat from CITES Appendix I unconfirmed. Since 1993, there have below, preparation of a final listing rule to Appendix II, based on the Mexican been no reported seizures or smuggling for the six species of Procellariids is bobcat’s widespread and stable status in of this species into or out of the United DSA’s highest priority. Mexico and the questionable taxonomy States (Office of Law Enforcement, U.S. DSA will be working on a final listing of the subspecies. The U.S. proposal Fish and Wildlife Service, Arlington, determination for six species of foreign was accepted and the change went into Virginia, in litt. 2008). Therefore, on the Procellariids that we proposed for effect on November 6, 1992. On July 8, basis of global trade data, we do not listing on December 17, 2007 (72 FR 1996, we received a petition from the consider legal international trade to be 71298). Reaching a final decision on this National Trappers Association, Inc. to a contributory threat factor to this proposed rule is consistent with the delist the Mexican bobcat. Our 12- species. statutory deadlines under sections month finding and proposed rule were The Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail does 4(b)(5) and 4(b)(6) of the Act and takes published on May 19, 2005 (70 FR not represent a monotypic genus. The precedence over proposed listings that 28895). Under section 4(b)(6) of the Act, current threats of habitat destruction are warranted but precluded by higher we have a statutory responsibility to and collection are moderate to low in priorities. make a final determination. magnitude due to the species’ wide On January 23, 2008, the United We are also making a final distribution, but imminent due to States District Court ordered the Service determination on whether to delist the ongoing habitat destruction, high market to propose listing rules for five foreign scarlet-chested parakeet (Neophema value for specimens, and inadequate bird species, actions which we splendida) and the turquoise parakeet domestic protections for the species or previously considered to be warranted (Neophema pulchella). On September its habitat. Therefore, it receives a but precluded. These species are: the 22, 2000, we announced a review of all priority rank of 8. Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), endangered and threatened foreign Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus species in the Order Psittaciformes as Preclusion and Expeditious Progress andinus), medium tree-finch part of a 5-year review under section Below we describe the actions that (Camarhynchus pauper), black-breasted 4(c)(2) of the Act (65 FR 57363). One continue to preclude the immediate puffleg (Eriocnemis nigrivestis), and the commenter suggested we consider these

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two species for delisting. The individual Notice of Review, April 23, 2007, to the time of this publication, including: (1) provided substantial scientific current date includes preparing and Final listing determination for six information, including information and publishing the following: (1) Final rule species of foreign Procellariids; (2) correspondence with the government of listing the black stilt (Himantopus proposed listing rules for five foreign Australia (the range country of these novaezelandiae), caerulean paradise- bird species that were court-ordered for species) regarding the status of both flycatcher (Eutrichomyias rowleyi), giant publication; (3) proposed listing rules species. Under section 4(b)(6) of the Act, ibis (Pseudibis gigantea), Gurney’s pitta for 25 additional foreign bird species we have a statutory responsibility to (Pitta gurneyi), long-legged thicketbird that were the subjects of listing petitions complete this rulemaking process. (Trichocichla rufa), and Socorro determined to be warranted in this On January 4, 2005, we received a mockingbird (Mimus graysoni) as Notice of Review; (4) 90-day finding on petition from 14 county officials endangered under the Act, published a petition to list the Northern snakehead representing 13 western States to list the January 16, 2008 (73 FR 3146); (2) fish as threatened or endangered under Northern snakehead fish (Channa argus) Proposed rule to list the Chatham petrel the Act; and (5) 90-day finding on a as threatened or endangered under the (Pterodroma axillaris), Fiji petrel petition to list 14 species of foreign Act, and further, to designate the (Pterodroma macgillivrayi), and the parrots as endangered or threatened Chesapeake Bay region as critical magenta petrel (Pterodroma magentae) under the Act. habitat. On March 5, 2005, we received as endangered, and the Cook’s petrel We have endeavored to make our a petition from a private individual to (Pterodroma cookii), Galapagos petrel listing actions as efficient and timely as delist the tiger (Panthera tigris). On (Pterodroma phaeopygia), and the possible, given the requirements of the December 3, 2007, we received a Heinroth’s shearwater (Puffinus relevant law and regulations and the petition from Canada’s wood bison heinrothi) as threatened under the Act, constraints relating to workload and recovery team to reclassify the wood published December 17, 2007 (72 FR personnel. We are continually bison (Bison bison athabascae) under 71298); (3) Notice of 90-day petition considering ways to streamline the Act. On January 31, 2008, we finding and initiation of status review of processes or achieve economies of scale, received a petition from the the broad-snouted caiman to determine such as by batching related actions Environmental Law Clinic at the if reclassification of the population in together. Despite higher listing priorities University of Denver on behalf of Argentina, as petitioned, is warranted that preclude us from issuing listing Friends of Animals to list 14 species of under the Act, published June 16, 2008 proposals for the 20 species mentioned foreign parrots as endangered or (73 FR 33968); and (4) Notice of 90-day in this Notice of Review, the actions threatened under the Act. The finding on a petition submitted by the described above collectively constitute petitioned species include: Blue- Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) to expeditious progress. throated macaw (Ara glaucogularis), list 12 species of penguin as threatened Monitoring blue-headed macaw (Propyrrhura or endangered under the Act, published couloni), crimson shining parrot Section 4(b)(3)(C)(iii) of the Act July 11, 2007 (72 FR 37695). The 12 requires us to ‘‘implement a system to (Prosopeia splendens), great green penguin species in the CBD petition macaw (Ara ambiguous), grey-cheecked monitor effectively the status of all include: Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes species’’ for which we have made a parakeet (Brotogeris pyrrhoptera), forsteri), southern rockhopper penguin hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus warranted-but-precluded 12-month (Eudyptes chrysocome), northern finding, and to ‘‘make prompt use of the hyacinthinus), military macaw (Ara rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes militaris), Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua [emergency listing] authority [under moseleyi), fiordland crested penguin haematuropygia), red-crowned parrot section 4(b)(7)] to prevent a significant (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), snares (Amazona viridigenalis), scarlet macaw risk to the well being of any such crested penguin (Eudyptes robustus), (Ara macao), thick-billed parrot species.’’ For foreign species, the erect-crested penguin (Eudyptes (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), white Service’s ability to gather information to sclateri), macaroni penguin (Eudyptes cockatoo (Cacatua alba), yellow-billed monitor species is limited. The Service chrysolophus), royal penguin (Eudyptes parrot (Amazona collaria), and yellow- welcomes all information relevant to the schlegeli), white-flippered penguin crested cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea). status of these species, because we have (Eudyptula albosignata), yellow-eyed We have a statutory responsibility under no ability to gather data in foreign penguin (Megadyptes antipodes), section 4(b)(3) of the Act to process countries directly and cannot compel these petitions. African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), another country to provide information. At the current time, we are also and Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus Thus, this ANOR plays a critical role in preparing proposed listing rules for 25 humboldti). In our 90-day finding on our monitoring efforts for foreign additional species, petitioned actions this petition, we found that listing 10 of species. With each ANOR, we request that have been determined to be the 12 penguin species may be information on the status of the species warranted in this Notice of Review. warranted, and we initiated a status included in the notice. Information and Finally, during the upcoming year, we review of these 10 species. We found comments on the annual findings can be will be preparing the 2009 Notice of that the petition did not provide submitted at any time. We review all Review, which will set priorities for the substantial scientific or commercial new information received through this next set of listing actions. Using our best information indicating that listing of process as well as any other new efforts to meet our statutory either the snares crested penguin or information we obtain using a variety of responsibilities under the Act is a high royal penguin may be warranted. The methods. We collect information priority. 12-month petition finding addressing directly from range countries by Despite the priorities which preclude the other 10 species listed above is correspondence, from the peer-reviewed publishing proposed listing rules, we pending Departmental review. scientific literature, unpublished are making expeditious progress in Our expeditious progress also literature, scientific meeting adding to and removing species from includes work on pending listing proceedings, and CITES documents the Federal lists of threatened and actions described above in our (including species proposals and reports endangered species. Our expeditious ‘‘precluded finding,’’ but for which from scientific committees). We also progress since publication of the 2007 decisions had not been completed at the obtain information through the permit

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application processes under CITES, the this notice as soon as possible, or References Cited Act, and the Wild Bird Conservation whenever it becomes available. We Act. We also consult with staff members especially seek information: (1) A list of the references used to of the Service’s Division of International Indicating that we should remove a develop this notice is available upon Conservation and the IUCN species taxon from warranted status; (2) request (see ADDRESSES section). specialist groups, and we attend documenting threats to any of the Authors scientific meetings to obtain current included taxa; (3) describing the status information for relevant species. immediacy or magnitude of threats This Notice of Review was authored As previously stated, if we identify any facing these taxa; (4) pointing out by the staff of the Division of Scientific species for which emergency listing is taxonomic or nomenclatural changes for Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife appropriate, we will make prompt use any of the taxa; (5) suggesting Service (see ADDRESSES section). of the emergency listing authority under appropriate common names; or (6) section 4(b)(7) of the Act. Authority noting any mistakes, such as errors in Request for Information the indicated historic ranges. This Notice of Review is published We request the submission of any under the authority of the Endangered further information on the species in Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.).

TABLE 1.—CANDIDATE REVIEW [C = listing warranted by precluded; P = to be proposed to be listed]

Status Birds Scientific name Family Common name Historic range Category Priority

P ...... N/A Podiceps taczanowskii ...... Podicipedidae ...... Junin flightless grebe ..... Peru. P ...... N/A Leptoptilos dubius ...... Ciconiidae ...... greater adjutant stork ..... South Asia. P ...... N/A Phoenicopterus andinus ...... Phoenicopteridae ...... Andean flamingo ...... Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru. P ...... N/A Mergus octosetaceus ...... Anatidae ...... Brazilian merganser ...... Brazil. P ...... N/A Penelope perspicax ...... Craciidae ...... Cauca guan ...... Colombia. C ...... 8 Pauxi unicornis ...... Craciidae ...... southern helmeted Bolivia, Peru. curassow. P ...... N/A Crax alberti ...... Craciidae ...... blue-billed curassow ...... Colombia. P ...... N/A Tetrao urogallus cantabricus Tetraonidae ...... Cantabrian capercaillie .. Spain. P ...... N/A Odontophorus strophium ...... Odontophoridae ...... gorgeted wood-quail ...... Colombia. P ...... N/A Laterallus tuerosi ...... Rallidae ...... Junin rail ...... Peru. C ...... 8 Rallus semiplumbeus ...... Rallidae ...... Bogota rail ...... Colombia. C ...... 8 Porphyrio hochstetteri ...... Rallidae ...... Takahe ...... New Zealand. C ...... 8 Haematopus chathamensis ... Haematopodidae ...... Chatham oystercatcher .. Chatham Islands, New Zealand. P ...... N/A Rhinoptilus bitorquatus ...... Glareolidae ...... Jerdon’s courser ...... India. P ...... N/A Numenius tenuirostris ...... Scolopacidae ...... slender-billed curlew ...... Africa, Algeria, Bulgaria, southern Europe, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Kazakhstan, Mo- rocco, Romania, Rus- sia, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, and Yugo- slavia. P ...... N/A Ducula galeata ...... Columbidae ...... Marquesan imperial-pi- Marquesas Islands, geon. French Polynesia. P ...... N/A Cacatua moluccensis ...... Cacatuidae ...... salmon-crested cockatoo South Moluccas, Indo- nesia. C ...... 8 Cyanoramphus malherbi ...... Psittacidae ...... orange-fronted parakeet New Zealand. C ...... 8 Eunymphicus uvaeensis ...... Psittacidae ...... Uvea parakeet ...... Uvea, New Caledonia. C ...... 8 Ara glaucogularis ...... Psittacidae ...... blue-throated macaw ..... Bolivia. P ...... N/A Neomorphus geoffroyi dulcis Cuculidae ...... southeastern rufous- Brazil. vented ground cuckoo. P ...... N/A Phaethornis malaris Trochilidae ...... Margaretta’s hermit ...... Brazil. margarettae. P ...... N/A Eriocnemis nigrivestis ...... Trochilidae ...... black-breasted puffleg ... Ecuador. P ...... N/A Eulidia yarrellii ...... Trochilidae ...... Chilean woodstar ...... Chile, Peru. P ...... N/A Acestrura berlepschi ...... Trochilidae ...... Esmeraldas woodstar .... Equador. C ...... 8 Dryocopus galeatus ...... Picidae ...... helmeted woodpecker .... Argentina, Brazil, Para- guay. C ...... 8 Dendrocopus noguchii ...... Picidae ...... Okinawa woodpecker .... Okinawa Island, Japan. C ...... 11 Aulacorhynchus huallagae ..... Ramphastidae ...... yellow-browed toucanet Peru. P ...... N/A Cinclodes aricomae ...... Furnariidae ...... royal cinclodes ...... Bolivia, Peru. P ...... N/A Leptasthenura xenothorax ..... Furnariidae ...... white-browed tit-spinetail Peru. P ...... N/A Formicivora erythronotos ...... Thamnophilidae ...... black-hooded antwren ... Brazil. P ...... N/A Pyriglena atra ...... Thamnophilidae ...... fringe-backed fire-eye .... Brazil. P ...... N/A Grallaria milleri ...... Formicariidae ...... brown-banded antpitta ... Colombia.

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TABLE 1.—CANDIDATE REVIEW—Continued [C = listing warranted by precluded; P = to be proposed to be listed]

Status Birds Scientific name Family Common name Historic range Category Priority

C ...... 8 Scytalopus novacapitalis ...... Conopophagidae ...... Brasilia tapaculo ...... Brazil. P ...... N/A Hemitriccus kaempferi ...... Tyrannidae ...... Kaempfer’s tody-tyrant ... Brazil. P ...... N/A Anairetes alpinus ...... Tyrannidae ...... ash-breasted tit-tyrant .... Bolivia, Peru. P ...... N/A Phytotoma raimondii ...... Phytotomidae ...... Peruvian plantcutter ...... Peru. P ...... N/A Cichlherminia iherminieri Turdidae ...... St. Lucia forest thrush ... St. Lucia Island, West sanctaeluciae. Indies. P ...... N/A Acrocephalus caffer aquilonis Sylviidae ...... Eiao Polynesian warbler Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. C ...... 12 Bowdleria punctata wilsoni .... Sylviidae ...... Codfish Island fernbird ... Codfish Island, New Zealand. C ...... 8 Zosterops luteirostris ...... Zosteropidae ...... Ghizo white-eye ...... Solomon Islands. P ...... N/A Camarhynchus pauper ...... Thraupidae ...... medium tree-finch ...... Floreana Island, Gala- pagos Islands, Ecua- dor. P ...... N/A Nemosia rourei ...... Thraupidae ...... cherry-throated tanager Brazil. C ...... 8 Tangara peruviana ...... Thraupidae ...... black-backed tanager .... Brazil. C ...... 12 Strepera graculina crissalis .... Cracticidae ...... Lord Howe pied Lord Howe Islands, New currawong. South Wales. Status Invertebrates Scientific name Synonyms Common name Historic range Category Priority

C ...... 12 Eurytides lysithous Graphium lysithous Harris’ mimic swallowtail Brazil, Paraguay. harrisianus. harrisianus; Mimoides lysithous harrisianus. C ...... 8 Eurytides marcellinus ...... Graphium marcellinus; Jamaican kite swallowtail Jamaica. Neographium marcellinus; Protographium marcellinus (nom. inv.); Protesilaus marcellinus. C ...... 5 Parides ascanius ...... n/a ...... Fluminense swallowtail .. Brazil. C ...... 11 Parides hahneli ...... n/a ...... Hahnel’s Amazonian Brazil. swallowtail. C ...... 8 Teinopalpus imperialis ...... n/a ...... Kaiser-I-Hind swallowtail Bhutan, China, India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Viet- nam.

Dated: July 18, 2008. Kenneth Stansell, Deputy Director, Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. E8–17215 Filed 7–28–08; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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