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GS SCRIPTIE Compleet Italy and the Italians The identity of Italy in the letters between the Sforza, Gonzaga and Estensi during the first stage of the Italian Wars 1494-95 Wouter Kreuze (s1065912) Research master thesis Specialisation: Europe 1000-1800 Thesis supervisor: Dr. R.P. Fagel Second reader: Prof. Dr. P.C.M. Hoppenbrouwers Leiden University, January 2018 Research master thesis Leiden University Italy and the Italians The identity of Italy in the letters between the Sforza, Gonzaga and Estensi during the first stage of the Italian Wars 1494-95 W.P. Kreuze Table of contents Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1 The identity of Italy before and after 1494 ..................................................... 2 Historiographical controversies ....................................................................... 7 1. Epistolary culture and practice .................................................................... 16 2. States & people: the personal relations that made up Italy ........................ 36 Family Relations ............................................................................................ 36 The military and personal aspects of the condotte ....................................... 50 Servants, soldiers, officials and others; the court environment ................... 57 Medals; national interest in personal objects ............................................... 61 3. “Nor have I forgotten to be Italian.” The importance of Italy in the political argument............................................................................................................ 70 Before the invasion; preparation and speculation ........................................ 72 Charles’ entry into Italy and the road toward the conquest of Naples ........ 81 The conclusion of the Holy League ................................................................ 89 The battle of Fornovo and the liberty of Italy ............................................... 95 The conflict moves northwards .................................................................... 102 Ludovico changing sides once again ............................................................ 111 4. A common language for the Italians ........................................................... 115 The court language; a superregional idiom................................................. 116 Shared concepts in the Italian language ..................................................... 133 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 147 Used archival material .................................................................................... 154 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 155 Introduction Mentre che io canto, o Dio redemptore, vedo la Italia tutta a fiama e a foco per questi Galli, che con gran valore vengon per disertar non sciò che loco But while I sing, o my redeemer, I see all Italy on fire, because these French – so valiant! – come to lay waste who knows what land 1 Matteo Maria Boiardo, Orlando Innamorato , Libro III, Canto IX, 1-4. These verses are from the final stanza of the Orlando Innamorato. Boiardo would never finish this masterpiece of Italian courtly literature as he died in December 1494. Earlier that year, the French had invaded the Italian peninsula and quickly found their way down south, spreading a sense of panic throughout Italy, inspiring Boiardo to cut his story short and write these alarming verses instead. These sentiments of national awareness, feelings that transcended the borders of the individual states, were shared among many Italians in the peninsula; at the same time there were also those supporting the invasion. In the latter category fell for example the Duke of Ferrara, at whose court Boiardo lived and to whom the Innamorato was dedicated. This did not mean that Ercole could not express his concerns about the state of Italy. There cannot be made a clear distinction between supporters and adversaries among the inhabitants of the peninsula. Not only did they frequently change positions, these could also be partially overlapping. This makes one wonder what this ‘Italia’ was that Boiardo and so many others spoke of. Furthermore, it raises questions about the extent where to the peninsula perceived itself as 1 Translation by: C.S. Ross. M.M. Boiardo, Orlando Innamorato. Orlando in Love (West Lafayette 2004). 1 united in some kind of conceptual entity and whether they shared a cultural horizon. The identity of Italy before and after 1494 The existence of Italian national awareness becomes especially clear in moments of crisis, such as the period from 1494 till 1559, wherein the Italian Wars took place. The man who set into motion a series of events leading to the end of I talian self-governance, was the young monarch Charles VIII of France. From his forefathers, Charles had inherited the claims to the throne of Naples that he was determined to materialise. The developments leading to the Italian Wars have been analysed frequently and most extensively by David Abulafia. He describes how the struggle for the kingdom of Naples fought by the Anjou dynasty from the thirteenth century onwards, was eventually taken over by the French crown after these Angevins had died out. In the meantime, he also explains how the Aragonese kings spread their influence over the Mediterranean, which led to the establishment of a cadet branch on the Neapolitan throne, the very same against whom the attack of Charles VIII would be launched. 2 As one can see, the French enterprise was very far from the first of its kind. Incursions by Anjou, Aragonese and also Imperial armies had preceded. The Italian Wars, however, changed the political situation more drastically than previous conflicts had done. The Angevins had included regions outside Italy in their realm such as the Provence, but they would still frequently reside in the peninsula. The Aragonese offspring that ruled over Naples had Italianised over time, only the island of Sicily was governed directly from Spain. 3 Also the foreign dynasty ruling over Monferrato, the Palaeologus, sprouting from the main branch of Byzantine emperors, had settled in Italy. 2 D. Abulafia, The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms (London 1997); Idem, ‘Introduction: From Ferrante I to Charles VIII’ in: idem ed., The French descent into Renaissance Italy 1494-95 (Aldershot 1995) 1-25; G. Peyronnet, ‘The distant origins of the Italian wars: political relations between France and Italy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries’ in: D. Abulafia ed., The French descent into Renaissance Italy 1494-95 (Aldershot 1995) 29-53. 3 The Island of Sicily, which in the past had formed the Kingdom of Sicily together which by that time had become the Kingdom of Naples, was not even necessarily considered Italian. 2 Beginning with the Italian Wars, foreign powers conquered states on Italian mainland and administered them from their native grounds. Following Charles’ invasion, it was initially France to dominate in this fashion. During later stages of the Italian Wars, Spain would take over the leading position. The question of Spanish hegemony in Italy has been studied and discussed thoroughly.4 In short, even though the invasion of 1494 has become a commonplace in history, it has been relatively understudied compared to the preceding and following years. This timeframe is particularly interesting however, as, from hindsight, these have been years of transition, especially for Italian identity. 5 Therefore, the initial phase of the Italian Wars, beginning with the invasion of 1494 and ending one year later with the return of French armies back north, will be the timeframe of this thesis. Even though during these later years of the fifteenth century Italian identity gained more significance, it is not the time of its origin. Locating this is not the aim of this thesis, but it might prove worthwhile to look shortly into Italian identity in earlier periods. The idea of Italy in its most primeval form dates from Roman antiquity. When the idea of the Empire made a recurrence with the crowning of Charlemagne, the Kingdom of Italy was simultaneously carved out of the northern half of the peninsula. This created a bond between northern Italy and the Empire for centuries to come. Duchies and Margraves like those of Milan, Modena, Reggio and Mantua were imperial fiefs. The claims of the Hohenstaufen emperors on the northern half of Italy led to clashes with the allied Italian communes of the Lombard Leagues. Whereas this is also an example of a time wherein Italian self-governance was threatened, historians have not found a strong Italian consciousness in them. They have perceived a sense of being Lombard, a geographical identity stretching far 4 M.J. Levin, Agents of Empire (Ithaca 2005); T.J. Dandelet, Spanish Rome (Harrisongburg 2001); B. Croce, La Spagna nella vita italiana durante la rinascenza (Bari 1913); S. D’Amico, Spanish Milan: a city within the empire, 1535-1706 (New York 2012). 5 Which has also been noted by A. Aubert, La crisi degli antichi stati Italiani (Florence 2003) 61. 3 wider than modern-day Lombardy. 6 During the early years of the Renaissance, however, Italian nationalism was very much alive. When Petrarch returned in old age, he greeted his native grounds, exclaiming: “I greet you, land beloved by God: most holy land,
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