Shu – fen Pong

To Encounter Jesus in our own Culture - An Introduction to the Principal Elements and the Methdologies of Asian Feminist

Series A: General & Theoretical Papers ISSN 1435-6473 Essen: LAUD 1999 (2nd ed. with divergent page numbering 2007) Paper No. 506

Universität Duisburg-Essen

Shu – fen Pong

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belguim)

To Encounter Jesus in our own Culture - An Introduction to the Principal Elements and the Methdologies of Asian

Copyright by the author Reproduced by LAUD 1999 (2nd ed. with divergent page numbering 2007) Linguistic Agency Series A University of Duisburg-Essen General and Theoretical FB Geisteswissenschaften Paper No. 506 Universitätsstr. 12 D- 45117 Essen

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To Encounter Jesus m Our Own Culture - An Introduction to the Principal Elements and the Methodologies of Asian Feminist Theology1

Abstract This paper is an introduction of the principal elements and methodologies of Asian feminist theology. It is based on a presupposition that any theology must be contextual or culture oriented. There are at least three elements which together constitute Asian feminist theology) First, "Asia," as a non-Biblical world, is not simply a geographical term but a politics concept, aiming at countering the value of Western culture. It also implies that Asia traditions, cultures, and histories etc. are basic resources of Asian feminist theology) Second, "Asian women's experience and perspective," as the cornerstone of Asian feminist theology, encourages us, Asian women, to tell our own stories and challenges the legitimacy of patriarchal structures in our society. It also intends to balance the way of man's thinking and voices of male theologians. Third, "to encounter Jesus (Yeshua)," as the origin c Christianity, links up Asian feminist theology and traditional . It retains Asia feminist theology as one . And the issue of how we can encounter Jesus in our own culture becomes the main reflection and concern in this theology. With regard to its methodologies, the first generation of Asian feminist theologians felt compelled to prove their theological ability to white male theologians, white feminist theologians, and finally Asian male theologians, in order to justify the validity of their theology. Till this present generation their task has been turned to be the construction of their own theology. They use methodologies such as cross-cultural and multi-fait hermeneutics, reconstruction of Asian Christian women's history, looking for images in folk religions, and the theory of spirituality etc. Creative resources for doing theology include the nature, arts, historical artifacts, songs, dances, and folk stories etc. Asian feminist theology, however, cannot avoid some internal difficulties and contradictions. As a kind of rational thinking on faith and a Christian theology, it inevitably shares some of males' and the West's academic discourses, theories and methodologies This is a paradox as it must construct its own approaches by utilizing the oppressor' s instruments to deconstruct the oppressor's tradition. Moreover, most of its theologians are educated in West. They are, thus, probably more familiar with Western mind than wit Asia's. The very diverse Asian languages, religions and cultures also cause some problem; For instance,

1 I would like to give special thanks here to Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion & Culture in Hong Kong (CSCCRC), Hong Kong Women Christian Council, Mr. Pong Kwan-Wah, and Dr. Wong Wai Ching for providing me some source materials, especially to CSCCRC for offering me a place to do this research, and finally to Polly Ho for proofreading this essay.

1 Asian theologians can only communicate with each other in English. Other issues like who define what Asian is, or who are Asians? Is it by Asian people themselves or still by Westerners? How can Asian feminist theologians face these though issues? This will challenge this present generation as they are building their own theology.

Introduction Theology is always born in a certain context. No theologians construct their theology without relating to their own culture, tradition, and political, social or economic etc. circumstances. For doing theology should not be like "nailing a stick into empty space,"2 that is useless, groundless, insignificant and rather ridiculous. Asian feminist theology, as a contextual theology, is also rooted in the particular context of Asian Christian women. This paper aims to introduce and explicate what this context is and how Asian feminist theologians make their theology possible under this context. I will divide this paper into two parts: First, I will try to elucidate three principal elements of Asian feminist theology; and secondly, I will introduce some of its methodologies. Basically, Asian feminist theology contains three principal elements: First, "Asia" (or "Asian"). This is the context in which Asian feminist theology was born. But it should be regarded as a political concept rather than simply a geographical term, since it is aimed to counter the value of Western culture. Second, "Asian women's experience and perspective." This stands for Asian women's struggle to be the subject in theology, in church history and in Christian life on the one hand, and the attempt to balance or challenge the patriarchal thinking and culture on the other. Third, "to encounter Jesus (Yeshua)." Due to the fact that Asian feminist theologians employ lots of non-Christian materials from their own culture in doing theology, and even question the authority of the Bible and traditional theologies, how can they still claim their theology a Christian theology? Leonard Swidler's essay: "What Christianity can Offer AsiaóEspecially China in the Third Millennium"3 inspires me the concept of Yeshua, the origin of Christianity. This can be viewed as a basic criterion of a theology and helps to evaluate Christian qualities of Asian feminist theology. In other words, Asian feminist theologians must, at least, be able to guide people to meet Yeshua in their theology. And this element will also assist to distinguish Asian feminist theology from

2 This is originally said by a Chinese Zen Master, I-Hsuan, in a dialogue with a monk. Please see Wing-tsit Chan ed., A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 445. 3 See Leonard Swidler's "What Christianity can Offer Asian Especially China in the Third Millennium" in Ching Feng, 37(1994)111-146. He says in pages 112 to 113 that "the source, the origin, of Christianity despite its namen is not 'the Christ,' not the church, not the New Testament, but Jesus the Jew, his thought, teaching and living example, that is, what Jesus 'thought, taught and wrought.' Millions of Christians have for centuries focussed their main attention on something other than the source of Christianity... And it is also precisely that source, Yeshua, that has much to offer Asia in the Third Millennium." This offers a new possibility for non-Western theologians to construct their own theologies by returning to the origin of Christianity. They might encounter Jesus face to face as they have been returning to it, and finally bring the new experience into their own culture and share it with their people.

2 other theologies of Asian religions. Having introduced these three elements, I will present the major methodologies applied by Asian feminist theologians. Some of these methodologies are inevitably borrowed from Western theologies, especially the Western feminist theology, and liberation theology in the Third World. I am convinced that it is more appropriate to figure out Asian feminist theology by placing it back into the development history of theology, because it is not subsisting alone but living inter-dependently with other theologies. As a new theology, it is the outcome of pluralism, and was born in order to respond to the change and the need of our age. It is essentially a and aims to counterbalance voices of other theologies, particularly the mainstream theology. It, however, does not mean that it can be completely developed by itself without relating to other theologies. On the contrary, in order to keep talking about , it must inherit or share some ways and discourses of other theologies. I agree with some scholars' point of view that an instrument itself is not originally political or oppressive, but the user or oppressor uses it politically or oppressively.4 Therefore, what kind of instrument is offered perhaps is not the first concern of Asian feminist theologians. Rather, it is the issue of how an instrument can help their sisters to reveal, explore and grow the strength in faith is more substantial. According to her experience, Chung Hyun Kyung, a Korean feminist theologian, says, My teachers' generation felt compelled to prove their theological ability to (in descending order) white male theologians, white feminist theologians, and finally Korean male theologians, in order to justify the validity of Korean women's theology. But in my generation we start our theology from owning our own feelings and experiences.5 Asian feminist theology, from the stage of asking for being accepted, has distinctly advanced to the level of developing its own style. In this process, the major methodologies applied include the cross-cultural and multi-faith hermeneutics, reconstruction of Asian Christian women's history, looking for Goddess images in folk religions, and the theory of spirituality etc. Creative resources consist of the nature, arts, historical artifacts, songs, dances, and folk stories and so on.6

4 For instance, Khiok-khng Yeo's Between the Female and the Male: Feminist Theology and Hermeneutics (Chinese) (Hong Kong: Alliance Bible Seminary, 1995), p. 45. 5 Chung Hyun Kyung, "'Han-pui-ri': Doing Theology from Korean Women's Perspective" in R. S. Sugirtharajah ed., Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 1994), p. 53. 6 Please refer to Feliciano V. Carino ed., The Proceedings of The Congress of Asian Theologians (CATS), Part II, 25 May- 1 June 1997, Suwon, Korea (Hong Kong: The Continuation Committee of the CATS, 1998), pp. 215-216. (Hereafter cited as Proceedings of CATS, Part II.)

3 I. The Three Principal Elements of Asian Feminist Theology

I.1. Asian Context Asian Christian women' awareness of the need to construct their own theology in Asian context is influenced by feminist theology, as a liberation theology, in the Third World. Here the concept of Third World should be understood in a broader sense. It is no longer primarily pointed to geographical locations like countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Instead, it is "applied to women minorities who are usually, but not always, women of color," and also those "who live on the margin in societies of great wealth such as, for example, in the USA, South Africa, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, or Australia."7 Some people may claim that they do not like the term Third World, since we have only one world, the earth. But it is also true to say that we actually live in different worlds,8 because we have different cultures, different social circumstances and different life stories etc. Even the concrete situations where Third World women are living in can also be rather diversely. But they endure the similar experience of being oppressed and marginalized, so, at the same time, they can share the same effort and struggle for the full humanity within the big context. Therefore, the term Third World remains significant for them while it is grasped as a political expression compared to the different life experiences of First World women. As the Third World, in contrast to the First World, the indeterminate "Asia" also stands politically opposed to the obscure "West." Although "Asia" is always problematic, like the term Third World, because it contains many diverse languages, cultures, religions and societies. Some scholars then question its validity of being "one context," and would rather use "indigenous," or "Korean," "Chinese" and "Indian" etc. instead of "Asian." It symbolizes, however, the process of Asian people's common effort from the marginalized, to self-awareness, and finally to the self-reconstruction as a subject in history. Its implication is more inclusive and cannot be replaced by the terms like "indigenous." It should be regarded as a bigger category that cannot only include particular theologies in Asia like "Korean" or "Chinese" theology etc., but also form the Asian solidarity, which encourages Asian people to share their experiences with each other and contribute together to their own future. Asian people indeed partake some Asian unique characteristics and common experiences. With regards to the aspect of culture and tradition, Asian people use to live with various religions and plural cultures, because Asia is the land of several main cultures and origins of world religions. Asian people's spirituality is primarily rooted in Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Muslim and Hinduism etc. Christianity, having entered into Asia for centuries though, is still viewed as a foreign and a peripheral religion, and

7 Ursula King ed., Feminist Theology from the Third World (New York: Orbis Books, 1994), p. 3. 8 Ibid, p. 24.

4 Christians are still the minority in most of Asian societies.9 Asian people respect different classics and scriptures of different cultures and religions. Western societies, which take Christianity as the center of their culture, lack this experience. That their claim of the only truth and the supreme authority of the Bible are like the hegemony of imperialism would threaten and challenge Asian people's own traditions and cultures.10 But according to Asian feminists' point of view, most of Asian traditions and cultures are indubitably the creation of the patriarchal system. As Stanley Samartha, an Indian theologian, writes, "Asian societies too are patriarchal, and the scriptures of Asian religions also legitimise male domination of women in the hierarchical power structures of society."11 Asian feminist theologians, therefore, must not simply value their own cultures, but should critically read and point out the patriarchalism deeply inside their traditions while they are doing theology. Concerning the issues of politics, society and economics in Asia, theologians are aware of their common experiences of the poverty and the colonial history of oppression and exploitation.12 Today, the economic development in imitation of capitalism has improved people's lives in some Asian countries. But the reality is the disparity between the rich and she poor becomes more and more serious. Most of Asian people are still suffering poverty. and a large number of women are forced to participate in the labour market for the sake of economic development. Many of them are sacrificed as they have to "work in poor and hazardous working conditions and do not have adequate labour laws or unions to protect them. Often they are considered as the secondary labour force and are the first to be laid off luring economic recession."13 Apart from poverty, Asian people in the last fifty years of the twentieth century undergo similar decolonized experience. They have been struggling to overcome the colonial dependency and seek to develop their own political and economic systems. Their common task is focused to resolve the problem of poverty, and to build up a more free and secure society. Therefore, "Asia," as a symbolic commonality, unites Asian people to surmount suffering, search for self-identity, support each other and form their own well- future. For Asian women, however, in addition to these targets shared with all the Asian people, they have to strive to improve their subordinate situation and to change their role of

9 According to Kwok Pui-lan, a Chinese feminist theologian from Hong Kong, the percentage of the Christians in Asia is less than 3 percent. Please refer to her book: Discovering the Bible in the Non- Biblical World (New York: Orbis Books, 1995), p. 2. 10 For instance, Western missionaries and imperialism came together into China in the nineteenth century. Christianity was, therefore, viewed as the instrument of Western hegemony. Both Western religion and military threatened the Chinese cultures, values and homeland. 11 Quoted from Aruna Gnanadason's "Towards an Indian Feminist Theology" in Virginia Fabella M. M. and Sun Ai Lee Park ed., We Dare to Dream: Doing Theology as Asian Women (Hong Kong: AWCCT, 1989), p. 121. 12 See David Kwang-sun Suh, "Asian Theology in a Changing Asia: Towards an Asian Theological Agenda for the 21st Century" in Feliciano V. Carino ed., CTC Bulletin (Special Supplement: Proceedings of CATS, Part I), 1(Nov. 1997)26-27. 13 Refer to Kwok Pui-lan, "Business Ethics in the Economic Development of Asia: A Feminist Analysis" in Asian Journal of Theology, 9:1 (April 1995)141-142.

5 the sacrificed in Asian context. In doing so, "Asia" may become one of the resources which the Asian sisters' empowerment comes from.

I.2. Asian Women's Experience and Perspective Is there any so-called universal women's experience? If the answer was no, how can feminist theology claim itself based on the women's experience? And what is, anyway, the women's experience? During 1970s, these questions were first raised by Third World women in order to challenge the universality claim of white feminists' theory. They found that the men whom white feminists asked to be equal with were middle-class. Most of them, as the labour-class, had kept working for a long time for family's survival, while white middle-class feminists encouraged women to walk out of their families. And they had also seen the reality that the successful objection to the colonialism and racism did not truly help to free them from the subordinate situation in society. They began to resist the patriarchalism which is deeply rooted in people's consciousness and social structures. Third World or Asian women, therefore, demand to re-consider the concept of "women's experience." They are convinced that there is no so-called universal women's experience. It should not be simply directed to the narrow idea of female experience described by sexism, but the sociological understanding of gender in a broader sense which contains different dimensions of women's experience related such as sex, race and class etc. However, the issue of sex would be the most essential cause, though not the only one, which effects women's inferiority in the Third World or Asian context. According to feminists' viewpoint, the most bottom of the hierarchical framework in the world is colored and poor. As Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza reminds us, [Not to overlook] the fact that more than half of the poor and hungry in the world are women and children dependent on women. Not only do women and children represent the majority of the 'oppressed,' but poor and Third World women suffer the triple oppression of sexism, racism, and classism.14 In addition to these patterns of oppression, Asian women also consider the term "patriarchalism" as implying the oppression of imperialism, colonialism and feudalism and so on. For Asian feminist theologians, they must start doing theology from their own oppression. They are not like Liberation theologians who "often do not belong to the poor but have made the cause of the oppressed their own."15 Asian feminist theologians themselves have undergone the sexual, racial, social, and cultural oppression. Their theology is, therefore, based on their own experience, and from which they can act further to concern about their sisters, especially those who are living in poverty, and then unite them

14 Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, "Toward a Feminist Biblical Hermeneutics" in D. K. McKim ed., A Guide to the Contemporary Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1986), p. 359 and the footnote 2. 15 Ibid, and the footnote 3.

6 together to struggle for liberation and salvation. For instance, they have been aware of their common mission since the theological conference in Manila, Philippines, in 1985. They have stated, We, Asian church women, declare our strong solidarity with our oppressed peopleóthe workers, the farmers, the fisherfolk, the urban poor, the tribal and ethnic minorities, and most especially the womenóin the painful struggle for full humanity.16 Asian women have obviously recognized the need to construct their own contextual theology, because their particular experience in various dimensions makes their special perspective and purpose in theology different from that of white feminist theologians and Asian male theologians. For example, while white feminist theologians are seeking for the equality of men and women, Asian women are longing for the dignity of "full humanity," that is, what "Asian women theology strives theologically to articulate a vision of an alternative way of living in which both men and women can fully participate in diverse ways, both in society and in God's community, the church, without restrictions imposed on individuals by rigid sex roles."17 Asian feminists' understanding of the concept of patriarchy also includes the racial, ethnocentric and colonial injustice that is wider than what white feminists claim as the social-historical oppression. Moreover, unlike Asian male theologians, in doing theology, Asian women cannot apply Asian traditions and cultures directly without critically exposing the inherent patriarchal ideology. Asian feminist theologians, however, besides making an effort to fight against any kind of oppression for their sisters, finally aim to call for solidarity of their sisters towards the empowerment of each other, and of all Asian people working together toward a new community of women and men, that is, a God-blessed future with liberation and salvation of Asian people.

I.3. To Encounter Jesus in Our Own Culture According to Rudolf Bultmann, "Christ in faith" is the outcome of the Church's proclamation. We then may say that the traditional is the theological theory developed by the proclamation of the Western Church. And this theory has to be born in Western culture and be expressed by the way of Western thought. It is, thus, not difficult for us to imagine that Asian people feel rather foreign to the traditional Christology and have problems in grasping it. In order to let Asian people be able to perceive well Christianity, the faith in Christ, who is the center of salvation, Asian theologians endeavour to reinterpret "Christ" in their own culture, for their own brothers and sisters, and in their own languages. In doing so, they do not completely renounce the traditional Christology. On the contrary, they are, to some extent, inspired a lot by it. The need to return to the origin of Christianity,

16 Please refer to We Dare to Dream, p. 150. 17 Nantawan Boonprasat Lewis, "Asian Women Theology: A Historical and Theological Analysis" in East Asia Journal of Theology, 4:2(1986)19.

7 the man of Jesus, and to reconstruct their own history of faith and theology from this origin, however, becomes irreversible. Leonard Swidler, in his essay, "What Christianity can Offer Asia," suggests the source of Christianity as a concrete human being, Yeshua, namely, Jesus the Jew, and includes his wise teaching, thought and living example as the finest gift bestowed to Asian people.18 He argues that the ultimate reality of Christianity is "person." Christian God is a (though there is "the strand in the Judeo-Christian tradition which speaks of God in non- personal terms,"19 like in metaphorical language). But the way of understanding God in some of major Asian religions, like Buddhism or Taoism, is always non-personal, such as the description of Void or Emptiness. People, however, spiritually, at the end, are longing for personal , so they have grown the "new religions" out of Buddhism, and started to stress the issue of social ethics.20 Therefore, Yeshua's concern on people, the respect and the love of people as Imagines Dei, willingness to have dialogue with Gentiles etc., and the Judeo-Christianity's personal way of thinking and speaking about God can positively contribute to Asia in the future. People can even wish Yeshua to have good conversation with some of Asian thoughts, which employ the more this-worldly and pragmatic approaches like Confucianism etc. Regarding women issue concerned by Asian feminist theologians, Swidler also asserts that there is "a very special and a very active concern Yeshua had for the largest of the world's oppressed classes in all culturesówomen."21 He calls this the Yeshua's "," and indicates two points to demonstrate his argument. He says, The first extraordinary thing is that in the midst of his patriarchal society there is not recorded a single negative action or remark by Yeshua about women; the second is that there is a plethora of positive examples of Yeshua's treading women as at least the equal of men, and of his often taking stands, breaking taboos, working to free women from the shackles that bound them in that culture.22 This gives convincingly why Asian feminist theologians should return to the origin of Christianity, Yeshua: to find out their power in faith. However, we cannot pretend that Asian feminist theologians can absolutely accept this argument about Yeshua without worries. In fact, Asian feminist theologians must very carefully interpret the images of Jesus sketched by both Jesus himself and Christian tradition. For example, as what Choi Man Ja, a Korean feminist theologian, has reminded us, "the problem of feminist Christology is that Jesus has been confessed as Messiah and Lord, terms which symbolize male patriarchal dominance, even though Christ transcended this and opened the way to a new humanity."23

18 "What Christianity can Offer Asia," pp. 112ff. 19 Ibid, p. 131. 20 Ibid, p. 137. For example, Korean Won Buddhism and Japanese Rissho Kose-kai. 21 Ibid, p. 126. 22 Ibid. 23 Choi Ma Ja, "Feminist Christology" in AWCCT ed., Asian Women Doing TheologysReport from

8 From Asian feminists' perspective, it is true to say that the understanding of this new humanity is based on Jesus' suffering and obedience, as a servant, in life and death. This, however, should not be taken as an evidence to legitimize Asian women's suffering and obedience in Asian patriarchal context. In contrast, it is precisely through the divine redemptive activity, his suffering and death, Jesus has exposed and fought against patriarchal evil. Only under such an understanding can Jesus be called the liberator of the oppressed and Asian women.24 In her book, Struggle to be the Sun Again, Chung Hyun Kyung concludes the new emerging images of Jesus conceived by Asian women as "liberator," "revolutionary," and "political martyr" from women of India, Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka; and the compassionate images of "mother," "woman," and "Shaman"25 mentioned by many of Asian women, "worker" and "grain" (or "food") from the lower-class women.26 These creative interpretations on the image of Jesus are brought about from Asian women's experience of encounter with Jesus in their own social, political and cultural contexts. They have been empowered and inspired a lot by such an encounter. Jesus this person, Yeshua, has become their power of seeking emancipation from their culture in which they are bound. Asian feminist theology's ultimate target has also been made at this special moment of salvation, namely, the moment of encounter between Jesus and Asian women. What Christianity can offer Asian women is exactly this source of salvific power, Yeshua.

II. The Methodologies of Asian Feminist Theology

II.1. Cross-cultural and Multi-faith Hermeneutics There is a presupposition behind Asian feminist hermeneutics, namely, the Bible does not equate to the Truth, and in other words, the Bible is not the only, even the primary, authoritative text which requires Asian women's interpretation. Asian feminist views on the Bible are affected by Western feminist and Asian male theologians. As Christian women, be they Asian or Western, all have seen the fact that some of biblical texts and their traditional interpretations are definitely patriarchal. Christian women, however, on the other hand, still believe that the Bible is not only an opium for the oppression of women, but also a seed for their liberation. Therefore, a paradox of feminist interpretation on the Bible, "one must defeat the Bible as patriarchal authority by using the Bible as liberator,"27 has unavoidably

Singapore Conference, Nov. 20-29, 1987 (Hong Kong: AWCCT, 1989), p. 175. 24 Ibid, p. 177, and Chung Hyun Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian Women's Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 1993), pp. 54, 57. 25 This is the female messiah from the Korean women-centered folk religion called Shamanism. 26 Struggle to be the Sun Again, pp. 62-73. 27 Mary Ann Tolbert, "Defining the Problems" in The Bible and Feminist Hermeneutics (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1983), p. 120. Here quoted from Letty M. Russell ed., Feminist Interpretation of the Bible (Oxford: Blackwell, 1985), p. 140, and We Dare to Dream, p. 125.

9 come about. Moreover, as Asian people, male or female, do not think that their own identity are determined or shaped solely by the biblical tradition because the Bible is originated and formulated by another people.28 According to her reflection and experience, Kwok Pui-lan, a Hong Kong Chinese feminist theologian, says, I often lament that as Chinese Christians we know too little about our own tradition and the religious experiences of our mothers. In our theological training, we have often been taught that Buddhism and Taoism are idolatrous, without seriously asking how these traditions inform the spirituality of Chinese women. Without reclaiming the stories of struggles of our mothers, our feminist hermeneutics can be very superficial (an imitation of Western feminists at best), and without reconnecting with our roots, our spirituality cannot be enriched and deepened.29 Thus, it is truly important for Asian women to interpret the Bible by cross-cultural and multi-faith hermeneutics because the Bible can only be viewed as one of the sources where Asian women's religious power come from. In the past twenty years, Asian male theologians' achievement in doing their own theology by cross-cultural approach has animated Asian feminist theology a lot. For example, C. S. Song, a Taiwanese theologian, applies "suffering," dukkha, the essential religious experience described by Buddhism, as a hermeneutic key to interpret God's incarnation, the suffering flesh of Jesus. He assumes suffering as the physical reality of Asian people, and by which Asian people's release from it can be connected with Jesus' sacrifice in suffering flesh and in death.30 Also, Korean theologians interpret the political meaning of Messiah claimed by Jesus himself, in conflict with that of Jewish Messiah, by the hermeneutic key of Minjung (means "people"). They believe that Jesus regards people as the reality, the subject, of history, especially Jesus as Messiah comes for the oppressed and the poor. They, thus, call for the solidarity of Minjung to establish a society of justice and an ideal political system, that is, the kingdom of God which they believe in.31 In addition to the reinterpretation of the Bible on the basis of Asian people's living experience and social-political anticipation, Archie Lee, a Hong Kong Chinese theologian, also tries to understand the Bible by placing it into a dialogue with our indigenous literature,

28 Refer to Kwok Pui-lan, "Biblical Hermeneutics from a Feminist Perspective" in Winnie Ho ed., Towards a Chinese Feminist Theology Collection from Asian Chinese Feminist Theology Seminar (Hong Kong: Lutheran Theological Seminary, 1988), p. 194. 29 Ibid, p. 195. 30 Choan-Seng Song, The Compassionate God (London: SCM Press, 1982), pp. 162-169. Song is a very productive Asian theologian. He has wrote many influential books about Asian theology, such as Third- Eye Theology (New York: Orbis Books, 1979); Tell Us Our Names (New York: Orbis Books, 1984); Theology from the Womb of Asia (London: SCM Press, 1988); and Jesus & the Reign of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993) and so on. 31 Please refer to David Kwang-sun Suh, Theology, Ideology and Culture (Hong Kong: World Student Christian Federation Asia/ Pacific Region, 1983), pp. 53-74; and the book of Kim Yong Bock ed., Minjung Theology (Singapore: CTC-CCA, 1981).

10 which he calls the cross-textual hermeneutics. For example, in his attempt to make the dialogue of the creation stories of Genesis and the Chinese myth of Pan-ku and Nu-kua, he aims to unveil the wisdom of both Chinese cultural text and the biblical text, and to finally bring out the positive religious meaning for Asian people.32 Moreover, Stanley Samartha, an Indian theologian, reminds Asian people that we have our own history of exegesis and hermeneutics. We should disclose and refer to our own interpretive approach from the studies of Asian religious texts. For instance, how can Chinese translate Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese, and at the same time successfully interpret a religion, a culture, from India into China, and eventually become part of Chinese culture, and a major resource of Chinese spirituality?! This is a significant case for Asian Christians' interpreting the Bible into their own culture to refer to. Further, Asian people also have their familiar ways to approach the divine, such as listening, intuition, or purifying and transformation of their heart and mind etc. They thus would rather use living languages than theoretical discourses, which are usually applied by Westerners, in interpretation to express their own visions.33 However, unlike Asian male theologians who value both their cultural texts and the Bible, and also seek for inspiration mainly from main Asian cultures and religions for interpreting the Bible, but, without criticism on the patriarchal oppression of those texts, Asian feminist theologians must read very carefully any of texts, and prefer folk religions to main religions. As Kwok Pui-lan, in proposing the multi-faith hermeneutics, emphasizes that, for Asian women, "[this approach] is not characterized by a hermeneutics of consent to the biblical story and the Asian story but rather a process of double hermeneutics of suspicion and reclamation."34 The suspicion and criticism on texts, including our own cultural texts, are first and foremost step of Asian feminist hermeneutics. If we romanticize Asian cultural texts and neglect this first procedure, the suffering and pain of Asian sisters will become invisible.35 In following this hermeneutics of suspicion, Asian women can then reclaim their empowerment from those texts. Asian women's interpretation of the Bible is always tightly bound with two of their contexts, namely, women's situation and their nation in the Third World. Many examples are collected in the book of Women of CourageñAsian Women Reading the Bible.36 For instance, the first essay, "Where is Your Sister/ Brother?", is written by Sr. Marlene Perera from Sri Lanka.37 She attempts to interpret Genesis 4:1-16, the story of Cain and Abel, the

32 Archie C. C. Lee, "Theological Reading of Chinese Creation Stories of Pan Ku and Nu Kua" in PICA ed., Doing Theology with Asian Resources (Hong Kong: PICA, 1993), pp. 230-237; and "Cross Textual Hermeneutics on Gospel and Culture" in Asian Journal of Theology, 10:1(1996)38-48. 33 Stanley S. Samartha, "The Asian Context Sources & Trends" in R. S. Sugirtharajah ed., Voices from Margin (New York: Orbis Books, 1991), pp. 40-41; 48. 34 Kwok Pui-lan, Discovering the Bible in the Non-Biblical World, p. 70. 35 Kwok Pui-lan, "Speaking from the Margins" in Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 8(Fall 1992) 103. 36 Lee Oo Chung et al ed., Women of Courageñ Asian Women Reading the Bible (Seoul: AWRC, 1992). 37 Ibid, pp. 3-16.

11 first murder reported in the Bible, by connecting it with the reality of her country, which she calls "a meaningless killing field."38 She uses a poem called "Plea of Mothers in Sri Lanka" to describe women's character as children's mother, whose mourning, grief and anguished cry for her children makes her no longer keep silent to the killings. She appeals for people's respect to life and to stop destroying it because it belongs to God and even God covered with his protection the life of Cain.39 Her crucial purpose in this essay is to call us to be our brother and sister's keeper, that does not mean to show our love, concern and respect to them only, but also try to defend, protect and foster their lives.

II.2. Reconstruction of Asian Christian Women's History I am convinced that this method applied by Asian feminist theologians is motivated by Schussler Fiorenza's theory of the "historical criticism and reconstruction of women's history."40 Although Schussler Fiorenza's proposal is concerned about the history of biblical hermeneutics, Asian Christian women make use of her idea to reconstruct their foremothers' history of faith in Asian context. According to Schussler Fiorenza, history is political because it is merely recorded by and for the dominator, the so-called winner, in society and history. Our patriarchal society has accordingly caused the men-centered history. If we wish to participate in history, first of all, we must become subject of history from the marginalized and formulate it from our own perspective. This theory, therefore, owns two aspects: the historical criticism on patriarchal oppression on the one hand, and the reconstruction of women's own history on the other. The reconstruction of women's history, furthermore, contains three levels: First, it encourages us to recall and to imagine our foremother's struggle for liberation and other past experiences. Since their invisibility and being neglected in past history results in a situation that we can only have very little of historical data about them for our reconstruction of their history, we must reinterpret their historical context and re-value their importance in history from not only the data collected, but also our faculty of imagination. Second, we have to be further empowered by the inheritance of their past precious experience and struggle to be the subject in our own present history. And finally, in critically reviewing continually the so-called objective men-centered history, we seek to create a reconciling history in the future with men together, so that we may hear both women and men's voices. For Asian Christian women, to reconstruct our foremothers' history, in fact, is to reformulate the history of Christianity in Asia. The stories and contributions of our foremothers are largely ignored in Asian Christian history. Such a lack of the account of

38 Ibid, p. 14. 39 Ibid, p. 11 and footnote 17. 40 Please refer to Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her (New York: Crossroad, 1994), pp. 68- 92; Bread Not Stone (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984), pp. 93-116; and But She Said (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), pp. 79-101.

12 Asian Christian women in history has caused Christianity in Asia only to be revealed partially. Our theology should not be based on other traditions but our foremothers' historical experience with Christianity, to reconstruct their history is thus not insignificant but the most fundamental task of Asian feminist theology. An exemplary work offered here is Kwok Pui-lan's Chinese Women and Christianity 1860-1927.41 It is not only a reconstruction of Chinese Christian women's history, but also a re-evaluation of the missionary history in China from Chinese Christian women's perspective. Her work at least inspires us in three dimensions in reconstructing Christian women's history. First of all, women are treated as subjects. As Kwok explains, [We should] pay more attention to women's writings, autobiographies, letters, diaries, private papers, and other unpublished works. Treating women as subjects, they have attached more importance on how women have experienced and interpreted their lives rather than what has been written about them.42 Second, women's experiences with Christianity (and male and female missionaries) is the crucial part of the reconstruction of Christian women's history. In her work, Kwok aims to testify the fact that Christian faith to some extent has very much empowered Chinese Christian women's struggle for dignity as women and to reform their society. By joining in church activities, such as Sunday schools, Bible study classes, prayer meetings, catechism classes and short term religious courses (these are mostly organized from the beginning by women missionaries but later by Chinese women themselves), they have been educated and the iliterate women are taught to read, their lives in many aspects are changed and promoted.43 Kwok says, In nineteenth-century China where women had few chances to organize themselves, religious groupings provided an opportunity for women to step outside the family and experiment with new roles. They learned to be teachers, evangelists, leaders of religious rituals, and counselors in the local congregations...44 Further, the church and missionaries supported Chinese women's movement like anti- footbinding. Their introduction of Western medicine and scientific knowledge to China also benefited Chinese women in their health care, welfare of children and breaking of the centuries-old myths and taboos about women. Women missionaries likewise played the important roles in teaching and guiding them. Chinese women might see in those foreign women the different choices and other possibilities of women's lives. But Kwok has called for our attention to the limits of women missionaries because they themselves were confined in the patriarchal missionary system. She notes,

41 Kwok Pui-lan, Chinese Women and Christianity 1860-1927 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992). 42 Kwok Pui-lan, "Claiming Our Heritage: Chinese Women and Christianity" in International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 16(Oct. 1992)150. 43 Chinese Women and Christianity 1860-1927, p. 65. 44 Ibid, p. 66.

13 Some historians have attributed the rising consciousness of Chinese Christian women and their participation in social reforms to the influences of women missionaries. Women missionaries indeed served as role models, introduced new ideas from the West, and provided financial and institutional support for women to organize. But it seems farfetched to suggest that they were champions of women's rights, since most of them lived in patriarchal missionary households and subscribed to the Victorian ideas of female subordination.45 Third, it is important to consider the inter-relationship between Christian liberation for women and the secular feminist movement. Kwok's approach is to place Chinese Christian women's history finally back into the big Chinese historical context and connect their struggle for full humanity with the contemporary Chinese women's reformation of society. For example, she emphasizes the influence of "the May Fourth movement" on Christian women, "[which] served as a springboard for women to challenge traditional images of women and to explore the possibility of transforming women's roles." Many Christian women even actively participated or organized social reforms at that time.46 Such methodology can help Christian women to understand their foremothers' history in a double historical dimension of Christianity and their own nationality.

II.3. Looking for Goddess Images in Folk Religions Elisabeth Moltmann-Wendel says, "the patriarchalizing of the Holy Spirit in writing has not reached the levels of popular piety and popular belief."47 Feminist theologians, Asian or Western, tend to search outside of the patriarchalized Christian culture for feminine religious symbols and female images of God from folk religions (or sub-cultures). Rosemary Radford Ruether calls such people, who withdraw from patriarchal religions and seek an alternative women-centered religion, "the countercultural feminists."48 These feminists have been convinced a reality that church and traditional theology have been ideologically used to sanctify the ruling class; even the biblical prophetic tradition which critically denounces such misuse of religion has nothing relevant for women. They thus engage in trying to discover matriarchal culture and believe that which preserves and reflects women's own independent experience of freedom.49 According to Radford Ruether, "the cult of the Mother Goddess did not die out altogether. It survived underground as a persecuted religion, named witchcraft or devil worship by its patriarchal enemies." Feminists are thus inclined to rediscover and reinterpret

45 "Claiming Our Heritage: Chinese Women and Christianity," p. 152. 46 Chinese Women and Christianity 1860-1927, p. 152 and the chapter IV. 47 Elisabeth Moltmann-Wendel, A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey: Perspectives on Feminist Theology (London: SCM Press, 1986), p. 107. 48 Rosemary Radford Ruether, " and Witches: Liberation and Countercultural Feminism" in The Christian Century, September 10-17, 1980, pp. 842-847. 49 Ibid, p. 842, and Moltmann-Wendel's A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey, p. 114.

14 this resource. As Radford Ruether herself has tried to construct an ecofeminist theology which aims at healing the earth, the relationship between men and women; classes and nations; and human and the earth by the empowerment of Gaia, the earth Goddess, since the Goddess symbolizes the immanent harmony of the existing nature.50 She interprets, The Mother Goddess is fundamentally an immanent , the maternal ground of being of the coming-to-be and passing-away of all things, the womb of creation. In relating to her, we relate ourselves to the true divine foundations of reality that do not force us to deny our bodies and our material existence... It teaches us to see not only all human beings but also the animals and plants, stars and rocks as our sisters and brothers.51 However, unlike Western feminist theologians, whose interpretations of Goddess are not separate from their Christian understanding of God, in Asia, the non-Christian world, in which folk religions have their own religious traditions and possess various functions of gods, how Asian feminist theologians can make these goddess images relate to Christian concepts of God, and be sure that their images will truly help to improve Asian women's status becomes a great challenge for Asian feminist theologians in their interpretation. In Asia, folk religions are usually the religions of the poor and the marginalized. Most of them are presented as female-centered model. They relate popular people's daily life, and their suffering, struggle and hope. Like in India, Aruna Gnanadason, a feminist theologian, states that goddesses are still widely worshipped in India today; especially in South India almost every village the deity is a female form. They worship Mother goddess and fertility goddesses which are the divines for restoring the soil and nourishing the earth for the production of food.52 Gnanadason chooses to interpret the Great Mother of India, Shakti, "the Symbol of the life-giving powers of the universe," as the source of Asian women's spirituality. She describes, Shakti means more than power, ... it is not the power of dominate or oppress. Shakti is a spiritual energy, a feminine force, which is the essence of the great religious traditions of Asia. It is an energy which is at the source of all thingsñ purusha (human) and prakriti (nature). It is the foundation of Asia's spirituality, that makes sacramental the relationship between humanity and the rest of creation.53 Besides such study on the creation or earth goddesses, the Korean Association of Women Theologians has systematically done the remarkable work on seven types of goddesses from Korean folk beliefs since 1988, such as the goddesses of creator, nature controller, human life and communities protector, house guardian, ancestors and of malignancy.54 Their most

50 See Rosemary Radford Ruether's Gaia & God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing (London: SCM Press, 1992), pp. 1-12, Introduction. Gaia is originally the word for the Greek Earth Goddess. 51 Goddesses and Witches...," pp. 842, 843. 52 Aruna Gnanadason, "Women and Spirituality in Asia" in In God's Image, December 1989, p. 18. 53 Ibid, p. 15. 54 Korean Association of Women Theologians, "Feminist Theological Lighting on Goddess Image

15 renowned interpretation concerns the oldest folk religion of Korea, Shamanism. It has dominated and very much reflected Korean people's lives and minds since foreign religions have not yet come into Korea. This religion is claimed as a female-centered religion and its majority of shamans are women.55 Korean feminist theologians strive to introduce Christian God to Korean women and to restore women's religious spirituality by means of these female images of shamans. For example, they believe that Jesus would be easily accepted by Korean women because both the female images of shamans as the healer, comforter, and counselor for Korean women and the roles of Jesus presented in the Gospel what Jesus did for the people are alike.56 Another cultural context where the goddess traditions in folk religions are very rich is Chinese societies. In her brief essay, Jane Chui, a Taiwanese scholar, mentions a few popular Chines goddesses in Taiwan, such as Kuan-yin, the Goddess of Mercy, who saves people from suffering; Ma-ju, the Goddess of the Sea, the saver of fishermen and a healer; Si-wong-mu (or the Mother of the West), as Mother Goddess, who symbolizes the wish of immortality; Lin-shui-fu-ren (or the Lady of Lin-shui), who is particularly concerned about pregnancy and the care of children.57 These goddess images and feminine symbolism express not only Chinese women but also men's religious mentality. Chui raises a significant question here: why has Chinese women's status in society never been elevated, despite the very rich goddess traditions in China? Folk religions, in which a rigid hierarchical structure is found, are viewed as belonging to the lower-class. This hierarchical structure has in turn been justified in social context. In other words, some patriarchal elements have infiltrated Chinese folk religions, the supreme god and most of higher gods are male. Moreover, Chinese feminist theologians probably meet another difficulty as they apply these goddess images in their interpretation of Christian faith, namely, the utilitarian thinking of Chinese folk religion believers. It is a meaningful task for Asian feminist theologians to assist their sisters to explore their empowerment from those goddesses worship, and introduce Christian faith to them by means of goddess images. It still requires further development, however.

Imposed in Korean Folks Beliefs" in In God's Image, September 1990, pp. 50-51. 55 In her Struggle to be the Sun Again, p. 66, Chung claims about this, but some Korean scholars have different opinions. See Choi Man Ja's "Feminine Images of God in Korean Traditional Religion," in Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology, p. 83, she mentions here that shamanism has only 30 female gods among 273 gods, and it has a male-god centered conception. Whether it is truly female-centered or not that is quite controversial because this religion has different developing traditions as that of the origin, the northern and the southern. Some scholars admit that "there were strong female gods in the southern culture that belonged to a more ancient time than the northern culture... the images of female gods might have been transferred... to patriarchal images of god by the cultural development." But some feminists has still believed that "shamanism originally considered god as female." Concerning the interpretation of Shamanism, one can also refer to Chung Hyun Kyung's "Opium or the Seed for Revolution? Shamanism: Women Centered Popular Religiosity in Korea" in Concilium (May 1988)96-99. 56 Refer to Chung's Struggle to be the Sun Again, p. 66. 57 Jane C. N. Chui, "From the Goddesses of the Chinese Folk Religion to See the Necessity of Developing the Goddess Tradition in Christianity" in In God's Image, June 1989, pp. 24-26.

16 II.4. The Theory of Spirituality In the past twenty years, the theory of spirituality is increasingly formulated and becomes a considerable method in the field of women studies. Anne Carr says, In its widest meaning, spirituality can be described as the whole of one's spiritual or religious experience, one's beliefs, convictions, and patterns of thought, one's emotions and behavior in respect to what is ultimate, or to God... Unlike theology as an explicit pattern of cognitive or intellectual positions, spirituality reaches into one's physical, psychological, and religious depths, touches those surest human feelings and convictions about the way things really are...58 Accordingly, comparing to other theological methods, Joann Wolski Conn claims, "a field spirituality is understood to be descriptive and critical rather than prescriptive and normative."59 Some scholars would rather prefer to call it the "literatural-theology."60 Wolski Conn has once attempted to make this method more obvious. She briefly proposes its three phases and triple goal. First of all, this method begins with a description that is concerned about one's subjective experiences, such as frustration, alienation, and spiritual seeking. Second, it steps further to theologically or psychologically explicate and analyze one's reasons for these situations. Finally, some synthetic, creative and constructive strategies, as feminist reinterpretation of divine mystery or spiritual darkness etc., are required to be brought about. Furthermore, this method aims to, first, perceive religious experience as experience; then based on such an understanding, second, to develop the researcher's own spirituality; and eventually bring up the spirituality of others.61 Precisely, the study of spirituality is no longer merely involved in the religious field, but also to do with cultural, social, political, psychological, and even aesthetic dimensions. It is an inter-disciplined study and may also be applied as an inter-religious and cross-cultural approach. Before its theory being seriously developed in the academic circle, Asian theologians has already started to exercise this similar approach. The works of C. S. Song are one of the prominent examples. Twenty years ago, he has begun to promote the concept of doing theology with Asian spirituality, and strive to construct the so-called story (or narrative) theology, that is an approach of theologically retelling Asian people's stories. One of his splendid works is the development of a powerful political theology by his reinterpretation of the Chinese popular story of Meng Jiang Nu.62 He believes that our theology must be able to echo Asian people's spirituality if we wish to lead them to the face of God or Jesus Christ. Concerning Asian feminist theology, although its theologians do not specially discuss

58 Anne E. Carr, Transforming Grace (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1988), pp. 201-202. 59 Joann Wolski Conn, "Toward Spirituality Maturity" in Catherine Mowry Lacugna ed., Freeing Theologyñ The Essentials of Theology in Feminist Perspective (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993), p. 239. 60 For example, Joan Leonard, "Teaching Introductory Feminist Spirituality" in Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 6(Fall 1990)123. 61 Joann Wolski Conn, "Toward Spirituality Maturity," pp. 239-240. 62 Choan-Seng Song, The Tears of Lady Meng (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1981).

17 the theory of spirituality, they have applied the multiple creative resources, such as the nature, arts, historical artifacts, songs, dances, and folk stories... for empowering Asian women's spirituality and making their own theology. They start from telling their stories, then step further to explicate these stories and finally seek for retelling them by means of these resources. For example, Chinese scholars suggest that one should perceive women's spirituality in literature. Although women are usually voiceless in Chinese society and history, they are allowed to express themselves freely and deeply in the world of literature.63 Chung Hyun Kyung borrows the poem of Gabriele Dietrich, an Indian feminist theologian, to interpret the female image of Jesus and criticizes patriarchalism as "denying life to the life-givers," namely, women.64 Yuko Yuasa, a Japanese feminist theologian, employs the role of Hannya, a female demon in Noh drama, to transform the perspective for both men and women from hierarchical to egalitarian, and from judgmental to endearing. This female character in Noh drama is silenced, and Yuasa aims to make her voices heard and finds common themes flowing through the biblical stories and Noh drama.65 Marianne Katoppo, an Indian feminist theologian, has told us whose stories of a handicapped and a deprived child, the woman who strives for opportunity of education, and the prostitute etc. by social analysis and case study.66 In the land of Asia, people have their own stories and abundant resources for strengthening their spirituality. Asian feminist theologians, to a degree, suggest that "we are the text, and the Bible and tradition of the Christian church are the context of our theology," since our own stories, experiences, are the text which required a right interpretation from our own perspective.67 As announced in their declaration in 1987, in the Singapore Conference of Asian Women Doing Theology, their own answer to the question "What is Asian women's spirituality?" is, Asian women's spirituality is the awakening of the Asian woman's soul to her concrete historical reality6 poverty, oppression, and suffering. It is a response and commitment of a soul infused by the Spirit, to the challenge for human dignity, freedom, and a new life of love.68

63 Khiok-khng Yeo's Between the Female and the Male, pp. 147-152. 64 See Chung Hyun Kyun, Struggle to be the Sun Again, pp. 66-70. 65 Yuko Yuasa, "Noh Drama and Christian Faith: A Hermeneutical Tool in the Japanese Context," in Proceedings of CATS, Part II., pp. 124-125. 66 Marianne Katoppo, Compassionate and Frees An Asian Women's Theology (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1979), pp. 25-62. 67 Chung Hyun Kyung, Struggle to be the Sun Again, p. 111. 68 Asian Women Doing Theology S Report from Singapore Conference Nov. 20-29, 198 7, p. 311.

18 Conclusion This introductory essay only generally presents what Asian feminist theology is and how its theory and purpose is make possible. Each section introduced here worths elaborating further. This is only a fundamental work to help people picture Asian women's theological thinking, and their struggle for full humanity with their own sisters in Asian context. We have seen many difficulties and inner conflicts in constructing Asian feminist theology, such as what Mary Ann Tolbert says, "one must struggle against God as enemy assisted by God as helper, or one must defeat the Bible as patriarchal authority by using the Bible as liberator."69 Besides the gender issue, Asian Christian women need to face also the problems of racism, classism, colonialism, and the Asian context's own cultural, traditional and social oppression etc. Therefore, its complication of the elements for shaping the theology very much challenges theologians. Other difficulties, such as the problem of languages, and the question of how much, anyway, their theology participates in their own cultural context and how it is able to influence their people, confront both Asian feminist and male theologians. If Aloysius Pieris, a theologian from Sri Lanka, was right, that is, religion begins with language, or language is the beginning of theology,70 it will be a pity that many Asian theologians keep writing and talking about their theology in English, and most of them have been educated in West, they are more familiar with the Western mind than with that of Asia. This is also sometimes questioned by their own people: after all, are readers of their theology their own people or still Westerners? Their people perhaps do not truly understand what their theology means. Because of this challenge, Asian theologians have started to learn other Asian languages, and hope that one day, they no longer need to communicate in the land of Asia with each other in English only. They also begin to enhance their knowledge of their own culture, religion and their people's actual lives etc. The positive significance of Asian feminist theology, however, cannot be denied. In contributing to Asian women's empowerment of spirituality from the Christian perspective, Asian feminist theology plays a crucial role. Asian Christian women's self-identity as a model of other women and their faith in Jesus Christ will encourage their sisters to find the source of liberation in Christianity. Their theology calls for a solidarity of Asian women's struggle for full humanity, and their commitment to social justice movement together. Its contribution to Asian women should never be cancelled.

69 Mary Ann Tolbert, "Defining the Problems" in The Bible and Feminist Hermeneutics, p. 120. 70 Aloy sius Pieris, "Toward an Asian Theology of Liberation: Some Religio-Cultural Guidelines" in Virginia Fabella, J. Clancey and J. Ma ed., Theological Reflection on Asia's Struggle for Full Humanity (Hong Kong: Plough Publications, 1982), pp. 93-94.

19 Bibliography Asian Women's Resource Centre for Culture & Theology (AWCCT)ed. Asian Women Doing Theology nReport from Singapore Conference, Nov. 20-29, 1987. Hong Kong: AWCCT, 1989. Boonprasat Lewis, Nantawan. "Asian Women Theology: A Historical and Theological Analysis." East Asia Journal of Theology, 4:2(1986)18-22. Carino, Feliciano V. Special Supplement of Proceedings of the Congress of Asian Theologians (CATS), Parti, 25May- 1 June 1997, Suwon, Korea (CTCBulletin, l[Nov. 1997]). Hong Kong: Christian Conference of Asia, 1997. Carino, Feliciano V. Proceedings of CATS, Part II. Hong Kong: The Continuation Committee of the CATS, 1998. Carr, Anne E. Transforming Grace. San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1988. Chan, Wing-tsit ed. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963. Chui, Jane C. N. "From the Goddesses of the Chinese Folk Religion to See the Necessity of Developing the Goddess Tradition in Christianity." In God's Image, (June 1989)24-26. Chung, Hyun Kyung. Struggle to be the Sun Again: Introducing Asian Women's Theology. New York: Orbis Books, 1993. Chung, Hyun Kyung. "Opium or the Seed for Revolution? Shamanism: Women Centered Popular Religiosity in Korea." Concilium (May 1988)96-102. Fabella, Virginia M. M. and Sun Ai Lee Park ed. We Dare to Dream: Doing Theology as Asian Women. Hong Kong: Asian Women's Resource Center for Culture and Theology (AWCCT), 1989. Fabella, Virginia, J. Clancey and J. Ma ed. Theological Reflection on Asia's Struggle for Full Humanity. Hong Kong: Plough Publications, 1982. Gnanadason, Aruna. "Women and Spirituality in Asia." In God's Image, (December 1989)15-18. Ho, Winnie ed. Towards a Chinese Feminist Theology Collection from Asian Chinese Feminist Theology Seminar. Hong Kong: Lutheran Theological Seminary, 1988. Katoppo, Marianne. Compassionate and Frees An Asian Women's Theology. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1979. Kim, Yong Bock ed. Minjung Theology. Singapore: Christian Conference of Asia, 1981. King, Ursula ed. Feminist Theology from the Third World. New York: Orbis Books, 1994. Korean Association of Women Theologians. "Feminist Theological Lighting on Goddess Image Imposed in Korean Folks Beliefs." In God's Image, (September 1990)48-52. Kwok, Pui-lan. Discovering the Bible in the Non-Biblical World. New York: Orbis Books, 1995. Kwok, Pui-lan. Chinese Women and Christianity 1860-1927. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992. Kwok, Pui-lan. "Business Ethics in the Economic Development of Asia: A Feminist Analysis." Asian Journal of Theology, 9:1 (April 1995)133-145. Kwok, Pui-lan. " Speaking from the Margins." Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion,

20 8(Fall 1992)102-105. Kwok, Pui-lan. "Claiming Our Heritage: Chinese Women and Christianity."International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 16(Oct. 1992)150-153. Lee, Archie C. C. "Cross Textual Hermeneutics on Gospel and Culture." Asian Journal of Theology, 10:1(1996)38-48. Lee, Oo Chung et al ed. Women of Courage n Asian Women Reading the Bible. Seoul: Asian Women's Resource Centre for Culture & Theology, 1992. Leonard, Joan. "Teaching Introductory Feminist Spirituality." Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 6(Fall 1990)123. McKim, D. K. ed. A Guide to the Contemporary Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1986. Moltmann-Wendel, Elisabeth. A Land Flowing with Milk and Honey: Perspectives on Feminist Theology. London: SCM Press, 1986. Mowry Lacugna, Catherine ed. Freeing Theology n The Essentials of Theology in Feminist Perspective. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993. Radford Ruether, Rosemary. Gala & God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing. London: SCM Press, 1992. Radford Ruether, Rosemary. "Goddesses and Witches: Liberation and Countercultural Feminism." The Christian Century, (September 10-17, 1980)842-847. Russell, Letty M. ed. Feminist Interpretation of the Bible. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. In Memory of Her. New York: Crossroad, 1994. Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. Bread Not Stone. Boston: Beacon Press, 1984. Schussler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. But She Said. Boston: Beacon Press, 1992. Song, Choan-Seng. The Compassionate God. London: SCM Press, 1982. Song, Choan-Seng. Third-Eye Theology. New York: Orbis Books, 1979. Song, Choan-Seng. Tell Us Our Names. New York: Orbis Books, 1984. Song, Choan-Seng. Theology from the Womb of Asia. London: SCM Press, 1988. Song, Choan-Seng. Jesus & the Reign of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993. Song, Choan-Seng. The Tears ofLadyMeng. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1981. Sugirtharajah, R. S. ed. Frontiers in Asian Christian Theology. New York: Orbis Books, 1994. Sugirtharajah, R. S. ed. Voices from Margin. New York: Orbis Books, 1991. Suh, D. Kwang-sun. Theology, Ideology and Culture. Hong Kong: World Student Christian Federation Asia/ Pacific Region, 1983. Swidler, Leonard. "What Christianity can Offer AsiafiEspecially China in the Third Millennium." ChingFeng, 37(1994)111-146. The Programme for Theology & Cultures in Asia ed. Doing Theology with Asian Resources (PICA). Hong Kong: PICA, 1993. Yeo, Khiok-khng. Between the Female and the Male: Feminist Theology and Hermeneutics(Chinese). Hong Kong: Alliance Bible Seminary, 1995.

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