I..Emergency Management

~. .. ~ .. ~.~ ~~ produced by Emergency ~ana~ementAustralia Vol 14 No 3 Spring 1999

~~~ ~ . ~ .~ ~~ -.- ~~ . In this issue ... 'Vh 'Ecological emergencies' and resource and environmental baa~AV management by Stephen Dovers and Tony Norton baa When is a fire an ecological emergency? VAL7 by Ross A Bradstock and A Malcolm Gill

, Vo Ecological impacts of flood mitigation and drainage $29 in coastal lowlands by Ian White, Lance Heath and Mike Melville

Assessing the risk associated with importing and keeping exotic vertebrates in Australia by Mary Bomford and Quentin Hart

Blue green algal blooms: a preventable emergency? baa QaV by John Whittington

,Vb DGO in remembrance: post-disaster rituals and symbols ~AV by Anne Eyre baa lmpad of landslides in Australia to June 1999 QAv by Marion Michael-Leiba

/ Vo Disasters as Heuristics? A case study baa A by Dr Simon Bennett -on Managing volunteers Dad QAV by Major General B W Howard AD MC

.% New thinking on disasters; the link between safety culture baaonv and risk-taking by CJ Pitzer

/% Controlling crisis chaos DGa QAV by Ross Campbell

/ % Media coverage of mass death: not always unwelcome Dad UAV by Joseph Scanlon and Conrad McCullum Using cyberspace to enhance disaster mitigation, planning baa and response: opportunities and limitations QAV by Dr Henry W Fischer NI Plus . . . Book reviews Conference announcement Disaster Events calendar EMA Update Centre pages ,I

Front cover: Main Image - important forest habitat destroyed by fire bhoto: TNorton) Other Images - desf~ctionoiimportant hab~lalccan threaten mre nnectar feeding birds andsmall mammals; bushfires threatening hnportanl natural features, human 11leand properly (photos: I Williams) / The 61\

Australian \,, %, /\ Journal of / '- L1 \, Ecological emergencies Emergen'tyO-' in Australia: issues and I Management 1 challenges for environmental The Australian Joumal of Emergency Manage- ment is published by the Australian Emergency Management Institute, Mt Macedon, Victoria, and emergency management ~ustiia.Funding for publication isprovided by Emergency Management Australia. The journal's cirrulation is 51 00 copies, distributed agencies without charge to subscribers throughout Australia. it is also sent to people throughout the world. , nvironmental change, and many ecological perspectives. The term 'environ- me joumai endeavours to provide an infor- -emergencies and hazards often mental emergencies' (and environmental mation sharingforum for all those involved in have their roots in basic features risk) has been avoided as this is generally E of the Australian environment- taken to refer primarily to pollution emergency management Contributions relating to Australian and international emergency droughts, flooding rains and wildfires- episodes (eg. chemical or oil spills, fires activities, artlcles identifying and discussing and a failure of humans to recognise and at factories) and mostly to situations where ; issues, policies, planning o/ procedural con- accommodate these features. Climatic humans or their property are the primary cerns, researh reports and any other infor- I mation relevantto the emergency and disaster variability, especially in precipitation, is concerns. For the purposes of this forum : management community are welcome. one enormously important feature. The 'ecological emergencies' are defined as legacy of the evolutionary history of the sudden-onset events where the subject is The aim of this publication is the exchange of , I., ~nfonnation and views aaoss the Australian Australian continent is another feature, non-human, such as biological diversity, an I emergency management community, therefore, 8 since Australia is the only rich country ecosystem, a species, or a river system. In , theviews expressed in this journal should not considered 'mega-diverse' in biological an ecological emergency, humans or human be taken to be the views of Emermcy-. diversity. Another feature is a European property may also be threatened, but the Management Australia. history of extraordinarily poor environment threat may be only to non-human entities. This journal incorporates a review process. management. Of note is the impact of The papers represent one of the out- Three levels of review-refereeing, editorial humansonecosystems and their biota, and comes of a national workshop: Planning board review and editing-are conducted. on important biophysical and ecological for Ecological Emergencies that was held Material submitted for publication should be on at the Australian Emergency Management diskand reachthe Editor by thefoliowlngdates: processes-the foundations of natural I systems. In the absence of management Institute, Mt Macedon, Victoria during Summer - October 15V1; Autumn - January i 15th; Winter- April 15th; Spring - July 15th. ! reform, as environmental change continues 9-1 I September 1998. We are very grateful me editorial committee resewes the right to i we can expect these features to manifest to the Institute for their support to determine the suitability of ail material , and produce more ecological surprises conduct this meeting. submitted and where necessary lo edit ! and situations that threaten the persistence submissions. of key ecological systems. At threat is the By Stephen Dovers, Tony Norton and Articles for publication may be I remaining natural heritage of Australia, as John Handmer forwarded to: well as human life and property. Dr Stephen Dovers is a Research Fellow Rob fleming This expectation, not to mention the at the Australian National University, Editor increase in the number and significance ACT; Tony Norton is NRS Professor of Australian Emergency Management InstitUte Main Road of ecological impacts and crises during the Spatial Information Science at RMlT Mt Macedon. Victoria 3441 past two decades, raises many questions: University, Victoria; and lohn Handmer Tel: (03) 5421 5100; Fax: (03) 5421 5272 What are the relationships and connections is professor of ceograph; at Middlesex Email: [email protected] between environmental/ecological mana- University, Enfield, United Kingdom. I Subscriptions gement and emergency management in / if you wish to be placed on our mailing list Australia? Can these connections he Apology please contact Rob Fleming, Australian employed to improve environmental I wish to mint out thal the lead artide in the last / Emergency Management institute,at the above management, especially the management Isrue of tie journal by Roger Douglas of the W~aol address. of ecological emergencies? Can emergency d Law and Lwl Studls at Lauobe Lniverslly on I '~dministmtive~bwand Response to ~rnergencies' 1 Journal design and production by management operations be improved to did not contaln the required references. l3is was Dianne Treble avoid unnecessary impacts on the natural an oversight In the Vansfening of material to the 1 Publishin!? innoMtions environment? How can greater interaction desktotoo ~ubllshlnk?stace. To be able to access the RSD 81 3Spnng HIII. Viciona 3444

.~ -- ~. .. - -~~ . . . he purpose of this and the other economic dimensions of problems, and by Stephen Dovers, Centre for Resource and ;articles'constitutes is toan discuss 'ecological what the (proposed) treatment of these in T Environmental Studies, The Australian an integrated fashion (i.e. environ- \ National University; andTony Notton, ' ' emergency', and to consider mental issues cannot be treated as a some of the key linkages between environ- Department of Land Information, discrete, separate policy and mana- mentallecological management and RMlT University gement area). Especially important has

.~~ - .. ~ . emergency management in Australia. To been the close linking of environment dothis, thearticle provides someecological and development; have diminished-especially those of and environmental management context recognition of the need to address limited or specialised distribution or as background to the discussion. We argue deeper causes and wider contexts (e.g. those located in parts of the landscape that both fields have much to offer each reducing waste streams andlor resource also attractive to human use. Ofsignificant other in terms of insight to improve the use rather than just cleaning up after- concern is the impact of humans on quality of planning and management. wards; protecting biological diversity important ecological processes-the Moreover, emergency management agen- across entire landscapes, not just in foundations of natural systems. These cies have a vital role to play in regard to the reserves; or managing land and water ecological processes include nutrient management of ecological emergencies in issues across whole catchments in an cycles, climate processes, hydrological Australia.The connections between the two integrated way); cycles and pollination. This concern shifts tields need to be identified and developed recognition of global dimensions and attention from traditional 'nature conser- to maximise opportunities for improved linkages with many issues, such as vation' and single threatened species management. biodiversity or climate change; concerns, to a more fundamental level of Environmental change, and many increased importance attached to non- system health. emergencies and hazards, have at least market values of environmental resour- some of their roots in basic features of Resource and environmental ces, such as aesthetic and cultural, but the Australian environment, such as policy and management in Australia especially of 'ecosystem services' like droughts, flooding rains and wildfires. Australia's modern history of environ- clean water, genetic diversity, nutrient Climatic variability, especially in precipi- mental management began soon after cycles, soil protection or climate tation, is one enormously important and European occupation, with regulations amelioration; well-recognised feature. Of ecological dealing with water quality and timber the search for new policy and mana- importance are generally nutrient poor harvesting prior to 1800,'Through the 19th gement approaches to supplement soils, and long periods of evolutionary century, policy and management activity traditional regulatory and educational isolation (van Oosterzee 1995). These and dealing with issues such as water and approaches. other factors have resulted in a rather forests, and a little with urban environ- Some basic principles of ESD, including unique suite of ecosystems and species, mental quality, was evident. More elaborate the need for environmental-social- with patterns offrequency and abundance systems of policy, management and economic integration, the precautionary of plants and animals, and linkages to the regulation were not put in place until this principle and community participation, non-living environment, that are peculiarly century. Frawley (1994) characterises the have not only been avowed in policy, but Australian. Australia is the only rich trend as from 'exploitative pioneering', have been expressed or referred to as country considered 'mega-diverse' in through 'wise use' of natural resources for statutory objects and guiding principles biological diversity (biodiversity), and a national development, to 'environmen- in some seventy Australian laws.* rare case where one political jurisdiction talism'. Currently, all three are still recog- In recent years in Australia, there has covers and entire continent (Common nisable. In the past few decades, we have been a major period of development of and Norton 1992. Dovers and Williams, moved from a concentration on fairly national (including the Commonwealth, in press). Yet rates of loss and degradation simple nature conservation and end-of- of species and ecosystems have been high pipe pollution control, to an attempt at Notes: since European settlement, due to habitat much more integrated approaches. This 1. Before thls, of course, indigenous Australians managed alteration (esp. land clearance and land began in earnest with the 1983 National lhe environmend, especially through the use of fire, and use change), predation and competitive Conservation Strategy, but was more fully indigenous knowledge and tradiUon is being increasingly interference by introduced weeds and discussed and developed during the 1990s recognised and drawn upon in resource and pests, and competition with and disp- under the title 'Ecologically Sustainable environmental management. 2. The precautionary principle is relevant here, stating lacement by domestic stock (SEAC 1996). Development'or ESD. More recent approa- lhai lack of scientific certainty should not be used as an Some native species have increased due ches have some core features, including: exme 10 postpone environmental protection measures. to human-induced changes, but the bulk the linking of ecological, social and suggesting more proactive or preventative approaches.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management stateslterritories and sometimes local of state involvement through measures humans or human property may government) policies and approaches, such as outsourcingand corporatisation, also be threatened, but the threat generally formulated with the involve- and the application of market-based may be only to non-human entities. ment of stakeholders, including: policy instruments (often more in This is not to underplay the importance National Strategy for Ecologically theory than practice-Eckersley 1995; of threats to humans, but to shift the focus Sustainable Development; Dovers & GuUett 1999); so as to better consider what sharp events National Strategy for the Conservation a move away from regulation, towards mean for natural systems, and whether and of Australia's Biological Diversity; volunteerism, self-regulation, codes of how we should be concerned about that. National Forest Policy Statement; practice and agreements; The definition may be centred on the National Greenhouse Response Strategy; a large move towards community system threatened, or the source or kind - National Rangelands Strategy; participation and involvement, by rural, ofthreat. Oil spills in ecologically valuable National Waste Minimisation Strategy; urban, remote and indigenous com- areas remote from human populations are Oceans Policy; munities, in environmental manage- a well established example, as are water National Decade of Landcare plan; and ment and monitoring (the more inc- pollution events (e.g. fish kills from Commonwealth Wetlands Policy. lusive mode of national policy develop- chemical accidents, or from exposed acid These are supported by literally hund- ment of the 1980s-early 90s, however, sulphate soils). Remnant vegetation and reds of subsidiary policy programs, such has diminished in the past few years). habitats (in urban or rural areas) are open as the many funded through the Natural This community dimension is most well to threats, such as fireor pollutionepisodes. Heritage Trust, and the states and ter- known through Landcare, but there are Rare species are another vulnerable part ritories have a complex raft of policies many other programs; of the environment, and are susceptible to, and laws as well. Australian policies match increasingu use of risk assessment and for example, an outbreak of disease or of major international policies and con- management approaches (but certainly introduced plants or animals. Inland ventions, including Agenda 21, the little agreement as to their usefulness), streams and coastal estuaries are Convention on Biological Diversity, the and more attention to policy and particularly vulnerable also. Framework Convention on Climate decision making in the face of un- A key point is that ecological emer- Change and the Convention on Deserti- certainty; gencies are sharp manifestions resulting fication. In terms of substantive environ- a strong regional focus in planning, from underlying processes and phenom- mental issues that are topical at present, policy implementation and program ena. One part of the underlying condition the following comprise the great bulk of delivery; will always he the variable nature of the the current policy agenda: much greater use of sophisticated Australian environment, and this is . greenhouse and climate change computer-based models and decision important to recognise, but more impor- (international coordination of res- support systems to underpin policy and tant from a management and policy ponses, impacts, and policy options management; perspective will be the additional impacts especially concerning energy use and an emerging interest in the longer term on natural systems, above the background land clearance); institutional and informational under- variability, resulting from human actions conservation of biodiversity, both on pinnings of 'adaptive, learning' policy and institutions. processes and management regimes and off-reserves, with emphasis on land Connections clearing, the impact of introduced (but little evidence of their creation so There appears to be a number of levels species, degradation of inland streams, far) (Dovers and Mobbs 1997). of connection between environmental and and the possible implications of climate In the final part of this paper, it is emergency management, and thus bases change; suggested that these trends closely match for closer engagement between the two land degradation, including soil erosion, recent developments in emergency fields of policy and practice. We propose acidification and salinisation; management. three categories (the following is explored resource conflicts in forests, between further in Dovers 1998a, 1998b) extractive, conservation and other Defining ecological emergencies values; The term 'environmental emergencies' Substantive interactions water allocation conflicts, between (and environmental risk) is generally The most obvious connection between extractive, environmental and other taken to refer primarily to pollution the two fields of policy and practice is 'at uses; episodes (e.g. chemical or oil spills, tires the coalface', or rather at the fire front, use and management of the marine at factories) and mostly to situations the chemical spill, the flood, etc. realm and the coastal zone; where humans or their property are the Bushfire is probably the most well improving industrial 'metabolism', primary concerns. Most discussion of known case (and one not without conflict through more efficient production 'ecological emergencies' between environmental and emergency processes and waste management and relates to international environmental law managers, both operationally and with minimisation; and policy, referring to situations where respect to policy goals). Pollution episodes - urban environmental protection, espe- countries have some responsibility to (spills, releases) are another, where threats cially regarding city air quality. inform each other of major spills or to both humans and the environment Some major policy trends have been incidents. For the purposes of this article coincide, and where both professions will evident in recent years in the resource we propose that: meet, set immediate priorities and make and environmental field. These have Pcological emergencies'are sudden- decisions. ' , influenced policy and management styles onset events where thesubject is non- Other 'parts' of the environment such and the sorts of policy instruments used human, such as biological diversiry, as inland waterways, remnant vegetation across all these issues, and include: an ecosystem, a species, or a river areas and estuaries are subject to sharp - 'marketisation', being both the reduction system. In an ecological emergency, onset events-floods, cyclones, wind storms, nutrient pollution and associated many recent changes in emphasis in (e.g. different management styles, institu- algal blooms-but the emergency- resource and environmental management tional and procedural standards, or ecological linkages are probably less (table I). information systems) to be addressed if recognised. One question is: can the two In environmental management, the connections are to be created to support sets of imperatives-human needs and increase in community-based programs, improved environmental, ecological and natural system needs-be reconciled attention to causes rather than symptoms, emergency management in Australia. better well before emergencies or sharp and emphasis on whole-catchment or References onset events occur? cross-landscape approaches are equiva- Common M.S. and Norton T.W. 1992, lent to what Salter describes. So there are Common causes and problem types 'Biodiversity: its conservation in types of problems shared. Also, both fields At a deeper level ecological change, Australia', Ambio, Vol 21, pp 258-65. are adapting to the risk management whether slow or rapid, and emergencies Deville A. and Harding 1997,Applying standard ASINZS 4360:1995 (see Salter 1998 R. have similar causes. Generally they both on emergency management; and there is the precautionary principle, Federation arise from interactions between environ- Press, Sydney. a Standards Australia working group mental variability, human behaviour and Dovers S. 1998a,'Community involve- compiling a handbook for applying the human institutions. Policy problems in standard to environmental management). ment in environmental management: sustainability such as biodiversity, climate thoughts for emergency management', Recent court cases and literature change and land degradation exhibit Australian Journal of Emergency revolving around application of the features that make them different in both Management, Vol 13(2), pp 6-1 1. 'precautionary principle' are of interest to kind and degree from many other areas Dovers S. 1998b'Sustainability as policy emergency management (e.g. Dovers and of public policy and administration. problem and institutional task, and Handmer 1995, Deville and Harding 1997, Some of these features are: connections with emergencies and broadened, deepened and highly varia- Gullett 1997). In both areas, the opposing notions of resilience and vulnerability are hazards', Paper presented to Sustainability, ble scales of space and time; Globalisation and Hazards: Enhancing being explored, and the different interp- quite often irreversible and typically Community Resilience, 20-22 May, retations of these terms within risk1 cumulative impacts; Middlesex University. hazards and ecology need to be clarified. complexity and connectivity between Dovers S. and Gullett W. 1999, 'Policy Both environmental management and problems; choice for sustainability: marketisation, emergency management are constantly pervasive risk and uncertainty; law and institutions', in: Bosselman K. and adapting to a changed environment of problematic moral dimensions (rights Richardson B. (eds.) Environmentaljustice public policy and administration involving of other species, future generations); and market mechanisms, Kluwer Law market-led reform, competition policy, causes embedded deeply in patterns of International, London. - public sector cuts, and new performance production and consumption, gover- expectations (Dovers and Gullett 1999, Dovers S. and Handmer 1. 1995, nance and human settlement; Kouzmin and Korac-Kakabadse 1999). 'Ignorance, the precautionary principle, strong demands for community invo- and sustainability', Ambio,Vol24, pp 92-7. The connections between the two fields lvement; Dovers S. and Mobbs C. 1997, 'An are both real and potential, and both the novelty and unfamiliarity of policy alluring prospect? Ecology, and the positive (i.e. opportunities for coor- and management problems. requirements of adaptive management', dination and cooperation) and perhaps One field of policy and management in Klomp N. and Lunt I. (eds.) Frontiers negative (i.e. clashes in mission, possible that does share many, if not most, of these in Ecology, Elsevier, London. institutional gaps). We believe that both attributes is emergency management. Dovers S. and Williams (in press), fields have much to offer each other in I. This suggests that some degree of two- 'Implementing the Convention on terms of insight to improve the quality of way learning from experience should be Biological Diversity: the Australian planning and management. Moreover, possible, which would require institu- experience', Ambio. emergency management agencies have a tional and practical linkages. Eckersley R. (ed.) 1995, Markets, thestate vital role to play in regard to the potential and the environment. Macmillan, Similar policy and management trends future management of ecological emer- Melbourne. Given the above, there are some obvious gencies in Australia. The connections Frawley K. 1994, 'Evolving visions: parallels between the two fields in terms between the two fields need to be explored environmental management and nature of current trends and approaches. Salter's and exploited to maximise opportunities conservation in Australia', in Dovers S. (1998) summary ofchanges in emergency for improved management. However, this (ed.) Australian environmental history. management could just as easily describe will require some potential barriers Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Gullett W. 1997, 'Environmental protection and the 'precautionary principle': a response to scientific Hazards Wlnembilily uncertainty in environmental Reactive Proactive management', Environmental and Single agendes Partnerships Planning Law Journal, Vol 14, pp 52-69. Science driven Multidisdplinaty Kouzmin A. and Korac-Kakabadse N. Response management Riskmanagement 1999,'From efficiency to risk sensitivity: Planning forcommunlties Planning wiUlcommunities reconstructing management capabilities Communicating locommunities Communicating wlfhcommunities after economic rationalism', Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Vol WeI: hangs in emphasis in resource and envimnmental management 14(1) pp 8-19. b 4 Australian Journal of Emergency Management Salter J. 1998,'Risk management in th' lergency management context stralian Journal of En~ergenc, ~nagement,Vol12(4), pp 22-8. Emergency Law by Michael Ebum That makes this book a useful reference State of the Environment Advisor for policy and lawmakers. At the least uncil, 1996, Australia: state of th The Federation Press, Sydney, 1999, 204pp,A$29.95 some attention needs to be given by vironment 1996, CSIRO, Melbourne. government to such questions as: the tan Oosterzee P. 1991, The Centre: th Reviewed by Hugh Selby extent to which assistance can be given to tural history ofAustralia's desert region! children over the parents' refusal; when a ed Books, Sydney. Legal Workshop, Law Faculty, ANII, [email protected], ph: 02 6249 5720 doctor is not 'at work' what, if any, are the requirements upon doctors to assist a Apparently there are no reported cases person in trouble; what is the positive of anyone being sued for voluntarily meaning (it has been defined negatively providing first aid or medical services at as 'without any indirect or improper an emergency. The law, as author Michael motive') of the term 'good faith' and how Eburn concludes, welcomes rescuers and does it affect the application of provisions wishes to protect the Good Samaritan. in legislation which attempt to shut out a claim for damages against an emergency Third World Conference Nevertheless fear persists; e.g. among doctors, that if they stop at an accident worker and their organisation; and, let's for the International and help then they will be successfully try and enter the next century and greet the Olympics with regulations in NSW Society for Traumatic sued for their troubles. Explaining away that fear and presenting a comprehensive that are not inconsistent and do not refer Stress Studies. analysis of the law as it applies to help to an ambulance wagon (sic). given in an emergency-be that first aid, The long-term outcomes of medical, fire, other disaster-is the trauma in individuals and society successful purpose of this book. Water in Australia: Resources and It's a delight to read a book which deals Management by David lngle Smith March 16 - 19,2000 so clearly with important legal concepts Carlton Crest, Melbourne, Australia is the driest inhabited such as consent, assault, trespass, duty of continent. It also has the most variable Australia care, proximity, negligence, good faith rainfall and runoff. This poses unique actions, and liability exclusion clauses. problems for the management of the The themes of this conference The presentation is straightforward, easy nation's water resources. will include, amongst others, to follow, and much helped by the use of Water in Australia outlines the nature understanding the context of examples to which readers can readily of the resource, past management trauma, how people heal with and relate. Anyone working in the emergency practices, policy, and the outlook for without therapy, factors that field, be they professional or volunteer, the future. The opening chapter increase or lessen the risk of will be able to grasp why it's safe in addresses the issue of how much water adverse outcome, and the Australia to be a reasonable rescuer. there is, and where it is located. relationship of basic research to Of course, no one should be surprised Subsequent chapters answer the clinical practice. that being a rescuer is not a ticket to be following questions: How usable is it? indifferent to all else. For example, the Does our pattern of floods and droughts The conference will be of benefit drivers of emergency vehicles take greater mean we have too much, or too little? to psychiatrists, psychologists, risks when with lights flashing and siren How did we get where we are now? How counsellors, students, social blaring they negotiate traffic at higher are we doing? Where are we going? workers, educators, nurses, than 'normal' speed. With those higher For the first time, the quantity, quality, advocates, physicians and risks comes the requirement that they use and policy associated with water lawyers. Delegates may come exercise greater care. resources in Australia are described in from a variety of clinical and non Unfortunately, sometimes the rescuer a single text. Over a hundred figures clinical settings including private becomes victim and then there is the and diagrams elucidate the text and practice, public and private issue of who will compensate them. The photographs illustrate various aspects of health facilities, universities, discussion of the general principles that the history and infrastructure of water in social service agencies and apply to rescuer claims is very useful- Australia. The book is approximately 400 research foundations. particularly as it is not a mainstream topic pages and can be ordered online via the for traditional law studies. It is reassuring Oxford University Press web site at: Contact details: that a rescuer, acting under of the pressure www.oup.com.au, or by mail to: The Conference Organizer of emergency, is unlikely to lose their PO Box 214 claim because they took some risks as Oxford University Press Brunswick East VIC 3057 they went to the aid of another. GPO Box 2784Y Ph: 61 3 9380 1429 Michael Eburn has done rather more Melbourne VlC 3001 Fax: 61 3 9380 2722 than just meet the needs for reassurance Ph: 03 9934 9122 Fax: 03 9934 9100 Email: [email protected] by those in the field. He covers both the Email: [email protected] Web: www.istss.org legislation right around Australia and The price for this publication is court decisions both here and abroad. currently A$52 plus freight of $7.50. When is a fire an ecological emergency?

Introduction have populations that are strongly shape Bushfires are spectacular events which by Ross A Bradstock, Biodiversity Survey by fires. Established plants are typicall have the power to catch the common 8 Research Division, NSW National Parks killed by fires, so that recovery is deper imagination. Most people, whether they and Wildlife Service and A Malcolm Gill, dent on germination from stores of seed, live in the city or country, have knowledge Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Post-fire germinants eventually grow an and opinions about bushfires. A smaller CSlRO Plant Industry. become mature, thus replenishing see proportion of the population has direct stores and the regenerative capacity ( experience of fires, including those who the population. In extreme circumstance have defended lives and property (their such a problem would occur if that fire a fire may re-occur before maturatio own or those of others). Our perceptions created an adverse fire interval perhaps (i.e. during the'juvenile period'), resultin of bushfires are strongly shaped by direct with an adverse fire type or intensity in in extinction (Gill and Bradstock 1995 experiences or for the vast majority, an inappropriate season. The fire regime The juvenile period in seeder-type plar indirect experiences portrayed through consists of four components: fire type, species has been the focus of considerabl media. Extreme conflagrations (e.g. 1939, frequency,intensity and season (Gill 1975). research, especially as such species forr 1983 in Victoria; 1968,1994 in NSW, 1961 For most ecosystems a broad range of a prominent component of the Australia in WA; 1967 in Tasmania) have had a fire regimes are possible. Individual vegetation (Gill and Bradstock 1995). strong influence on popular thinking and species are able to cope with some fire In a similar but not identical vein ar the development of formal fire manage- regimes but not others. Inability to cope animal species whose occurrence may b ment policies and practices. A common may mean extinction for a species in a restricted to a particular time stage aft6 perception is that all or some fires are landscape depending on the scale of any any particular fire. A prominent exampl disasters in ecological terms. The media adverse regime. is the arboreal marsupial, Leadbeatel routinely reports that the bush is The notion of the fire regime im- Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), 'destroyed' by fire, especially at the time mediately indicates that fire effects are hollow-dependent dweller in tall moi: of large, intense conflagrations. One well not merely the result of one-off events, eucalypt forests of southern Australi; intentioned but mistaken outcome of this but rather, due to recurrent disturbances These animals require hollows in tref is the beliefthat the bush must be actively with additive or other modifying effects for nesting, but suitable hollows ar rehabilitated or replanted following fires. on biological populations. Recurring fires usually not available until trees reac Some fires may precipitate an ecological interact with fundamental processes such about 190 years of age (Lindenmayc crisis but it follows that not all fires cause as survival and reproduction in popula- 1996). Part of the reason for this is th; such crises. How do we distinguish those tions. The ability to survive and regain the dominant trees in such forests (e.1 fires that could be ecologically deleterious regeneration capacity after a particular Eucalyptus regnans) are seeder specie, from those that aren't? This paper explores fire determines the likely response to the Such trees may have a juvenile period an some of the basic concepts that may be next. Timing of subsequent fires, in life-span of about 20 and 400 year used to answer this fundamentalquestion. biological terms is therefore crucial. respectively. Trees have to reach a suitab! We then outline measures that may be The most notable example of this are size for hollows to form. A fire interv; taken to integrate such concepts into plants termed 'seeders'. Seeder species for tree-killing fires of 20-50 years woul contemporary management of bushfires, from both the planning and suppression angles. I Possible deleterious effects of fires Possible deleterious effects of fires : .. * A range of deleterious ecological effects extinction of species (scale an issue) are listed in Table I. The list is indicative visible injury and death of 'charismatic' animals but may not be exhaustive and involves peat fires the perceptions of observers including the general public. Any of these effects may result from the passage of an indivi- changed water yield and quality dual fire through a landscape but we increased erosionlsedimentation emphasize that the state and context of the landscape at the time of fire is the key loss of visual amenity to understanding whether problems will loss of recreational use ensue. introduction of weedslferals etc. to local areas How would a single fire precipitate any of these problems? In the case of extinc- tion or loss of a species from a landscape, Table 1: Possible out~omecof Iim lhal may be perceived as conslilutiag an ecologiical emergency

Australian Journal of Emergency Management allow the tree species to persist at a site concern of managers charged with on the immediate consequences of the but not the hollow dependent mammals. responsibility to conserve biodiversity, we 'event') with more complex ecological Note that a fire frequency of <20 years have noted other important ecological considerations (the fire regime), particu- would result in elimination of both trees processes and properties in Table 1 that larly during suppression of major fires? and mammals. may be ofconcern to many land managers. Here we argue that it is possible to achieve The example can be further used to Rates of erosion, sedimentation and water this by the implementation of simple highlight the gap between common yield may, for example, be important in systems for planningand decision support. perceptions of fire as a disaster and natural and semi-natural landscapes that Such systems may be relevantly applied contemporary scientific knowledge. Fires are managed for water supply. Again, the during phases of disaster management in tall moist forests often include sectors nature of the fire regime and thus the (e.g. Preparedness, Response and Recovery, of high intensity during periods of 'system-state' will be a paramount concern Paul 1999 or 'before', ' during and 'after'). drought (e.g. in 1939). The resultant scene in assessment of the impact of any real or Key elements of the preparedness is one of apparent disaster, with expanses potential fire. For example, the tall moist phase are: use of appropriate ecological of dead trees seemingly devoid of animal eucalypt forests described in the prior decision-support methods; compilation life. The temptation to portray the example serve as water-supply catchments of knowledge of the distribution of transformation from living to dead as a in the hinterlands of Melbourne. Water biodiversity and fire regimes; and the disaster is understandable. Trees and yield from such forests declines as trees annual formulation of strategies which animals can die but the reality is that if regrow and re-establish their dominance spell out what fire regimes are currently such a fire occurs in mature forest of an (Langford 1975). Yield gradually returns desirable based on the state of the system. appropriate age then it is likely that the to near maximal levels as forests gain Ecological decision support can take a species will persist. In fact, a true disaster development and stature. The recovery number of forms. One approach is to would occur if a fire happened not when period may be 35 years or more (Langford prepare guidelines that summarise plants were mature, but immature (i.e. 1975). Repeated fires at short intervals ecological knowledge about appropriate lacking regeneration capacity). Similarly (eg< 20 years) at acatchment scale would or inappropriate fire regimes in some a high intensity fire in a mature forest be disastrous for biodiversity (see above) usable form. Another approach is to containing possums will not be a disaster and water yield. Note that the yield implement monitoring systems, on the provided that some part of the forest reduction is a function of time after fire ground, that are targeted at critical events containing animals is unburnt and those and so is linked with the intervals between such as time of first flowering in plants or animals can later reach the burned area fires as well. the development of habitat structure. Gill when suitable habitat is available. Adisaster In summary, the state of the system, and Nicholls (1989) describe an ongoing would occur (loss of possums from the namely the set of fire regimes that prevail approach for plants which may be used landscape) if all sites containing possums in a landscape, pre-conditions the respon- to discriminate parts of a landscape in had their habitat destroyed. This could ses of biodiversity and ecosystem proces- which vegetation may be able to cope happen if all the possums were confined ses to any particular fire. Awareness of this with a fire from those parts which are not to hollows in dead trees and a fire fundamental principle and the concept of in such a condition. Note that these consumed all the dead trees. We have used fire regimes is a mandatory pre-requisite methods can be complementary, not the example of these forests to illustrate for decision-making and evaluation of mutually exclusive. the importance of understanding the fire ecological effects of any fire. To apply the above methods effectively, regime. Similar, but not identical examples, knowledge is required as to where species can be found in many other Australian A Framework for Decision Making of plants and animals occur in a landscape ecosystems. Commonality of processes It is evident from these examples that the perhaps related to an effective vegetation exists though rates and mechanisms of relevant concepts are subtle an d that map. Similarly, compilation of an overview such processes may differ. practical application requires insight and offire regimes in a landscape is dependent Peat fires perhaps offer a special case knowledge that may be difficult to obtain. on the availability of mapped records of of this extinction scenario. Consumption Furthermore such concepts and back- past fires over some reasonable time of peat eliminates a substrate and ground knowledge do not necessarily frame. This highlights the importance of potential habitat that may have taken mesh well with conventional emergency good records. A logical platform for thousands of years to develop. Thus management of bushfires. How do we assembly of fire maps and fire details is organisms solely dependent on peat as incorporate such considerations into in an effective fire management plan. habitat, or those with all their oroaaaules emergency management and bushfire Plans of this kind are currently being . A- I in peat, will be rendered locally extinct by planning in general? written and implemented in conservation a single fire. The fires of 1960-61 on the Major bushfires are essentially managed reserves in NSW (Conroy et al. 1997, Central Plateau of Tasmania are a case in as destructive events. When human lives Bradstock 1999). A strong ecological fire point. We are told that the peat-fire edge and property are at risk this is justifiable management plan should bring the key can still be seen there today. Three species and understandable. We have briefly elements (i.e. knowledge of fire regimes, of woody plant are believed to have been illustrated above that ecological conse- ecological guidelines etc.) together in a made extinct locally by these fires. Gill quences of such fires cannot be viewed coherent way and should compel the (1996) reviewed the case which he referred simplistically in this manner, despite the manager to annually evaluate the ecological to as 'arguably the most ecologically popular slant portrayed in the media. In status quo within the landscape under his1 significant fire in Australian history'. Thus ecological terms the event has to be her jurisdiction. A good plan should also extensive losses of species from land- managed within the perspective of the fire highlight potential problems that may scapes that may be irreversible, or only regime. How do we meld important result from suppression activities, such as reversible over a long time-frame. considerations of disaster management trail construction, earthworks and the use While extinction is an immediate for human protection (which focus purely of fire-fighting chemicals. Areas of particular sensitivity to these activities problems. Again, part of the recovery Conroy R.J., Burrell J. & Neil R. 1997,'Fire may be identified in advance. Thus any phase may be capable of being dealt with management planning: some recent major fire event is anticipated and critical under the ICS framework. Equally, a initiatives from the New South Wales areas in need of protection from a major platform for many of these activities can National Parks and Wildlife Service', in fire or suppression activities can be be laid in a competent ecological fire Bushfire 97, Proceedings of the Australian identified. It follows from such a process management plan. Bushfire Conference, pp 207-212, Darwin. that the location of critical areas may A postscript to the discussion of Gill A.M. 1975,'Fire and the Australian change from year to year as circumstances the 'recovery phase' is the desire that flora: a review'. Aust. Forestrv.,. Vol 38. change. members of the public have for feeding pp 4-25. During a major fire (the response native animals in the field with introduced Gill A.M. 1996, 'How fires affect bio- i phase) it is crucial that planning is fruits, hay, lawn clippings etc., capturing diversity', in Biodiversity and Fire- the implemented effectively. Contemporary and tending wounded animals in 'refuges'. Effects and Effectiveness of Fire Manage- i management of major fires is now Some authorities desire to carry out ment. Dept. Environment, Sports and accomplished in many parts of Australia expensive 'restorative' or 'preventive' Territories, Canberra, pp 47-55. using the Incident Control System (ICS). actions after, or in anticipation of, erosion Gill A.M. 1999, 'Facets of fire ecology, ICS provides an ideal framework for usingreadily-available introducedgrasses. biodiversity conservation and landscape 1 incorporation of ecological management All of these actions may be inappropriate, patch dynamics', in G. Friend, M. Leonard, considerations into fire suppression. unnecessary or unsatisfactory in conser- A.MacLean and I. Sieler (eds.) Manage- ~ Development of the planning strand of vation reserves but they are actions that ment of Fire for the Conservation of 1 ICS to incorporate roles for ecological need to be considered in the appropriate Biodiversity Workshop Proceedings, ; specialists is required. Such specialists social, geographical and land-use context. Department of Natural Resources and ! would provide the inputs from the Environment and Parks, Melbourne, 1 preparedness phase and help to shape pp 18-21. Conclusions strategies and tactics for suppression that Gill A.M. and Bradstock R.A. 1995. Enlightened management of major fire result in appropriate fire regimes and 'Extinctions of biota by fires', in Bradstock emergencies is dependent on awareness avoid adverse ecological impacts of R.A., Auld T.D., Keith D.A., Kingsford R., of the importance of fire regimes as a suppression activities (i.e. use of MIST- Lunney D. and Sivertsen D. (eds.), powerful influence on ecosystems. Not all Minimal Impact Suppression Techniques, Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and major fires or parts of fires will cause Caling 1998). Solutions, Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, ecological disasters. Disasters will arise There is an urgent need to integrate pp 309-322. when components of fire regimes are mapping of fires into the response phase Gill A.M. and Nicholls A.O. 1989, adverse to theecological values ofthearea. of emergency management. We have 'Monitoring fire-prone flora in reserves A precise knowledge of fire regimes and noted that good maps of fires (areas for nature conservation', in N. Burrows, clearly stated objectives are required to burnt) are integral to planning for L. McCaw and G. Friend (eds.), Fire distinguish when potentially disastrous ecological management. Often, procras- Management on Nature Conservation circumstances may emerge in landscapes. tination defeats good intentions in this Lands, W.A.Dept. C.A.L.M. Occ.Pap.1189, Comprehensive summaries of relevant regard. The longer the task is left, the pp 137-151. ecological knowledge, monitoring sys- . . greater the loss in accuracy. There are Langford K.J. 1975, Change in yield of tems, and knowledge of where plants and obvious practical and financial reasons water following a bushfire in a forest of animals live are prerequisites for assess- for incorporation of mapping into the Eucalyptus regnans, Report MMBW-W-3, ment of fire regimes and decision- routine operational component of ICS. Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of making. Mapping should be part of the mop-up. Works. An ecological fire management system Detailed mapping provides baseline data Lindenmayer D. 1996, Wildlife and should bring together these elements. for fire regimes, and can now be carried Woodchips, University of New South Wales Modern emergency management systems out using differential global positioning Press, Sydney. such as ICS have potential for develop- systems. Aerial photographs or other Paul S. 1999,'UK emergency planning - ment to incorporate ecological planning imagery in association with tree-height the integrated approach', Australian to assist with the management of major maps can assist with the mapping of fire Journal ofEmergency Management, Vol 13, fires. intensities. pp41-49. The 'recovery' phase following major fires is broad-ranging. Basic questions References Author's contact details: include: What fire regimes resulted? What Bradstock R.A. 1999, "Thresholds' for Ross A. Bradsto* Biodiversity Survey 8 Research are the possible effects and how can these biodiversity: the National Parks and Division, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Sewice be verified through monitoring on the Wildlife Service approach to planning of Box 1967 Hurstviile NSW 2220. ground? Execution of monitoring and fire management for conservation', in A MaltolmC.Ii. Cenbefor PlanIBlcd~ers~ryRerearm. feedback of information into planning Sutton F, Keats 1, Dowling I & Doig C (eds.) CSlRO P ant lndunry, Box 1600. Canberra. 2600 should result from attempts to get to grips Proceedings of Bushfire Conference. with these questions. Issues of rehabili- ProtectingtheEnvironment, Land, Lifeand tation and even, in extreme circum- Property, Nature Conservation Council of stances, reintroduction may arise if NSW, Sydney, pp 11-18. circumstances warrant (i.e. adverse fire Caling T.M. 1998, The ecological impacts regimes or effects of suppression). offire suppression and operations in a Analysis, interpretation and monitoring small urban remnant, Deakin University are required to adequately address these BSc. Honours Report.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Ecological impacts of flood mitigation and drainage in coastal lowlands

here are increasing development governments of all persuasions to actively -pressures on the south-eastern by Ian White, Jack Beale Chair of Water encourage coastal floodplain development T,Australian coastal lowlands. The Resources; Lance Heath, Research Student and protection through drainage acts and 1. '' ' clmate of these coastal flood- Water Research Foundation of Austmlia, flood mitigation schemes. plains provides favourable conditions for Centre for Resource and Environmental There is also continuing urban expan- crop and pasture growth but it also causes Studies, Austmlian National University; sion in coastal catchments. About 80% frequent flooding and propagates the and Mike Melville, Assodate Professor, percent of Australians live in the coastal effects of land use changes into streams School of Geography, The University zone, and about 66% of these are concen- rapidly. Government-encouraged drainage of New South Wales trated around large urban centres on and flood mitigation schemes have . . . estuaries and inlets. In the period 1971 altered the hydrologic response time of to 1991 the population of the non- metropolitan coastal zone grew by 95%, coastal catchments, increasing thevolume breach in^ of levees could have long of water and the speed with which it is - - from 2.1 to 4.1 million people, compared lasting- ecological- impacts. with a 32% growth for all of Australia. delivered from floodplains into streams. Government responses have varied. About 25% to 30 %of the coast is subject These, in turn, have increased sediment, Conflicts between farmers and fishers in nutrients and pollutant loads into coastal to increasing development, most of this NSW led to the formation of the multi- concentrated in the south eastern section streams and emhayments. agency Acid Sulfate Soil Management of the country (State of the Environment, Almost all of Australia's coastal embay- Advisory Committee, ASSMAC. The ment and estuarine floodplains are Australia 1996). Rapid coastal growth is effectiveness of the plethora of existing expected to continue over the next five underlain by brackish water sediments, legislation in protecting coastal eco- decades (National Population Council called acid sulfate soils, containing systems in acid sulfate soil areas is 1992). naturally-occurring iron sulfide minerals. questioned and an urgent review of Coastal lowlands are subject to frequent These sediments oxidise when exposed the Drainage Act of 1903 is suggested. flooding and governments have sought to to air producing sulfuric acid. Drainage Institutional impediments to better mitigate flood impacts through drainage, and flood mitigation schemes have floodplain management are identified. stream redesign, levies and floodgates. promoted the partial acidification of most Recent trends in environmental manage- These activities have been extremely NSW coastal floodplains and export of ment and planning towards self- effective in controlling excess water and acidic drainage waters into coastal regulation, 'marketisation', regionalisation promoting productivity and development, streams. Thousands of tonnes of sulfuric and agency downsizing may have adverse but have produced unexpectedly severe acid are exported annually into coastal impacts on coastal areas and should be water quality and ecological problems. streams. The ecological consequences of examined. Finally, changes in attitudes Almost all of Australia's coastal embay- soil acidification and export can be and approaches of governments, agencies severe. Introduced crops and pastures ment and estuarine floodplains are and landholders, which are producing underlain bv brackish water sediments which are not acid-tolerant die or are environmental benefits, offer considerable containing naturally-occurring iron sulfide stunted leaving exposed, bare, acid scalds promise in rectifying the ecological minerals. These sulfides pose no problems which are strongly acidified, right to the impacts of flood mitigation and drainage. surface. Acidic waters exported into provided the sediments remain beneath streams cause massive fish deaths, fish Coastal lowland development, the watertable. When the watertable falls diseases and dramaric changes in aquatic drainage and flood mitigation in below the sulfide layer, either naturally communities. Estuarine reaches can he eastern Australia through evapotranspiration or by drainage rendered sterile for months at a time. Coastal lowlands throughout the world works augmented by levies and floodgates, Aquaculture and estuarine fishing are are under increasing development pres- sulfides oxidise producing sulfuric acid. adversely affected and aquaculture, sures as evidenced by continued clearing Because of this, these sediments, which particularly oysters can be severely of mangroves and draining of wetlands. occur throughout the world, are known as impacted. Lasting impacts on biodiversity In Australia, eastern coastal floodplains acid sulfate soils (Dent 1986). Acid have yet to be documented. These were the first areas to be developed for produced in the soil water attacks soil constitute persistent, recurring ecological agriculture use because of their generally minerals dissolvingaluminium, iron, silica, emergencies, driven by climate, but whose favourable soil, water and temperature manganese and other species and forming causes may be buried in time. They are regimes (King 1948). These favourable a toxic brew harmful to both terrestrial difficult to treat once initiated. Emer- factors and few environmental constraints and aquatic species. Rain causes the export gency procedures such as drainage or to production (Nix 1994) have led of acidic groundwater into streams. Both

Spring 1999 the generation and export of acid water is altered by drainage and flood mitigation. 80 Runoff Coefficients NSW Coastal Rlver! Major ecological impacts result from this export (Brown et 01. 1983, Easton 1989, Callinan eta/. 1993, Sammut et al. 1995, Sammut et al. 1996). Their cause is buried in the past, yet episodic ecological emergencies can continue for decades or centuries. Once started they are difficult to treat because of the large costs and complex social, institutional, legal and political factors. This paper explores the interactions between hydrology, drainage and flood mitigation, acid sulfate soils and their ecological impacts in south-eastern Australia, and examines government response to the ecological emergencies generated and the institutional impedi- ments to addressing them.

Hydrology of coastal catchments Harries (1997) has recently reviewed acid drainage from mines in Australia. He used a climatically-based regional Figure I: Annual runoff coeliidentr for NSW cm5lal catchinen& (Source: NSW DLWq classification scheme similar to that developed by Nix (1994), to identify areas flow, with a coefficient of variability of frequent flooding. This flooding pro- that have the highest potential risk for around 75% (McMahon, etal. 1992). Both pagates the effects of land use changes into exporting materials into surface streams. the long term average runoff coefficients streams rapidly. This export of water can Essentially this is determined by the trade and the extreme rainfall events, as well as lead to episodic ecological emergencies. off between rainfall, P (mm) and evapo- length of dry season, critically determine transpiration, E (mm). Over sufficiently exports of water and pollutants into Flood mitigation and drainage of long time periods, of order a year, the coastal streams. coastal floodplains runoff, R (in mm), from any given area is Landuse changes and flood mitigation Before European settlement coastal floods just the difference between rainfall and works can effect runoff and stream flow resulted in many natural back-swamp evapotranspiration; dramatically. Urbanisation dramatically areas remaining inundated for sometimes increases the runoff coefficient to as half the year. During early settlement, these high as high as 95%. Cropping, forestry, back-swamps were valued for grazing There are two characteristics of rainfall clearing and grazing in areas adjacent to as drought refuges. The government- that influence the overall export of coastal streams have the potential to encouraged development of coastal materials into estuaries. The first is the change the volume, quality and rate of floodplains for agriculture resulted in the ratio of runoff to precipitation, the runoff water entering streams through changes major re-engineering of back-swamps coefficient, C = RIP . Figure 1 shows the to cover, surface soil and stream bank and coastal streams through flood average runoffcoefficient for NSW coastal conditions and evapotranspiration mitigation and drainage" works. Cro~s, rivers. The catchment average runoff regimes. generally, require floodwaters to be coefficients in Figure 1 indicates where The predicted impact of climate removed within five days, so that natural landuse changes may have, potentially, change on flooding and streamflow in floodplains have quite different hydro- most impact. The smaller catchments coastal floodplains is widely and hotly logical characteristics when drained. such as the Brunswick, Bellinger, Bega, debated. In Australia, these predictions Floodplain re-engineering has occurred Hastings and Tweed have relatively high are starting to converge, with quite at two scales. Flood mitigation works have runoff coefficients and we expect that different expected impacts across the been carried out at the floodplain scale landuse changes in those catchments will country. Sea levels are now predicted to and have been designed to divert upland have proportionally more impact on rise by about 0.25 m in the next 50 years flows rapidly through the floodplain. These estuarine water quality and ecology than and in the east, the climate may be drier systems have been designed and built by in streams where the coefficient is less but with more intense rains. The imp- state and local government authorities and than the approximately 27% average for lications for coastal floodplains, eco- have been financed partly through federal NSW coastal catchments. The mean systems and their management remain and state flood mitigation schemes. annual runoff coefficient for Australia as to be elucidated but increased coastal Critical factors here are the ratio of the a whole is only about 8% (Smith 1998). flooding would appear to be a major floodplain area to the upland area and the The second important characteristic of issue (Smith 1998). distribution of rainfall and runoff across rainfall is its variability in time. As a The hydrology of coastal floodplains the catchment. Coastal catchments with consequence of their high rainfall varia- provides favourable conditions for crop smaller floodplain to upland ratios require bility, Australia and South Africa share and pasture growth, but its variability higher drainage densities to cope with the highest variability of annual stream- also generates prolonged dry periods and upland flows. Figure 2 shows these ratios

Australian Journal of Emergency Management shown an amazing number of structures 0.4 Area ratio floodplaln to catchment for NSW coastal catchments in varying degrees of repair. Some floodgates protect land which is below mean sea level. The wisdom of protecting such low-lying areas from what seems to be inevitable inundation seems questionable. Apart from these low-lying regions, floodgates are only needed during flood events and could otherwise remain open. Farmer groups have naturally been wary ofsuch proposals, fearinginundation of land and salinisation of adjoining areas. The inadequacy of floodplain elevation data is an impediment to determining risks of inundation. Current elevation data gives 1 m elevation contours whereas contour intervals of at least 0.1 m are required. Cane farmers on the Tweed River, with the assistance of local govern- ment, haveopened floodgates to allow tidal flushing and fish passage. The impact of a predicted 0.25 m rise in sea level due to climate change within the next 50 years will be significant on all 2: Ratio of flwdpilan area to total wthment area for mami cathmentr in NSW (Source: NSW DWlq low-lying areas of coastal floodplains. A policy response to this expected rise has for New South Wales. Rivers such as the network of smaller individual farm drains. yet to be developed. Clarence, Hunter, Hawkesbury and Drainage is a technical endeavour, Drainage and flood mitigation impose Manning have substantial upstream areas however, most local and farm drains have changes. One way of determining how which contribute both water and exported not been designed, rather they have rapidly land use changes may be expected materials to the lower floodplains and evolved. The existing drainage network in to propagate into surface streams is to estuaries. some areas appears excessive (White et consider the residence times, t (days), of As a result of devastating floods in the a/. 1997). materials in the near stream environment. 1950s, New South Wales became a world There has been confusion on the This is estimated by dividing the storage leader in both floodplain risk mapping function of farm drains, with many volume of the particular environmental and flood mitigation works (Smith 1998). believing that they are necessary to lower compartment , V (m3), by the flux of In the past, flood mitigation works and water tables. Since many of the coastal material, Q (m3/day): indeed most estuarine engineering works crops use groundwater during dry times, have overlooked the ecological conse- excessive lowering of watertables may be quences of drainage, installation of counterproductive. In most cases, the floodgates and levee construction. In proper function of drains is to remove For groundwater in coastal floodplains, NSW, the focus of engineering works is surface water from fields as quickly as a key factor is the storage of material in broadening with State Government possible (White et al. 1997, Wilson et al. the unsaturated zone in the soil. Here Vis projects such as 'Returning the Tide'. 1999). The dense network of drains in typically 20 mm and recharge into this At the more local scale, coastal flood- some floodplains was necessary because zone, Q, can be 800 mmlyear. Equation plains in New South Wales have been of the small undulations of floodplains. (2) therefore gives a residence time of drained by smaller drainage union drains. Laser levelling of floodplain areas now only 9 days. In contrast, for arid inland Drainage unions were set up under the being practised in the sugarcane and tea areas, V can be about 1000 mm and Q Drainage Act of 1903 to empower local tree industries permits better control of approximately 10 mmlyear giving a groups of farmers to drain floodplains surface water, and enables a decrease in residence time of 100 years. Land use cooperatively. Drainage unions are drainage density through the infilling of changes in coastal floodplains are trans- financed through rates from local drains. mitted much more rapidly to streams beneficiaries of drainage. Currently, Floodgates on drains prevent tidal and than in arid areas. The residence time for resources available to drainage unions partial flood ingress into drained areas water in the floodplain with its back- have dwindled and many drainage unions and permit the drainage of land to mean swamp areas has been changed from of have lapsed or their functions have been low tide level. Floodgates also limit fish order 100 days under natural conditions taken over by county councils or local passage to creeks and back-swamp areas to around 5 days under drained and flood governments. There is an urgent need for which were natural feeding and breeding mitigated conditions. In the past, much a review of the NSW Drainage Act. areas in high water periods. Environ- of that water in the undrained back- Manylocal drains have been constructed mental audits and mapping of floodgates swamp areas evaporated, now it is expor- by straightening, widening, deepening, de- have been carried out by NSW Fisheries ted into streams. snagging and floodgating existing and others on the Clarence and Hastings Drainage and flood mitigation schemes meandering, floodplain streams. Drainage Rivers, with other river audits planned have shortened the residence time of union drains are usually connected to a for the near future. These audits have coastal floodplains, increasing the volume

Spring 1999 of water and the speed with which it is I 1 delivered from floddplains into streams. Area ASS for NSW coastal catchments - rivers These, in turn, have increased sediment, I "1 nutrients and pollutant loads into coastal 700. o streams and embayments. P 11 , ' 1 I Acid sulfate soils in NSW 600 .. 10 , I 1 I 1) Australia has over 34,000 km2 of iron I I I I sulfide-rich coastal acid sulfatesoils under a variety of land uses (White et al. 1997). In Australia, recognition of their impor- tance has lagged behind the rest of the world. The first Australian maps, showing their widespread distribution, were only published in 1995 (Naylor et al. 1995) together with guidelines for their manage- ment and use (Blunden and Naylor 1995). Acid sulfate soil maps in NSW are risk maps showing the probability of occur- rence of acid sulfate soils. The highest risk category is where the iron sulfide layer is .5;8k$a,~c,b" +IM3Ea sn52 within 0.5 m of the soil surface (Naylor at 3,: ~2:SzVl r =E~zp~sg~e~ ZG 01. 1995). Figure 3 shows the areas of high isE$Sg$ ~2~~~3~-0 rn e 2 z 5 m 5 r= risk and the estimated total acid sulfate r soils in coastal NSW. @ure 3: Area of high risk and total area of acid sulfate soils In coasfal NSW The area of acid sulfate soils in Fivure0 3 is larger in the northern part of NSW than (Dent 1986). In streams the acidic waters time the average oysters will filter about in the south, reflecting the change in river can have dramatic impacts including: Iml of estuarine and river water. Oysters morphology between coastal embayrnents massive fish deaths (Brown et al. 1983, are mobile for only a brief period in their in the north and flooded river valleys in Easton 1989), fish diseases (Callinan et al. early life, after which they are sedentary. the south. The largest concentration of 1993, Sammut et al. 1995) and dramatic Their feeding habits and life-style therefore high risk soils occurs on the Clarence changes in aquatic communities (Sammut make oysters valuable indicators of water River. Research on the Tweed (Wilson et al. 1996). Estuarine reaches can be quality in our coastal zone. Figure 4 shows 1999) and Richmond Rivers (Sammut et rendered sterile for months at a time. the 50% decline in production of Sydney al. 1996) has found acid production rates Lasting impacts on biodiversity have yet rock oysters overthelast twenty years (data of order 0.1 to 0.3 tonnes sulfuric acid1 to be documented. These in-stream events from NSW Fisheries). hectarelyear together with similar constitute persistent, episodic ecological amounts ofdissolved iron and aluminium. There are many factors that have emergencies. caused the production decline in Figure Some coastal floodplains are capable of Aquaculture is also severely affected. discharging 1,000 tonnes of sulfuric acid 4. Some are demand-side driven, some Oyster production losses in NSW of up to are supply-side driven. Of the supply-side following a single storm event. Once $12 million have beendaimed. lnaddition, oxidised, floodplains can continue to factors, one of the most important is the concrete and steel infrastructure corrosion degradation of water quality in coastal discharge acid water for centuries (White has resulted in costs of over $4 million rivers and estuaries. Significant problems et al. 1997). Floodgates promote the (White et al. 1997). Economic losses of fish formation of acid reservoirs which leak occur after runoff-producing rains are more difficult to estimate because of acidic waters into the downstream especially in acid sulfate soil areas. Direct the mobility of fish and the contributions impacts through shell dissolution in acid environment for months (Sarnmut er al. of extraneous factors such as by-catch, waters has been demonstrated. It has also 1996). Any emergency management over-fishing and habitat destruction. Crop been proposed that devastating oyster procedure which requires the rapid and grazing losses and impacts on human drainage of a lowland area or the diseases, such as QX and winter mortality, health are yet to be determined. breaching of a levy bank should be may be linked to runoff from acid sulfate The Sydney rockoyster has been farmed soils Sammut, personal communication handled with great care since it could (I. for over 130 years in NSW and middens 1998). Oysters are a valuable indicator of cause a persistent acid discharge through indicate they have been eaten for over watertable lowering. the sustainability of coastal development. 8,000 years. The NSW oyster industry is Ecological consequences the state's most va~uable~fisher~and bne Government responses The ecological consequences of soil of Australia's major aquacultural Conflicts between fishers and farmers acidification and export are well docu- producers with production worth around became so intense that the NSW Minister mented. Introduced crops and pastures $30 million. It is a significant regional for Agriculture and Fisheries set up the which are not acid-tolerant can show employer and contributor to coastal Acid Sulfate Soils Management Advisory severe affects. Under extreme conditions, economies. Oysters are filter-feeders who Committee in 1994 to provide government most plants dieleavingexposed, bare, acid extract food from particulate and dis- with advice on the management of acid scalds which are strongly acidified right solved materials in water. They take sulfate soils. Because acid sulfate soils cut to the soil surface. In less extreme cases, between two and a half to three and a half across the jurisdiction of many govern- plant productivity is greatly reduced years to reach market size. During that ment departments,ASSMAC has attempted b l2 Australlan Journal of Emergency Management Waters Act of any recent, deliberate discharge of acidity from acid sulfate soil areas through drainage would send a strong signal to the community The NSW EPA is, at present, bringing to settlement the first successful case on discharge from drains in acid sulfate soils. Previously, the EPA had regarded acid discharge from drains in acid sulfate soil areas as diffuse, rather than point dis- charge and therefore outside the ambit of the Clean Waters Act. Prosecution is seen as a last resort. Tweed Shire Council, in northern NSW, has led the way in facilitating cooperative approaches to estuarine management. It brought together land-holder, fisher, aquacultural and other representatives to agree on common goals and has provided them with expert advice. As a result, canefarmers have been using their own resources in attempts to improve water quality by re-engineering the floodplain using laser levelling to remove low spots which pond water and improve surface shedding of water. In this technique, fewer drains are needed resulting in lower acid discharges. This has resulted in a win- win situation as cane production has figure 4: 7he dedhe in pmdudion of Sydney Rodc Oysters in NSW since 1975. Each Bag is 100 dozen been improved by up to 10%. In addition, 1 oysters (N5W fisheries) farmers are applying lime to further decrease acid production and have also to provide a whole of government regulations. ASSMAC has encouraged the opened floodgates in order to increase approach to the problem; providing adoption by coastal councils of Local fish passage and tidal neutralisation of information, a forum, training, guidelines Environment Plans, LEPs, specifically for acid water. This cooperative model and maps on acid sulfate soils. ASSMAC acid sulfate soils. Hastings Shire Council involving land and water users and the have used an approach based on aware- was the first to approve such a strategy. facilitationoflocaland stategovernments, ness, education, research, and legislation Compliance with these LEPs is a signifi- may he appropriate for the management (as a last resort). Until recently, however, cant issue. While regulation is but one of all our estuaries. this effort was under-resourced. In 1997 management option, it would appear to the NSW Government set up the ASSPRO be a missing option in acid sulfate soil Institutional impediments to funding program, with $2.1 million over management. The reliance on LEPs without floodplain management 3 years, to provide resources for education overarching regulation would seem to be There are a plethora of extant laws and training, research and remediation a deficiency in the range of options for applicable to the protection of coastal projects. mitigating the impacts ofacid sulfate soils. estuaries, embayments and streams in Harries (1997) has estimated that the ASSMAC has been criticised by both NSW. The more important of these are cost of remediating already acidified mine land-holders and fishers and aqua- the Rivers and Foreshores Hydraulic dumps could be as high as $1 10,0001ha. If culturalists as being too bureaucratic, too improvement Act of 1948, the Fisheries this applies to already acidified coastal timid, too slow to act and ineffective. Yet Act of 1994,the Clean Waters Act, the Local floodplains, then the cost of remediation in the 4 years ASSMAC has been estah- Government Act, the Native Vegetation Act could be tens of millions. There are no lished an array of information materials and the Protection of the Environment quick fixes for already acidified flood- have been produced and projects have Act. There are several specific State plains. In China, rice paddies are still been completed. ASSMAC's tasks are Environment Protection Plans, such as affected by acidity from acid sulfate soils politically and institutionally complex, SEPP 14 Wetlands and SEPP 46, the at least two hundred years after they were reflecting the complexity of acid sulfate Clearing of Native Vegetation. SEPPs are first developed. soil management, institutional arrange- almost universally detested by broadacre ASSMAC's approach to prevent the ments and conflicting stakeholder land-holders, since they deprive them of further disturbance of acid sulfate soils demands. ASSMAC's output has been freedom of decision-making over land and to correct existing problems has been quickly transferred to other states, and a use on their properties. Because of this to raise awareness of the consequences National Working Party on Acid Sulfate ASSMAC has been loath to introduce an of disturbance, to provide training Soils (1998) has recently released a Draft acid sulfate soil SEPP. A critical study of and education, to promote research National Strategy for the Management of the use of these instruments and their particularly on management and Acid Sulfate Soils. effectiveness in protecting estuaries, and rehabilitation strategies and to explore Successful prosecution under the Clean the need for overarching regulations

Spring 1999 could be of significant benefit. The examination. The 'marketisation' of There are a plethora of laws applicable general perception amongst fishers and government authorities has considerable to coastal lowland management. It would aquaculturalists is that there is a great implications for the management of be valuable to review the role and efficacy reluctance on the part of government estuarine environments. It has lead to the of that body of legislation and its use in agencies to use existing legislation. downsizing of management and regu- maintaining and improving estuarine There are several determining authori- lation departments with associated loss health. In particular, an urgent review of ties in coastal floodplain and estuarine of corporate memory, and the reliance the Drainage Act of 1903 is long overdue. areas who are exempt from development on consultancies whose products are of There is also a pressing need to consider approvals or the EIS process. These variable quality. Monitoring, an expensive how coastal river systems might best be authorities have been major participants process, is often an early casualty, and managed. The recent trends in environ- in the modification of estuaries and there is a danger that the considerable mental management in Australia to self floodplains. A critical examination of the store of data will either be more difficult regulation, marketisation, regionalisation number and operation of determining to access or will be lost. Downsizing also and agency down sizing have very impor- authorities in relation to acid sulfate soil means that the supply of advice to local tant implications for coastal floodplain development could prove useful. government and community groups management and ecology. These remain In its examination of the management involved in environmental management to be fully explored. ofselected coastal rivers, the NSW Health inevitably decreases. Indeed, the very Acknowledgments Rivers Commission has concluded that necessary supply of back-up advice and there is no single authority with sole information to such community groups This work was supported by the Water Research Foundation of Australia and by responsibility for the health of the river has not been adequately resourced in the systems. Indeed it has identified that there transfer of responsibilities to these groups the NSW Government through ASSPRO funding as part of Acid Soil Action. are conflicting objectives amongst those for acid sulfate soil management. agencies currently managing rivers and Regionalisation does have the advan- References estuaries. Their suggested solution has tage of transferring assessment and Blunden B. and Naylor S.D. 1995, been the appointment ofa River Manager decision making back to the affected area. Assessing and Managing Acid Sulphate with sole responsibility for the health of This ought to move these responsibilities Soils. Guidelines for Land Management the river. Victoria, with a similar but back to the community. Since regional in NSW Coastal Areas, NSW EPA, broader aim, has established Catchment bodies in NSW are appointed by state Chatswood, NSW. Management Authorities with considera- government, this possibility is weakened. Brown T. E., Morley A. W.,Sanderson N. ble responsibilities, power and resources. Regionalisation also tends to duplicate T., and Tait R. D. 1983,'Report on a large In NSW, both solutions appear functions and tends to diminish or even fish kill resulting from natural acid water unacceptable, at present, since they abandon activities where the centralisa- conditions in Australia', Journal of Fish introduce, essentially, an additional level tion ofknowledge and skills is appropriate. Biology, Vol. 22, pp 333-350. of government. The effect of all these changes on the Callinan R.B., Fraser G.C., and Melville Rapid and profound changes are management of coastal floodplains and M.D. 1993, 'Seasonally recurrent fish occurring in the way the Australian downstream impacts is not described and mortalities and ulcerative disease environment is managed. Some are the would make an important and useful outbreaks associated with acid sulfate result of the national thrust for Eco- study. soils in Australian estuaries', in Dent D.L. logically Sustainable Development, some and van Mensvoort M.E.F (eds.) Selected resulting from National Competition Concluding comments Papers from the Ho Chi Minh City Policy and the COAG 1995 reform process. This paper has outlined the interaction Symposium on Acid Sulphate Soils, Mar. These changes include (Dovers and of hydrology, flood mitigation and 1992, ILRI Pub. No. 53, Instit. for Land Guillett 1998): drainage of sulfidic coastal lowlands and Reclam. and Imp., Wageningen, pp 403- a move away from regulation towards their ecological impacts in NSW. On one 410. self-regulation, codes of practice and hand, our attempts to control flooding Commonwealth Resource Assessment agreements; have been successful in that they have Commission 1993, Coastal Zone Inquiry, . 'marketisation' of government allowed successful agriculture. On the New South Wales Case Study, Australian authorities and the reduction of other, this has promoted the oxidation of Government Publication Service, Canberra. government involvement through acid sulfate soils and down steam eco- Dent D.L. 1986, Acid Sulphate Soils: a outsourcing, corporatisation and the systems have deteriorated. A cause buried Baseline for Research and Development, application of market-based policy in the past has resulted in persistent, I.RI Pub. No. 39, Internat. Instit. for Land instruments; episodic ecological emergencies due to Reclam. and Imp., Wageningen. - a large shift to community partici- periodic stream acidification. The decline Dovers S. and Gullett W. 1998,'PoIicy pation and involvement in environ- of oyster production in NSW over the last choice for sustainability: marketisation, mental management and monitoring; 20 years is but one example that our law and institutions', Conference on increasing use of risk assessment and estuaries and coastal catchments have Environmental lustice and Market management approaches and policy problems. Any procedure which involves Mechanisms, University of Auckland, and decision making in the face of draining of flooded coastal lowlands or 5-7 March, 1998. uncertainty; breaching of levees for emergency mana- Easton C. 1989, 'The trouble with the - a strong regional focus in planning, gement, without proper treatment, runs Tweed', Fishing World, March 1989, policy implementation and program the risk of producing a chronic acidic pp 58-59 ~ - delivery. water discharge with serious ecological, McMahon T.A., Finlayson B.L., Haines The efficacy of self regulation for acid economic and social consequences which A.T., and Shrikanthan R. 1992, Global sulfate soil ddve~o~menideservescritical are reversed only with difficulty. Runoff-Continental Comparisons of

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Annual Flows and Peak Discharges, Catena, Cremlingen-Destedt, Germany. Naylor S.D., Chapman G.A., Atkinson G., Murphy C.L., Tulau M.J., Flewin T.C., Milford H.B., and Morand D.T. 1995, The day the sky fell down: the story It examines the risks due to flood, Guidelines for the Use oJAcid Sulphate Soils of the Stockport air disaster wind, and earthquake; how we cover Risk Maps, NSW Soil Conservation Service, Morrin, Stephen the costs of these risks; current Dept. Land and Water Conservation, Stephen Morrin, Stockport, England, problems in covering these costs; Sydney. 1998,145~~ and why the current system needs to King C.J. 1948, 'The first fifty years of be changed. It also suggests a system agriculture in New South Wales', Review 10 am on Sunday 4 ]une 1967, a British that ends taxpayer subsidy of of Marketing and Agricultural Economics, Midland Airways, Canadair C-4 anticipated levels of damage, moves Sydney, Vol16,pp 362-386. Argonaut airliner packed with returning the cost of high risk to those who Harries 1. 1997, Acid Mine Drainage in holidaymakers from Palma, Majorca, live in high-risk areas, and Australia. Its extent and future liability, turned onto the approach to Ringway minimises death and damage due to Supervising Scientist Pyrite Management Airport, Manchester. To Captain Harry unwise construction. Program 124, Supervising Scientist, Marlow and his First Officer Chris Canberra. Pollard at the controls, it seemed a National Population Council 1992, perfectly normal approach. The slight Disasters and the media: Population Issues and Australiak Future: drizzle and low cloud presented no kind managing crisis communications Environment, Economy and Society. Final of hazard, yet nine minutes later the Harrison, Shirley report of the Population Issues Committee, aircraft lay a tangled, twisted exploding Macmillan, Hampshire, England, Australian Government Publishing wreck in the centre of Stockport. Of the 1999,238~~ Service, Canberra. 84 passengers and crew on board, only 12 sunrived. What went wrong? Covers issues on: Crisis, emergency National Working Party on Sulfate Soils, and disaster - Television news - 1998, Draft National Strategy for the The national crisis - The local news Management ofAcid Suyate Soils, NSW Safe havens from bush fires: - The local crisis - ommunicating Agriculture, Wollongbar, NSW. planning a response to external fire in an international emergency - Nix H. 1994, 'WaterlLandlLife: The threats for schools, hospitals and Civil emergencies and the media - eternal triangle', in Jack Beale Water other public buildings and the The Hillsborough disaster - Resources Lecture Series, 1990- 1994, Water community A newspaper at the heart of the Research Foundation of Australia, ANU, Bush Fire Service of Western Australia Hillsborough tragedy - A tale of two Canberra, pp 1-12. Bush Fire Service of Wesfern Australia, cities: Liverpool - A tale of two Sammut I., Melville M.D., Callinan R.D., Perth, 1998, 16pp cities: Sheffield - The management and Fraser G.C. 1995, 'Estuarine Bush fires are annual events in Western of an organisation in crisis - acidification: impacts on aquatic biota Learning the lessons - Training and of draining acid sulphate soils', Australian Australia, threatening communities with the risk of death, injury, rehearsal - Media liaison: lessons Geographical Studies, Vol 33, pp 89-100. from the front - Postscript. Sammut I., White I., and Melville M.D. destruction or damage of property. The 1996, 'Acidification of an estuarine purpose of this document is to consider tributary in eastern Australia due to the threat of bush fires to communities, Cooperating with nature: drainage of acid sulfate soils', Maritre and and the identification and development confronting natural hazards with Freshwater Research, Vol 47, pp 669-684. of public buildings as a community safe land-use planning for sustainable Smith D.I. 1998, Water in Australia: haven. Public buildings which may be communities considered for development as a safe Resources and Manauement.- Oxford Burby, Raymond I University Press, Melbourne, 384 pp. haven include those with large populations or features that consider loseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. State ofthe Environment Australia, 1996, ~1998,356~~. DEST, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, the welfare of a large cross section of Vic. the community, such as schools, halls Covers issues on natural hazards and Wilson B.P., White I., and Melville M.D. and hospitals. land use: an introduction - 1999, 'Floodplain hydrology, acid Planning and land use adjustments in discharge and water quality associated America's disastrous disaster system historical perspective - Governing land use in hazardous areas with a with a drained acid sulfate soil', Marine Hunter, I. Robert Freshwater Research, Vol 15, pp 140-157. patchwork system - Integrating Consumer Federation ofAmerica, hazard mitigation and local land use White I., Melville M.D., Wilson B.P., and Washington, D.C., 1998, 14pp Sammut J. 1997, 'Reducing acid discharge planning - Hazard assessment: the from coastal wetlands in eastern Australia', This paper asserts that the U.S. has factual basis for planning and Wetlands Ecology and Management, Vol 5, allowed its system of preparing for and mitigation - Managing land use to pp 55-72. responding to natural disasters grow in build resilience - The third sector: a haphazard way that inconsistently evolving partnerships in hazard deals with these events and mitigation - The vision of inadequately acts to save lives and sustainable communities - Policies property from loss. for sustainable land use.

spring 1999 Assessing the risk associated with importing and keeping exotic vertebrates in Australia

ustralia is a geographically crops, predation on stock and land isolated continent with a rich By Mary Bomford, Principal Research degradation); diversity of indigenous flora Scientist, Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS), environmental damage (competition and fauna. This diversity Australia and Quentin Hatt, Senior with native species for food, water, was even greater 200 years ago before mofessional Officer (BRS), Canberra, shelter and nest sites; predation; European settlement and the consequent alteration of vegetation communities habitat modification and ecosystem through selective grazing and land imbalance caused in part by the intro- degradation); This paper describes the regulation of duction of new species. spread of parasites or diseases; exotic animal imports in Australia and The development of agriculture in attack, harass or annoy people or Australia relied on the introduction of outlines the risk assessment approach companion animals, particularly in developed by Bomford (1991) that is exotic animal species, such as goats, pigs urban environments; and horses, some of which subsequently currently used in Australia. Ways to structural damage; and improve this process by developing a established widespread wild populations cost and collateral impact of control more quantitative approach are then and became pests. European rabbits measures. Oryctolagus cuniculus were brought in discussed. Benefits and issues with the first European settlers for food, The risk Exotic species can bring many benefits fur and skins and have subsequently There is an increasing demand for exotic to agricultural production, recreation, become Australia's most widespread species imports around the world to meet tourism, scientific and medical research, and significant pest animal (Australian recreational, economic and conservation international conservation efforts and Bureau of Statistics 1996). Other exotic goals (Nilsson 1981, Lodge 1993). These education. species which have subsequently become species have the potential for adverse Many of Australia's agricultural and pests were brought in as companion impacts on agricultural, environmental recreational industries are based on animals (for example cats, Felis catus), for and urban systems. Future community introduced animals and there is con- sporting purposes (for example European demands and international obligations tinuing demand to import new species red foxes, Vulpes vulpes), or simply to under World Trade Organisation agree- and genotypes. A number of zoos in make Australia seem more 'European' (for ments concerning free trade are likely to Australia are involved in coordinated example European starlings, Sturnus allow increasing numbers of species to breeding programs for endangered vulgaris). Ironically, a few species were be imported into and kept in Australia. species, both for release programs and to brought in to control existing pests and There is a risk that new imported maintain the genetic integrity of zoo became pests themselves (for example species, or exotic species that are currently populations. The display of such species cane toads, Bufo marinus). The result is a kept in private collections and zoos, could may also educate the public about envir- suite of introduced animal species- escape and establish wild pest populations. onmental and biodiversity issues. about 20 mammals, 30 birds, 20 freshwater For example, the Somali dwarf mongoose Key issues relating to assessing the risk fish, several amphibians and around 500 Helogale hdulata rufula is a small coionial of importing and keeping exotic verte- invertebrates-which are pests of agri- carnivore that has significant potential to brates are: culture or the environment (Australian inflict damage on Australian wildlife if a What is an acceptable level of risk Bureau of Statistics 1996). Hindsight wild population established. Yet breeding relative to potential benefits for provides the opportunity to prevent colonies of this species are kept in open the import and keeping of exotic additions to this extensive inventory of enclosures in Australian zoos. Ferrets have species? pests and risk assessment provides a established wild populations in New How can risk exposure be minimised mechanism. Zealand and have had highly detrimental and accepted risk be managed? Risk assessment processes for impor- effects on wildlife (Lever 1985). Yet ferrets What criteria can be used to assess the ting and keeping exotic vertebrates have can be kept without any permits or potential costs and benefits of impor- an important role to play in reducing the restrictions in Australia and a small wild ting and keeping exotic species in likelihood of new species establishing and population is believed to have established Australia? causing adverse impacts in Australia. Risk in Tasmania. assessment involves identifying hazardous The forms of adverse impact that an Regulating exotic animal import events (in this case the establishment of established population of an escaped and keeping new exotic pest species in Australia) and exotic animal could inflict include: Legislative control over the import of estimating the likelihood that such events reduction of agricultural productivity exotic animals is held jointly by the peak will occur and the probable consequences (competition with grazing stock for Commonwealth environment agency, if they do (Beer and Ziolkowski 1995). feed and water, damage to horticultural Environment Australia, and the Common-

Australian Journal of Emergency Management wealth quarantine agency, the Australian The risk assessment model detection and eradication of newly Quarantine and Inspection Service Bomford's (1991) model was developed escaped individuals or small localised (AQIS). Both organisations rely on advice on the premise that the import and populations that become established. on the 'pest potential' of species from a keeping of exotic vertebrates should be Bomford's model weighs estimated national Vertebrate Pests Committee subject to a balanced and rigorous adverse impact against estimated potential (VPC) whose members represent relevant assessment of risk, take account of both benefits. A key factor in estimating State and Federal government agencies. potential benefits and harmful impacts, potential environmental and agricultural VPC is responsible for examining and and make use of ecological theory and damage is the prediction of the probable reporting on arrangements necessary for information on the biology of the species .oo~ulation . densities and distributions the exclusion and control of mammals, being assessed. The component processes achieved by the introduced animal in birds, reptiles and amphibians, but not considered are the probability oE Australian environments. This is an I fish. an exotic species escaping; extremely difficult task, although bio- I Until 1991, VPC, Environment Australia the escapees establishing a wild climatic and landuse matching between and AQIS had no framework or guide- population; the species overseas range and Australian lines for assessing the risks associated the escapees or established population conditions may assist with this task, and with the import and keeping of potential being eradicated; and is discussed more fully by Bomford and vertebrate pest species in Australia. - harm associated with the three former Hart (in press). Risk assessments were made in a fairly factors outweighing the potential subjective way and were difficult to justify benefits associated with the species Species assessments if political pressure was brought to bear being imported. Since VPC accepted Bomford's model in on a decision. Clearly, some species possess attributes 1994, it has been used to assess 14 Transparent, evidence-based risk asses- that enhance their ability to escape. mammals (1 1 approved for lower security sment processes can be used to increase Security of premises and keeping restric- categories ), two reptiles (both approved decision-making objectivity and reduce tions can be used to manage this risk. for lower security categories) and 30 birds the influence of social, economic and However, no physical barriers are com- (mixture of higher, lower and unchanged political pressures. It is essential to get pletely proof against: natural disasters security categories approved). The main the risk assessment process right prior to such as floods, cyclones, fires and earth- grounds given by VPC members for the import of an exotic species, because quakes; wilful removal by groups such as rejecting applications was the perceived once permission is given to allow a species animal liberation or illegal traders; and1 high risk that the species could establish into the country, it is extremely difficult or vandalism, terrorism, civil unrest or a wild population, and the associated pest to reverse it. war. potential, particularly in relation to The VPC currently lists exotic species A review of the ecological literature on potential competition with native species in one of five categories based on the the factors that affect exotic animals and damage to agricultural crops. threat they pose to agriculture and the establishing, including analyses of Little consideration appeared to be environment: previous successful and unsuccessful given to potential benefits by VPC. Category I: 'entry and keeping prohi- introductions, was used to draw gene- Environment Australia bas used the model bited'; ralisations about factors that may increase to assess about 350 exotic bird species Category 2: 'restricted to high security the probability of establishment in known to be present in Australia, to collections'; Bomford's model. These include: escape determine the level of risk they posed and Category 3: 'other collections'; conditions; environmental factors; species hence determine appropriate security Category 4: 'entry and keeping unres- attributes associated with establishment; requirements for their keeping under the tricted'; and and, public attitudes. There has been little National Exotic Bird Registration Scheme. Category 5: 'pests already widespread'. research to identify or quantify the An example of the use of the exotic Since 1994, VPC has used the risk relative significance of these factors or species risk assessment process in assessment model developed by Bomford how they might interact. Australia is the recent rejection of an (1991) to determine whether the benefits Contingency plans for mounting a rapid application to import the rock hyrax will outweigh the risks for all species response to the escape of exotic animals Procavia capensis. recategorisation applications. Appli- from captivity enhance the probability of This rodent-like mammal is considered cations are made to VPC by public and early detection and eradication and hard to contain and has a number private zoos and individual keepers to reduce the probability of establishment. of features that indicate a high risk of downgrade category listing for species The existence and adequacy of such plans rapid establishment and spread and the that they want to import, or species that may be taken into account in the risk possibility of agricultural and environ- are already in Australia but that they want assessment process (Moller and Barret mental damage including small, fast- to keep in a lower security collection. 1996). Once a population is established, moving and secretive; high reproductive Linked to the recategorisation process are eradication chances are likely to be low and dispersal rates and opportunistic assessments for 'Approved Collection or non-existent due to high costs, lack of feeding; and potential for wide distri- Status' (ACS) to allow a particular insti- political will and, for many species, the bution and high abundance, coupled with tution to keep a species. extreme difficulty of the task (Bomford generalist. This takes into account the security, and O'Brien 1995). credentials and financial viability of the There are no cases of any widespread Quantifying the risk assessment proponent organisation. It also takes into exotic vertebrate population being model account how conducive the surrounding eradicated on any continent. It is therefore Bomford's (1991) model does not use environment is likely to be to establish- critical that there are contingency plans a quantitative scoring system because ment of the proposed species. and associated resources for early she considered that this could give a misleading impression of objectivity and associated with current pests are also to escapes of exotic species to prevent wild accuracy. Instead, the model was designed likely to be associated witb future pests, populations establishing and spreading. to operate as a checklist and decision then the total risk score for a species will Because there can be no guarantee that guide to assist VPC decision makers by give an indication of the probability it escape can be prevented or eradication ensuring all relevant information was will establish and become a pest. A score be possible, species considered to pose a considered. Bomford's model has proved for the bioclimatic match between high riskshould be prohibited even ifthey a valuable tool for ensuring all relevant a species' current distribution and represent significant potential benefit. information is taken into account in risk Australian environments could also be Despite the risks posed by exotic species assessments, and also for providing a included in the total 'establishment risk' imports, there are also economic and reasonable level of consistency in assess- score. Such a quantitative scoring system social benefits that need to be considered ments. However the model requires a lot model could be validated by testing its in decisions on allowing imports. Banning of data which is time consuming to collate ability to correctly predict the success or imports poses the risk of encouraging and assess and for some species data are failure of past introductions of exotic illegal smuggling. Hence a scientific and unavailable to assess particular criteria, animals to other countries with similar evidence-based, transparent risk assess- particularly criteria for assessing potential climates and land uses to Australia, or its ment model, which is quantified to benefits and harmful impacts. This can accuracy in predicting the success of increase objectivity and reliability where lead to subjective risk assessments. future introductions to Australia. The adequate information is available, is the This is a common problem, and although model could then be refined to improve best approach to manage these risks. This there has been a trend towards more its predictive capacity. will allow the balance between free trade quantitative risk assessment models in and risk to agriculture and the environ- the last decade, most biological risk Conclusions ment to be optimised. assessmentsareat best semi-quantitative, There is a need to assess and manage the Australia has an extremely high expen- due to incomplete information. risk that exotic animal species imported diture on exotic vertebrate pest control. VPC is currently considering the into Australia for keeping in captivity By contrast, little money or resources are feasibility of modifying Bomford's model could escape and establish wild popu- used to assess or manage the riskoffurther to incorporate a more quantitative lations capable of damaging agricultural exotic species becoming pests. It is approach to make assessments simpler, production or native species and natural appropriate that adequate resources be less subjective and, hopefully, more environments. The ecological literature on invested in the risk assessment and reliable. One way to develop a more animal invasions indicates that a range of management process. quantitative risk assessment process is attributes are often associated with to consider past animal introductions successful establishment of exotic animals References into Australia and compare the attributes and with their potential to become pests. Australian Bureau of Statistics 1996, of species that established to those that This information has been used to develop 'Australians and the Environment,' failed. The Bureau of Rural Sciences in a largely qualitative model (Bomford Australian Bureau of Statistics, Cat. No. the Commonwealth Department of Agri- 1991) of risk assessment which has been 4601.0., Canberra. culture, Fisheries and Forestry is assessing used successfully since 1994. Due to a Beer T. and Ziolkowski F. 1995,'Environ- the feasibility of developing such a perceived need for more quantitative and mental Risk Assessment: An Australian quantitative scoring system based on past simpler risk assessments, a review of the Perspective', Fenner Conference on the successful and unsuccessful bird and process is now being undertaken by VPC. Environment Report, Australian Academy mammal introductions into Australia. Of There is a high degree of uncertainty of Science, Canberra. species that established, the attributes of in assessing the likelihood that a species Bomford M. 1991, 'Importing and species that became widespread or caused could establish in a new environment.Tbis Keeping Exotic Vertebrates in Australia. damage can be compared to those that is largely due to the variability of factors Criteria for the Assessment of Risk', remained localised or did not become associated with successful establishment; Bureau of Rural Resources Bulletin pests. Attributes strongly associated witb inadequate information on the ecology, No. 12, Australian Government Publishing establishment could be allocated a high physiology and behaviour of most species; Service, Canberra. 'establishment risk' score and attributes and the cost and long-term nature of Bomford M. and O'Brien P. 1995, strongly associated with environmental research needed to obtain these data. The 'Eradication or control for vertebrate or agricultural damage could be allocated unpredictability of changes to species' pests?' Wildlife Society Bulletin, Vol 23, a high'pest damage risk'score. Less strongly ecology, behaviour, phenotype or genotype pp 249-255. associated attributes could be given lower in new environments also contributes to Bomford M. and Hart Q. in press, 'Risk scores. If particular combinations of uncertainty in predicting whether species assessment for importing and keeping attributes were strongly associated witb will establish and become pests. Although exotic vertebrates in Australia', Australian establishment and/or damage then it is desirable to develop more lournal of Environmental Management. these combinations could be allocated quantitative approaches to risk assess- Lever C. 1985, Naturalized Mammals of additional scores. ment, these uncertainties will limit the the World, Longman, London. Any new species proposed for import extent to which this is feasible. Hence Lodge D.M. 1993,'BiologicaI invasions: or keeping into Australia could have its there will remain a need for a wide margin lessons for ecology', Trends in Ecology and total'establishment risk'and'pest damage for error when assessing and managing Evolution, Vol 8, pp 133-137. risk' scores calculated based on its the risks that new exotic species could Moller S. and Barret J. (eds.) 1996, attributes. Assuming that attributes establish wild populations that have Contingency Plansfor Exotic Bird Escapes associated with past successful intro- harmful impacts. in Australia, Australian Nature Conser- ductions will indicate the risk for future There is also a pressing need to develop vation Agency, Canberra. introductions, and that attributes contingency plans to respond effectively Nilsson G. 1981,'Parakeets at the bird

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management feeder', in The Bird Business, A Study of the Commercial Cage Bird Trade, Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC, pp 49-57. Fire-related aspects of the Scrutiny of evidence relating to the Author's contact details: Northridge earthquake Hillsborough Football Stadium Mary Bomford Scawthorn C; Cowell A. and Border E disaster Principal Research Scientist 1998, International Inc., San Francisco, Stuart-Smith, Murraj Sir Bureau of Rural Saences (BRS),and Calif; EQE. 1998, Stationery Ofice, London, 222pp. Quentin Hart Senior Professional Officer, (BRS) Fires following earthquakes are a The report is divided into seven PO Box Ell potentially serious problem due to chapters, with Appendices. Chapter 1 Kingston, ACT 2604, Australia multiple, simultaneous ignitions at a sets out the background to the time when emergency response is Hillsborough disaster and the seriously impaired. The January 17, sequence of events since. Chapter 2 1994 Northridge earthquake was the deals with allegations about video largest to occur in a U.S. city in more evidence relating to the disaster. than 20 years, sparking about 110 Chapter 3 discusses allegations about earthquake-related fires. This report the inquest and the rescue operation provides the results of research following the disaster. Chapter 4 is performed with the support of the about suggestions that improper National Institute of Standards and pressure has been put on witnesses to Technology. It contains information the disaster. Chapter 5 and 6 deal with 8th lDNDR Pacific on the Northridge quake and its issues that have been put by relatives impacts, including seismology, of victims and some other Regional Disaster building damage, the effects on water miscellaneous points. Chapter 7 Management Meeting and gas supplies, and fire department summarises the findings. response. It also includes sections on data on fires following the quake, a Organizational learning under fire: The 8th IDNDR Pacific Regional comprehensive analysis of theory and practice distribution and ignition Disaster Management Meeting was Carley K. and Harrald]., 1997, reprinted held in Apia, Samoa on 6-10 Septem- characteristics, information on operations at selected fires, and from American Behavioral Scientist, ber. On the first evening, the Samoan lessons and observations. (I v.) Vol340, no. 3, pp 310-332. Government generously hosted a kava ceremony, opening ceremony Explores the differences between and cocktail party officiated by the Gresford: the anatomy of a disaster organisational learning in theory and in Samoan Minister for Agriculture, practice as demonstrated in the actions Forests, Fisheries, and Meteorology, Williamson, Stanley of the organisations (e.g., Red Cross, 1998, Liverpool University Press, and attended by the Prime Minister the Federal Emergency Management Liverpool 224pp. of Samoa. Agency) responding to Hurricane The meeting considered many The first readily available account of Andrew. Two factors are considered in important issues relating to disaster the worst disaster of the North Wales the groundwork for this analysis: I) the management in the region, including coalfield and one of the worst in the interrelationship between disasters and the implementation of agreed disas- history of the British mining industry. organisational learning; and, 2) what ter reduction work programmes and The disaster occurred in 1934: 256 was and was not learned from recent the transition of regional coordina- men lost their lives, 200 women were major disasters (Hurricane Hugo and tion of disaster management widowed and 800 children lost their the Loma Prieta earthquake). Then, a series of theoretical propositions activities to the South Pacific father, causing massive devastation of a small community. A great wave of concerning organisational learning is Applied Geoscience Commission public sympathy followed and a examined. Finally, the actual role of (SOPAC). Participants expressed public appeal resulted in donations to learning in disaster settings is support for the continuation of these disaster funds amounting to 560,000 discussed. Analysis revealed that meetings beyond the end of the pounds, an immense sum for those organisational learning in theory and in International Decade, although this times. At a subsequent inquiry, of practice were somewhat different. was to be the last one to be held great significance for the future of Planning was not a panacea and plans under the IDNDR banner. These the mining industry and its safety, the tended to be laid aside. In cases where meetings now provide an important North Wales miners were represented objective performance feedback focus for disaster management by Sir Stafford Cripps. The disaster enabled organisational learning, activities in Pacific Island Countries was also a great influence in the disaster response organisations were and are a key forum for the establishment under Lord Rockley in more likely to receive subjective exchange of ideas and facilitation of 1935 of a Royal Commission on performance feedback from the media, regional cooperation. Safety in Coal Mines. which decreased their ability to learn.

Spring 1999 Blue green algal blooms: a preventable emergency?

eports ofbluegreen algal blooms cost of managing algal blooms. have increased over the last two By John Whittington, Research Scientist, The affected parties to a significant decades. Whether this is due to Cooperative Research Centre for Freshwater blue green algal bloom may extend well .an increase in public awareness Ecology, Albury, New South Wales. beyond those that rely on contaminated and reporting, more favourable condi- water for stock and domestic supplies. tions for algal growth or a combination Tourism and recreation industries can be of the two is unclear. Coincident with the of water bodies in remote parts of severely impacted. For example, a bloom increased reports of blue green algal Australia for toxicity is not possible. The of blue green algae on Lake Hume in blooms has been the greater appreciation toxins produced are relatively stable in March 1996 resulted in reductions in by communities of the hazards associated water, therefore, water bodies containing tourism bookings at lakeside resorts. A with these organisms. There is a genuine toxic blue green algae may remain toxic major concern for irrigators along the concern, particularly in communities for up to several weeks before for toxins Lower Murray is the potential damage a that have been affected by blue green are degraded by naturally occurring blue green algal bloom would have on the algal blooms, for an appropriate risk bacteria (Jones 1994). Also of concern is environmentally sustainable (clean and management framework to be imple- the capacity for blue green algae, as with green) image that the horticultural mented. many other algae, to produce compounds industry is promoting for the region. This In the following discussion of these which impart an unpleasant taste and image is a critical aspect of the promotion issues, I consider the question of whether odour to domestic water supplies. of premium grade produce for the blue green algal blooms are ecological international market. The potential for Vulnerability emergencies, and suggest that theories of significant financial losses to agricultural The vulnerability of a human community risk management in the emergency and tourism sectors as well as impacts on to blue green algal blooms is a function of management context can provide a human health have to be considered in the ability of the community to detect the valuable tool for the conservation and risk evaluation ofbluegreen algal blooms. management of Australia's threatened presence of toxins in the water supply and inland riverine ecosystems. For the their dependence on the impacted water. Options for treating risk present paper I take an anthropocentric For example, the community living along Since the Darling River bloom in 1991 view of an emergency, concentrating only the Darling River during the 1991 bloom there has been significant research effort on the impact of toxins on humans. was highly vulnerable because the only aimed at identifying the range of options source of water for stock and domestic for managing risk associated with algal Algal toxins: the major hazard supplies was impacted and there was toxins and selecting intervention options The major hazard for communities in limited preparedness for the emergency. for the control ofblue-green algal blooms. contact with high numbers of blue green In an extensive survey of blooms in the This effort has focused on understanding algae is the capacity of this group of Murray-Darling Basin, 42% of samples the biology ofblue green algal blooms and organisms to produce a suite of hepato- showed some degree of toxicity (Baker the toxins that they produce. While our toxins, neurotoxins and endotoxins. These and Humpage 1994). This indicates that knowledge is far from complete, there is toxins have acute and chronic effects on not all blue-green algal blooms are toxic. now a considerable understanding of the humans and stock (Table I). Toxins from However, our present inability to forecast role of eutrophication (nutrient pollution) blue green algae have been linked to the eventual toxicity of developing blooms and river regulation (including effects of severe human illness (Falconer et a1 1983, means that management of algal blooms water abstraction and of impounding Hawkins et al. 1985) and considerable has to assume the worst case scenario for water behind dams and weirs) in the stock losses (Baker and Humpage 1994, toxin production. That is, it is assumed development of blue green algal blooms. Codd et a1 1994, ANZECC & ARMCANZ that all cells present are highly toxic, when The application of this knowledge has led 1999). Managing the risk associated with in reality they may not be. This current to the development of a number of tools blue green algal toxins is complicated by gap in knowledge may greatly increase the with which to manage blooms. Risk a number of factors. The amount and type of toxin produced by blue green algal bloom may vary over reasonably short time scales. While the notion that a bloom Hepatotoxins Peptides that can cause hepatoenteritis, liver damage and may can be toxic one day but not the next is probably an exaggeration, over a scale of promote tumour groa weeks the toxicity of the bloom may well Neurotoxins Ad as neuromuscular blocking agents ieadlng to muscle vary (MDBC 1993). At present, tests tremors, staggering, paralysis and respiratory arrest available for toxin production are expensive, time consuming to perform Endotoxins Lipopolysacharides that can cause gastroenteritis, skin and and are only undertaken in a limited eye irritations, skin rashes and allergic readions number of laboratories in Australia. Therefore, frequent routine monitoring Table 1:Toxins produced by blue green algae (Adapted from MDBC 1993)

Australian Journal of Emergency Management management for blue green algal blooms a public education program Phos-watch recovery from algal blooms. The role of has evolved into a comprehensive that has demonstrably reduced the levels the RACCS includes: emergency management strategy which of phosphorus entering the council development, coordination and imple- incorporates the framework outlined by operated sewage treatment plant. mentation of algal bloom contingency Salter (1998) of prevention, preparedness, Diffuse sources of nutrient, such as from strategies; response and recovery. broad acre agriculture, are considerably cooperation with neighbouring harder to identify, quantify and regulate regions on algal management issues; Prevention than point sources. Across Australia coordination of public information There is a widely held perception in the managing diffuse sources of nutrient is programs including using the media; community that blue green algal blooms increasingly being addressed at the implementation of regional algal are the result of human activities. From catchment scale through collaborative monitoring systems; this perception it follows that appropriate programs between the local community monitoring of costs associated with management of human activities will and government. Local involvement algal blooms; prevent the occurrence of blue green algal is a critical factor in the adoption and coordination and implementation of blooms in the future. However, blue green ultimately the success of catchment training in algal identification, and algae are an indigenous part of the biota management. A significant outcome of monitoring and sampling in the region; of Australian rivers. Blooms have been community involvement in catchment identification of when algal warnings recorded from the Murray River system management is an awareness and know- should be issued. since the 1850's (Francis 1878, Codd et a1 ledge of blue green algal blooms. This A number of Blue Green Algal Contin- 1994), well before significant river makes the community less vulnerable to gency Plans have since been completed. A regulation or eutrophication took place. them when they occur. good example is the document prepared Therefore, elimination of blue green algae River regulation has increased the by the Central West Regional Algal from Australia's inland rivers is both amount of favourable habitat for blue Coordinating Committee (Central West an unrealistic and ecologically unsatis- green algae. River regulation in inland RACC, 1997). This plan clearly outlines the factory goal. Australia has resulted in the construction responsibilities of agencies, establishes There is little doubt, however, that oftens ofthousands ofdams and weirpools communication networks, identifies human activity has increased the and the abstraction of significant volumes alternative water supplies and provides an frequency and intensity of algal blooms of water. During summer, still or slow inventory of available water treatment and that appropriately targeted manage- flowing waters regularly show tempera- methods and where to obtain them rapidly. ment will decrease these. Consequently, ture stratification, where warm layers of prevention strategies focus on reducing water formover thecoolerbottom waters. Are blue green algal blooms the growth ofblue green algae by reducing The warm, shallow surface layer provides 'ecological emergencies'? impacts of river regulation and nutrient an ideal environment for blooms to Dovers and Norton (1999) define pollution on the river system. As with all develop (Webster et al. 1996). A number 'ecological emergencies' ...as sudden- photosynthetic organisms, the two main of techniques that reduce stratification onset events where the subject is non- ingredients for growth are an adequate are used to inhibit the development of human, such as an ecosystem, a species or supply of nutrient and light. In Australia's blue green algal blooms. These include a river system. In an ecological emergency, inland waters most of the 20 or so maintaining sufficient flow in rivers to humans or human property may also be elements (nutrients) required for growth reduce stratification, particularly during threatened, but the threat may be only to are in abundant supply. However, two periods when blue green algae are likely non-human entities. The definition of nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus are, to develop. Water mixing devices such as Dovers and Norton (1999) indicates that at times, in low enough concentrations to pumps, paddle wheels and aeration units the ecosystem has to be threatened for it limit the growth of blue green algae. Some have been deployed to reduce stratifi- to be considered an ecological emergency. blue green algae such as Anabaena sp. are cation with various levels of success In all but the most extreme cases, blue able to utilise gaseous nitrogen (NJ to (Sherman 1998). green algal blooms do not threaten the supply the alga's nitrogen needs. The ecosystem. Blue green algae are a natural growth of these groups ofblue green algae Preparedness feature of Australia's inland river systems, will not be limited by the availability of The community and government were with blooms occurring prior to European inorganic nitrogen since gaseous nitrogen unprepared for the 1991 Darling River colonisation. The native biota have is always abundant. Consequently, the blue green algal bloom. The response by coevolved with blue green algae. There is most commonly adopted tool for the governments to the bloom was to declare no evidence that either native or intro- prevention of blue green algal blooms is a state of emergency and establish a task duced fish are harmed by ingestion of the management of anthropogenic inputs force to deal with the immediate toxic bluegreen algae (Johnston et a1 1994, of phosphorus to water bodies. This has problems of the bloom. After the bloom Gehrke & Harris 1994). While there are been achieved by licensing and regulating had dispersed, the task force concen- conflicting reports about the toxicity of point source discharges of phosphorus trated on developing a longer-term blue green algae to microinvertebrates into rivers and lakes, for example, effluent strategy for managing blue green algal (Matveev el a1 1994; Boon et a1 1994), from intensive animal industries and from blooms. An outcome of this task force healthy microinvertebrate populations sewage treatment plants. Community was the establishment of Regional Algal were present in the Darling River at the education programs aimed at decreasing Coordinating Committees (RACCs) in height of the 1991 blue green algal bloom the amounts of nutrient added to the NSW. The RACCS were to develop algal (Shiel & Green 1992, Boon et a1 1994). waste stream frequently support this contingency plans. Algal contingency Similarly, there were no reports of native regulation. For example, the Albury City plans consider intervention options animal or bird deaths associated with the Council (Southern NSW) has implemented aimed at preparedness, response and Darling River bloom. This does not suggest that these organisms are neces- constitute an ecological emergency, and Falconer I. 1985, 'Severe hepatotoxicity sarily immune to the toxins, but rather therefore require emergency manage- caused by the tropical cyanobacterium their behaviour is such that they do not ment, would be a significant step in (blue-green algae) Cylindrospermopsis ingest the toxins. Since, in all but the most halting and perhaps reversing the decline raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya and extreme cases, there is no evidence that that is currently taking place. Subba Raju isolated form a domestic water native flora and fauna or ecosystem Conclusions supply reservoir' Applied and Environ- processes are threatened by the presence mentalMicrobiology,Vol50,pp 1292- 1295. of blue green algal blooms it is reasonable Since the 1991 Darling River bloom there has been a shifting emphasis in blue green Harris J. and Gehrke P. (eds.) 1997, Fish to argue that blooms do not represent an and Rivers in Stress: the NSW Rivers ecological emergency. However, there is algal management from one of hazard management to one of risk management. Survey, NSW Fisheries Office of Conser- little doubt that the health and integrity of vation and Cooperative Research Centre Australia's inland waterways are seriously There has been a significant emphasis on identifying the range of options for for Freshwater Ecology, 322 pp. threatened by the factors that contribute Johnston N., Campagna V., Hawkins P. to blue green algal blooms- river regu- treating risk associated with blue green algal blooms, which includes prevention, and Banens R. 1994,'Response of Eastern lation and eutrophication. These processes Rainbowfish (Melanotaenia duboulayi) to have impacted many of Australia's river preparedness, response and recovery. Except in the most extreme cases (and toxic Microcyctis aeruginosa', Australian systems, threatening many plant and Journal Marine Freshwater Research, animal species (Harris and Gehrke 1997). the 1991 Darling River bloom was not one of those) blue green algal blooms do not Val 45, pp 917-923. Blue green algal blooms are just one Jones,G. 1994,'Bloom-formingbluegreen manifestation of increased eutrophication constitute an 'ecological emergency'. However, anthropogenic alterations to the algae (cyanobacteria)', in Water plants in and river regulation. Others include the Australia, GR Sainty & SWL Jacobs (eds.), dramatic decline in native fisheries, riverine ecosystem of eutrophication and river regulation do threaten the riverine Sainty & Associates, Sydney, pp 266-285. considerable reductions in the area of MatveevV.,MatveevL.and Jones G. 1994, wetlands, enhanced growth of all aquatic ecosystem. The temporal nature ofthis not withstanding, these factors do constitute 'Study of the ability of Daphnia carinata plants (and the associated rapid and large King to control phytoplankton and resist alterations in oxygen content of the water an ecological emergency Theories of risk management in the emergency manage- cyanobacterial toxicity: implications for which can result in fish death) and erosion biomanipulation in Australia', Australian of river banks. While blue green algal ment context can provide a valuable tool for the conservation and management of Journal Marine Freshwater Research, blooms may represent a major hazard to Vol45, pp 889-904. humans, river regulation and eutrophi- Australia's threatened inland riverine ecosystems. MDBC. 1993, 'Algal Management cation are the major hazard for the Strategy', TechnicalAdvisory GroupReport, ecosystem. References Murray Darling Basin Commission, The concept of a sudden onset event is Baker P. and Humpage A. 1994, 'Toxicity Canberra, Australia. an integral part of the Dovers and Norton associated with commonly occurring ANZECC & ARMCANZ. 1999, 'National (1999) definition of an ecological emer- Cyanobacteria in surface waters of the Water Quality Management Strategy', gency Can river regulation and eutrophi- Murray-Darling Basin, Australia', Austra- Draft Australian and New Zealand cation, processes that have been increasing lian Journal Marine Freshwater Research, Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water for the best part of a century, be classified Vol45, pp 773-786. Quality. Canberra, Australia. as sudden-onset events? We argue that Boon P., Bunn S., Green 1. and Shiel R. Salter J. 1998, 'Risk management in the in the temporal context of ecosystem 1994, 'Consumption of cyanobacteria by emergency management context', evolution, anthropogenic increases in freshwater zooplankton: implications for Australian Journal of Emergency eutrophication and river regulation are the success of 'top down' control of Management,Vol 12(4), pp 22-28 sudden-onset events. Society is generally cyanobacterial blooms in Australia', Sherman B. 1998,'Engineering solutions cognisant of the need to monitor and Australian Journal Marine Freshwater for the control of blue-green algae', in detect hazards that threaten human life or Research, Val 45, pp 875-887. Current Issues in Limnology, Australian property and has generally developed Central West RACC. 1997,BlueGreen Algae Society for Limnology Special Publication appropriate equipment and monitoring contingency Plan, DLWC, Orange, NSW. NO. 12. pp 33- 36. programs to detect these. On the other Codd G., Steffensen D., Birch M. and Shiel R., and Green J. 1992, hand, methods for detecting ecological Baker P. 1994, 'Toxic blooms of Cyano- Cyanobacteria: a problem in perspective? emergencies resulting from river regu- bacterium in Lake Alexanderina, South Victorian Naturalist 109, 225-232. lation and eutrophication, are poorly Australia-Learning from history', Webster,I.,lones,G.,Oliver,R.,Bormans, developed and often poorly funded. For Australian Journal Marine Freshwater M., and Sherman, B. 1996, Control example, we are still developing adequate Research, Val 45, pp 731-736. Strategies for Cyanobacterial Blooms in tools for quantifying 'river health' for low- Dovers S. and Norton T. 1999,'Ecological Weir Pools. Final Grant Report, NRMS land rivers. In the absence of these tools, emergencies' and resource and environ- Project No. M3116. Murray-Darling Basin how will we know that an ecological mental management', Australian Journal Commission. Technical Report No. 119. emergency is taking place? of Emergency Management, Val 14 (3) At the river basin scale, eutrophication Francis G. 1978, 'Poisonous Australian Author's contact details: and river regulation threaten whole Lake', Nature, Val 18, pp 11-12. John Whinington, Research Scientist, CooDemtive populations of organisms and ecological Gehrke P. and Harris j.1994,'The role of Research centre for Freshwater ECOIO~~,bO Box processes (Harris et a1 1987, ANZECC & fish in Cyanobacterial blooms in 921,AlburyNSW. ARMCANZ 1999). An appreciation and Australia' Australian Journal Marine acceptance that these anthropogenic Freshwater Research, Vol 45, pp 905-915. alterations to the riverine ecosystem Hawkins P., Runnegar M., Jackson A. and

Australian Journal of Emergency Management In remembrance: post-disaster rituals and $nbols

- - - - - . -. - - - .. - -- Introduction 1 reinforce socially appropriate forms I by Anne Eyre, The Fire Servlce College A common feature in the aftermath of of informal popular expression, even and Centre for Disaster Management, , many disasters is symbolic forms of ritual I though these were often described expression demonstrating the impact of Coventry University i as spontaneous and instinctive. These tragedy, particularly sudden and un- patterns of post-disaster ritualisation included both religious and secular acts. expected events, on communities. These terised by a series of major incidents The latter include contributions to are forms of disaster popular culture, an happening in relatively quick succession. disaster funds, a routine media discourse area which has long been of interest to The disasters included the fires at researchers who are now starting to (consisting of interviews with 'heroes', Bradford Football Club, Kings Cross systematically collate and analyse themes attributions of blame, calls for accoun- Underground Station and Manchester tability and for lessons to be learned) and, in this area of disaster-related behaviourl. Airport as well as the Clapham train crash, later on, coverage of inquests and inquiry Post-disaster rituals and symbols are a the Lockerbie air disaster, the capsize of procedures. Religious and quasi-religious valid and important area of study because the Herald of Free Enterprise, the sinking forms of symbolism are often included in they have significant implications for of the Marchioness Pleasureboat and the spontaneous expressions of grief, more disaster management, not only in terms of Hillsborough Soccer Stadium Disaster practical, logistical arrangements such as formally organised official memorial (Table 1). crowd control, but also in terms of services, anniversary events and perma- managingsensitively and appropriately the The decade of UK disasters in nent memorials. It is these that form the range of psychological, social and political the 1980s basis of this paper. issues associated with these aspects of the Interviews with some of the relatives and immediate post-impact and longer term survivors from these disasters have been Spontaneous Expressions of Grief rehabilitative stages of disaster. drawn on in this paper, as well as docu- Sociologists of religion have discussed This paper examines forms of post- mentary material arising out of the how religious rituals and symbols are disaster rituals and symbols in the United incidents' management. These disasters collective representations of social Kingdom, both formal and informal, and received high profile media coverage, groups and are the means by which highlights the implications for those sometimes in the immediate impact individual participants learn, renew and planning, preparing for delivering phase (where television cameras hap- reaffirm shared meanings (Durkheim services and support. The main focus is pened to be present), and certainly in the 1915). In times of social crisis such as on disasters involving sudden, unexpected first few days and weeks. Such high profile disaster, anthropologists have analysed socio-technical events on a much smaller media attention was significant not only how funeral rituals provide a way for scale than the sorts of natural disastrous in reinforcing the sense of national social groups to regain social balance and events more typical in, say, Australia and tragedy as well as the local impact of each morale (Malinowski 1948). Both indivi- the United States. However, an interesting event, but also in helping to construct and dual and collective rituals enable the feature of post-disaster rituals and symbols is the similarity in form and function, and therefore much of the analysis here is also be applicable to other post-disaster scenarios. 11.05.85 Bradford Football stadium Are 56 The 'Decade of Disaster' Manchester Aeroplane fire The main forms of post-disaster ritual Zeeb~gge Feny sinks occur in a chronological sequence; spontaneous, unplanned expression in the Olniskiilen Terrorist bomb first hours and days are followed by Kings Cross Underground Are funerals, official memorial services and Piper Alpha Oil rigexplosion anniversary events. These were all features of the 'decade of disasters' in the United Greece lupiter' ship sinks Kingdom in the 1980s which was charac- Oapham Traln mh Lotkerbie Alr crash Notes 1. PDpular culture in disasters forms the foms for study Kegwolth Air crash and discussion by researchers at the Annual Natural Hillsborough Overaowded stadium Hinards Warkshop, Universily of Coiomdo, Boulder Uuly 1999), the American Sociological Association AGM, Marchioness Rlvehoat sinks Chimgo (August 1999), and the European Sodological Association Annual Conference, Amsterdam (August 1999). Bble I: 7he decade of OK disalers in the 1980s

Spring 1999 expression of grief and can be therapeutic Within twenty four hours of the Hills- brought their grief to the surface' (Eyre in helping communities come to terms borough Disaster (in which 96 Liverpool 1989). with tragedy. Initial informal popular soccer fans were crushed to death in an Although not a'disaster'by conventional rituals often start within hours of the overcrowded stadium) people had started definitions of the term, the sudden death disaster becoming public knowledge. to bring flowers and other tributes to of Princess Diana in 1997 elicited a They include members of the public Liverpook home ground, Anfield. As the response not incomparable with the sort visiting a disaster site or other significant numbers swelled, the ground was opened of emotional and symbolic ritualism seen sites associated with the event, as well as to accommodate the crowds: in the aftermath of the disasters men- places of worship. At these venues there is 'By five o'clock the Kop end of the tioned here. An appeal fund was set up the laying of flowers, toys (where children ground, where home supporters always and immediately attracted generous are involved) or other mementos. Also stand, had become a shrine bedecked donations by the public, while personal candles are often lit in houses or places of withflowers. The visitors continued to visits to the Princess' home and floral worshin Two examoles illustrate this. After arrive from all over the country over tributes poured in. When asked why they the ~bkfanDisaster in 1966 (in which 144 the seven days of official mourning, responded in these ways, members of the people were killed when a coal tip slid queuing for hours in silent solemnity. public said they felt they want to do down onto a school) 'flowers were sent The field offlowers gradually grew something, to express their sorrow and to from all over the world and the Director of towards the centre of the pitch, whilst acknowledge both their individual and Parks and Cemeteries laid them out in a the concrete steps behind the goal were the country's shared sense of grief. This giant cross on the hillside, 130 feet high transformed into a carpet of scarves, again is similar to post disaster responses, with arms 40 feet across' (Miller 1974). .pictures and personal messayes. even when participants may not personally scarves were also hung on know those killed or injured. I I the metal barriers, many of In recognition of these various forms which became dedicated to of giving-or convergence-in the the fans who had stood aftermath of disaster, much has been behind them week after learned and applied, especially with week. Schoolfriends penned regard to the careful planning and the names of their lost distribution of disaster funds (Disasters classniates on the walls Working Party 1991). One of the con- outside the stadium. tinuing ironies of some giving, however, These messages expressed is that it does not necessarily fulfil the personal and communal needs or interests of the bereaved. Apart griefas much, ifnot more, from the disaster fund (which was itself than any of described as the 'second disaster' due to the official ceremonies the problems associated with its manage- could have. For many ment and distribution), the large influx of people, visiting Anjeld- toys was an impressive but inappropriate Liverpoolj home ground- arrival into the village of Aberfan which had just lost a generation of its children (Miller 1974,Austin 1967). As well as the signing of official books of condolence, poignant messages accom- panyingflowers and other gifts also reflect the depth of grief following disaster. Tributes left at key sites express a number of emotions ranging from shock, grief and personal loss to anger and sheer unbelievability. They also have symbolic significance. Walter (1998) has argued that the place where flowers and other gifts are laid are ways of mapping the sacred sites of contemporary culture. He cites examples after Princess Diana's death of flowers being left at town halls, war memorials and in supermarkets. Personal andlor collective messages from those bereaved by other disasters may be of much comfort to the bereaved through the implicit suggestion that there are others who have some understanding ofthe pain. An example ofthis was a floral tribute at the Dryfesdale Cemetery, Scotland, on the tenth anniversary of the top: v;ew of rhe publk memonal - Aberfan Crmetery ~ugusl1968 Lockerbie Disaster with the simple above: vrew of the 01sastergraves - Aberfan Cemetery Augusl 1967 message: 'To the bereaved families of b 24 Australian Journal of Emergency Management Lockerbie and Flight 103 from the mementoes placed on the altar and in to share their grief with others. It often bereaved families of Dunblane'. Messages offertories included flowers and wreaths has an important national as well as from key public figures such as the in the shape of secular symbols and teddy local role and is likely to be covered Queen or Prime Minister may also be bears. extensively by the media. For these heartening in expressing the national For those of religious persuasion, reasons the organisation and structure sense of grief and emotional solidarity traditional religious networks and func- of such events need to be considered very with those directly bereaved. tionaries are a natural focus for support carefully, covering such aspects as timing, and for expressing the inevitable question invitations and conduct' (para 4.28). Attendance at Religious Places 'why? Some seek theological answers to Little further guidance on planning and As well as disaster sites themselves questions such as 'why does a good God delivering such services is available becoming a focus for individual com- allow suffering?' (Dynes 1999, Schmuck however. Given the recentness of the event memorative acts, religious places are also 1999). Davis and Wall highlight how and the fact that people are still in shock often visited more than usual after theological interpretations to some extent these are likely to be very emotional disaster. Even in generally secular societies reflect a hangover from the past when occasions. Indeed interviews with relatives a dramatic rise in attendance at places of religious explanations were given for the and survivors highlight the enduring worship has been noted. Sweden, for causes and consequences of disaster: impact of such events and the sensitive example, is regarded as a notoriously 'In Serious thoughts occasioned by the issues surrounding their conduct and secular society, though most people have earthquake at Lisbon'(J755), John Wesley organisation. In fact these are important an implicit relationship with the Church suggested the possibility that the events for various types of victims involved of Sweden. After the Estonia Ferry earthquake, which left 50,000 people in disaster, including emergency service Disaster in which over 800 people were dead, represented divine retribution for workers and other helpers, who may be drowned, many ofthem Swedes, very large the sins of the Inquisitions. 'Is there joining together with the bereaved for the numbers of people attended religious indeeda God thatjudges the world? And first time after the event. One survivor places (Pettersson 1996). By the evening is he now making inquisitions for blood? comments thus on the community impact of the first day of the disaster, at least 500 Ifso, it is not surprising he should begin and solidarity she felt: churches around the country had been there, where so much blood has been 'The church was absolutely packed and opened for individual prayers, thelighting poured on the ground like water' (Davis we were amazed that all these people of candles and special se~ces.Mourning & Wall 1992). had turnedout on a coldNovember night services were also broadcast live on For many, however, a theological to church. And there was the caretakers national television and radio. interpretation may not be desired or and the dinner ladies and neighbours, Sociologists of religion have discussed appropriate and this makes it particularly not only, you know, VIPs like the local the role and meaning nature of alterna- difficult for religious representatives to MP and the mayor. There were so many tive, popular or 'implicit' forms of know how to respond to relatives and people and it was absolutely packed' religiosity after disasters (Pettersson 1996, others who might address them in the (Survivor of the sinking of the Jupiter Gilliat 1998). They suggest that in such aftermath of tragedy. Reflecting on the Cruise Ship commenting on the thanks- contexts implicit religious needs and decision-making process regarding the giving service). sentiments normally latent in society form of a memorial to commemorate the Although these events are often atten- become explicit and expressed. Even Bradford fire, trustee Roger Suddards ded by key national figures such as among the usually unchurched, then, local (1987) recalls: members of the royal family and and regional churches and cathedrals can 'We saw the plaque as being also a politicians, the question of which digni- become the locus of solace and support historic record of a terrible disaster in taries do and do not attend can be in both secular and religious terms. Bradford? history. Should we ask the sensitive. Many of those who attended the Regular and extra organised services are Provost to place it in the Cathedral? official memorial service following the often devoted to commemorating the Would this offend our non-Anglican Hillsborough Disaster were upset that a disaster in the first few days and are a friends? ... Walking round the Cathedral representative of the senior royals did not further feature of post-disaster ritual. we were struck by the number of 'histo- attend and were also dismayed by the It is important to recognise the need to rical' as well as 'religious' monuments. presence of the then Prime Minister, Mrs provide opportunities for traditional and We felt that our non-Anglican friends Thatcher, whose relationship with the City non-traditional forms of expression in could not reasonably be offended: both before and after the Disaster was not both religious and non-religious places warm. Those planning official memorial and ways following disaster. On the day Formal memorial setvices services need to be sensitive to these com- after the Hillsborough disaster 8000 Some weeks after a disaster there is munity factors and plan accordingly. people attended the Catholic Cathedral usually a planned official memorial As an extension of this it is important in Liverpool which, in a traditionally service which, depending on its local, to appreciate that the organisation and strong Catholic community, was as communal or national significance, is order of services themselves express im- appropriate a symbolic site for the usually held in a cathedral or church. plicit assumptions and messages. community as Anfield. In Dunblane, too, Official guidelines on emergency plan- The Disasters Working Party (set up after the primary school shooting of 16 ning in the United Kingdom acknowledge to examine psycho-social support children and their teacher,local cathedrals the important functions served by such systems in the aftermath of the decade of were a natural reference point in this services and key issues for those planning disasters) emphasises the importance of ecumenically active local community. and conducting such ceremonies. considering the feelings of the bereaved Here again, feelings of grief and helpless- As Dealing With Disaster (1998) states: and offers the following advice: ness were expressed in both traditional 2 memorial service provides an oppor- 'It is extremely important to give and non-traditional ways. Symbolic tunity for those affected by the disaster due consideration to those who are

Spring 1999 'Probably he didn't mention it because important after disaster but subsequent he didn'r want to upset people, and it ones are also significant as high atten- was a thanksgiving service for our lives, dance and media coverage shows. On the and you don't know how he put the 30th anniversary of the Aberfan Disaster service together... but we would have more than 100 villagers attended the liked a mention of these four people annual commemoration service led by there.' five ministers from eight churches and At a neighbouring school a similar chapels (Timewatch BBC TV, 1996). thanksgiving service had included As well as anniversaries being oppor- prayers for the four who had died and tunities for relatives and survivors to this aspect of ceremony, with candles reunite, bereavement and grief can being lit in remembrance, had been resurface at this time. For some these regarded as more appropriate. Some events and media coverage may even brief preliminary consultation with the trigger the beginning of griefwork and bereaved about the service content may the onset of post-traumatic stress: have prevented this distress. 'Many existing crisis counselling services The Disasters Working Party states that have received phone calls at times of the clergy, alongside the Director of anniversaries, birthdays, holidays, Social Services or Social Work should be resolution of court cases and publi- involved in planning memorial services, cations of reports about the disaster- Memorlal to the Challenger disaster (28 January, including decisions about when and all occasions when the memory ofthe 1986)Arlington National Cemetery, WashingtonDC where the event is held and who should disaster is evoked' (Disasters Working personally affected by the disaster, as be invited. There are obvious implications Party Report, 1991 Para 3.5). well as to any oficials or dignitaries, here for the training of clergy and others Support workers need to be aware of both local and national, who wish to involved in planning and delivering such this. Although practical information and pay their respects... It is important that high profile events. Sadly, as with much support is planned for in the first few joint services are held asfar aspossible, disaster management, these are seen as weeks and months following disaster, to so that relatives do notfind themselves sufficiently rare events and are not part whom will the distressed turn should the attending numerous services in of the regular training of religious and tenth, twentieth or thirtieth anniversary different churches' (Part 2, p66). other professionals. How many mock be the occasion of the first feelings of In some cases the decision to invite exercises and seminars testing disaster flashback and other symptoms of post- dignitaries and to afford them privileged plans include consideration of these traumatic response? Optional helpline treatment and priorities over those most aspects of the rehabilitative phases of support may be a way of picking up some deeply affected may be upsetting for the disaster? of these at anniversary and other signifi- bereaved. One relative from the Locker- cant points in the longer term, including bie Disaster feels memorial services are Anniversary events the conclusion of inquest and inquiry bppalling occasions because the most Psychologists have highlighted the procedures. As well as their therapeutic important people at them are the PM significance of anniversaries and the andlor the royal people, the local 'anniversary effect'. Because of the dignitary; they are the ones who get to psychological significance given to a sit in thefront pew, who get to read a certain day, many survivors: lesson or something like that. So my bre touched once again by the disaster. family chose absolutely not to go in the A brief but significant later point in immediate aftermath.' time can powerfully evoke and activate Statements such as this highlight the disaster experience' (Echterling implicit messages surrounding ownership 1998). and impact and show why careful thought Sociologists too have highlighted the is needed in planning the form, content, social significance of disaster anniver- attendance and broadcasting of such saries as marking not only physical time services. hut also 'social time', thereby acknow- Insensitive language and proceedings, ledging the passing of calendar years as including both what is and is not said, can well as enabling collective remembrance also have an impact on the bereaved. One and expression of a community memory: survivor recalled a thanksgiving service 'Disaster anniversaries entail an after the Jupiter disaster thus: interactive process in which people 'The vicar did not mention the four share personal experiences. Public people who had died and a lot ofpeople officials make declarative comments were upset that he hadn't mentioned while the press and electronic media them. Thefeeling was ifweil have died, reconstruct the disaster experience by would we not have been mentioned at recording current thoughts and someone elsek thankseivin~', ', service?' reflections. In short, the disaster While this interviewee acknowledged anniversary is a process of collective the attempt at sensitivity on behalf of the remembering' (Forrest 1993). clergy, the sense of upset remained: The first anniversary is particularly Ilietnam Vetefans'Memorial, Washington DC I b 26 Australian Journal of Emergency Management potential, planners need to be responsive and communities. It has been to the fact that anniversary events them- suggested here that in the first selves can cause resentment. They may few days and weeks after a reinforce, for example, anger at media disaster, ritual expression can be intrusion or divisions among or between a healthy opportunity for relatives, survivors and organisers. expressing the sense of shock, anger, disbelief, grief and other The Politics of Anniversaries emotions associated with the For those more actively involved after disaster. For those of religious disasters, for example members of persuasion, post-disaster rituals relatives andlor survivors' action groups, serve explicit religious functions anniversaries can be used to raise the in terms of spiritual reflection public profile of outstanding issues and and rites of passage, particularly injustices. Such campaigners may posi- funerals. More fundamentally in tively use the media to publicise their the early stages (namely the first views and feelings. As an example, the few days and weeks), acts and Hillsborough Families Support Group services are important for used the tenth anniversary to highlight acknowledging the reality and the 'unfinished business' of the Disaster devastation caused by the disa- including the ongoing search for justice ster. Indeed, the involvement of through the prosecution of senior police the media and publiclpolitical officers in chargeon the day (HFSG 1999). figures functions to define and Elsewhere I have argued that the public socially construct incidents as and 'complicated'nature of death through 'disasters'in sociological terms by disasters has a significant impact on acknowledging their national and grieving processes and have emphasised even international impact as well the inability of the bereaved to find as the more direct local effects. 'closure' while fundamental questions In many cases television relating to the deaths of their loved ones coverage can enable the vicarious remain outstanding (Eyre 1998). This ~articivationof the broader Vietnam Veterans'MemoriaI, Washingion DC theme in the aftermath of humanly- community by, for example, caused disasters is a reflection of unsatis- publicising and broadcasting memorial or church) and left with uncomfortable factory and unsympathetic. . procedures in services. Though it may be short term, feelings about a lack of ownership and inquests, inquiries and coirt cases and social solidarity on a smaller scale can be consultation. More broadly, the dynamics their outcome. The persistence of reinforced through the communal dimen- within relatives' and survivors'groups, and unresolved issues relating to responsi- sions of services etc which can integrate even the relationships between the two, bility, accountability and justice can be a an event into the identity of a community may reinforce the inappropriate sense of source of ongoing trauma for relatives (particularly where a small geographical a hierarchy of grief and this, as well as and survivors. For them anniversaries are area or a particular institution such as a different ways of grieving, may he part of far from a rite of passage to 'moving on' school is involved). At anniversaries, the reason why self-help and support but a painful reminder of the little that rituals can further function to locate and groups experience internal strife, splinters has been achieved after so long. Further reinforce a disaster in a community's and breakaways. distress is sometimes caused when these social history and identity, marking the As stated, in exceptional cases, anniver- appropriate feelings of anger are dis- links between chronological time and saries promote dysfunction by triggering missed as 'unresolved grief' hy the media social time (Forrest 1993). As time passes, the first symptoms of Post-Traumatic and others. Rather, grief is just one of the anniversaryevents also provide the oppor- Stress Disorder, particularly for those who complex emotions experienced after tunityfor relativesand survivors to reunite, have not been able to start grieving disaster which needs to be understood rebond and update on the progress of previously. Disaster managers need to be within the broader psycho-social and disaster-related actions and campaigns. At aware of, plan for and puhlicise the extra legal aftermath of disasters and their the same time, however, it is important to psychosocial support which may be unfinished business. recognise that post-disaster rituals, needed at such times. particularly organised events, may be Invarious ways, therefore, post-disaster The Functions of Post-Disaster psychologically andlor socially dys- acts and services may fulfil a number of Rituals functional. As discussed, some may feel functions ranging from increasing social It is important to be prepared for and marginalised or excluded on grounds such solidarity to fostering or reinforcing a consider the practical organisation of the as religion, geographical distance, inability sense of social exclusion. It is important various forms of post-disaster ritual to attend on the basis of disaster-related to remember that the organisation and discussed here, not only because they are injury or simply due to the restricted impact of such events, as well as the likely to have lasting effects on partici- number of places. Of course, on practical disaster itself, is likely to affect many and pants, but also because experience has grounds, some prioritising of invitations varied groups of 'victims' (Taylor 1998) shown that they are predictable features has to take place. Usually families are given over a significant length of time. Hence I of post-disaster behaviour. This is a limited number of places, but this may have also argued that a much longer term because they serve important psycho- mean that survivors feel left out (often approach must be incorporated into the logical and social functions for individuals literally in terms of access into a cathedral concept of the 'disaster cycle' and its something which those who are still distressedfrom that tragic day may come and see in peace, quiet and privacy. We hope that it will give them comfort: Conclusions In all the ways discussed above, informal and official commemorative events are more than just occasions for remem- bering those killed or injured and ways of expressing personal and collective grief. Although the first anniversary appears to be of particular significance (Forrest 1993), subsequent ones are too as their marking shows. Commemorative sites and services can also be political sites of consensus and conflict. It is suggested here that researchers and practitioners Korean War Memoria, Washinglon M may learn more about the longer term psycho-social and political significance rehabilitative phases (Eyre 1998). While event and its significance are also often of some disasters by examining the issues it would obviously be impossible to constructed and maintained either at or and expressions surrounding disaster consult with all those affected, disaster close to the disaster site. In the small commemoration after five, ten or even managers must recognise that those most community of Aberfan, South Wales, part twenty years. Organisers need to take directly involved will have an emotional of the appeal fund was used to construct account of the range of social, religious interest in post-disaster rituals such as a formal memorial in the shape of a cross and political issues surrounding disaster memorials and anniversary services. bearing the names of the victims at the commemorate itself which are reflected Where possible in the longer run, place where some of them were buried in decisions about where, when and how involving these interests groups in in a mass funeral. The series of white it takes place and who has the authority decision-making may be preferable. An arches set against the sky on this hillside to make such decisions. In the longer term example where such decision-making cemetery touches all who visit. Also, at this is one justification for a community- processes have been applied is in the area the site where the junior school once based involving relatives and survivors in of permanent memorials. stood, a garden of remembrance was planning and designing such events constructed, its layout reflecting the wherever possible. Permanent Reminders: Disaster original layout of the classrooms that had Memorials been there. Both memorials are visited References Just as war sites and those killed regularly by members of the local com- Austin T. 1967, Aberfan: The Story of a by armed conflict are commemorated at munity and outsiders, testimony to the Disaster,_Hutchinson, London, pp 178. permanent memorials2, so physical continuing significance both of the event BBC TV 1996, 'Remembering Aberfan' reminders have been constructed as a and its memory. Timewatch Series. way of remembering forever particular Suddards (1987) reflected at length on Campion M. 1998, lupiterk Children disasters and their legacy. Those tasked the range of issues surrounding decisions Liverpool University Press, Liverpool. with planning and organising such about the permanent Bradford Disaster Davie G. 1992,'You'll Never Walk Alone: memorials can learn much from previous memorial. His reflections, revealing great Liverpool's 23rd Psalm' in Reader I & experience here. Key questions to be sensitivity and forethought, are repro- Walter T (eds.) Pilgrimage in Popular addressed include: what form can and duced below: Culture, Macmillan, London. should a permanent memorial take? How 'What form should a memorial take?. . . Davis I. and Wall M. 1992. Christian will memorials be maintained longer Formypartl wouldhavelikedsome kind Perspc'rtll es 111 1)lsujler Al~ru,rgemznr term? Who should make these decisions? of a garden which could be used as a Interchurch Rel~efand Development Permanent memorials after disaster place ofpeacefor those who suffered. But Alliance (IRDA), London, p 14. take many forms. As well as the personal this has complications: someone has to Disasters Working Party Report, 1991, graves of those who lose their lives (each maintain it. lt might not be wanted (the Disasters: Planningfir a Caring Response, in itself a commemoration of a life), thought of a hall at Aberfan, which is I HMSO, London, p 14. collective symbols commemorating the understand little used, loomed infront of Durkheim E. 1915, Elementary Forms of us) or it might be vandalised.. . We all Religious Life, Tr. J W Swain Free Press, felt that whatever shape our memorial New York. Notes took, it was important that it comme- Dynes R. 1999, 'Seismic Waves in 2. The Internet is Inmasingly becoming a resource for morated the generosity of people contri- Intellectual Currents: The Uses of the CommemoraUng those kllled by war (See, for example, www.poppyappeal.britishieglonnorgu~and disaster kg. buting to thefund. So in the end, after Lisbon Earthquake in Eighteenth Century the National Network for Chlld Care: ww.exnel. somefascinating discussions, we all were European Thought' Paper presented at laslate.edu/Pages/lamilles/nncc/GuIdance/fiood/ happy to suggest a memorial plaque.. . the European Sociological Association annlversary.html) and for highllghUng ways to mark Annual Conference, Amsterdam, August anniversaries and disaster-related campaigns. (e.g. Although gardens would have been nice, www.hfsg.org for the ongolng rampalp relatlng to the nonetheless here is a plaque which will 1999. Hlllsbarougil Disaster). be in a safe place, a thing of beauty and Echterling L. G.1998, 'A Year Ago Today:

AUStrallan Journal of Emergency Management The Psychology ofa Disaster Anniversary', Malinowski B. 1948,'Magic, Science and Taylor A. J. W. 1989, Disasters and James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Religion', in Magic, Science and Religion Disaster Stress, AMS Press, New York. Virginia, www.jmu.edulpsychologyde and Other Essays, Free Press, New York. Walter T. 1991, 'The Mourning after partment1anniversary.htm McGuire M. 1992, Religion: The Social Hillsborough' in Sociological Review, Emergency Planning Society, 1998, Context, Wadsworth, California. Vol3913, p 599-625. Responding to Disaster: The Human Miller J. 1974, Aberfan: A Disaster and Walter T. 1998, Presentation to Death, Aspects, Brodie Publishing, Liverpool. its Aftermath, Constable, London, pp 29, Dyrngatrd Bereavement Symposium, Open Eyre A. 1989, After Hillsborough: An 30-31. University, Milton Keynes, November Ethnographic Account of LiJe in Liverpool Myers D. 1994, Disaster Response and 1998. in the First Few Weeks, Unpublished. Recovery: A Handbook for Mental Health About the Author Eyre A. 1998,'Mass Disaster' in Weston Professionals, US Government Printing Anne Eyre is employed by the Fire Service R., Martin T. & Anderson Y. (eds.) Office, Washington DC. College and based at the Centre tor Disaster Bereavement and Losc Managing Change Pettersson P. 1996, 'Implicit Service ~anagement,Coventry University. Blackwell Science, Oxford. Relations Turned Explicit: A Case Study There she teaches on multidisciplina~ydegree EyreA. 1998,'More than PTSD: Proactive of the Church of Sweden as Service programmes in Disaster Management Reponses Among Disaster Survivors' in Provider in the Context of the Estonia spedalising in the psychosocial dimensions of The Australasian lournal of Disasters and Disaster' in Edvardson and Modell (eds.) disaster. She is setting up a Disasters study Trauma Studies, Vol 1998-2. Service Management: Interdisciplinary group within the British Sociological Forrest T. 1993, 'Disaster Anniversary: Perspectives, Nerenius and Santerus Association which aims to bring together A Social Reconstruction of Time' Publishing Co, Stockholm, p225-247. academics, practitioners and survivors and in Schmuck H. 1999, 'An Act of Allah: line with this is organising a conference in Sociological Inquiry, Vol 63, No 4, focusing on the human aspects of disasters November 1993 pp 444-456. Religious Explanations for the Floods in which will take place in April 2000. Gilliat S. 1998, 'English Cathedrals Bangladesh', Paper presented at the Special thank to Hazel Hancock for her help and Civic Rituals', in Theology, 1998, European Sociological Association in researching this attide. pp 179-188. Annual Conference, Amsterdam, August HFSG. 1999, Hillsborough Families 1999. Support Group, www.hfsg.org Suddards R. 1987, Bradford Disaster HMSO. 1998, Dealing with Disaster, Appeal: The Administration of an Appeal HMSO, London. Fund, Sweet and Maxwell. Impact of landslides in Australia to June 1999

Introduction six out of the 12 landslides causing injury In the following discussion the term by Marion Michael-Leiba or death involved the fall or topple of a 'landslide'is used in a very broad sense to Cities Projed, Australian Geological Survey single rock! include rock falls and topples, flows of Organisation (AGSO), Canbena, ACT. The most recent landslide deaths and solid material, and slow movements of a injuries happened in 1998. In January, a few tens of centimetres per year. man was injured by a toppling rock on Some incidents of mine subsidence are The death toll exceeds that of the 1989 Mt Stuart, Townsville, and a 12 year old also included in the damage estimates, Newcastle earthquake. However, Thredbo boy was killed near Eden, NSW when a although the data are incomplete. is not an isolated incident. hole he and his brother were digging in Landslides can be either the result In Australia, 47 landslides are known to the beach caved in and buried him. of human activity, or else naturally have caused injury or death during the In April 1998, two boys were injured occurring phenomena. period 1842-June 1999. At least 82 people and had to be taken to different hospitals Much of the statistical information in have been killed by at least 36 landslides. in separate rescue helicopters when they this paper was compiled from AGSO's These figures are probably under- got buried in a cave-in caused by their Australian Landslide Database but, estimates, as Australian landslides tend to tunnelling into a sand cliff at Teewah despite sustained efforts at recording pick people off in ones and twos, events Beach, north of Noosa, Queensland. In landslides, the database is certainly which tend not to be widely reported. May, two train drivers were killed near incomplete, and so conclusions drawn An additional 52 people are known to Robertson,NSW, when their train capsized from it and any analysis are tentative. have been injured by landslides. after hitting debris from an old railway AGSO has made the database accessible Almost half (about 20) of the landslides bridge abutment collapse. causing injury or death were rock via the Worldwide Web at www.agso. Damage to buildings gov.aulngisllocator.html, and would fallsltopples. In some cases rocks were Fifty-six landslides are known to have welcome exchange of information on inadvertently dislodged by human caused damage to over 200 buildings landslides to improve it and keep it activities, while in others the rock fall was (Michael-Leiba et al, 1997) during the current. the result of natural causes. period 1842-June 1999.Anumberofthese Thirteen of the 47 landslides involved were written off, along with the land on material falling from cliffs. The cliff event Landslides causing injury or death which they were built. 30 causing the most recorded casualties was On July 1997 a landslide with a head The most expensive incident was at scarp on the north western margin of the the Cowaramup rock fall, Margaret River, Lawrence Vale, Launceston, Tasmania in Alpine Way at Thredbo destroyed two ski WA, of 27 September 1996. Nine people the 1960s when two adjacent landslides in lodges and trapped 19 people. Eighteen were killed and three injured while Tertiarv sediments destroved 35 houses. of these were eventually contirmed dead attending a primary school surf carnival. , , Land was also written off. The cost is and one person was rescued alive. Duringtheperiod January 1996-June 1999, estimated at $4.6 million in 1999 dollars. 1 The two most recent incidents in which buildings were destroyed both involved debris fl0ws.h January 1998,a debris flow, triggered by torrential rain on Magnetic Island, Queensland destroyed up to 18 units of the Magnetic Island International Resort. In August 1998, a debris flow from Mt Keira, Wollongong, NSW, destroyed a mine building part way up the mountain and a suburban house in the runout zone. Both these instances of destruction were by fast moving landslides, but buildings have been, and are currently being, damaged or destroyed by very slow moving landslides with speeds of less than 100 mm Der vear. The toial direct dollar cost of damage (of which we are aware) to houses and residentialland from Australianlandslides since 1842 is estimated to be around 7711s small IandMde on Ule Pauma Road, north of Towwlile, kllled a woman $25 million in 1999 currency. Landslide during Tmpical Cydonelustln In Mami 1997 damage is not normally covered by b 30 Australlan Journal of Emergency Management insurance in Australia, so the human cost in terms of stress to affected property owners is high. One man died of a heart attack after having learnt that his house was being destroyed by a slow moving landslide. Landslide damage to infrastructure Hundreds of landslides are recorded as having caused damage to roads, railways or pipelines, andlor to have required stabilisation, and the data are certainly incomplete. There are too few financial data to estimate the cost in dollar terms. However, a gabion wall repair of a small road fdl failure at Macquarie Pass, NSW, in February 1997 cost $250,000 and necessitated road closure for Ths/andrjlde, on LakeMoms Roadnear Cairns, was tnggered by heavy rain in March 1999 about two weeks. An expensive example is the Wollongong-Sydney-Brisbane railway, Loss of earnings, productivity, etc. a landslide which permanently restricted where costs associated with landslide Losses of productivity, earnings or time the connection of these once-continuous damage are estimated to average caused by landslides include: people's streets to a pedestrian walkway. There are $25 million per year during the period time involved in rescue, evacuation, too few data to put a dollar tigure on these 1989-1996. The costs prior to 1989 are clearance of debris, and legal action; losses. not available. temporary closure of the Magnetic Island International Resort; land unable to be Conclusions Damage to agricultural land and developed; temporary mine closures; Although the damage caused by an crops damage to fences; and road and rail individual landslide in Australia tends to Five landslides are mentioned as having closures of up to almost three months. be more localised than that from a caused damage to agricultural land, and Occasionally, residents have suffered the damaging earthquake, landslides have we estimate a total loss of $1.3 million inconvenience of a road being perma- killed more than five times the number (Michael-Leiha et al, 1997). It is likely that nently closed, as in the case of Comet of people killed by earthquakes. Thirty- both the number of landslides and the Street-Granadilla Drive in Cairns, where six landslides have caused fatalities, cost are gross underestimates. the 1990 Tropical Cyclone Joy caused compared with two earthquakes. Landslides are estimated to have caused at least hundreds of millions of dollars worth of damage in Australia in addition to at least 82 deaths and 52 injuries. Consequently, they are worthy of consi- deration when identifying geohazards in an area. Finally, we recommend teaching about the dangers oflandslides, particularly rock falls from cliffs and ledges and collapses caused by excavation. The education would be particularly valuable if aimed at primary school children. Hopefully, it may save a few lives as five out of the eight landslides which caused fatalities during the period January 1996-June 1999 involved children aged 13 and under. References Michael-Leiba M., Andrews K. and Blong R. (1997), 'Impact of landslides in Australia', The Australian Journal of Emergency Management Vol 12 (I), 77riroldminebuildingmMtKeira wdertmyedbyadebnsflowduringlheWolongongfloods pp 23-25. in Augusl1998.

Spring 1999 Disasters as Heuristics? A case study

-- - lntrodudion 1 '...help the individual to save mental During the early 1970s the members of a /byon Bennett, Lecturer in Risk 1 resources.. .and enables him or her to local environmental group in Port Talbot, Studies, Scarman Centre, University of I cope with multiple affordances at the South Wales began complaining about L- .. Leitester . same time' (Fiedler and Schmid; Hewstone the environmental and health record of a J 1996). Take the problem of deciding the local petrochemicals plant. It was alleged safety of air travel. Rather than examine that the plant generated dust, noise Some groups and individuals actively all available data, one might be tempted and light pollution, and 'odours'. Concern monitor the experiential world, to calculate the safety of air travel on the was also expressed about the use of searching for hazard events related to basis of those events that come most vinyl chloride monomer, a suspected their agenda of concern.. . [they] pro- easily to mind. Unfortunately, given carcinogen, as a feedstock gas. The plant's cess the information [and] locate it in the widespread and often detailed explosive hazards were not a major bone their agenda of concerns.. .Some may reporting of air disasters, one might of contention. change their previously held beliefs.. . decide that air travel is dangerous. High On June 1, 1974, the Nypro nylon- and be motivated to take action. profile air disasters offer the public an manufacturing plant at Flixborough on [S]ignals that are inconsistent with 'availability heuristic'-a means of Humberside exploded killing 28 workers. previous beliefs or that contradict the quickly estimating the safety of air The deaths and property damage to local person's values are often ignored or transportation. Air disasters constitute a houses were widely reported. Following attenuated. 'simplifying routine' for the processing of this event, the Port Talbot group began to Crucially, therefore, groups or indi- information and decision-taking. As focus on the potential explosive hazards viduals may amplify or attenuate risk Perrow (1984) puts it,'lf there has recently generated by the petrochemicals plant. 'signals'.As Kasperson (1992) puts it,'Each been an airline crash, we focus on that This paper attempts to explain the cultural or social group selects certain event and ignore all the successful flights changing risk perceptions of the Baglan risks and adds them to its strand of when we think about the probability of a Action Group (BAG) following the worry-beads. ..even as it selects out other crash while deciding whether to take a Flixborough disaster. Two discourses are risks'. Kasperson uses Rayner's 'electronic flight or not'. Making a decision on the employed: Kasperson's (1992) 'social tuner' imagery to explain why some risk basis of a limited set of data (an easily amplification of risk' model, and the messages are picked up and others not. recallable event, for example) is known social psychological theory of heuristics Thus according to Rayner and Kasperson as 'satisficing'. Ideally, of course, one (Rachlin 1989). The paper commences people are 'pre-tuned' to pick up only should'optimise'-that is, spend time and with a brief description of the two certain kinds of messages. Kasperson effort weighing up all available data before discourses. This is followed by a history elaborates by asserting that while 'most making a judgement. In the case of air of the petrochemicals plant at Port Talbot individuals are largely reactive ...many travel, for example, this would mean and a description of the Flixborough organisations actively seek out and order availing oneself of transportation safety disaster. Case study data is presented, and risks'. The media plays an important role data. Given that air travel is three times some tentative conclusions drawn. in amplification or attenuation processes. safer than rail travel and thirteen times 'The processing of risk events by the safer than car travel, one might well decide Discourser media ...p rofoundly shapes the societal to go by air rather than by any other form The Soaal Amplification of Risk' model experience with risk ... Heavy media oftransport. But, as describedabove, there For Kasperson, our experience of risk has reporting appears to stimulate social is a tendency to use mental short-cuts in two dimensions: First, actual physical mobilisation', says Kasperson. The media decision-making. To save time and effort harm; Secondly, the acquisition or response is 'roughly proportional' to the we allow ourselves to be influenced by creation by individuals or groups of physical consequences of the event, while such memorable and vivid events as 'interpretations of hazards'. The 'social risk perception 'appears to incorporate disasters or the modes of death of the amplificatiod model focuses on the latter extent of human exposure as well as risk rich and famous. As Racblin (1989) dynamic. Specifically it addresses the management performance', explains: possibility that 'psychological, social, You are driving along the highway and institutional, and cultural processes ... Heuristics see theflashing lights ofpolice cars and can heighten or attenuate perceptions of A heuristic is a mental shortcut that ambulances.. . You drive a little slower risk and shape risk behaviour'. The'social '...provides a simplifying routine.. . that for the next hour or so. You hear that.. . amplification' model is premised on the leads to approximate solutions to ... President Reagan has rectal cancer and assumption that risk is part 'objective everyday problems' (Fiedler and Schmid; you make an appointment with your threat' and part a product of 'culture and Hewstone 1996). In today's complex world own doctor. In making judgements as social experience'. Not all risks are given it is sometimes difficult to come to a well as decisions we tend to use the equal attention. Receptivity is a function decision. There seems to be too much information that is most available to of currently held beliefs and agendas data to process in the available time. Such us.. . It is of course easiest and fastest (Kasperson 1992): cognitive mechanisms as heuristics to makejudgementson the basisofwhat

Australian Journal of Emergency Management 11n r~ Spring 1999 Produced by EmergenvMonogement Au~fraIiothrough the Aurtrolian EmergencyManogementlnrtifute MainRaad.Mount Macedon.Victoria 3441

Edited by RobFleming

Year 2000 approved the Plan at its August meeting and work is commencing on its implementation. EMA continues to work with the States, Territories, Commonwealth agenciesand key utilities in planning to A working party met in October toconsiderthe provision deal with Year 2000 service failures and meet national of telecommunications services during disasters and, information needs. The focus has now moved to under the provisions oftheTelecommunications Act 1977. managing the event and, to meet this requirement, the need for a National Disaster Communications Plan. 5tates.Territories and the Commonwealth have agreed Participants were drawn from States and Territoriesthe to establish Government Response/Coordination Centres Australian Communications Authority,the Departmentof embracing emergency response, policy advice and Communications,lnformationTechnology and the Arts. media elements.These centres will monitor Year 2000 the Australian Communications Industry Forum and EMA. related events, provide information to government and, For further information contact Barry Stanton, through the media, to the public,and coordinateother p: (02) 6266 5505, or email: [email protected]. action as necessary. TheCommonwealthCentre to be known as the National National Framework for Preventionand Coordination Centre (NCC) is being established by EMA Mitigation and the Office for Government 0nline.The NCC will In order to promote and market the National Framework gather information from theequivalent StateandTerritory for Prevention and Mitigation, the Mitigation Working centres, Commonwealth agencies, and key national Party,through EMA,isseekinga more publicly acceptable organisations to provide a national pictureofthe impact title which preferably excludes the word,'mitigation: of the Year 2000. Operation of the Centre will be While the assistance of marketing professionals and complemented by the Commonwealth Government students is being sought, all commentsare welcome. Year 2000 Event Management Plan. For further information contact David Winterburn, For further information contact Barry Stanton. ph:(02) 6266 5009,or email:[email protected]. ph: (02) 6266 5505,or email: [email protected]. Mitigation Working Party Update Taiwan Earthquake Membershipof theMitigation Working Party (MWP) has Following the earthquake in Taiwan On 21 been broadenedtoincluderepresentativesfromtheNSW 1999, the Australian Government sought to provide a state ~~~~~~~cyPlanning Committee,ACT Emergency physical rather than the disaster Services Bureau, Royal Australian Planning Institute,the relief effort.The Minister for Foreign Affairs Five highly- lnsurance~ouncilofAustralia, B~~~~~ ofMeteoro~ogyand trained senior officers from the fire services of the the Australian Geological Survey Organisation.The AustralianCapitalTerritory,Queensland.NewSouthWa~es. commonwealfh ~epar~mentsof~ranspor~and~~~i~~~l Victoria and South Australia deployed on 23 September servicesandFinanceandAdministrationarealsoshowing for seven days. While in Taiwan, they were employed interest in the workofthe cornmitree, primarily on debriefing rescuers completing their search and rescue duties. A major outcome of the last meeting was the establishment of working groupsto develop a strategic For further information contact Trevor Haines, plan for the Mitigation Working Party and T~~~~ of ph: (02) 6266 51 69, or email:[email protected] Reference for research into national riskassessment, the costsof disasters (with cost measured in economic, social, Sydney Harbour Oil Spill environmental and psychologiql-terms); and the cost- FollowingarequestfromtheAustralianMaritimeSafety benefit of mitigati?nr~6eel$t$r pr;j'pos? will be Authority on4August 1999, EMA tasked the Australian considered by thefailure surrounding communications in times of crisis.The during flood, ensure\sa$evacu\a~iop rout~at'timesof National Emergency Management Executive Group flood and to highlight the needfor designs and the use

EMA UPDATE 1 offlood compatible building materials to reduce flood held on the day following the conference,Thursday 4 damage. November. It was planned and organised by the ACT For further information contact David Winterburn, Emergency Services Bureau and the Australian Geological ph: (02) 6266 5009 or email:[email protected]. Survey Organisation (AGSO), in cooperation with the Australian Disasterconference 1999. Search for Missing Snowboarders This workshop forms partofa series that began with the In a last ditch effort to locate foursnowboarders missing 1994 workshop HazardManagement:Betterlnformation in the Mount Kosciuszko National Park in south-eastern fortheZlstCentury,held at AEMl and sponsored by EMA Australia and, at the request of the New South Wales and AURISA.The seriesaims to facilitate theeffective use Government, in early August EMA tasked the Australian of spatial data across the wholespectrum of emergency Defence Force to provide a specialist aircraft to assist with management in Australia and the region. thesearch.Theaircraftwasfitted with thermal imaging The workshop provided a forum for discussion between equipment which was part ofa surveillancetrial focused practitioners, including data analysts, GIs professionalsand on locating land-cruiser sized vehicles in northern information users, and others interested in the use Australia.The aircraft located some'hot spots'on the snow of spatial data for emergency management. Other surface but consistent with thecharacteristics of thermal workshopsarealsobeing plannedoverthenexttwo years. imaging,which does not penetrate waterstheequipment For further information contact Rick McRae on was unsuccessful. ph: (02) 6207 8607 or Greg Scott on (02) 6249 91 32. For further information contact Rod McKinnon, ph: (02) 6266 5328, or email: [email protected] New IDNDR projects funded in FY 19991 2000 East Timor Crisis Australian Emergency Management Forum- web site In Septemberand October,EMA was heavily involved in including virtual chat forums (3199). Dr John Field, the East Timor Operation. Commitments included: CharlesSturt Uni,Bathurst,NSM activation ofthe Commonwealth Government Reception - MessageSticks- Natural Hazard Warning and Action Plan (COMRECEPLAN) for thecoordination of Common- Devices for Aboriginal Communities (4199). Dr wealth agency involvement in the reception in Australia Allan Skertchly and Ms Kristen Skertchly, Success of Internally Displaced Persons (IDP); activation of the Management International Learning Enterprises Commonwealth Government Disaster Response Plan (SMILE), Casuarina, NT. (COMDISPLAN) forthesourcing and movement oftents, Public Education and Awareness Natural Disaster stretchers and bedding by the Australian Defence Force - in the Republic of Palau (5199). Mr Hazime Telei, from Southern Australia to Darwin toenablethe Northern National Emergency Management Office (NEMO), Territory Governmentto establish aTemporary Accom- Republic of Palau. modation Facility;and,at the request of the Australian Agency for InternationalDevelopment, activation of the Flood Data Books - A Low Cost Alternative to AustralianGovernment Overseas Disaster Assistance Plan Floodplain Mapping in Rural Areas (6/99),DavidFuller, Department Primary Industries Water and Environ- (AUSASSISTPLAN) for the air dropping of food in East . , Timor. ment, Hobart, Tas. __--- ! \,, I' , \ Other Commonwealth agencies involved included the Effective Behaviour Change gograms for Natural/ '.,% Depanmentsof Foreign Affairs, Health and AgedCareand Hazard Reduction in Rural Communities (7199), David Immigration and Multicultural Affairs. From a Northern Bridge, Deakin University,Geelong, Vic. Territory perspective,it was truly a whole-of-Government CycloneVulnerabilityIAwareness and Preparedness effort. in Remote and ~bor~inal.~ommunitiesof the Gulf For further information contact Rod McKinnon, of Carpentaria (9/99), Dr DavidJing, James Cook University (JCU), Townsville, Qld andinda Berry, JCU, ph: (02) 6266 5328, or email: [email protected] \. . Cairns, Old. '-. Disaster Prevention for the 2lS'Century - Study into the Factors Which Contribute to the Effectiveness of Sprinklers for Property Protection The Australian Disaster Conference 1999 was held on During Bushfires (10199). Mr Troy Williams, 1-3 November 1999 in Canberra. Printed copies of Fire Protection Association Australia (FPA Australia), ) the proceedings are available from EMA at a cost Box Hill, Vic. of $100. Contact EMA on ph: (02) 6266 5402, fax:(02) 6266 5029 or by email to:[email protected] to Review of Bushfire Safety for People with Sk&ial order a copy ofthe proceedings.Copiesare alsoavailable Needs Pilot Project (1 1/99),AnneneDodson, KnoxCity Council, WantirnaSouth, Vic. forloan through the AEMl library. / Later issues of AJEM are expected to contain a detailed Disaster lnformation on the Web - An'lndex to report on the conference, the directions and priorities Prompind Reliable lnformation (12199). Edmund ,., identified for the future and a selection ofthe presented BernardJoyce, ~choolof Earth Sciences, University of >,'' Melbourne, Parkville, Vic. \ ,.,' papen. I , , Workshop onvolcanic ~azardsl~~erations~u~~otionond ~ngineering,Highett, Vic. \ management courses at AEMI.As part of the extension Automated~rocessingand Distribution of Remote program in the latter half of 1999,each State andTerritory Sensing,Visual:satpns for Disaster Prevention and has conducted IERM courses and approximately 600 Preparedness ;n Local$overnment Areas (23199).Rick people across Australia have attended this course.These /McRoe,ACTEmergencyServices Bureau, Curtin,ACT. courseswill now continue to berun'in situ'by the States ~evelopmp/ntand ~i>t:ibution of Educational andTerritoriesand will bea powerful tool to'spread the Resources,to Support Hazayds, Disastersand Survival word'about RiskManagementtothe broaderemergency TV &Video Series (24/99),Jeano Kriewaldt,Australion managementcommunity. Geography Teachers'Association (AGJA), Balwyn, Vic. I \ Develppment and National qistribution of an All- Emergency RiskManagement haza@ Emergency Awareness,Teachers' Guide for AEMl staff arecurrently developing and delivering a new 7 Secondary-Sch9s (25/99), LyndoN Horton-Jomes, suite of training and education products. The new \\ West Education Centre;Wes@tscray, Vic. Emergency Risk Management courses to be offered by 1- AEMl in the first half of 2000 are aimed at personnel IDNDR Education 2000 involved in risk management at a community level.The /' The Unexpected C~tastrophe:1989 Newcastle courses are designed to provide participants with an ,,f~arth~uake l~ormatian Resources is a CD ROM understanding of the process of emergency risk

EMA UPDATE 3 -

activity at Mount Macedon (two 4-day periods) and Support AEMl in implementing strategicadvice from workplace learning projects. the NEMCon education and training matters. Themembership ofthe NEMETAGis: Course 1 (including 4 day residential) - Dudley McArdle DAEMI; Chairman Understanding EmergencyRisk Management Joe Paul SES; NEMEG This course will offer participants the opportunity to Bruce Esplin NEMEG examine the emergency risk management process in Barry Hamilton NEMEG detail. Subjects examined will include: Ray Fogolyan VETSector the risk management process, including an Barry Grear Institution of Engineers examination ofall steps in the process; Stephen Gough Convention of Ambulance themanagement ofa community riskstudy,and Authorities Issues likely to emerge during a risk management Sandra Lunardi AFAC project within a community. Morrie Bradley EMA representative Insp. Doug Hocking Australasian Police Education Course 2 (including 4 day residential) - StandardsCouncil Implementing EmergencyRisk Management Prof. PatrickGriffin Tertiary Education Sector Thiscoursewill focuson howto undertakeacommunity Tony Bisdee Australian Local Government riskmanagement process.There will bea strong emphasis Association on the processes needed to apply risk management Barry McPhee Recovery Sector within a community.Participantswill examinea range of The next meeting of the NEMELAG will bein April2000. concepts and principles applicable to working with

community and how doesitwork?), New and revised publications now available (as noted communication skills,decision making in the public below in each category): arena and document management, Community Awareness and Education: process facilitation within community groups Natural Hazard Awareness for the Northern Territory (includingrolesofthe facilitatorandfacilitator ethics), (colourful, 62 size, community awareness poster).This publiceducation and social marketing. new poster map texturally and photographicallydepicts the history and details of major natural hazard impacts Emergency RiskManagement Manuals and disasters in the NT. It was funded by IDNDR and In addition tocoursedevelopmenta number of manuals produced by EMA as part of a series to cover all States are being developed to support the emergency risk and Territories. It is available (free) through Northern management process and to complement the two parts Territory Emergency Services, PO Box 39764, Winnelle ofthe Emergency Risk Management course.They are: NT 0821. 1. ApplicationsGuide:Thisguide passed through SevereStorms:Facts,WarningandProtection (ASfoldout the final consultation process with the States and colourpam~hlet).Thisjoint EMA/BU;~~>O~~e~orolo~~ Territories and will be published soon. publ3ation has been rebidd and features-new p/hotographsand updated)hform$ion on thedange&of 2 Social Processes Guide:The development work ,severe storms. It also covers the warning system and\ is underway and should be finished in the first half of ' Informationon personal and propeny protectjon. (Copies 2000. ' . availabl~hroughallState/TerriroryEmergency Services.) , . \ 1 National Emergency Management Australian Emergency Manual Ser~es: Education andTraining Advisory Group Part 111 -Emergency Management Practice At its April 1999 meeting, the National Emergency Volume 1 -Service Prov~sion Management Executive Group (NEMEG) approved the Manual2 - DisasterMedicine(2$Edition) establishment oftheNational Emergency Management (Copies available thrcugh your Sta,teflerritory depart- Education and Training Advisory Group (NEMETAG) in ments of health) ' \, - C, response toa recommendation from the'Report Into the I '.. 1. Role of the Australian Emergency Management Institute PartV-TheManagement ofTraining \ in the Development and Delivery of Eme~gency Manual 1 -SmaNGroup Training Management (PEdition) Management Education and Training Post 2000'(E &.T_ / (Copies distributed to relevant,, ,, emergency agencies 2000).The first meeting of the NEMETAG was held at -thpugh State/Jerritory Emergency Ser;vjces. [Training AEMl on 17 September 1999. Sections maintain distributron/amendmentreister). - ,/' The purposeofthe NEMETAG as defined by ~~~NEMEGis EMAaddressesforpublicationsorders (firit checkabove to: \ for appropriate EMA Office or Sllauthority): Provide strategic advice to theNEMC on thecurrent EmergencyManagemenrAustraIia,POBox 1020, Dickson ACT2602, Australia. and future professionaldevelopment of persons who .. have disastertemergency management f~nc'tions Australianinsr~lu~eofEmergencyManagemenr,MainRd,

withn thecommunity. \.Mr. Macedon VIC344 1, Australia. \,; .' -.... . -. ' '. . 4IEMA UPDATE is easiest to call to mind-the heuristic between this incident and the later Flix- In October 1990 the ethyleneplant again of availability borough explosion, where a flammable caught fire. It took 12 hours to bring the mixture escaped under pressure (Kennett blaze under control. The Port Talbot Plant 1982). At Flixborough, however, the gas Despite such obvious setbacks, The petrochemicals plant in question was exploded with enormous force (see however, during the 1990s Baglan Bay's owned and operated by British Petroleum below). local management made great efforts to Chemicals International. Sited at Baglan At the end of February 1974 the styrene involve the community more with the Bay near the town of Port Talbot, it plant caught fire releasing a'large quantity plant (Bennett 1996). covered about 600 acres of a 1,000 acre of smoke' which 'drifted like a huge Baglan Action Group site. BP built the plant in the 1960s, siting pall across the nearby Sandfields Estate'. BAG was formed in February 1974 in it adjacent to a low-rent housing estate of Eight municipal fire appliances attended response to perceived inadequacies in 15,000 people, (Jones 1989) a school with the blaze, which burned for 35 minutes. BP's attitude to pollution. It had ten 1,700 pupils and a sports ground. The headmaster of the local school, on members. Initial concerns focused on The school was situated about 500 seeing the 'dense black pall', ordered that '...the medical effects of industry on yards from BP's perimeter fence. Work all the school's windows be closed (The people'. While members were aware of on the housing estate had commenced in Port Talbot Guardian, 1/3/1974). the 'potentially explosive' (The Western 1950. The plant came 'on stream' in 1963. By the end of 1977 the number of Mail 19/2/1974) nature of BP's activities, By 1968 it employed around 600 people. pollution-related complaints received by until Flixborough this particular risk did The company boasted of the plant's 'Space the plant had been greatly reduced (The not feature prominently in exchanges Age technology' that would'. help the Western Mail 2411 111977), but the plant . . between BAG and BP Chemicals. Nation's Balance of Payments by elimina- continued to suffer periodic fires. ting imports'.(BP Chemicals International In March, 1983, a blast in the ethylene The Flixborough Disaster ad. 1968). BP completed a major addition plant injured two workers, one severely. The Nypro plant was located on mostly to the plant in March, 1974, by which time As The Western Mail reported on 10 flat land between twovillages, Fliiborough it had invested a total of £140 million. The March: and Amcotts. The site extended over 60 plant's incremental growth reflected a The blast ...sent thick black smoke acres. The population could choose to buoyant UK petrochemicals sector hundreds of feet into the air. The force work either at Nypro, a local steel plant or (Cranfield 1974). Petrochemicals plants ofthe explosion rattled windows up to in agriculture. Although Nypro employed present both fire and explosive hazards. three miles away. The blaze took two about 550 people, few Flixborough The larger the plant and the greater the hours to bring undercontrol.. .Thirteen residents worked there (Clammer 1974). volume of on-site storage, the greater the fire appliances.. . including 10 water The plant produced Nylon-6 for the risk (Napier 1974). tenders, twofoam units, a turntable garment industry by combining benzene There had been two major fires at the tender [sic] and an emergency unit with ammonia. A Nypro chemist likened Baglan Bay plant prior to the Flixborough fought the blaze. this process to 'boiling petrol' (Scullion disaster.On 6 February 1973, Baglan's new ethylene plant caught fire during com- missioning. Flames 'soared 150ft above the works'. Fourteen workers were injured. In addition to works appliances, five municipal fire engines attended the scene. According to one newspaper (The Port Talbot Guardian, 9/2/1973) thelocal population seemed ignorant of the cause and nature of the problem: Thousands ofpeople on the Sandfields and Baglan Estates watched as columns ofyellowflames belched skywards. Many believed thefire was alpart of the commissioning work. It emerged that the fire had been caused by a component failure that allowed 'large volumes of flammable hyd- rocarbon gases' to escape 'at high pressure' (The Port Talbot Guardian, 23/2/1973). Map oflhe Porl Tam ~pgioasumundhg andiaduding lhe British Petmleum (3emiaIs tnfematio~lplantat t?dgian Bay. There are similarities Repmdwedhom~~eY,~eym3ppngwlV,IhepermircionofO~~rveym~IfofHw~/eCry1UaU~ery~O~~fl~W99mO5. spring 1999 33 4 I 11974). 'It is BP that's1 devaluine., the property' said the action group's Secretary in late February 1974 (Echo 20 February). In the same month a local councillor comolained that 'the noise I I nuisance is as bad now as it was 1 12 months ago' (Guardian 22 February 1974). Questions about BPS environ- mental performance had been raised prior to BAG'S format~on ~ in 1974. On 19September 1973 the Headmaster ofthe school adjacent 1 to the site had 'complained to the Port Talbot public health , inspectors office' about a pungent odour. Residents 'complained that the smell ...made them feel drowsy and gave them a burning feeling in their throats'. A spokes- man fnr RP ctatpd that it was nnt

39733. 1974). Twenty-eight workers were killed statements'. The publication dates are Protest against BP's environmental and 36 injured in the disaster. Had the given in parentheses. performance took a number of forms. disaster not occurred at the weekend It is accepted that this methodology is In September 1973 three residents on a many more workers would have been not optimal. Contemporary researcher- local private housing estate held a rates killed (Taylor 1975). The plant exploded conducted interviews with protagonists strike (they refused to pay their property with a force of 'between I5 and 45 tons of and participant observation would have tax). One complained that pollution from TNT' (Kirkwood 1997). Some witnesses provided the most reliable data. the dant was affecting-. orooertv . values: likened the event to an atomic explosion Nevertheless, on the assumption that 0;r lives have become intolerible as a 1 (Kennett 1982). A police report '...des- reporters recorded events and the views result ofthe noise andpollution coming cribe[d] an enormous black mushroom of group members accurately, the three from the BP plant over 14 months and I cloud laden with debris which rose to over secondary sources may be considered to which has continued despite comp- a mile (1.6km) above the devastated provide a truthful account of the terms, laints. When our rates were increased area.. .Falling debris started small fires up nature and course of the risk debate. under the new assessments it was the to three miles (4.8km) away' (Kirkwood last straw, because the conditions have 1997). The main conflagration lasted The rlsk debate as reported by reduced the value ofour properties. 24 hours. Smaller explosions occurred The Western Mail, Port Talbot Another rates striker complained about throughout the following week. Three Guardian and South Wales Echo the 'inhuman' noise pollution produced thousand local residents were evacuated. Prior to the Fliborough disaster, the risk by the plant (Guardian21 September 1973). One thousand homes lying within a debate pertaining to the BP Chemicals At the beginning of 1974 The Western three mile radius were damaged. plant had two major themes: environ- Mail reported that the deaths of three Out of Flixborough's 79 houses, 72 were mental pollution and the health risk to workers in America who had been damaged (Brown 1990). There were 53 workers presented by vinyl chloride exposed to VCM gas were being investi- recorded casualties outside the perimeter monomer (VCM). VCM had been linked gated. On 31 January, The Western Mail fence. The disaster was covered in the to cancer of the liver. The pollution debate announced that 'Medical records of about media and discussed in Parliament. The revolved around four aspects of the plant's 700 men at BP in South Wales are to be local MP asserted that 'the cost in terms operation: its alleged dust and odour checked after it was found thev have been of grief and misery my constituents have emissions, light pollution and its in contact with [VCM]'. had to suffer.. .is too high for a so-called generation of 'excessive' noise (Mail 15 The themes of environmental pollution civilised sociew to bear'(Ellis in the Times February 1974). The Baglan Action and workers' health dominated the public 1974). Group-'Formed to fight pollution'- debate about the plant between January orchestrated the campaign against BP. As and May 1974. On 9 May, The Western Mail Methodology the leader of BAG put it: reported that the British Society for Social Secondary sources only have been used, Our complaints are well known. They Responsibility in Science (BSSRS) had specifically the reportage of three local are of smoke, noise and chemical urged local residents '[Tlo demand that newspapers, The Western Mail, The South pollutions [sic] and we are desperately BP Chemicals at BagIan Bay publish their Wales Echo ('sister'paper to the Mail) and anxious to have some early answers to pollution figures'. BAGS Secretary sup- The Port Talbot Guardian. The papers our questions (Echo 19February 1974). ported the BSSRS call for more infor- have been used to tell the history of the BAG worried that pollution would mation on pollution to be supplied to risk debate and as a source of 'witness 'devalue property' (Mail 20 February residents. Acknowledging the campaign,

AustralIan Journal of Emergency Management BP revealed the extent of its investment in explosion the poison gas ...would meeting was arranged. BP also planned to remedial measures to the press. As The rapidly dispatch them (Echo 17 August meet the New Tenants' Association and Western Mail explained on 16 Feb 1974: 1974). The Port Talbot Environment Society at a The company is spending about£60,000 BAG called for a review of the plant's later date (Guardian 28 June 1974). a year checking on pollution ...£30,000 explosive risks, as did The Port Talbot Conclusion on cutting out smells ...and a further Environment Society, Port Talbot New The most puzzling aspect of BAGS cam- ,6225,000on installing silencers to reduce Tenants' Association (PTNTA) and the paign was the way the group played down noise. Aberavon North Ward Labour Party. the risk of explosive hazard. BAG'S Following the Flixborough disaster of 'Because of the concentration of housing members attenuated the signals that 1 June 1974, however, the focus of concern and schools nearby.. . People have the Baglan Bay might present a serious of the members of BAG shifted from right to know what the dangers are', said explosive hazard (the two fires), prefer- pollution and VCM to explosive hazard. the Chairman of PTNTA (Mail 5 June ring to'tune in'to pollution andVCM issues As The Western Mail put it; 'Until the 1974). instead. This attenuation might be In mid-June, BAG published a report Flixborough disaster at the weekend, the explained by the nature of the emer- on the risks presented by the petro- Baglan Action Group had channelled their gencies at the BP plant. The two fires were protests towards noise and pollution at chemicals complex. It contained the unlike the Flixborough disaster in a the plant' (4 June 1974). BAGS Secretary following unequivocal statement of number of important respects: The described the mood shift thus: concern: destruction at Flixborough continued for In the light of the Nixborough disaster I think everybody was a little stunned about a week; the fires at BP were quickly and shocked when the news came out. the dangers of explosion andfire are brought under control. At Flixborough But what has alarmed us is that the obvious (Mail 15 June 1974). there was extensive damage beyond the experts havesaid thissort ofthing could It would appear that Flixborough had perimeter fence; at Baglan there was no happen again (Echo 4 June 1974). 'made obvious' to BAG the 'dangers of damage beyond the perimeter. Workers explosion'. BAG's report went on: (This comment bears certain simi- were killed at Flixborough; no workers larities to statements (Kennett 1982) made The two majorfires [see above] have were killed at Baglan. There were off-site caused much concern, but until by Flixborough residents on realising injuries at Flixborough; there were none that they had been living next to a plant Flixborough the public did not appre- at Baglan.At Flixborough most of the plant with the capacity to explode with great ciate the homfying potential of such a was razed; at Baglan only self-contained destructive force). plant.. . At this time it would be wrong sections were damaged. There was exten- Interestingly, in a statement to The not to press for an inquiry into the sive and prolonged local, national and Western Mail, the group's Secretary hinted general security of the plant (Echo 14 international reporting of the Flixborough that BAG had been conscious of the plant's June 1974). explosive risks for some time but had In July 1974 the gov- chosen to remain silent: ernment's Employment Some of us have had anxieties about Secretary announced a this type of incident which we have not program of inspections oressed oubliclv to avoid be in^" alarmist bf by th; Factory i4Junei974).' ln~~ectorate.The Emp- In a letter to The Echo, BAGS Chairman loyment Secretary com- made the same assertion: municated this news to Wishing to alarm no one the Baglan BAG in a letter. BAG's Action Group played down the all-too- Secretary commented: real parallel which exists here. Nobody We will be watching the can accuse us of selfishly exploiting the situation closely. Until tragedy for our own ends.. . (1 7 August somefirm recommen- 1974). dations are made we It seemed to BAGS Secretary that the are stillgoing to be very situation at Port Talbot was potentially worried (Mail 18 July more serious than that at Flixborough: 1974). There were acres of farmland sur- Flixborough 'freed up' rounding Flixborough, but at Baglan the local political Bay there is a school on the perimeter impasse that had existed of the site.. . If a similar explosion between BAG and BPS occurred at Baglan Bay, it would rip management. Although the school from its very foundations BP had invited BAG to (Echo 4June 1974). the plant for discussions, BAG's Chairman had no doubt that a BAG had refused to catastrophe was inevitable: go. After Flixborough, Unfortunately.. .the question is not bill however, BAG met BPS it'? but 'when will it go up and how management on 'neutral many will go with it'? In such an territory'at a localleisure event.. . both workers and BPk closest complex. A two-hour neighbours ... would stand no meetine saw 'frank chance ...Should they survive an speaking'. A further Astoragevesselonthel,OWauep/antat~~anBay

35 4 disaster; there was much less reporting modify our behaviour. The car crash- The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Social of the two fires at Baglan. Following the most dramatic manifestation of the Psychology, Blackwell, Oxford, p 296. Kasperson's (1992) discourse on the failure of the socio-technical system that Perrow C. 1984,Normal Accidents: Living media it may be this differential that is car travel-acts as an availability with High-Risk Technologies, Basic Books, explains the group's pre-Flixborough heuristic, revealing the potential horrors New York, pp 316-317. attitude towards explosive hazard. that await the careless driver. As Rachlin Jones R.C. 1989, 'Battle of Baglan Bay', As Kasperson explains '. . .Heavy media puts it,'You see the flashing lights and you The lndependent Magazine, 28 October, reporting appears to stimulate social drive a little slower'. Having been sen- p 34. mobilisation'. Could it be that while the sitised you change your risk-taking BP Chemicals International adver- group had always been aware of the risk behaviour (for a time). As with car tisement in Waller A. ,1968, Official Guide of explosion (see statements by group drivers, so too with the members of BAG. to Port Talbot: third edition, C. and D. members, above) it took the world-wide The lessons of Flixborough were so Constaple Ltd, London, p 45. media event that was Flixborough to dramatic and obvious that, for a time at Cranfield 1. 1974,'UK petrochemicals set persuade the group to 'add the risk to its least, challenging BP on the issue of for massive growth', Petroleum Inter- strand of worry beads'? Perhaps the explosive hazard became the group's national, July. relatively low-key reporting of fires at number one priority. The group modified Napier DH. 1974, 'Background to a Baglan had failed to persuade the group its behaviour. Disaster',Chemistry in Britain, Vol 10(7), to speak out on the issue of explosive Rut this is possibly not the whole story. p239. hazard. While BAG had identified explo- There may be another dimension to the The Port Talbot Guardian, 1973, sive hazard as worthy of inclusion in its risk debate at Baglan Bay: qualitative 9 February. 'agenda of concerns', such risks were well differences between the various risk- The Port Talbot Guardian, 1973, down the list. related events. The fires were short-term 23 February. Post-Flixborough the group-now fully hazards. The second blaze expired in Kennett F. 1982, The Greatest Disasters tuned-in to the risk of catastrophic 35 minutes. While there were trans- of the Twentieth Century, Marshall explosion posed by such plants-moved boundary impacts (the pall of smoke) Cavendish, p 139. the risk up its agenda of concerns and these soon disappeared. The Port Talbot Guardian, 1974, launched a sustained campaign. That In contrast, the dust, noise and light I March. is, BAG, having 'sought out the hazard poUution and odours from the plant were The Western Mail, 1977,'Plant pollution event', was sufficiently concerned by the more persistent. Such hazards had an complaints are reduced to a trickle', possibility of a similar fate befalling the 'irritant' quality. Unlike the transient 24 November. plant and community at Baglan that hazards of fire and explosion, they were Bennett SA. 1996,'Getting the public on it amplified the risk. Kasperson also frequently manifest. They also generated board', Chemistry in Britain, The Royal suggests that 'extent of human exposure' much complaint from the community. Society of Chemistry (RSC), London, affects risk perception. Certainly the Given that BAG'S primary mission was to Vol 32(4), April. 28 deaths and numerous injuries 'fight pollution', these hazards were The Western Mail, 1974, 'Action group at Flixborough would suggest the sensiti- obvious candidates for amplification. formed to fight B.P. Pollution',lY February. sation of other 'at-risk' populations to After Flixborough, BAG'S leaders insisted Clammer J. 1974,'Flixborough: a rural- explosive hazard. that they had been aware of the plant's industrial disaster', New Society, 20 June. Nuttal's (1959) Standard Dictionary of explosive risks all along. They had simply Scullion 1974, in Chartres J. and Osman the English Language defines an heuristic chosen to remain silent to avoid panic- A.,'Angry residents will fight any attempt as something that 'leads to discovery'. king the community. to rebuild death factory'. The Times,4 June. Following this definition the two fires This might be true. Alternatively, it Taylor HD. 1975, Flixborough: The at BP's Baglan Bay plant should have might be that it took a disaster as Implications for Management, Keith encouraged BAG to air its views on dramatic and visceral as Flixborough to Shipton Developments Ltd, p 10. the subject of explosive hazard. However, make obvious the attendant fire and Kirkwood A. 1997, Flixborough Re- while BAG placed explosive hazard on its explosive risks inherent in chemical visited, The Safety and Health Practitioner, agenda of concerns it remained mostly process industries. August, p 31. silent on the matter, preferring to pursue Brown P. 1990,'16 years on,council acts health issues instead. References on Middlesborough ICI plant. Homes Then the Nypro plant exploded, kiiing, Kasperson RE. 1992, 'The Social Ampli- go to avert 'Flixborough' rerun', The maiming and destroying. The disaster fication of Risk: Progress in Developing Guardian, 12 February. was broadcast across the globe. It even an Integrative Framework' in Krimsky, S. Ellis 1974, in The Times, 'Rigorous and led, indirectly, to new safety legislation. and Golding, D. (eds.) Social Theories of far-reaching inquiry into chemical Here, then, was an event that was difficult Risk, Praeger Publishers, New York, pp factory explosion', 4 June. to ignore. Rachlin's analogy of the traffic 153-175. Nuttali Standard Dictionary of the accident may provide an explanation for Rachlin H. 1989,]udgement, Decision and English Language, 1959, Frederick Warne, the group's behaviour pre- and post- Choice-a CognitivelBehavioural Syn- London. Fliborough. While, as drivers, we are all thesis, W.H. Freeman and Company, New aware (in varying degrees) of the risks York, pp 58-61. (See also Manstead, attendant upon road use, it may take some A.S.R. and Hewstone, M. (eds.) (1996) The dramatic and horrifying event-like Blackwell Encyclopaedia ofSocial Psyc- seeing the physical and human costs of a hology, Blackwell, Oxford, pp 296-300). car crash- to first, convince us of the Fiedler K. and Schmid I., 1996, in danger and secondly, to persuade us to Manstead A.S.R. and Hewstone M. (eds.)

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Managing volunteers

Introduction everybody can turn out every time there By Major General B W Howard A0 MC, This paper covers some important aspects is a call, but to remain effective the of managing volunteers, these include: Director General, NSW State Emergency percentage that will respond needs to be level of control which may be Service. A paper presented to the 4th above 50. The level of availability needs exercised; Annual Emergency Servics FON~on to be stated in organisational documents. Volunteers in Emergency Sewices July 22, - styles of management; Communication communications; and 1999, Sydney Australia However, I regard the most important dispute and conflict resolution. aspect of managing volunteers success- However, before discussing these issues fully is communication. I feel it is necessary to provide a brief suspect that most will be somewhat Volunteers, whose motivation is not overview of the New South Wales State similar. financial, need a stake in their organisa- Emergency Service (SES) for my com- tion. They not only want to know what is ments to have some meaning and context. Clear Roles going on, they want to influence procee- The State Emergency Service is an The first need is for clear roles and tasks. dings. I support both of these aspects very emergency and rescue service which is These can be stated in legislation or strongly. the lead agency for dealing with floods official emergency plans, but they must Communication is a real challenge in a and storms and also carries out the be clear and unambiguous and there must decentralised organisation, like the SES, majority of the general rescue in the rural be definite lines of responsibility. There where offices are not manned by staff on parts of the State. This includes road is a tendency in the public safety industry a regular basis. Nevertheless, effective accident rescue, search and rescue and for volunteer groups to spring up of their communication is absolutely funda- vertical rescue. own accord and decide that they will mental to the wellbeing of volunteers and The SES was formed in 1955 after carry out some form of rescue or support. the effectiveness of the organisation. We massive floods in which over 40 people I believe that this should not be allowed. have our own web page which contains a lost their lives and millions of dollars Existing groups can also decide that they reasonable amount of information that worth of damage was done. The SES still need to train and equip for tasks for which is designed for our own members rather puts a lot of effort into this flood role they perceive a need. than outsiders, and this has been a great because floods are the most costly natural There must he a system to control these help. We encourage inquiries from our hazards and the SES is committed to tendencies or we can spend most of our volunteers and always answer them preparing the community. time 'fending off invaders'. Fortunately carefully. The SES has 243 units grouped into 18 New South Wales is well served in The SES operates a quarterly newsletter Divisions with a total of 6,700 active this regard by a system of formal accredi- which goes to all units. It is designed to members. There are no permanent staff tation for the common forms of rescue, provide information on current issues and at unit level. Units are based on local which prevents these splinter groups and is also well regarded. A copy is placed on government Councils that are responsible different directions. It has proved to be a the web page. During unit visits we make for providing accommodation and it is godsend. sure that we locate the last Newsletter and expected that they assist with funding for Protection check that it is readily available to all vehicles and day to day unit running The second framework requirement is volunteers. We have annual Conferences costs. adequate protection for individuals. at Division level where current issues are The SES has historically been under Emergency services work is intrinsically discussed and problems aired. Invariably funded but that is finally improving.Unlike unsafe so the level of personal protection someone from State Headquarters is the fire services, which receive most of must be high. The SES views protection present. their funding via an insurance levy, to include: But I suppose personal contact remains virtually all of SES funding comes from - employment protection; the most important means of communi- the New South Wales State Government personal effects insurance; cation and it cannot be replaced effec- Treasury. insurance against accident, sickness or tively by electronic or paper systems. The SES operates under an Act of death; There is no substitute for regular visits to Parliament and the organisation is protection against legal action; and units. Our Headquarters staff are very essentially a government department. It adequate personal and operational active in this regard and, amongst other has 31 staff at the State Headquarters in equipment and appropriate training. reasons for visits, we conduct Operational Wollongong and 38 in the field in the 18 Once again, New South Wales is well Readiness Inspections on one third of Divisional Headquarters. sewed although the last point, equipment our units each year. These are non- Basic Needs and training, has not always been as good threatening because we are there to work As an emergency service there are a as it should have been within SES. with the local volunteers to fuc problems, number of basic needs which must In meeting these two needs, the not just record them, and they are be met if we are to be able to operate. question of control is partly answered. part of the wider system of creating Volunteer groups which are not If the roles are clear, the volunteers must opportunities to talk to the volunteers. emergency services may have slightly be prepared to contribute to them or not The organisation has a volunteer different requirements, although I join in the first place. Naturally not association which is growing in strength and it is involved in the SESs organisa- our credibility in the public safety disputes and grievances. But we do have tional Performance Management System. industry and see off the sceptics. It also formal procedures for dealing with such This is a most important aspect of suits our decentralised nature because problems. They are a simplification of the Volunteer Management and, in my self-paced learning is normal and formal normal public service system, managed experience, volunteers need consultation course requirements are minimised. by either a senior volunteer or a staff more often than do employees. There is The majority of the trainers and member. We also provide training in no need to be nervous of this process as assessors will be volunteers themselves negotiating skills, which works well. the vast majority will accept reasonable and weare training several hundred a year Transfers between units are available explanation. However, they are always through a mixture of internal and external where practical when personality clashes coming up with ideas that need some- means. occur, but occasionally we need to remove where to go and that must be dealt with. There is no doubt that no matter what people. This is not common, but the We conduct regular surveys on all kinds volunteers do, they must be credible both option is available. of issues in an attempt to be reasonably for their own self-esteem and, in our To pull all these pieces together, I will sure that we are meeting needs. Examples industry, for the safety of the community. return to the original questions. are uniforms, leader insignia, Code of Management Styles: With commu- Recognition Conduct, vehicles, funding and so on. nication being the main requirement, the The other high priority amongst our We are currently looking at what the style must be personal because people volunteers is their need for recognition. volunteers think we can do to improve communicate more effectively in person I believe that as a community we tend to our profile. than with pieces of paper. This doesn't undervalue volunteers and we do so at We know the community holds us in mean that the head of the organisation is our peril. high regard but we also know that they alone. All senior officers must participate. Our volunteers are eligible for the don't know much about what we do. A non-bureaucratic approach is National Medal and that is highly prized. Within reason we are committed to acting fundamental to success; volunteers We need to make sure we process on the findings of these surveys. generally dodt join an organisation to fill nominations as soon as someone is While a proper chain of command in heaps of forms, so find other means. eligible, not in due course in the good old is essential in an emergency service, We are fortunate that our Divisional public service fashion. volunteers need access to the senior staff Headquarters takes care of most of the We also have internal long service to air their views and put their suggestions. paperwork for their units. awards and we award commendations for This puts a strain on those staff, but they Level of Control: If the role of the outstanding performance. I make sure I must be available. organisation is clear, the contribution write to any unit that does something I don't pretend that we have been as required by volunteers is clear, and if there particularly well. I also write similar letters successful as we could be in com- is a Code of Conduct which is enforced for our Minister to sign. All these simple municating, but we do try hard. Of all the with common sense, the volunteers will acts contribute to morale. methods I have described the most move mountains. Qualification Certificates are also very effective has been personal contact. I dodt We in the SES have never had a problem important to volunteers and they need to believe the other means can replace it. getting enough volunteers for a call-out, be issued as soon as humanly possible and most times when someone doesn't Training after the activity. Don't underestimate the do the right thing, other volunteers will importance of this seemingly minor If effective communications is our biggest sort out the problem. point, failure to provide certificates challenge, providing proper training Communication: I have already promptly can cause people to leave. comes next. It doesn't matter whether a spoken at length about communication, We will shortly have our own award, the rescuer is paid or not, that person must but 1 would emphasise volunteer Australian Emergency Services Medal, be trained properly. participation in decision-making as an which will supplement the odd award in With the wide range of skills required essential element, not merely passing on the Order of Australia we are able to get. of SES volunteers, there is a real problem decisions. on our hands. In addition, volunteers Disputes and Grievances Conflict and Dispute Resolution: demand credibility. Unfortunately there One of the most important initiatives Prevention is always better than cure, so are still people who equate being a we have undertaken in recent years has a Code of Conduct is essential supported volunteer with being an amateur. Nothing been the development of a Code of by standard conflict and dispute reso- could be farther from the truth, but we in Conduct. It is simple and non-threatening lution procedures. Senior volunteers need volunteer management must work hard but very, very important. Our volunteers to be trained as well as permanent staff. to make sure that our training will stand sign it as part of their induction program up to outside scrutiny. and its existence has provided a simple Conclusion Our approach has been to develop guide as to what sort of behaviour we You have now heard how we manage national competency standards for all expect of them. volunteers within SES. skills and embrace competency based The Code has been helpful in reducing We know we could do better if we were training. This has been something of conflict, particularly challenges to the more effective at communicating with a nightmare as many of the processes authority of those in leadership positions. them. are extremely bureaucratic and the It is also the other half of the answer to We know they want to be led well and Australian National Training Authority how we exercise control. Remember the managed effectively. (ANTA) has a history of changing its first half was clear roles and tasks. In our view, good communication mind and the system. However, despite As described, the Code of Conduct is equals good leadership and contributes their best efforts we are making progress. the cornerstone of our method of exer- significantly towards good manage- Competency based training will ensure cising control and of dealing with ment.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management lntrodudion community when requested to do so and activities must take great care to avoid To be effective, the State Emergency report inability as quickly as possible; the possibility that products or services Service must have a special relationship Utilise resources appropriately and with which they are associated could with the community. The people we serve avoid waste; receive favourable treatment due to their involvement with those products or must be prepared to trust us with their Follow reasonable directions from those lives and property. To ensure that this services. When there is any doubt the within the Service who are placed in matter should be referred to Division is the case, we must always act in a leadership positions and those of other professional manner and maintain the Headquarters. organisations who have appropriate highest standards of honesty. authority; Fairness Purpose Treat other volunteers, staff of the Volunteers of the State Emergency The purpose of this Code of Conduct is Service and those of other organisations Service who are placed in leadership to provide a benchmark for the personal with courtesy and sensitivity to their positions must ensure that their and professional behaviour of the rights and responsibilities. authority is exercised consistently and volunteers of the State Emergency Senice fairly. Guidelines are contained in the whenever they are identifiable as Personal Behaviour Controllers Handbook. members of the Service. Failure to adhere Volunteers of the State Emergency Service should remember that whenever Public Comment to this code will represent unacceptable Volunteers of the State Emergency hehaviour. they are identifiable they are on show. Every action will be noticed and they Service are encouraged to comment Knowledge must at all times act in a manner which publicly on matters of fact about which All volunteers of the State Emergency will bring credit on the Service, whether they have personal involvement. This Service must gain and maintain an in SES uniform or not. applies particularly to operations, adequate knowledge of the functions although they must respect Unit SOP in Harassment and discrimination on any of the Service and their responsibilities this regard. However, they should not grounds are not acceptable practice under those functions. They must also publicly criticise Government or Service within the State Emergency Service, be familiar with the policies and policy or other organisations and must whether or not they relate to other procedures which relate to their respect information given in confidence. volunteers, staff of the Service, members particular appointments. of other services or members of the This information is summarised in the Chaln of Command community. Operations Manual and the Controllers Volunteers are expected to use the Handbook. Abuse of alcohol or drugs represents normal chain of command other than in unacceptable hehaviour. extraordinary circumstances and should Controllers at all levels are responsible to always give the next higher authority the Honesty pass information to the members opportunity to resolve a problem before Volunteers must act with total honesty of their units and are to ensure that taking any other action. the Operations Manual, Controllers when performing duty as members of Handbook and other references are the State Emergency Service and should Use of official facilities and available within units. report any instances of known or equipment suspected corruption to their Volunteers of the State Emergency Training Standards Headquarters, or if this is not Service are expected to he efficient and It is the responsibility of every volunteer appropriate the next higher economical in the use of public resources. to achieve and maintain at least the Headquarters. Reports on this nature Volunteers should not use official minimum training standards set by the will be treated confidentially. facilities or equipment for private Service or to seek'temporary exemption' purposes without permission. from operations until training levels are Acceptance of gifts and benefits regained. There may be occasions when a gift or a Conclusion benefit is offered. Of course, you should This Code of Conduct is designed to not expect to get anything for doing your Professional Behaviour assist volunteers of the State Emergency duty as a member of the State In the performance of duty as members Service to carry nut their vital role of Emergency Service. The golden rule is of the State Emergency Service, assisting the community during that no volunteer should seek any volunteers should: emergencies in a safe, effective and personal reward for services in support - Be polite at aJl times when dealing with efficient manner by providing a guide to of the community. the public and the media and report any the standards of professional and incidents as soon as possible; Conflicts of Interest personal behaviour which it is reasonable Provide all reasonable assistance to the Volunteers who are involved in business to expect from them.

Spring 1999 39 4 RISK MANAGEMENT

., 1 Risk Management: An International Journal aims to Subject Areas: facilitate the exchange of information and expertise across The Identification of Risk countries and across disciplines. Its purpose is to generate ideas and promote good practice for those involved in the Contingency Planning businessofmanaging risk. Recovery Programmes All too often assessments of risk are crudely made and Crises and Disaster Management the consequences of getting things wrong can be lnsurance serious, including lost opportunities, loss ofbusiness, loss ofreputation and even life. Training and Education Organisational Strategy Risk Management is essential reading for all those involved in managing Risk Containment risk. Thejournal includes research-based papers and case studies, literature reviewsandpapers which are written by leading experts in the fieldofrisk. Markets and Competition Mathematical Analysis Editors of the journal are from the internationally renowned Scarman Centre at Leicester University and welcome articles for publication. Ethical and Legal Aspects Contributors are encouraged to discuss ideas for papers with editor Dr Practical Information Martina McGuimess on +44(0)116 252 5708, (email: mmm [email protected]). For book reviews please contact Dr Dominic Elliott at De Montfort Safety and Security Universityon+44(O)l16 2506095,(email:[email protected].~om). Expert and Professional Judgement Public Relations Customer Care Risk and Security Managers Health and Safety Officers Risk Policies lnsurance Companies and Actuaries Disaster Response Agencies Risk Assessments .Financial Controllers Police, Fire and Rescue Services Financial Risk Emergency Services Loss Prevention Otficers Risk Management Oil, Gas and Chemical Industries Risk Assessors and Loss Adjusters Environmental Threats Accidents Banks and Building Societies Claims Managers Risk Forecasting

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Telephone: Emoil: New thinking on disasters; the lipk between safety culture and risk-taking

r_ . . .. .~. Introduction 1 loyees lost their lives in 28 mine disasters, Disasters are often tragic outcomes of By U Piker, and many more have been injured. high-risk technologies such as mines. Managing Director, Safemap I Table I is a list of such disasters in which In Australia, more mines are being i - . .- - .. - J two or more persons lost their lives in developed every day, and the risk of in excess of 100,000 people. It would not Australia in mining disasters, disasters is ever increasing. include single fatal accidents. Death is part of the process, it has been No matter how effective our conven- Mine Disasters in Australia said many times. The mining industry is tional safety devices are, there is a form Over the past 100 years, 438 mine emp- very much under public scrutiny for its of accident that is inevitable. This relates to accidents that result from 'interacting failures' in a way that could not be foreseen by the designers. In so-called Creswlck Gold Mine MC Mineflmded 'tightly coupled production systems' Bulli Colliery NSW Explosion (processes that happen very fast, such as on a high producing mine) the risk is Mount Kembla NSW Explosion even higher and our risk controls mostly Mount Mulligin QLD Coal dust explosion introduce some sort of a technological fix. Fire 8 explosion While we are on the one hand attempting BellbirdColliery NSW I to control the risk, we are also introducing Metropolitan Colliery NSW Outburst of CO, I another level of complexity. Are we really Redhead Colliery NSW Gas explosion controlling the risk? This is one of the fundamental Hart's Aberdare QLD Gas explosion questions that will be addressed in this Mlonthaggi Mine MC Explosion paper: Do we have the ability within the Ebbe Vale No 3 QLD Gas explosion Mining Industry and other industries to effectively prevent these catastrophes, or Aberdare Extended QLD Gas explosion are we, on the contrary, faced with an M&opoliinCollieiy NSW Outburst of C02 increasing risk as a result of increasing ColiinsvilleMine QLD outburst of co2 complexities of our technology, manage- ment systems and practices. Bulli Colliery NSW Underground fire This paper will contend that perceived Wyee State Colliety NSW Fall of roof improvements in risk control is an Blockman's Rat NW Fall of roof illusion of activity, and that the likelihood of mining catastrophes may be exponen- Box Flat lpswich QLD Gas 8 dust explosion tially increasing. Although the paper Kianga Mine QLD Gas 8 dust explosion focuses on the mining sector many Awew Mine WA Fall down shaft aspects may be applicable across a range of industries. Leichhardt QLD Gas outburst This paper will further contend that we Appln Colllety NSW orplosion are applying the right solutions to the wrong problems. Our focus is techno- Laleharn No 1 Colliery QLD Fail of roof logical and procedural, while our problem Mourn No 4 Mine QLD Explosion is one ofproduction cultures ripefor error Emu WA Mlneflwded and failure. Western Main NSW Roof fall Disasters in the mining industry. SouthBulli Mine NSW Gas explosion It is impossible to determine the total Mourn No 2 Mine QLD Explosion number of mining employees killed in disasters. In the USA alone, it is estimated Gretlev Colllew NSW Shafl flood that more than 13,000 miners were killed in disasters during the past 200 years, while internationally the figure could be WeI: Mine dissters in Austmlia, 1882- 1996. cornpiid riwn cq:RprorMinmI ~mrrerIn miom nnec poor safety records, in Australia and in events-the Challenger disaster-in fourth, more junior, person still dissenting. every mining country in the world. Why some detail I would like to demonstrate He was told to 'take off his engineer's hat is it that we seem to have more disasters or, at least suggest, other explanations for and put on his management hat'. than many other high-risk industries? Are the Moura disaster and possibly for many He changed his vote. we inherently more risky than, say, other miningdisasters where the common Their decision was communicated chemical and construction industries, or accusation was that of gross neglect and during the second teleconference and the are we simply not managing safety as well poor attitudes. This paper asks why. launching procedure recommenced as they do? I would also like to offer an alternative (President's Report 1986). approach of preventing accidents and, Risk-In the Eye of the Beholder Launch... when accidents do happen, I propose Risk is like beauty-it exists in the eye of On 28 January, 1986 at 11.38am, another way of inquiring into them. the beholder. Challenger was launched. Seventy-three We make a fundamental mistake when Lessons from Challenger seconds later a huge fireball erupted and we, as safety managers, deal with risk as a An organisation is a complex set of Challenger disappeared in a cloud of 'fixed attribute', something physical that dynamics, systems, power plays, actions smoke. The seven-crew members trapped can be precisely measured and managed. and reactions. Organisations are able to in their seats were apparently still alive as The misconception of risk as a fixed take risky decisions because of the large they fell back to earth, dyinginstantly when attribute is ingrained into our industry quantity of expertise available to the capsule hit the water at 200 miles per and is a product of the so-called science them, and they are willing to take these hour. ofrisk management. Riskmanagement has decisions because the responsibility for A cheap O-ring had failed causing a created the illusion that risk can be them is often absolved and dissolved multi-billion dollar rocket to fail. But was quantified on the basis of probability, (Janis 1973). it that simple? exposure to risk, and from the likely The Challenger disaster offers an Of course not. NASA had known for a consequences of accidents occurring. Risk excellent case study of these influences. long time about the 0-ring problem. A year management science can even produce Countdown earlier, a budget analyst wrote a memoran- highly technical and mathematically ... dum warning about the risks associated On 26 January, the date the Challenger advanced models of the probabilistic with the O-ring and seal failures. space shuttle was scheduled for launch, nature of a risk. Even worse, a NASA internal memoran- the weather forecast predicted poor The problem with this is that risk is not dum prior to the disaster warned about conditions and the launch was resche- a physical quantum. It is, instead, a social suspect seal technology. Seal erosion on duled for 27 January. construction. Everyone has a unique set rocket boosters had occurred 12 times On 27 January, during countdown, ofassumptions and experiences that shape since 1977!! alarms indicated that an exterior latch their interpretations of objects or events. The night before the fateful Challen~er locking mechanism had not closed People tend to ignore,'misperceive'or deny launch, fhiokol had warned NASA about properly. Launch was postponed for a few events that do not fit their worldview. the possible risks associated with O-ring hours to fix the problem. People find what they expect to find. failure. Charts and graphs were produced During that time wind speeds at the clearly showing the serious doubts Thiokol Management Stands Accused launch pad increased above an acceptable had about launching. This is not a game of semantics. How we level and launch was rescheduled for 28 A separate contractor, Rockwell, buil- look at risk is extremely important. If we January. ders of the shuttle, did a launch pad accept risk as a physical quantum, we are The weather forecast predicted that the inspection just prior to the launch. They inevitably led to the view that manage- temperature would drop below 20F and found ice on the rocket outlets and ment, as an 'amoral calculator', is respon- the engineers attached to Thiokol, the equipment and they also recommended sible for accidents-an accusation that is contractor who manufactured the that the launch be postponed. This was hard to escape or disprove. solid rocket boosters, were asked via overridden by NASA mission manage- What happens when a post tragedy teleconference to assess the risk. ment who recommended launch to senior analysis is conducted? Management The Thiokol engineers expressed con- NASA management. stands accused of culpability by unions cern about the low temperatures (below The final recommendation that these and the public: 'They knew about the 56F was their threshold), and recom- NASA managers made to the senior NASA risks, they violated safety rules, yet they mended that the launch be postponed for management the next morning was pursued economic goals at the cost of a few hours. simply: 'OK to launch'. workers' lives'. NASA reacted harshly with one senior This communiqu6 said nothing of the If, instead, one accepts the argument administrator asking over the phone 'My cold weather or the launch postponement that risk is a social construction, a God, when do you want us to launch, next recommendations the previous night, totally new perspective on disasters and April?'. The meeting was adjourned with and Thiokol's concerns about the accidents emerges. This will be explored Thiokol being asked to review their O-ring problem (President3s Commission in detail later on. decision. A recorded teleconference was Report, 1986). Three high profile disasters pointed to arranged a few hours later to listen to The President's Commission of Inquiry management culpability: Thiokol's 'reviewed response. into the Challenger disaster discovered the Challenger Shuttle disaster of 1986; In those few hours Thiokol changed these glaring anomalies and deficiencies the Piper Alpha disaster of 1986; their recommendation to 'OK to launch'. during its investigations. The Commission's the Moura disaster of 1994. The four top administrators in Thiokol conclusions are summarised below. In each of these events, the blame had met to discuss NASA rejection of their was squarely placed at the door of original recommendation and three of the Enormous pressure to launch ... management. By looking at one of these four changed their vote to launch, with the NASA was under enormous pressure

Australian Journal of Emergency Management to launch. This pressure arose from in most organisations for who is to know management stood accused, and was found numerous associated events: exactly what the level of risk is-how safe guilty, of safety and production trade-offs. budget cuts by Congress; is safe enough? Despite the best inten- Production demands overrode safety commercial concerns that the European tions and commitment to safety, trade- (recognise this accusation?). Yet, what was space program was gaining on them; offs have to occur. not scrutinised was the number of times the need to prove that the shuttle Why do competent experienced mana- safetywas nottraded offagainst production program was viable for commercial and gers make decisions that lead to accidents demands. The reality was (and is in most military reasons (this was the time of and the loss of lives and property? Why companies today) that the vast majority the Reagan Star Wars program); do good people do such 'dirty work'? of daily production decisions are made previous postponed launches; Managers are normally well-qualified with a clear focus on safety. A compre- inability to sustain the high launch rate and experienced, and most have positive hensive review of the NASA decision- needed to demonstrate and justify the intentions to further the goodwill of the making processes found only exceptional economic viability of the shuttle organisations they work for. Why do these cases of such trade offs and these program; law-abiding citizens violate rules, laws, were always done within a context of a the massive publicity accompanying and regulations, knowingly risking the competent consideration of opposing this launch because of the first civilian lives of their subordinates or workmates? facts. (teacher) astronaut on board; Are managers conscienceless 'amoral The problem that eventually led to the the media linking the timing of the calculators' of risk? 'flawed decisions' prior to the Challenger launch to an important presidential If we accept the majority of public disaster was that the engineers and speech by Reagan that was scheduled inquiries into mining and industrial managers together developed a definition to take place during the mission. disasters they certainly seem to be. In the of the situation that allowed them to carry past five to ten years almost all public on as if nothing was wrong even though Structural causes... inquiries have blamed management. they were continually faced with evidence Structural causes were identified as: Prior to that, blame was cast on human that something was wrong. budget cuts and compromises to safety error and, before that, God got the blame. The logic behind the statement that safetylproductinn trade-offs were made to meet cost constraints; Mine Managers Amoral - is flawed. If an organisation is heavily a wideninggap between NASA goals and Calculators of Risk? production-oriented it makes no logical the means to achieve them; Let's return to the question posed in sense for managers to make decisions flawed decision making processes; the beginning of this paper: are mine that risk the very existence of a whole substantially reduced work forces; managers 'amoral calculators of risk'? project,such as thespace Shuttle program. managers overriding engineers' con- Despite the apparently overwhelming In effect, the critics are saying that the cerns and warnings. evidence against management, the answer management would risk the project for In short, production pressures and is emphatically 'no'. managerial wrongdoing appeared to be the same reasons that they would not risk There are at least two reasons to assert the project. the culprits. this. Let's go back to the Challenger Why would a mine manager, knowingly The structural origins of the disaster- example to explain. competition, scarce resources and and willingly risk his job, his career, the production pressure-permeated NASA Anecdotal evided... lives of fellow employees and the very and dominated decision-making on the The first reason is a peculiar one. It future of his organisation to win so eve of the launch. The NASA managers concerns anecdotal evidence and the relatively little? He would have to be very were highly competent people who powerful influence it has over the stupid indeed! thoroughly understood the engineering judgment process. A disaster inquiry When examining the Moura disaster in and managerial issues involved. should be a scientific analysis of an Australia, what was not scrutinised was But in order to secure resources for event, performed by highly qualified and the hundreds and thousands of times their organisation's survival, and to please experienced people. The flaw in the management made routine decision in their shareholder the U.S. Government, process is the quality of information the the interest of safety. they took a calculated risk, violated safety investigators use. However, in the Challenger disaster, the requirements, and they lost. Not only are inquiries restricted to President's Commission found a host of Afterwards, all their decisions could be information that is available at the time, decisions that supposedly demonstrated shown as flawed, and some even as callous. but this information is: costlsafety trade offs. But an intensive often very distorted, twisted or slightly revision of the very same Commission's Why Do Good People Do Such changed by the'accuseci-intentionally report shows that many, if not most, Dirty Work? or unintentionally; decisions were made in the interests of The pressures and structural problems incorrectly assessed as linked to the safety (Cook 1986). experienced by the NASA managers disaster event. information that seems A similar review of the report on happen. . routinely in most, if not all, to offer clues or indicate problems the Moura Disaster shows numerous organisations. contributing to the event may in fact decisions were made in the interests of If any organisation were analysed with not be linked at all. It is seldom possible safety or as precautionary measures. the same intensity and magnification of to link prior incidents or events to a Most trainingdollars, most dollars spent the Challenger Inquiry the conclusion disaster event in a way that would on systems and controls, and most of the would he the same: production pressures withstand scientific scrutiny. money spent on most activities on a mine compromising safety, and middle mana- ignored if it doesn't fit into the paradigm is inherently meant to ensure safety. gers and workers routinely taking risks. of 'managerial wrongdoing'. Unfortunately so much of this spending Risks are taken as a matter of routine As an example of the last point, NASA has become 'routinised' that it is bard to

Spring 1999 identify its contribution to safety. To make Who is to be blamed? through the proliferation of vast volumes this clearer, think of driving your car and It is unfortunate that an inquiry or even a ofsafetyand healthlegislation, and through , try to identify any action which is not simple accident investigation is a blaming the advent of risk and/or loss control , designed to ensure your or others' safety. process. If it is not the human operator, management systems. Combining this with Except for stepping on the accelerator to then it is bislher superior or, more likely a huge increase in technology over the lost 'make the car go' (production) everything today, the manager or management, that 25 years we have added a new cause of else is focused on safety. gets the blame, often for events over which accidents: 'interactive complexity'. they had little or no real control. The production system within a large Honest errors... If none of the above can be blamed, coal mine industry today is extremely The second reason why the 'manager and God can't be blamed, who then is prone to these 'interactive complexities'. as amoral calculator' theory does not bold responsible for the event? Someone or This occurs even though the mining water is the complex question of risk something must be! methods may be less complex than evaluation and the possibility of making There are two main reasons why underground mining, simply because of honest errors in risk calculation. operators, supervisors or managers cannot the speed and volume of production The risk management discipline often automatically be blamed for these events. activities. gives the impression that the probability Firstly, it has to do with the complexity Perrow (1984) provides a classification of an event is calculable and that it can be of even the most trivial events, a comple- systems of types of industries, which in classified on the basis of the likelihood of xity that renders any operator or manager many ways is a useful framework to it occurring. instantly incompetent to deal with the identify high-risk or disaster prone From a statistical point of view this situation at hand. circumstances. approach is correct; it is possible to Secondly, it has to do with a situation The two continuums used are calculate the likelihood of any event in which people, whether they are Complexity-Linearity, and Tight and occurring, say at 2 times per million per operators or managers, often find that Loose Coupling. annum. However, any manager individually they are forced to carry on as if nothing Complex systems are characterised faced with a single event is in no position is wrong even though they are continually by features such as tight spacing of whatsoever to make any sense of that faced with evidence that something is equipment, proximate production steps, statistical number. It is humanly impossible wrong. In other words, a process in which personnel specialisation, unfamiliar or to work with a figure of the magnitude of abnormalities are 'normalised'. unintended feedback loops, many control 2 per million per annum. How can a parameters with potential interactions manager judge whether a task is'too risky'? Interactive Complexity and limited understanding of associated He simply cannot, unless the probability Let us look at the first reason for fixing the process in the organisation. of an accident approaches 1 (loo%), like blame elsewhere than the operators or Tightly coupled systems are charac- jumping off a cliff. managers, namely the issue of complexity terised by having time-dependent proces- Unfortunately most work place acci- and operatorimanagerial incompetence. ses e.g. in chemical plants, reactions are dents are on the category of highly Virtually every type of industry rates instantaneous and cannot be allowed to unlikely and can approach a likelihood operator error high on its list of causal be allowed at certain stages of the process, so small (0.0000002%) that no human factors, generally at a level of about 60 to as with underground mines. Sequences of mind can come to grips with it. Managers, 80% (Peterson, 1989). activities are invariant, and the production like everyone else, use 'gut feel' in these Is this valid and is it logical? I shall argue processes are fixed. There is little Slack' in circumstances. 'no' to each question. tightly coupled systems. (Figure I) Even the highly specialised engineers From the beginning of human time, we The mining industry, especially the of NASA could not agree afterwards on have had natural disasters, and for many undereround" and hieh" volume surface the likelihood of the Challenger disaster. centuries, our definition of a disaster was mines, belong the highest risk category for Their estimates ranged from 1 in 100 that it was God-made. As we marched potential disasters, by design and by launches to 1 in 100,000 launches ahead in the process of industrialisation organisational structures. (But even so, the (Dala, Fowlkes and Hoadley 1988). These we built devices that could crash, sink, incidence of disasters in the mining differences are, in statistical terms, burn or explode and, when these events industries is far higher than the in enormous. The difference between the happened, our answers were relatively higher risk industries such as the nuclear, two is one failed launch every ten years simple and effective: We prevented chemical and space industries. Perrow, or one failed launch every ten thousand accidents by removing the causal factors (1984) concluded that the mining industry years! and, through trial-and-error, we elimi- issimply'not managingsafety well enough'. In summary, the assertions that mana- nated most of the problems, for example Furthermore, in the social environment gers are 'good people doing dirty work', safety relief valves became a requirement of employees, they are subjected to and that their actions may actually be for pressurised vessels. increasingly complex systems of manage- classified as 'criminal' is seriously flawed, Our focus then turned to the actions ment, engineering and legislation. yet these assertions are widely accepted, of people. (This factor had, of course, We have placed the operator in a even by managers themselves. The many always been there but had not been as production environment in which helshe eventsthat make up a catastrophe can be noticeable because of the preponderance is expected to: so trivial and banal by themselves that of technical accidents). We declared make rational and logical observations they are routinely overlooked, under- war on human error and did this, at least of hislher environment; estimated or ignored. In the catastrophic since the 19205, by treating workers as rationally interpret events, require- interaction of these events, however, the chimpanzees that needed to be trained, ments and procedures; and accusations of dirty work and manage- conditioned, rewarded and regulated. act and react rationally on those inter- ment wrongdoing are often inescapable. This has continued to modern times pretations.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management likely to be the death of one more worker per year in a business employing 130,000. With a depressed labour market and an Nuclear plants Rail transport attitude amongst workers that fatalities Space shuttles always happen to someone else, the Oil rigs Company is not facing a lot of pressure to Chemical plants install the device. On the benefit side, by not installing the Airways Deep underground mines device the Company will save $50 million -- - - - dollars. This saving will enable the Underground coal mines Company to avoid a $20 million price rise Assembly line production in their products and allow it to retain this High volume mines year's $30 million merit bonus. Against a statistical probability of one worker death Most manufacturing this year, the customers, the shareholders Military and the workers will greatly benefit. What is a life worth? Well, the Board considers that $50 million is pretty high for the FiNre I: A dassifiation of different types of organisations (based on Perrow 1984) possible loss of a random anonymous worker and the safety device is scrubbed. Yet it is very seldom possible for the implemented on top of that, If this story appals you, just remember average operator to really know all the with safety requirements and reg- that the risk analysis presented by the possible links between systems and the ulations to be maintained, and another Financial Director is correct. It is a good effect of one on the other. Of course the level of auditing. bargain. Riskassessment is, after all, about same operator would, after an accident has Risk management process are imple- getting risk down 'as low as reasonably occurred, be able to recognise his mistakes mented on top of that with new risk achievable'. and correctly identify the alternatives he controls to be maintained. If you consider the story as immoral should have selected. The level of complexity of each of and irrelevant and refuse to believe that . It can therefore safely be concluded that these systems on their own is often no one could think like that, you will be the operator made a mistake, and that a mind-boggling. The level of interactive surprised to learn that a similar decision repetition of the error can be eliminated complexity could be disastrous. was made at the Ford Motor Company with better training, simpler systems, or . . during the 1970's when they decided not with another more back-up systems or Over-trained, over-rewarded and to buffer the fuel tank in the Pinto car. alarms. under-punished ... This led to a significant increase in fatal But, of course, these things are only Is the only way to avoid disasters attri- accidents where crash victims, trapped possible after the event. Before the event butable to human error, like Piper Alpha, in their cars, were burned to death. Ford the possibilities can be complex, or at least to train them to tighten flanges, punish Pintos were known to easily catch fire confusing, and in a tightly controlled high them if they don't, reward them if they during rear-end accidents (Dowie 1977). volume work environment you don't need do, and put the problem in the 'too hard This type of thinking is encouraged, much more than this to create havoc. basket' if none of these work? even facilitated, by risk assessment Something else to bear in mind is that This is an approach followed in the coal procedures. Most companies, at some great events have small beginnings. miningindustry to the point where we now stage, try to quantify the cost of accidents, On the Piper Alpha oilrig, the small probably have a workforce that is over- if only to express concern that accidents beginning was an inadequately tightened trained, over-rewarded and under- are costing money, or substantiate a flange on a gas pipeline which leaked punished. And we're not winning the war statement that safety is good business. causing gas to ignite, followed by explo- against accidents because we are fighting I am not criticising this thinking, but I sions and fire and the death of 167 people it with more and more risk assessments, am expressing concern that assessing (Cullen 1990). involving Bayesian probabilities, ALARA physical risk without also assessing In modern organisations the following principles, discounted future probabilities, sociological risk, the thinking patterns of 'layers' of complexities often exist: F-curves and isopleths and the like. All this the organisation, the forces, and the The basic skills and engineering results in more rules; alarms, systems, and influences within the organisation all lead knowledge of the management and more interactive complexities. to the creation of a very poor, restricted supervision introduce numerous Ironically, the more risk assessments and potentially damagingdefinition ofrisk. requirements; and analysis we throw at the problem, the And of course risk is one step away from Management and administration more we increase the risk. disaster. That is the focus of this paper. systems are implemented on top of Risk assessments can seriously lead us Can the situation he so des~eratelvbad that; astray. Consider the following scenario at as portrayed here? ,' Legislative requirements are to be a board meeting of a large corporation. In practical terms and looking at our maintained on top of that; day-to-day operations the situation is not ' - . The quality management system is As low as reasonably achievable... so bleak. We produce coal in greater . implemented on top of that, bringing The Financial ~i;ezor announces that volumes more efficiently, and witlh fewer with it its own volumes of standards, he has received advice from his risk accidents. inspections and audits. assessors: If the Company does not install Risk management, however, still seems The safety management system is a planned safety dejice the outcome is to be the'beast' within our organisations. i

''a Spring 1999 " ' Management still seems to make amoral 'acceptable risk' (Naturally there was no a powerful drive towards equilibrium. decisions and ignore risks. So why is there risk in this decision, because the shuttle Vaughan (1996) shows that NASA had a perception of 'risk-taking amongst program had not been launched yet!). two formal processes in the organisation management'? The workgroup accepted this new designed to facilitate the management of The answer to this is not simple. standard and treated each new program launches, namely the Acceptable Risk deviation within the wider band of Process (ARP), and the Flight Readiness Normalisation of Abnormal Events acceptable risk thus created. Review (FRR). Earlier I said that there were two reasons Between 1977 and 1985 the first abnor- The ARP process classified all risks, to why operators, supervisors and managers mality was normalised to accept that the enable a comprehensive analysis of risks cannot be blamed for a disaster. We have primary O-ring would withstand erosion and a proper classification record. The looked at the first one, namely the by hot gases, and in the unlikely event it O-ring joints were investigated, tested and complexity of events. did not, the secondary O-ring would. reviewed over many years and, although The second factor is called the'normali- Although problems with the O-ring were they were accepted as a risk, there was sation of abnormal events', and I said that identified twelve times, and there were never any serious doubt about their such a process commonly exists within discussions and disagreements about resistance, because: organisations, as it did in the NASA mechanics, the workgroup culture that the the Apollo programs had, for many management prior to the Challenger launch. O-ring joint was an acceptable risk was years, operated with the same design Three factors explain this process of never questioned. For 10 years this 'culture' on Titan rockets; normalisation: prevailed, until that fateful morning in a secondary O-ring was added as a back the production of culture; - - January 1986, despite the occurrence of a up should the primary ring fail. Plus, the culture of production; new problem; cold temperatures never many laboratory tests showed that the structural secrecy. - before experienced. This is the fatal effect O-ring would hold; The production of culture... of culture. most of the Challenger and SRB parts A culture is a set of solutions produced At most coal mines in Australia a and systems could only ever be fully by a group of people to meet specific very fixed and pronouncedly negative tested under real flight conditions. When problems which they commonly face. culture existed between the levels of the the SRBs' of previous launches were These solutions become institutionalised organisation. There existed little trust disassembled (a routine process) no and passed on as the rules, rituals and between operators, supervisors and problems with the O-ring were found; values of the group. management. 'flying with flaws' was not abnormal in It is falsely assumed that each large A report on culture surveys conducted the culture of NASA. It was normal, organisation has a common culture. previously by CJ Pitzer (1996) in the coal acceptable, even essential. While out- Most organisations are segmented and mining industry showed extremely siders may have seen them as 'known frequently have as many cultures as they negative safety attitudes, largely flaws', insiders saw them simply as have sub-units. Although there may be influenced by a negative industrial 'residual risk' which they had analysed some commonalities between sub-unit relations climate in the industry. Moura and rationalised through the Accep- cultures, the degree to which sub-units probably did not escape this. table Risk Process; hold these commonalities will always differ. So why did they continue to'normalise' organisations that constantly have to The culture within a workgroup, or these abnormalities despite all of the deal with high risks develop the means sub-unit, may be even more focused. evidence? The answer lies in the culture (or mindsets) to deal with them. If they People in a unit, or from different units, of production. don't, the continuous risk will destroy may be drawn together because they have them; acertain task to perform, and they develop The culture of production ... the high level of risk analysis, and the a culture that is unique to that specific The engineering and production qualification process, created an task. When the task ends the group and professions give the impression of 'impression of invulnerability' in the its culture dissolves, while new ones form precision, rule-making and qualified organisation-which it wanted to around new tasks. thinking. The reality, often overlooked, is assume as quickly as possible. The more The work groups develop and share often the opposite. risk assessments were done, and certain definitions of each situation, When accidents do not happen the the more successful the organisation definitions that often persist (Robbins opportunity to investigate the engineering became at managing the risks, the less 1991). process in depth does not often present they expected risks. (It is folly to argue The creation of work group cultures itself. Ifan organisation, any organisation, that risks are under control as soon as ensures that new information is inter- were subjected to an on-the-spot investi- they are qualified and quantified and a preted in terms of the culture concerned. gation, the public would discover the real control measure introduced - because, To illustrate this point, I'll return to the messy inside story of'normal'engineering as discussed earlier, risks are a social Challenger disaster. practice which, after a disaster investi- phenomena.) As reported in the President's Com- gation, looks like an accident waiting to no one in NASA had the ability to mission Report (1986): Prior to theshuttle happen. recommend that the whole Space program early tests showed that the solid There are some powerful processes in Shuttle program should be put on ice rocket booster (SRB) joints (which organisations, focused on creating until the SRBs joint was redesigned. contained the O-rings) had unexpected satisfaction and minimising stresses, Those pressures would have been performance deviations. The engineers strains and conflict. simply be too excessive for any team alerted management in accordance with No dynamic organisation (and that or individual to handle. And, despite all procedures, who reinterpreted the includes individuals) can constantly the numerous attempts to flag the issue, deviation and officially labelled it function under stress. There is therefore no-one was ultimately brave enough to

Australian Journal of Emergency Management go against the production culture. to one thing: there is margin for error. An organisation that does not believe All this created a powerful culture, They have had many successful launches, in the redundancy of risk will find it which accepted the risk and proceeded many laboratory tests showed that the impossible to continue as a business. And with the flight. secondary O-ring provided a margin of there in lies the irony-what makes us error which did not exist before, and the successful as a mining company is also Piper Alpha engineers of Thiokol and NASA turned our undoing, our weakness. On the Piper Alpha Oil rig, the water their attention to more immediate and deluge system, its main fire fighting more urgent problems. Structural secrecy... capacity, was seriously deficient for With that, the next critical ingredient fur It was later revealed that on the eve of the four years. It is difficult to understand a disaster has been created: the redun- Challenger launch, the higher levels of why this could occur, but on the oil rig, dancy of risk. NASA were not informed of the initial it had become 'acceptable and normal'. Assoon as this cultural featurebecomes concerns expressed by Thiokol about An eneineer warned the management " ., fixed in the organisation, the 'bandwidth' launch. According to Centre Director of Occidental Petroleum, owners of for accepting risk slowly increases, and Lucas' testimony NASA's directors were Piper Alpha, that the gas outlets on every day, the potential for a disastrous only afterwards informed of Thiokol's and Piper Alpha were extremely dangerous failure looms closer.. . Rockwell's warnings. He said that he had and exposing the workers on the rig to Many times in its history, there will be been told that 'an issue concerning the enormous risks. These warnings were 'no failure and no event', but only if they weather had been resolved and that ignored, and everybody accepted the heeded the warnings! the launch had been discussed very risks associated with it. They even An analysis of the launches of all the thoroughly by the people at Thiokol and considered to get rid of the emergency shuttle missions after the event produced the Space Flight Centre and it had been ship. a graph which was almost damning: It concluded agreeably that there was no They were 'flying with flaws'. showed that of all flights launched above problem'. He said further that he had a Moura disaster 65 degrees (Fahrenheit), 17% of theses had recommendation by Thiokol to launch Let us look at the Moura mine, and the anomalies during launch. Of thepights and the 'most knowledgeable people and prevailing 'culture' prior to the explosion. launched below 65 degrees, 100% showed engineering talent had agreed with the The following are extracts from the anomalies (Vaughan 1996). recommendation' (Vaughan 1996). Warden's Inquiry report (1996): On 28 January, NASA launched at The President's Commission found that The Mine manager was informed that 27 degrees. communication problems existed (heard the increase in CO was linear not But this graph was never drawn and an that before?) and, because the engineers exponential and they concluded that no opportunity to avert the disaster was lost. failed to express their doubts about problem was evident - no different than At Moura, a similar graph was never the issues surrounding the launch, it 'flying with flaws'. drawn, namely the ones mentioned above was concluded that the lower levels of - 'The background of sealing panels at on the increases in CO and the ones on management had deliberately withheld information flowing to the senior levels. I ~oura~o.5was that, apart fr% acouple the so-called Graham's ratio, which had times, practice rather than exception was it been used in context with other Was it just a question of deliberate to continue to work underground as information, 'may have tipped caution in withholding of information, something sealed panels passed through the explo- the right direction'. that can be described as human, and sive range'. The risk is known, defined Further examples of the gradual accep- therefore both understandable and and accepted, in the same way the risk tance of risks through a continuing belief punishable? Or on the other hand, was it of O-ring failures were. in margin of error at Moura: something senior management could be The following deficiencies and prac- 'Reliance on incubation period as blamed for, if it was their autocratic, tices all became 'normal' and 'acceptable' primary determinant of likelihood aggressive behaviour that led to the to the people dealing with and working of spontaneous combustion led to suppression of communication or to the in these conditions every day. some false sense of security ...and some faulty communication systems? 'Ventilation was sluggish.. .' complacency.. .' The answer, as always, is not that simple. 'In practice there was evidence that 'It was widely believed that a slow Secrecy is built into the very structure these appliances were affected by roof steady rise in CO production could and fabric of organisations. falls or local strata stability and not constitute a problem and that an The division of labour between sub- that their function was, at times, exponential rise was required to indicate units, levels of management, geographic compromised ...' a heating .. .' location and so on, actively segregates - 'There was evidence of ventilation 'However none could recount the source knowledge about tasks and goals. problems ...' of such impression' (Warden 1996). Specialisation further inhibits this - 'The likely compound effect of all these The belief in a margin oferror is a result knowledge. The functional focus of ventilation alterations was considered of all high-risk work environments. In organisations (production, engineering undesirable ...' (by the inquiry) organisations such as this a 'mindset' etc) is such that almost every organisation In an underground coal mine the develops over time that risk can and has departments at loggerheads. Com- lifeline is ventilation, and this lifeline was should be conquered. In fact the most munication systems in most modern compromised. They also were 'flying with fundamental purpose of organisations organisations have grown so complex flaws. ..' such as NASA, oil rigs and mining that more communication frequently companies is to conquer risk. And they results in less knowledge. Secrecy in Belief in margin of error do that through a belief in their ability to organisations is on the increase. All the risk assessment processes and achieve a culture of 'can do' and a belief Top people do not get all the information engineering history of the SRBS pointed in the redundancy of risk. churning around in their organisations.

Spring 1999 In fact they get very little-by design and management and supervisor-operators. with the mixed signals that managers in by necessity. The sheer quantities of Against this we have an industrial the real world have to contend with and information, especially in our electronic relations arena where the battleground you have, at the very least, a confused age, are such that we cannot make sense and the battle rules are antiquated, and situation. of it all unless it is severely edited. where unions have been unable to It is practically impossible for any Decision-makers have to rely on establish a new and modern role for management team to act on each of the 'signals' developed based on experience. themselves. It seems that the unions'most multitude of signals that reach them. One The bulk of the information remains basic point of departure is still that reason for this is that the levels of unknown to them. management is exploiting workers and probability ofany ofthese possible events Secrecy also develops as a result ofweak they see their role as fundamentally that often fall in a range where it is physically signals. Often in organisations warnings of protection. This outdated notion impossible for managers to logically and about any course of action are many and has no links with the reality of mines rationally prioritise them. diverse. No activity, program or project implementing benevolent, and very An example of this was the NASA is done with absolute certainty and risks participative, management systems. manager who was accused of neglect are never completely understood and The result is a high degree of emotional because he spent most of his time prior to calculated. and philosophical conflict between the the launch on the problems of the SRBS Even if people overcome their reluc- opponents. This, in turn, has profoundly parachutes, instead of working on tance to voice opinions about danger, increased secrecy at the lower organisa- the O-ring problem. But at that stage, risks or threats to an intended course of tional levels. the O-ring was a regarded as a classified action, their signals be may simply too It is certainly true that trade unions and acceptable risk, and the parachute weak to be heard in the organisation played an important role in organisa- problem (it continuously tore and had the and they get lost in the static. For tional communications in the past and potential to cause the large boosters to fall example, one engineer at NASA explicitly ensured that management were 'kept back to earth unrestrained) was an acute, recommended that launches should be honest' in balancing capital goals with very urgent and very realistic problem to terminated until the problems with the social needs of workers. But modern deal with-and he dealt with the problem O-ring failures were sorted out. This organisations are highly participative and with great commitment. The critical issue signal, although highly significant in flexible and unions, in their failure to here is that the manager could not possibly hindsight and apparently indicating adopt a flexible approach to modern make a rational judgement about two risks criminal inattention among those who organisational practices, may themselves of equal probability but of different should have heard it, was simply not be contributing to the very processes that perceived urgency. heard! foster a high-risk culture. At Moura, management was dealing with The signal was not given to anybody A high degree of job specialisation is safety problems far removed from the one with sufficient authority to do anything also contributing to theloss of information of spontaneous combustion. Of sixty six about it. in organisations. The people occupying risk assessments conducted on the mine the many new specialist positions are site just prior to the disaster, only one dealt Systematic censorship... experiencing great difficulty in sharing with the problem of spontaneous combus- Adding to secrecy in the organisation is information amongst themselves. Add to tion. The management of that mine was, the process of 'systematic censorship', this the tendency, at middle and senior like all managements of mines all over the common to all organisations. management levels of organisations, for world, just dealing with urgent problems, At every level of all organisations a engineers to become managers and reacting tosignals which they receiveabout process of information censorship takes administrators, losing their hands-on the relative importance of these events. places continuously and at varying rates. engineering exposure and their day-to-day They could not possibly be expected to It is a process over which management understanding of production and enginee- weight one risk against another, and make has no clear control. ring processes. This may inhibit their a 'mathematically correct' decision. No one There is a natural tendency at every level ability to effectively understand, challenge can do that. to withhold as much bad news as possible or reject the technical information they Nor, sensibly, can mine managers make if it can be done unnoticed. Although this receive from lower levels. similar judgements before the event- can lead to catastrophic consequences Another factor is the creation of and be expected to make them logically. it is essentially a very functional and highly specialised safety departments Yet in hindsight, it is all too easy to necessary process in most organisations. in many organisations from which demonstrate that their failure to do so It ensures that top levels are not over- managers must often accept information was neglectful and wrong. whelmed by paperwork, that decisions are and interventions on face value. Most On Piper Alpha, it was 'regretfully taken at the appropriate level of the companies today operate some kind of evident' to the inquiry that 'management organisation, and that only critical safety andlor risk management system. failed in some very basic duties' (Cullen exceptions are communicated to senior These systems create blizzards (even 1988). Even a decision the manager of the management. cyclones!) of paperwork, terminology and oil rig made to reduce the risk to divers One ofthe most important reasons why jargon which managers have no option in the water was slammed by the inquiry 'structural secrecy'has developed in mines but to accept and visibly support. as a 'wrong decision'. in Australia today is the untenable This was the process typical of the What the inquiry overlooked in this situation developing on the IR front. NASA management structures. case was that it was a decision in the Strategically, we have modern approaches ' Quite often-as happened with the 0- interest of safety, in as much as NASA to people management sweeping through ring-warning signals may be only managers made similar decisions and also the industry, with a new and positive weakly received in the organisation and at ~oura,where several decisions they emphasis on the critical interfaces of lost sight of. Combine these weak signals made can only be seen as 'in the interest

Australian Journal of Emergency Management of safety' or as precautionary. thrives. At some point these intangible return from leave was not aware of the Yet in hindsight, these decisions appear forces in the organisation may become condition of the panel even after discus- flawed, but they were not. They were so powerful that, if the right physical sion with the SafetylTraining Manager' realistic decisions made at the time under conditions and deficiencies exist, a (Warden 1996). realistic circumstances. disaster becomes almost inevitable. Our willingness to accept risk is a The organisation that produces a phenomenon that is often underestimated Systematic distortion ... disaster has not done so out of neglect, or not even taken account of at all. The A close relative of structural secrecy is wrongdoing or criminal misconduct. Yet factors which make it possible for us to the concept of 'systematic distortion'. At so often our own inquiries into such accept risk-and the possibility of the same time systematic censorship in events, even those that lookat minor work disastrous breakdowns-include: the organisation reduces the information accidents and incidents, fall prey to the risk assessment processes; available to the top levels, unfavourable 'politics of blame'. We need to put the the culture of production; information-that is information that blame somewhere but, in our hurry to do a margin of error which develops does not support the ambitions, goals, or so, we generally fail to identify the real misplaced confidence; survival needs of the organisation-is also organisational and cultural causes and organisational pressures; fdtered out. influences on such events. the probability that an accident This unfavourable information is not We demand straightforward, simple may happen to the individual are lost by malicious intent, or purposeful answers, but the answers are seldom incomprehensibly small; concealment, or even just because of a simple. illusions of invulnerability that develop reluctance to tell superiors things they do The heart and mind of organisations over time as a result of a'can do'culture. not want to hear. The information is lost are beyond the control of individual because that is the way organisations tend managers, because mistakes are socially The Social Organisation of to function: people deliberately seek out organised in a highly complex, unpredic- Mistakes favourable information, often to the table manner. The Challenger disaster, like all others, exclusion of negative information. The At Moura, they were criticised by the happened because mistakes were made. resulting distortions can have disastrous inquiry because: 'Not one person or It is however not a simple case of human consequences. group of persons at any time had all the error-the mistakes themselves were A source of distortion which prevents facts available to them on which to base 'socially' organised and systematically risk experts and decision-makers from their decisions'. In normal circumstances, produced. coming to grips with the likelihood of at normal mines and companies on a Disasters have systematic origins failure lies in the tricky area of 'failure normal daythis is just normal. It is normal that transcend individuals, organisations, probabilities', also called 'disqualification in any organisation where complex time and geography. Their source heuristic'. In simple terms, if you hold a processes exist, where decisions are of disasters can be found in the routines conviction that, for example, it is safe to being made at all levels oftheorganisation, and the taken-for-granted aspects of fly, or mining is a safe activity, you neglect and where the fundamental aim is organisational life. contradictory information and fociis to conquer risk. And many other com- Those key questions about Challenger selectively on confirming informat!on./ munication issues appeared suspect or -why did they launch despite their Going back to the Challenger Disaster seriously flawed from the outside, such knowledge of the O-ring deficiencies, and you will recall that there was evidence that as the various reports on 'benzene-type' despite the pre-launch warnings by the probability of a disastrous failure of smells underground that failed to raise engineers? -can be asked about most the shuttle varied from 1: 100,000 to 1:100 concern, the assumptions made by several disasters and accidents. (there was even one estimate of 1:25!). individuals at the mine, for example, the The answer lies in the processes already The higher probabilities came from assumption that workers knew of the risk described:production ofculture, theculture engineers and safety officers and the of spontaneous combustion on the day ofproduction, systematic complexities and lower probabilities from NASA managers. of the event, etc. All these issues point structural secrecy. The-engineers' estimates varied so to another feature of the high risk Each factor on its own cannot explain markedly from the managers' because organisation, namely the distortion of the Challenger disaster, or any other they had access to a variety of tasks, information. disaster. But combine these three calculations and risk reviews, information At Piper Alpha, the manager stated in factors, add to that the mixture the right the managers did not have as readily the inquiry that he 'knew that everything combination of circumstances, and available. was all right because he never had mistakes will happen, some of them In mining, as in other organisations, the any report of anything being wrong' leading to disasters. same inherent problem exists: It is easy (Appleton). The statement may appear In looking for causes of disasters we to see how a 'can do' culture can develop to be extremely naive, or even stupid, need to shift our attention from the in organisations, especially in mining but there is a message in there: the technical (such as the O-ring) to the companies, where high production information that reached him was simply managerial, and then to the psychological volumes continuously demands a high distorted to the point that his only and beyond - to the organisational and achievement culture. impression of it could be this one-that cultural factors. By doing this we highlight Very few mining organisations have the everything is all right. It was no different the influence of culture on risk assess- internal structures, processes or units to at NASA (e.g. what was reported to the ment. Even if risk assessments are done foster or force self-criticism and critical NASA launch director on the morning of daily they can be fatally flawed, the biggest self-review, but almost all of them are the launch!) and it was no different at flaw being the impression they create inherently focused on survival Moura. The inquiry of the Moura incident of being scientifically complete and and therefore information distortion reported that the 'Mine Manager on sufficient to manage risks. It needs to be stressed that risk is not a 'quantity of 'Discovery's safety was brought into Decisions and Fiascos, Houghton Mifflin, threat'. It is a social construct that changes question by an examination of the Boston. continuously and cannot be captured solid rocket boosters retrieved after March J. and Simon H.A. 1987, by simplistic categories or 'levels' of the launch of the space shuttle 'Managerial Perspectives on Risk and probabilities. Atlantis two weeks prior to the launch Risk-Taking', Management Science Vol33 Routine decisions in organisations are of Discovery.. . Burning rocket pp 1404-18. taken everv, dav, without resulting- in propellant had burned one of the Martin J. 1992, Cultures in Organisations: disasters-but they do routinely result primary O-ring seals in one of the Three Perspectives, Oxford University in mistakes. When disasters are analysed booster rockets of Atlantis. This Press, New York. after the event many of these routine problem was not discovered until McCurdy H.E. 1989, 'The Decay of decisions can be demonstrated to be four days after Discovery's launch.. . NASXs Technical Culture,, Space Policy, : rationally flawed and blameis cast on those The problem was particularly worri- Nov., pp 301-10. making the mistakes. But decisions are some due to the fact that it was a Perrow C. 1986, Complex Organizations. taken within the context of an environ- similar leak that had caused the A Critical Essay, Random House, ment, a paradigm, and a culture in the explosion of the Space Shuttle New York. organisation. They cannot be divorced Challenger in 1986.' Perrow C. 1984,Normal Accidents. Living from that culture. To their astonishment, engineers with High-Risk Technologies, Basic Books, It can be argued that organisations discovered that the seals in the Atlantis USA. suffering disasters generally suffer from solid rocket boosters had failed, in the Petroski H. 1985, To Engineer is Human: failures of foresight, that these disasters same way, but without the disastrous The Role ofFailure in Successful Design. St had long incubation periods during consequences of the 1986 Challenger Martins, New York. which warning signals were ignored, O-ring failure. After many years and Peterson D. 1988, Safety Management. A rationalised or accepted as normal. many millions of dollars, exactly the same Human Approach, Aloray Inc, New York. And this is true. Organisations need failure re-occurred. Pitzer C.J. 1977, An investigation into mechanisms to counteract these organisa- Organisations have very poor memo- Sajry Culture in the New South Wales Coal tional influences. ries. Whole industries have no memory Mining Sector, January 1977, (Research In Conclusion at all. paper accompanying a Submission by the New South Wales Minerals Council) We are not talking of guilty people who References Robbins S.P. 1991. Organizational should'carry the can' for disastrous events. Appleton. B. Excerptfrom an unofficial Behavior. Concepts, Controversies and We are talking of people who are doing video presentation by Brian Appleton, Applications, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, theirjob asdiligently and honestly as they Technical Assessor to the Public Inquiry Englewood Cliffs. see fit at that moment in time, and as they into the Piper Alpha disaster, Date Statistical Reports (various on OHM) are permitted by the circumstances. unknown. from the Departments of Minerals and Combine this with honest mistakes, Catastrophe! When Man Loses Control, Energy of NSW, Queensland and Western misplaced risk perceptions, widespread 1979, Bantam Books, New York. Australia. organisational failures and a touch of Clinard M. B. 1983, Corporate Ethicsand Thygerson A.L. 1977, Accidents and coincidence, and the risk of disaster Crime: The Role of Middle Management, Disasters. Causes and Countermeasures. increases exponentially. It may never Sage, Beverley Hills, California, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New happen. But on the day it does.. . Cook R.C. 1986, The Challenger Report: Jersey. Right now, on the shop-floors of A Critical Analysis of the Report to the Toft B. and Reynolds S. 1994, Learning companies, employees are going about President by the President) Commission from Disasters. A management approach, their tasks in exactly the ways described on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, Butterworth-Heineman, Oxford, UK. in this paper. And if one or more of our Mimeograph. United States Presidential Commission controls falter, such as happened with Cullen WD.1990, The Public Inquiry into on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident. Challenger, Piper Alpha and Moura, the Piper Alpha Disaster, HMSO, London, 1986, Report of the Presidential Com- disaster will strike again -a disaster that United Kingdom. mission on the Space Shuttle Challenger has been created over a period of time Dala S.R., Fowlkes E.B. and Hoadley B. accident. Washington, D.C. The Com- and is in the process of creation now, by 1989,'Risk Analysis and the Space Shuttle: mission. us, by our organisations. Pre-Challenger Prediction of Failure', Windridge F.W. 1996, Queensland- Is it then true, as stated in the Moura Journal of American Statistical Association Wardens Court. Report on an accident at report, that we can expect another spate Vol84, pp 945-57. Moura No 2 Underground Mine on Sunday, of disasters in about ten years time, as Douglas M. 1987, How Institutions 7August 1994: Wardens inquiry conducted soon as the current shock and reactions Think, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. pursuant to Section 74 of 'the Coal Mining have waned? History shows that it is true. Dowie M. 1977,'Pinto Madness', Mother Act 1925: Government Printer, Brisbane. It is not a question of when, it is a ]ones, Sept.-Oct, pp 18-32. Vaughan D. 1996, The Challenger launch question ofwho will be the next victims.. . Essre J. K. and Lindoerfer J.S. 1989, decision: risky technology, culture and Learning from mistakes... 'Groupthink and the Space Shuttle deviance at NASA, University of Chicago In 1995, the Discovery space shuttle was Challenger Accident: Toward a Quanti- Press, Chicago. successfully launched. It was lauded as tative Case Analysis', Journal of one of the most successful shuttle Behavioural Decision-Making, Vol 2, missions to date. pp 167-77 The following was reported in Avion, Janis 1. 1973, Victims of Croupthink: Summer 1995: A Psychological Study of Foreign Policy

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Controlling crisis chaos

t was just over 10 years ago when liability, Mercury created a compensation Captain Joseph Hazelwood sat in a ; by Ross Campbell, Managing Director, fund to help businesses. But everybody local bar enjoying a quiet few ; Campbell Crisis Management 8 Recovery. waited too long to get the facts. drinks before going off to work. : Jolimont, Victoria. Paper presented to Did Mercury have a crisis plan linked Joseph Hazelwood later walked down Emergencies '99 Conference, Melbourne, to an emergency plan in case of total loss from that bar to his awaiting tanker, the ! April 20, 1999 of power? Had they identified the big one? Exxon Valdez, and prepared his departure .. ~.~ ...... It seems they had not. to carry a full load of Alaskan crude oil. Sydney Water was also unprepared for Two hours later, at midnight, the oil platforms. I am sure many have seen the their big one. The major contamination tanker ploughed into Bligh Reef and 42 training film that shows the problems with scare hit the city hard. The giardia and million litres of crude oil began leaking lack of safety checks and of course cryptosporidium parasite had con- into the Prince William Sound, presenting evacuation problems related to the fire taminated Sydney's water and with it the the worst oil spill in US history. A decade on an oil rig. fear of affecting three million people with later, it has cost the Exxon Corporation $3 Exxon Valdez, Bhopal, Piper Alpha. They severe diarrhoea and vomiting. This was billion in fines. No-one ever predicted were the big ones. They said they couldn't the big one with major complications. such a spill. No-one ever predicted the happen. Sydney Water Corporation temporarily chaos of environmental problems, the Most ofthis happeneda decade ago. Last closed down their water treatment plant, clean-up costs and the effects on the year was Australia and New Zealand's which had been isolated as the source of fishing industry. And the response was an trifecta of big ones. They said they couldn't the contamination. The State Government unmitigated disaster. happen. But they did. Mercury Power took control of the situation and managed Exxon had a long list of major problems company in New Zealand seemed to have the crisis. in dealing with their crisis response neither emergency nor crisis planning in The Premier launched a major investi- including: place. Auckland's business district was gation, and threatened to sack the - they took a long time to make a plunged into darkness when the last major managers responsible for the problem. statement about the situation and when power cable in New Zealand's biggest city All at a time when Sydney was preparing they did 'blame' was a key message; failed in February last year. While police for the forthcoming Olympic Games. they did not have a plan to cope with and fire services warned people to stay Australia,of course, has a world reputation the spill; away from the city centre, mixed mes- for its clean air and pristine wilderness. company spokes-people were not 'on sages from employers and the deter- As the rest ofthe world watched, Sydney top' of the problem; mination of some retailers to stay open Water's Chief Executive and a wide range affected communities needed answers; meant thousands turned up for work as of water experts struggled with the there was slow communication with usual. problem. Schools, hospitals and child care many of the affected stakeholders; There was chaos on the streets of centres went into damage control as they let the media run the agenda. In Auckland. Businesses affected by the children are highly vulnerable to the the early stages, they did not explain crisis were shouting for compensation parasite. People were told to avoid what they were doing to fuc the problem. from Mercury. The New Zealand govern- washing,garglingor bathing with the water. The good thing to come out of this ment moved for a full inquiry. The crisis Sydney Water's CEO and Chairman both Exxon disaster is that legislation was put cost the economy tens of millions of resigned. A legal nightmare for the govern- in place that new ocean going iankers dollars. ment followed as organisations and were to be built with double hulls. Exxon While it was all happening ...when businesses dealt with major disruption to did have plans - emergency plans, but people wanted to know why the power production lines and huge bills for bottled not plans to deal with a crisis of this size. was off ...a Mercury spokesperson said water. Suggestions were made that Sydney No plan to deal with the big one. there would be time to talk once power Water was negligent in not preventing the Union Carbide had an emergency plan was restored. So Auckland waited to get contamination and that it had not advised to deal with most plant emergencies. They the facts. This had all the characteristics consumers fast enough. Some media did not have a plan to deal with a massive of the worst kind of crisis management. suggested that the water company had explosion that killed more than 2,000 Lack of comment and lack of response to been slow to communicate and had people at Bhopal in India-certainly the consumer questions. waited two days before advising the worst peace-time disaster this century. David Elias reported in the Melbourne public. Sydney major's newspaper, the For Union Carbide this was the big one- Age 'Mercury Energy, the disaster- Sydney Morning Herald, carried the $15 billion in damages. stricken electricity supplier at the centre headline: 'Safe warm the big lie'. When the Piper Alpha oil production of Auckland's power crisis, is facing a Two months later, following a major platform operated by Occidental Oil blew growing clamour for compensation and industry inquiry, the senior managers up and was completely destroyed, killing internal reform: of the Water Corporation were severely 167, no-one expected such a disaster. The Mercury power company did not criticised for their poor handling of No-one expected the leak of gas conden- attend an invitation to address the affected the crisis. The investigation found there sate to cause an explosion that would businesses at the Auckland City Council. were unacceptable delays in releasing spread through the platform and to other Eventually, while not openly admitting any effective warnings at the start of the crisis

Spring 1999 and that there was inadequate testing clearly defined emergency procedures bodies is doing what. Andwho is in charge. after the parasite was identified. under a well acknowledged authority There were 21 agencies involved in the A breakdown in decision making at the structure, but a major event creates a TWA explosion in 1996. Two thousand executive level was also identified. While whole new situation. No longer is the people and 21 agencies. there may have been a central emergency incident clear cut. No longer is the degree This was the case on luly 17,1996, when plan, nobody had set down the processes, of preparation and competence enough. a Boeing 747-131 operating as TWA Flight powers and responsibilities of each Now, we have the big one. No-one 800, departed from New York's John F government group involved in declaring understands why it is out of control. It is Kennedy International Airport on a and managing a major disaster. not easy to label because it is taking new regularly scheduled international flight to The Victorian gas crisis reiterated the directions every few minutes. It is coming Paris. The plane exploded at 13,800 feet need for integration of emergency and at you from every angle. Too many people on its ascent, at twilight, at about 8.31 pm. crisis planning. Esso had a plan. The have been affected. The bad news is There were 230 people aboard. Victorian gas industry had a plan. getting worse. And as you look around The Flight 800 tragedy has captured the And the government had a plan for an you, you see the whole world collapsing. attention of millions and has been

I emergency. The big one hit Victoria's gas Yes, l am talking about the unimaginable reviewed by airline and airport manage- I industry in September last year. event. The huge breakdown that we saw ment worldwide. Many believe that the This irisis began as a plh explosion in New Zealand with power, in Sydney manner in which the TWA crisis was and resulted in a loss of gas supply to one with water and in Melbourne withgas. Let's handled was a crisis in itself. of Australia's largest capital cities. just look at some of the difficulties faced Let me quote lames E. Hall, Chairman It all began with a gas leak at the Esso by emergency and crisis managers when of the United States National Transpor- (Exxon) Longford plant in country the big one hits. When the problems are tation Board. '. ..No-one expects to have a Victoria. Gas was leaking from the plant, so complex, that recovery is difficult. catastrophic accident, and therefore it and as maintenance workers were inspec- When the chain of events triggers an even seems no-one is fully prepared for one. I ting the problem, agas explosion occurred more serious chain of events. urge your companies to draw up plans for triggering a fireball. The explosion killed Just like the Longford Esso explosion how you would handle not just the media two men and injured eight others. Over that triggered the cut off of gas supplies onslaught, but the needs of potentially 200 police, firefighters and emergency and inevitably triggered an even hundreds of family members who will services specialists worked for many days more serious energy-related incident. descend upon your city and your company: to control the disastrous situation, assess Eventually people had to turn their gas The reports from the Contingency damage and repair the crippled plant. back on, and the risks alone in this action Planning Exchange Incorporated iden- This one plant provided the entire State's could have been a crisis in itself. tified that what TWA had to face was far gas supply. It was similar to a disastrous fire in more than an emergency. The gas crisis hit the car industry, the switching centre in Chicago at the It was: plastics production, food and drink Bell network. The loss of the network dealing with distraught families; industries hard. Estimates were that the triggered so many serious events-banks managing an emotional public; crisis would cost industry $35 million a could not cash cheques, mail order coping with a huge press response; day. Hospitals cancelled surgery and companies were paralysed, cellular managing rumour and innuendo; emergency plans were put in place to phones and paging systems were knocked coping with a large number of govern- deliver essential services to theelderly and out, emergency services were placed in a ment enquiries; frail. Farmers had to dispense with critical communications situation. managing collection of evidence and millions of gallons of milk. Tens of These disasters don't have any rules: finding the cause. thousands of workers were stood down there are often not enough emergency Agendas run high in crises. Political as the shut-down affected the operations services to cope; agendas, personal agendas, corporate of many industries. Lawyers on behalf of vital resources are knocked out; agendas, emergency agendas, legal businesses, unions and consumers, there are inadequate procedures for agendas. In TWXs case: launched one of the biggest class actions dealing with the situation; New York's Mayor, Rudolph Guiliani, in Australian legal history. resolution is a long way off Events keep was concerned about notifying All businesses and households were escalating; victims' families, the environmental ordered to turn off gas at the meter and in the media moves from being very local damage and telling the public; a spectacular response, the public reacted to very international; the Coast Guard was concerned quickly and stopped using hot water, there are serious differences of opinion about recovering evidence from the central heating and cooking facilities. The in how things should be done; water, dealing with retrieval of bodies cut-off lasted almost two weeks. the government of the day and the and managing the area of water where Then followed the process of plant bureaucracy become seriously involved; the wreckage was located; recovery involving the isolation of the the public takes an armchair position the New York Police Department was crippled plant and the testingofassociated (and is fed by the media); concerned about the huge security plants. During these efforts to restore the the victims and their families become problems at JFK. In addition to the gas supply, the sombre and tragic funerals the visual antithesis of the problem normal airport traffic, there were of the men killed posed a stark reminder (again, projected by the media); literally hundreds of other people of the severity of the incident. there are growing numbers of authori- making enquiries; This was the big one. So many said it ties and officials involved. the FBI was concerned about the couldn't happen. Sometimes there is complete chaos in federal and international implications There is no doubt that conventional simply trying to identify which of the of terrorism; incidents can be effectively handled by emergency services and investigative lawyers from around the United States

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management wanted to represent the families and briefed about discoveries before In a recent survey conducted by KPMG the businesses affected. members of the families. and the Institute of Company Directors, There were in fact 21 agencies involved . There were problems and issues that 40% of surveyed companies said they bad in the investigation, cleaning up the arose dealing with communication no crisis plan in place for major business beaches, security of the airport, investi- to families. Problems and issues on the interruption. I am sure they haveadequate, gations at theairport and counsellinggrief- identification and return of bodies, the efficient and reliable emergency plans but stricken families. Twenty-one agencies establishment of a family assistance insufficient and inadequate procedures in who were dealing with the crisis manage- centre, the return ofpersonal effects, and place for dealing with the big one. ment team at TWA. Something like 2,000 the responsibilities of the air carrier. Emergencies and Crises There was much confusion as to who people. Five hundred media represen- I see an emergency as an immediate, tatives set up operations at the airport and should deal with these responsibilities. sudden and often unexpected incident coastguard stations. The management of briefings and other that requires prompt response action. An The importance of crisis planning and matters are now the responsibility of the emergency can escalate to a crisis. A crisis National Transportation Safety Board. communication was emphasised in all of is the stage where the organisation's future There was confrontation with the post-incident evaluations. Planning . is threatened-it is a turning point often and communication-two areas in lawyers. Litigating attorneys were not resulting in permanent, drastic change. allowed into the Emergency Infor- which TWA was- 'woefully inadequate' Unfortunately, there is very often a large mation Centre at the Ramada Inn. This said Mayor Guiliani on US television. gap between emergency response and TWA was criticised on many fronts. As caused a major problem because many crisis management response. This gap of them represented families who were a result of much of the criticism and the can create serious communication making enquiries at the Centre. Gore Commission for the US Congress, breakdown, particularly with employees. In fact, many lawyers appeared and changes have been made to future crisis The gap can result in mixed messages to caused serious problems attempting to management strategies. the media and a very slow response to Some of the problems were: push the families into using their law government and regulatory stakeholders. TWA was threatened with arrest. firms in the promise of a lot of money. . The emergency management people are Parents who were estranged fought They did not release the list of passen- generally not the problem. over the body and the baggage. gers for 24 hours. There were delays in The problem is usually the result of Some passengers had both a spouse and dealing with families still at the airport - senior management's lack of under- a lover. or those who returned to the airport standing as to how emergency response There was poor crisis adminis- immediately after the disaster. The . works. Crisis management and emergency tration. In terms of crisis adminis- press went berserk. Government management must work together to a tration, no-one person had been assig- officials from the City of New York standard framework. joined family members in their ned to arrange faxes, telephones, condemnation. When TWA's Joanna copying machines and computers with Emergencies, Issues and Security O'Flaherty arrived to set up a crisis the necessary software programs. Triggers centre at the Ramada Inn, she was Fifty percent of the passengers were The first step in managing a crisis is threatened with arrest by the New York of French and Italian nationality. assessing where the potential trouble will Police Department for not releasing the This meant that apart from the huge come from. Whether your company is a passenger list. number of US investigation agencies, government organisation, a multi-billion There were too many agencies. there were additional government dollar organisation or a small to medium During the first few days, the airport representatives from France and business, analysing where potential crises and TWA offices were crowded with Italy who added to the overall mass can come from is about looking at your investigation agencies. The public investigation. Translation was another organisation strategically. became very confused about the problem. It requires thinking beyond the normal investigation. At the beginning, there Rumour was rife. Lack of direction insurance risks and emergency planning was some dispute over who would be or knowledge can and did result in threats. It requires you to think about the in command. Finally the U.S. President rumour and innuendo and in this case, worst possible triggers for emergencies, appointed an overall crisis director. it was rife. The media responded to issues or security problems. . There was a media invasion of public curiosity about air travel. The All crises are born from slow burning privacy. The New York Post obtained a crisis was not managed well and the accidents that burst into large explosions family identification card and invaded results were, for TWA, devastating. like Esso; slow burning issues that escalate the family assistance area. A reporter There were up to 50 scenarios circu- rapidly into chaotic events like the Sydney began to disturb families soliciting lating about what caused the explosion. Water contamination; or slow burning interviews. She was jailed and stripped And, as you remember, the investigation security events like extortion that move of her press credentials. went on and on. out of control like that of the threatened . There was debate about eligibility Crisis management is about the protec- poisoning of Arnotts Biscuits. for family assistance. There were no tion of an organisation's most valuable Triggers for a crisis can be identified. guidelines as to who should receive assets-its stakeholders-employees, Plans can be laid to prepare for the big assistance. There was no clear definition customers, governments, suppliers-all one. Decision-making tools can be of who should participate as next of kin the audiences that a business relies on to developed for all those who inevitably - boyfriends, girlfriends, siblings. exist. Crisis management is about protec- may become involved in suddenly having . Press briefings did not consider the ting an organisation's reputation, and to deal with massive demands. These victims. In the early stages of the name. demands can be from victims, families, disaster, the members of the press were It is about being ready for the big one. journalists, governments, experts, political

Spring 1999 leaders and the general public. threats and how you'll respond, a place to it took some time to get support at the I So how do you prepare for a major work from, a spokesperson and a message location event where there are enormous and strategy. a fast message about what has happe- unusual problems? How do you prepare Keep an up-to-date list of contact ned needs to be presented to employees for an event that does not play by the rules? numbers readily available inside and and nearby stakeholders. They spent How do you deal with the acute rather outside the office. Have alternative too much time debating what should than the chronic? What are the best premises arranged. This could be an be said and whether it fitted the legal strategies for prevention, control and agreement with another organisation. Put requirements and therefore there were damage limitation? How do you respond all your plans into an easy and simple no messages handed out until late when the phones start to ring - when your manual and test them once a year for morning; operation starts being questioned? How accuracy and capability. support from the Business Unit or Head do you avoid being a victim of chaos? Office is essential-in this case they Let me outline a plan that could create Crisis Response - Learning from provided enormous back-up support a turning point in an unfolding sequence an event and resources; of events. A plan to put some control on Recently, a major resource company in executive personnel from outside the crisis chaos when the big one hits. Australia used their crisis management site need to consider the sensitivity of First of all, you have to recognise you team to manage a serious emergency, a the issue when arriving at the site. One can be hit by a crisis at any time.You have crisis-for them, a big one at their plant. or two gentlemen in suits did not seem to believe that the damage can be The incident required front-line emer- to understand the mood of the accident controlled.. .so can the agenda. gency services response, an overall crisis location when they arrived; In addition to the emergency team, you management team response to manage telephone systems are put under need to form a crisis team. Draw up a list each stage of the incident and its effect enormous stress-they needed three of team members that will give you your on employees, the community and other additional telephonists. Mobile phones best chance of managing the crisis stakeholders. were an enormous help; agenda.. .HR, Operations Manager, Public They also needed a great deal of help 'local' personal issues can affect emer- AffairslPublic Relations and Insurance from outside-there were a number of gency response-one of the rescue and Legal. A team of alternatives must people injured, the local hospital could team suffered severe shock when he back you up. Get your team together. not house all the injured, and victims had discovered his brother was one of the You need to establish a crisis manage- to be sent to another hospital. Additional seriously injured; ment centre (in addition to the emergency emergency services support had to be emergency contact lists need to be control room or radio room). It's a war flown in and they had to back up their regularly updated-although changes room. A control room. A bunker with fax inadequate communications technology. had only been made recently to certain and phone numbers that are accessible. The company have given permission phone numbers, lists had not been And don't put this room near your to share the learnings in a post-evaluation updated; foyer-it needs to be secure and away of these incidents. The learnings are an additional facsimile and email systems from cameras and complaints. invaluable contribution to management need to be in place-there were simply ldentify your organisation's top threats. planning. The key issues to come out of not enough facsimile and email facili- Not just the insurance risks but the threats the post-evaluation of those incidents ties to provide an even flow of urgent to your reputation, your people and your were: information; future. Identify the big threats that may serious accidents or incidents seldom a satellite phone is essential for distant hit. Maybe your emergency response can happen from 9.00 to 5.00; sites-it would have provided uncom- deal with one or two people being injured, accidents can more often than not plicated, direct contact where mobile but can they deal with 20 or 30 being involve contractors-this one did and phones could not ; affected. they had not integrated emergency one 'control room' is essential- Once you have your set of threats plans and processes; initially both the contractor and the identified work through the most appro- can the site contact employees and company had two control rooms priate responses that put you in charge of contractors' next of kin effectively? In dealing with the incident. the agenda. List your team response this case they couldn't because many of log-keeping is vital-after the event, actions as checklists and duty cards. Pick the contractors were not listed in the logs were found to be lacking in clear a spokesperson. Have that spokesperson company's HR files; records of the response actions; and a back-up trained. crisis management procedures need to switchboard, receptionist and security Have back-ups for everyone. be easy to find and easy to read-it personnel need to be trained in Work out how you will liaise with took them some time to find the plan response methodology-they were contractors, joint venturers, police, and some of the contact numbers were confused and unsure how to deal with ambulance, defence, rescue. Workshop out of date; victims' families inquiries and your combined responses to confirm only one spokesperson needs to be employee information. processes, powers, rules and responsi- appointed at site-one of the main Solid learnings in managing crisis. bilities. spokespeople for the site was actually During crisis, management behaviour Clearly identify the way in which you'll injured in the incident and the back- moves into an area of concentrated get the message 'of what you're doing and up was on annual leave; intensity - and every organisation is why you're doing it out to all your stake- there needs to be easy access to post- vulnerable to the big one. holders-your employees, customers, the trauma counselling-they found it So, how do you control crisis chaos media, government and so on. difficult to contact trauma counsellors when the big one hits? So you need a team ...identify your in the middle ofthe night and therefore With a crisis plan, you can.

Australlan Journal of Emergency Management Media coverage of mass death: not always unwelcome

hen ordinary persons die in ran obituaries on: unremarkable ways, the j By Joseph Scanlon and Conrad McCullum, 1 Alan Pakula, the US film director, media usually pay little I Emergency Communications Research Unit responsible for 'To Kill a Mockingbird' attention. In contrast, when I Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada I and 'All the President's Men'; and someone dies in an unusual or violent . . -.~. Paddy Clancy who with his brothers, way-especially in a mass death accident Tommy and Liam, attracted the atten- media deal with death Wenger, Dennis or disaster-the media react as ifthe dead tion to Irish music that eventually and E. L. Quarantelli 1989). Other major were celebrities. They head to the scene, led to the spectacular success of reviews of media performance in disaster record the grief of survivors, sometimes 'Riverdance' ('Alan Pakula' 'Paddy also ignore this issue (Committee on even film and photograph the bodies of Clancy' November 21,1998). Disasters and the Mass Media; Scanlon the dead. They also track down family There was also a note of the earlier and Alldred; Scanlon, Alldred, Farrell and members, friends and associates for death of Valerie Hobson,a British film star Prawzick). Even when articles cover both information, comment and pictures. perhaps better known as the spouse of the handling of bodies and the role of An ordinary person dying of a heart John Profumo, central figure in a British the media in a mass death incident, they attack at home is not news, but onr who cabinet scandal ('Milestones' November don't link the two together (Emergency is murdered or dies in a fire will certainly 21, 1998). These stories appear so quickly Communications Research Unit 1985). make the local news, and those who die and with so much detail because for the Discussion of the media's relationship to in a major air crash will have the cause of really well known, the media stay ready death, including mass death has, in other their death raked over in fine detail by for death: wire services and many news- words, not been documented in the the national media (Walter, Littlewood papers maintain biographical files on academic literature but left to the text and Pickering 1995). prominent citizens who are in their books and to guides on professional Emergency responders tend to see practice. mature years, so that obituaries can be media behaviour in such incidents as prepared quickly. Indeed, obits of the inappropriate and try to control access Normal Death most important people are already to the scene of mass death incidents and At one time, preparing an 'obit' was a written: should one of them suddenly die protect the privacy of the bereaved. This standard assignment in introductory the editors need only add the circum- is often very difficult and, on the basis of Journalism classes and reporting texts stances of death to the beginning of the the evidence available, may be inappro- had full sections on writing obituaries story (Metzler 1986). priate. This article looks at how the media (MacDougall 1968; Metz 1977; Harriss, Some deaths are seen as so significant treat mass death.1t concludes that although Leiter and Johnson 1992). that newspapers assign a reporter to some efforts to control media behaviour Besides being cherished by newspapers interview those persons while they are are justified, much media behaviour is for their readership, obituaries are... still alive.Alden Whitman of the New York acceptable to those who are most affec- clipped, saved, sent to friends and relatives, Times reports that only twice was he ted-though it is not clear why. pasted in scrapbooks and albums, placed refused such interviews: in family Bibles. They endure virtually Some others have been hesitant atfirst, Literature Review forever (Metz 1977). but having acquiesced, seem to have Although there is a small but detailed However most obits are run because enjoyed themselves. One of these was literature on mass death and a growing someone did something in life considered Sir Anthony Eden, British prime literature on the mass media and disaster newsworthy. For example, the Toronto minister during the murky Suez Canal both sets oftheliteraturegenerally ignores Daily Star ran a 12-paragraph story on crisis of1956, now Lord Avon. Atjrst the way the media deal with death, the death of Rudolf Krogler because he his Lordship was adamant. 'I have especially mass death. The most recent was a classmate of Pope John Paul I1 in never given a private interview,' he discussion of the handling of bodies Poland: a photo of Krogler and the Pope wrote me. In London in 1967lpressed (Scanlon 1998) makes no mention of the accompanied the obit (Turnbull 1998). him by telephone. Pleasantly, he said media. That is also true of earlier major Similarly, the Markham (Ontario) Econo- no again until 1 had the wit to say, reports on the same subject (Blanshan mist eS Sun carried coverage of the death 'Please, sir, this is not an interviewfor 1977; Blanshan Undated; Blanshan and of Markham's mayor and even covered now, butfor the future."Oh,'he replied, Quarantelli; Catron, Hershiser, Hershiser his funeral. The stories included quotes brightening, )ou mean it's for when and Quarantelli 1976; Hershiser and from those who knew him and from the Iin dead."Well, that's the short of it,' I Quarantelli 1979; Pine 1969a; Pine 1969b; eulogy ('Mayor Tony Roman Dead at 56' said. Tn that case,' he continued, 20 Pine 1974; Pine 1980). Similarly, when 1992, Belgrave 1992). come and have tea with me at the the Disaster Research Center of the Major newspapers ignore ordinary House of Lords.' The result was a University of Delaware prepared a major death but do carry obituaries for truly behind-the-scenesrecapitulation ofthe bibliography on the media and disaster prominent figures. For example, on Suez business as well as someglimpses they included no articles on how the November 21, 1998, The (London) Times of his private self (Whitman 1972). spring 1999 Other who agreed to similar predeath and coffee. On a third-an incident in Australia and elsewhere tracked down interviews included Harry Truman, where a woman was murdered by her the families of those who were shot and Samuel Beckett, Henry Miller, Francois husband-she persuaded one of the killed in the massacre at Port Arthur, Muriac and Graham Greene. woman's friends to find a picture by Tasmania. arguing that the story needed to be told Coverage Continues to emphasize the need for society to stop Morbid Interest If the death of someone prominent is spousal abuse. Chamberlain said she felt Along with stories and photos the media tragic or has other newsworthy qualities a certain triumph in getting all three go for graphic, often gruesome coverage. the coverage may continue for days, photos: she was also conscious of 'an For example after the Swissair crash off weeks, months or even years. When Michel element of manipulation' (McKercher and Nova Scotia, Time ran a feature story on Trudeau, son of former Canadian Prime Gumming 1998). Master Seaman Rene Poirier, one of the Minister Pierre Trudeau, was washed into In the wake of the Port Arthur massacre divers who recovered debris: a British Columbia lake by an avalanche in Tasmania, Australia (25 dead, 22 In every direction, nothing hut tiny the story made page one and the coverage injured), the Hobart Mercury ran a huge pieces of debris. The jet lay unrecog- continued for more than a week. There front-page photo of Martin Bryant, the nizable, 'like a huge pane of shattered were television interviews with Royal man accused of the killings, with a huge glass'. And scattered among the shards Canadian Mounted Police explaining how headline,'THIS IS THE MAN were the people he had come for. He found they would search Kokanee Lake for Late that morning I received a phone an eye, a heart, a jawbone. Part of a hand Michel's body. Eventually, Michek brother call from an employee of the Mercury who imbedded in an armrest. Poirier tries the Sacha appealed to the media: 'As you all described with disgust how three staff word hellish to describe the scene then understand, I'm sure, it's a lot of pain for members had distracted the Constable on takes it back. 'There is no way to describe my family so I would ask you to respect duty outside Bryant's house while one of it' (Lopez 1998). our peace' (Steffenhagen, 1998, p. A3). them broke in to steal the photograph At Lockerbie journalists photographed The coverage was minute compared to (Easton 1997). a body being removed from a rook coverage of the death of President In addition to chasing photos of the 'The day they brought the body down Kennedy: dead, the media call all possible sources the photographers were running around The networks abandoned entertain- for information and flock to the scene or stupid,'a neighbourhood resident recalled. ment programs and commercials and the community that is the focus of the 'They were running through my garden devoted themselves to the big story from response. They also jam the phone lines up on to my step to get as near as they Friday to Monday evening.. .The news- with calls to any agency or anyone who could to get a photo of it being brought -papers covered it in extenso and the wire might have information. More than 200 down. That was really ghastly and I services moved thousands of words on journalists-from Canada, Denmark, thought they were pigs at the time'(Deppa it.. .During those days the average home England, France, Ireland, lapan, Norway, et. al. 1994). in the Neilsen sample had a television Scotland and Sweden-showed up in Four publications including Time, receiver tuned to the Kennedy report for Jonesboro, Arkansas after a teacher and Newsweek and the Washington Post used a total of 31.6 hours.. .people estimated four girls were shot at an elementary those photos. If access to such photo that they had spent on the average of 8 school. There were 325 media personnel opportunities is denied the media may hours Friday, 10 Saturday, 8 Sunday and 8 on hand after a charter aircraft carrying resort to subterfuge. After US soldiers Monday watching television or listening US military personnel crashed in Gander, were killed in the air crash at Gander, to the radio (Schramm 1965). Newfoundland and roughly 1,000 media Newfoundland, reporters were barred Coverage still continues for Kennedy at Lockerbie after the air crash. So many from the crash site until it was no longer and for Diana, Princess of Wales, both media helicopters responded to Coalinga, possible to see bodies. One photographer because of their prominence and specula- California after an earthquake that they slipped by security, climbed a ladder and tion about the details of their deaths. created an aerial traffic jam shot a picture of the floor of an aircraft Although the media are often ready for In addition to heading to the scene, hangar that was being used as a morgue. the death of celebrities, they are not journalists try to find persons in their own After the Port Arthur massacre, the prepared for the death of less notable community or coverage area who are media also provided coverage usually persons. That means when they do decide related to those involved. When the ferry resewed for the prominent-they broad- to give major coverage to the death of Estonia sank en route from Tallin to cast a memorial service for the dead. Even someone less well known they have to Stockholm on September 28, 1994, most CNN aired a live satellite feed from scramble for information and photos. For of the 913 passengers were Estonian or Hobart, Tasmania: example they send reporters to the Swedish. However, the Ostlandets Blad in CNN intended to take the first half-hour person's home for what are called 'pick- Ski, south of Oslo, tracked down the ex- of the service live before switching to its up pictures', a task that McKercher and wife of a local resident who died in the regularly scheduled interview program Cumming state is seen by editors as a test incident, interviewed her and ran a page Larry King Live. But as the service of a young reporter's ability to be one story based on that interview. unfolded CNN decided to continue airing persistent under difficult circumstances. The next day there was a second page one the whole memorial service and delay The authors report how Ottawa Sun story with photo based on an interview Larry King Live (Raedler 1997). reporter, Stephanie Chamberlain handled with a friend of the victim. Because While that coverage was relatively three such assignments. On one she Matti Sormul, the man who died, was a unobtrusive, that was not the case when a noticed an air force sticker on the door successful local businessman, the news- vigil was held in Hendricks Chapel at and mentioned she had worked for an air paper had his photo on file (personal Syracuse University the evening a number force magazine. On another, after being interview with Espen Larson, the reporter of Syracuse students were killed in the turned away, she returned with doughnuts who did the interviews). Similarly, media Lockerbie crash:

Australian Journal of Emergency Management As the chapel filled media were asked Professionals realize that if they handle the and reporters after an air crash. Two to stay away from the area in front of the interviews with a great deal of sensitivity victims complained about interviews. raised platform, where chaplains and they can offer survivors an opportunity to A third had mixed feelings. Most said they representatives of the various faiths would grieve openly and to eulogize a loved one wanted the public to know about their lead the service. Photographers were asked (Itule and Anderson 1991). loved ones and saw the interviews as a not to use flash. But the emotion .,generated One journalism publication carried way to ensure accuracy and to allow them by the event, especially in the moments of guidelines on how to approach victims to vent their emotions. Again, most meditation between scriptures and sacred and their families. It suggested reporters complaints were about print media (Itule music, created compelling pictures and ask for permission to do an interview and and Anderson 1991). the whir of automatic levers advancing indicate they will stop or stop taking notes In some cases survivors do not only film echoed from both sides of the or recording any time an interviewee welcome exposure to the media, they sanctuary. Soon flashes began going off. wants that. It suggested that reportersmake exploit it. Relatives of the dead have Upstairs, at the back of the balcony, a local clear precisely what they want at the start formed groups to try and do something television reporter 'went live' over the of the interview (Cote and Bucqueroux about the incident that caused the protests of students in the area (Deppa et. 1996). It said such an approach makes the death of their loved ones or to share al., 1994,p.55). person being interviewed feel a sense information about lawsuits or other 1ournalists often feel uneasy about this of power and reduces uneasiness. actions that result from these deaths. type of behaviour.After the Swissair crash, Frank Ochberg is a specialist in dealing Those groups put out news releases reporters gathered at Halifax airport so with victims of violence. He not only formalizing their relations with the media. they could film relatives arriving, at the condones such interviews, he suggests that There were, for example, two such groups Lord Nelson Hotel (so they could film reporters must understand and respect formed after Lockerbie- 'UK Families relatives coming and going) and at Peggy's their interviewee's reactions: Flight 103' and 'Victims of Pan Am 103'. Cove the closest community to the crash When victims cry during interviews One specific goal of the second group is site (so they could see relatives gazing they are not necessarily reluctant to to 'disseminate to the general public out to sea). Television journalist Kim continue. They may have difficulty through the means of a newsletter and Brunhuber felt guilty about what he was communicating but they often want to other materials, information regarding doing. He recalls editing footage of a tell their stories. Interrupting them may the issues of airline safety and woman leaving the hotel en route to the appear as patronizing and denying an security.. .'(McIntosh 1989). scene: opportunity to testify. Remember, if you She catches sight of our camera 20 feet terminate an interview unilaterally Flashbacks away, lowers her head, pulls part of her because you find it upsetting, or you When normal death occurs, memories of black dress to hide her face. When we put incorrectly assume that your subjects loved ones flash back during a visit to a our report together, we stay with the shot wants to stop, you may be re-victimizing familiar setting or because of a familiar until the moment she shields her face. the victim (Ochberg 1996). piece of music. They also occur on Saving us the public acknowledgement of Hesays that research shows that victims anniversaries: persons who have lost our grim voyeurism. Days later what I have some anxiety when journalists loved ones around a religious festival such suspected becomes clear.1 can edit the shot, interview them but that they also as Christmas are reminded of their loss but I can't edit my guilt (Brunhuber 1998). experience an overall increase in self- every Christmas from then on. esteem. In the case of mass death, however, the Support for Media trigger for such memories is often the Although such customs have been criti- Survivors Agree media. Many people have discovered that cised by others, journalism text books Though some emergency personnel when someone in their family is involved support the custom of survivor interviews might question this advice survivors in unusual, violent or mass death, contact and provide much the same advice they seem to agree. When the Broadcast with the media is not a one-time affair. give for writing a simple obit: get the Standards Council in the United Kingdom The 1917 Halifax explosion-2,000 dead, interview; be sensitive how you do that; interviewed 210 victims of violence or 9,000 injured-is still news in Halifaxeach and, if you do it properly the effect may disaster including 54 who had been December 6, and the local media still run be positive. interviewed by reporters, they found that interviews with survivors. There were also 4. Ifpossible, interview the victims. three-quarters were not offended by news items on French and English Canadian Survivors ... may be badly shaken, but if coverage and that that was especially true television 10 years to the day after the they are able to talk, they can provide of those involved in a disaster. Those who massacre of women engineering students firsthand detail that an official report did complain were concerned about in Montreal. (Of course, the media were never could.. .. newspaper especially tabloid reporters, not solely responsible: the news reports 6. Be sensitive to victims and their but not about broadcast journalists all contained coverage of vigils in the families. You have a job to do and you must (Shearer 1991). Survivors said they were memory of these students who are seen do it. That does not mean, however, that prepared to be interviewed if the stories as victims of male violence against you can be insensitive to those involved.. .. had a purpose, for example, 'exposed the women.) Similarly,on New Year's Eve 1998, (The Missouri Group 1992) human frailties and negligences that had the Express in Blenheim, New Zealand One of the toughest things that a contributed to majordisasters and so help carried front page photos of two young reporter has to do while covering a to minimize the danger of such disasters people, Ben Smart and Olivia Hope who disaster is to interview the families of happening again' (Shearer 1991). disappeared in Marlborough Sound the victims. At no other time does the public's There were similar findings in a study previous New Year's Eve. Their bodies have right to know seem to come into direct by Karen McCowan, a reporter with The never been found hut a youth named Scott conflict with people's right to privacy.. . Arizona Republic who surveyed victims Watson has been charged with their

Spring 1999 murder (Nicholson 1998). The same day also provide some privacy for survivors days, weeks, months or even decades; and the anniversary story appeared in the and relatives of the dead when they are at that media replays will often force Blenheim paper, the first name of one of or near the scene. After the Swissair crash unexpected recall of what happened. Yet , the missing was the crossword answer to the media were kept behind barricades as the limited research available shows, it 142 down in Wellington's daily, The when relatives arrived at Halifax airport. is far from clear whether that is as bad as Dominion, the following day ('Mindgames They were also kept some distance away some critics would suggest-though it is Monster' 1998). from Peggy's Cove, the nearest location not clear why this is so. Perhaps it is I The same re-visiting happens every to the crash, when relatives of the dead because talking with a reporter allows a I time a tragic incident again becomes came for a visit. There can also be controls relative or friend to tell someone about news or when a similar event occurs. at the hospital and the experience at their loved one. Perhaps it helps them deal When a person is charged with a crime, is Munich (after the Manchester air crash) with the finality of death. Perhaps through convicted, or appeals,or applies for parole, suggests the media will cooperate with the media they ensure their memories the media will run the story, often using such arrangements. The increasing will endure in more lasting form. Perhaps photos. While relatives of those who die sophistication of video equipment makes -there is some evidence to support this ' from mass violence or disaster may brace such actions less and less significant. The -the media help make death meaningful. themselves for anniversary stories-it media can take shots from a distance that For some, co;erage of death is a one- may even help them to know that others makes it appear they are beside the time affair, a brief moment of attention remember-relatives of victims of person being videoed. for someone who has lived an unremar- individual violent crime are sometimes In mass death situations, however, kable life. For others, it is just another startled to turn on the TV and see their complete control of the media is very page in a life of prominence. For those loved one's photo because of some difficult. This is partly because of the involved in violent or unusual death or development unknown to them or, for that numbers involved and partly because in mass death incidents, the exposure to the matter, to find their chid's name as a clue a real disaster where there is widespread media may be the start of a long-term in a crossword. destruction, there is no'site' and no place relationship, one that some will at first ...such material.. .is available to be to establish a perimeter. Most important, resist but later seek out. It is difficult reused months or years after the event control is difficult because the media for those on the sidelines, including whenever a news story occurs directly activity is diffuse: media far from the emergency responders, to understand or indirectly connected to the event. scene 'localize' the story by finding a what sort of media behaviour is intrusive Particular photographs or film footage nearby survivor, relative or friend. Even if and what is acceptable, even desired-in become symbols of a particular disaster control measures are effective at the scene other words to know when the media are and are reused on an anniversary or it is difficult to impossible for official uncomfortable vultures and when they whenever a similar tragedy occurs. The agencies to control media activity away are welcome, sympathetic listeners. sudden appearance of these images can from the scene. As journalists try to find be distressing (Eyre 1998). a local angle to such stories they will track References down the relatives and friends of the dead --(1998) Alan Pakula, The Times, Nov. 21 Summary and Conclusions wherever they may be located. Obituaries, The Times on line. When someone dies after a long illness or In any case, there are so many Belgrave R. 1992, 'Markham Bids Fare- a long life, the passing may attract limited journalists doing so many things and well to Tony Roman', Markham Economist attention in the media except for a death talking to so many people that media Q Sun, Vol. 136, No. 45, Nov. 4, p 1. notice in the ad columns-unless that control is more of a fiction than a reality. Blanshan S. 1977,'Disaster Body Hand- person is prominent. Then the death is It may be especially difficult in an ling', Mass Emergencies, Val. 2, treated very differently. That changes incident like the Swissair crash where pp 249-258 when anyone dies in a violent, tragic or there was no visual evidence of what Blanshan S A. (?) Disaster Body Hand- bizarre way and it changes dramatically happened except the occasional piece of ling, Disaster Research Center, Newark, when a number of people die at the same aircraft or human debris trapped in a Preliminary Paper # 44. time. On those occasions, people who fisherpersons' net, brought to shore and Blanshan S. and Quarantelli E. L. have been largely ignored by the media turned over to the Royal Canadian (Undated), From Dead Body to Person: The throughout their lives suddenly become Mounted Police. The media had nothing Handling of Fatal as; Casualties in the focus of media attention: they are else to do but to chase visuals of the Disaster, Disaster Research Center, treated as if they were prominent. The families. Finally, media control is next to Newark, Preliminary paper # 61. grief of their friends and family becomes impossible in a widespread disaster, Brunhuber K. 1998, 'The real story at a public rather than private matter-and especially one not predicted, such as an Peggy's Cove', The Sunday Herald, Halifax, the attention may last for decades. For earthquake. There is simply too much Nova Scotia, Sept. 13. those who are related to or know someone happening in too many places for the Catron D. 1974,'The Cooperative Efforts who has died violently, mourning is a media to be restrained. ofFuneralDirectors in a Major Flash Flood' media, as well as a private, experience. In short, media behaviour after mass in Pine V. (ed.), Responding to Disaster, Emergency responders may be able to death seems to be more a function of Bulfin, Milwaukee, pp 125-131. control media behaviour at the scene of media perceptions of what is acceptable Committee on Disasters and the Mass such incidents. At Gander, after the air than perceptions by personnel from Media, 1980, Disasters and the Mass crash, the media were taken to the site in emergency agencies as to what is appro- Media, National Academy of Sciences, a school bus and kept in the bus as it priate. There is little doubt that the Washington. followed a route that guaranteed they relatives and friends of the dead will Cote, William and Bonnie Bucquerow, would not be able to see or take pictures continue to be the objects of media 1996, 'Tips on Interviewing Victims' of any bodies. Emergency responders can attention-attention that may last for Nieman Reports, Fall, p 27.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Deppa, J. with Russell M., Hayes D., and Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, Star, Dec. 3, p B8. Flocke E. L. 1994, The Media and Disas- Second Edition. Walter T., Littlewood J. and Pickering ters Pan Am 103, New York University --1998, 'Milestones', The Times, M. 1995,'Death in the News: The Public Press, New York. Nov. 21 Obituaries, The Times on line Invigilation of Private Emotion', Sociology, Easton, G. 1997,'Port Arthur-Media --- 1998, 'Mindgames Monster', Vol. 29, No. 4, pp 579-596. Management. Tasmanian State Emergency TheDominion, Jan. 1, p 10. Wenger D. and Quarantelli E. L. 1989, Service and Emergency Management Ochberg F. 1996, 'A Primer on Covering Local Mass Media Operations, Problems Australia' Port Arthur Seminar Papers, Victims', Nieman Reports, Fall pp 21-26. and Products in Disasters, Disaster Emergency Management Australia, Nicholson T. 1998, 'Tragic memory Research Center, Newark. Macedon, pp 120-122. lingers on', The Marlborough Express, Whitman A. 1971, The Obituary Book, Eyre A. 1982, 'More Than PTSD: Dec. 31, p 3. Stein and Day Publishers, New York. Proactive Responses Among Disaster --1998, 'Paddy Clancy', The Times, Survivors', The Australasian lournal of Nov. 21 Obituaries, The Times on line. About the Author: Disaster and Trauma Studies, Vol. 2, Piney 1974,'GriefWork and Dirty Work: Joseph Scanion is Director of the Emergency www.massey.ac.nzl-traumalissuesl1998- The Aftermath of an Air Crash', OMEGA, Communiations Research Unil at Carleton. Conrad worked as a research assistant with Professor I 21eyre.htm Vol. 5, No. 4, pp 281-286. Scanlon while he was completing his Master of Harriss, Julian, Kelly Leiter and Stanley Pine V. R. 1980,'Grief and Dirty Work: Journalism degree. Johnson 1992, The Complete Reporter, The Aftermath of an Aircrash' in Kalish Macmillan Publishing Company, New R. A. (ed.), Death and Dying: Viewsfrom York. Many Cultures, Baywood Publishing Hershiser M. R. 1974, Some Observations Company Inc., Farmingdale, pp 126-131. on the Handling ofthe Dead in the Rapid Pine,V. R. 1969a,'Social Organization in City, South Dakota, Flood Disaster, Disas- Disaster', The Director ,Vol. XXXIX, ter Research Center, Newark, Preliminary Number 7, July, pp 3-5. paper # 12. Pine,V. R. 1969b,'The Roleof the Funeral Hershiser M. R. and Quarantelli E. L. Director in Disaster', The Director, Global environmental crises: an 1976, The Handling of the dead in a Vol. XXXIX, Number 8, August, pp 11-13. Australian perspective Disaster, Disaster Research Center, Raedler J. 1997, 'Media Coverage of the Aplin, G. let al.], 1999, Ox ord df Newark, Preliminary paper # 26. Port Arthur Massacre - A View From the University Press, Melb., 2" ed., 392pp. Hershiser M. R. and Quarantelli E. L. Media's Side'. Tasmanian State Emergency Explores the pressing environmental 1979,'The Handling of Dead in a Disaster' Service and Emergency Management problems facing the earth from an in Kalish R. A,, (ed.), Death and Dying: Australia' Port Arthur Seminar Papers, Australian viewpoint. Case studies Views from Many Cultures, Baywood Emergency Management Australia, dealing with population and health, Publishing Company Inc., Farmingdale, Macedon, pp 123-127. land, water, forests, the atmosphere, pp 132-144. Scanlon J. 1988,'Dealing with mass death and cities illustrate a number of ltule B. and Anderson D. A. 1991, News after a community catastrophe: handling fundamental themes relevant to all Writinf and Re~ortinaFor lbdavi Media, bodies after the 1917 Halifax explosion', such crises: humans play a pivotal role MCGI~W- ill lk., N;W York. ' Disaster Prevention and Management, as both cause and potential solution; Itule B. and Anderson D. A. 1994, News Vol. 7, No. 4, pp 288-304. environmental issues are complex and Writing and Reporting For Todayk Media, Scanlon J., Alldred S., Farrell A,, and require interdisciplinary and multi- McGraw-Hill, New York, Third Edition. Prawzick A. 1985,'Coping With the Media disciplinary approaches; there is a Lopez S. 1998,'Dispatches from the in Disasters: Some Predictable Problems', need to achieve sustainabiiity in all Grave', Time, Sept. 28,p 8. Public Administration Review, Vol. 45, human activity. The concluding MacDougall, C. 1968, interpretative January, pp 123-133. chapters bring the case studies together in a discussion about Scanlon J. and Alldred S. 1982, 'Media Reporting, The Macmillan Company, New attempts at international cooperation York, Fifth Edition. Coverage of Disasters: The Same Old --- 1992,'Mayor Tony Roman dead and possible paths to a viable, Story', Emergency Planning Digest, sustainable future. at 56.' Belgrave R. 1992,'Markbam Bids October-December, pp 13-19. Farewell to Tony Roman'. Markham Schramm, W. 1965, 'Communication in Major incident procedure manual Economist 6 Sun, Vol. 136, No. 44, Oct. 31, Crisis' in Greenberg B. S. and Parker E. B., Metropolitan Police Service, 1998, P 1. (eds.), The Kennedy Assassination and the Metropolitan Police Service, Lond., 50pp. Mclntosh N. 1989, Lockerbie A Local American Public, Stanford University Authority Responds to the Disaster, Press, Stanford, pp 1-25. The procedures adopted by each of the emergency services in response to Shearer A. 1991, Survivors and the Dumfries and Galloway Regional Council, a major incident are understandably Dumfries. Media, John Libbey & Company Ltd, devoted to the role of the service McKercher C. and Cumming C. 1998, London. concerned. The purpose of this docu The Canadian Reporter News Writing and Steffenhagen J. 1998, 'A lot of pain for ment is to describe the agreed proce- Reporting, Harcourt, Brace & Company, my family', Ottawa Citizen, Nov. 18, p A3. dures and arrangements for the Toronto, Canada, Second Edition. The Missouri Group, Brooks B. S., effective co-ordination of their joint Metz W. 1977, Newswriting From Lead Kennedy G.,Moen D.R. and Ranly D., 1992, efforts. In this way the overall response to '30: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. News Reporting 6 Writing, St. Martin's of the emergency services will be --1998, Paddy Clancy, The Times, Press, New York. greater than the sum of their individual November 21 Obituaries, The Times on line Turnbull B. 1998, Krogler R. '79, efforts, to the benefit of the public. Metzler K. 1986, Newsgathering, honoured for WWll bravery', The Toronto

Spring 1999 Using cyberspace to enhance disaster mitigation, planning and response: opportunities and limitations

uch has been learned university research centers, academic about effective mitigation, by Dr. Henry W. Fischer Ill, articles as well as 'how to' fact sheets planning and response to Department of Sociology, outlining how to prepare for and respond disaster during the past Millersville University of Pennsylvania to hurricanes (and other disaster agents). forty years. Those who develop mitigation Based on the author's presentation at the and explanations on how hurricanes strategies, plan for and respond to meeting of the International Sociological form-complete with pictures, sound, and disasters, have learned through first hand video vignettes. Disaster victims have the Association in Montreal, July 1998 : experience, through trial-and-error, and . .~ .. ~.~. potential to directly access their national through the application of insights gained emergency response organisations to from various training activities. The has been in trying to develop a more complete on-line applications for assis- source of much of the knowledge has been effective strategy for researchers and tance e.g. in the USA citizens can access those in academia who study behavioural practitioners to share the insights they the FEMA web site. and organisational response to disaster. have gained. Few researchers and practi- The pioneering work of researchers such tioners are able to garner the resources What new technologies? as Samuel Prince, Charles Fritz, Allen necessary to participate in conferences. The information technologies to be cur- Barton,E.L.QuaranteUi and Russell Dynes Often the same cadre of specialists are rently addressed include CD-ROM, email, has given witness to the proliferation of interacting with one another at such web sites and distance learning through such research throughout the world. This national and international events. How web-based university courses. Each of proliferation is exemplified by the work might the educational process be more these provide options for enhancing of Neil Britton, Wolf Dombrowsky, effectively facilitated to potentially mitigation, planning, response through Thomas Drabek, Gary Krepps, Dennis involve all of us? How might we develop a the use of cyberspace. Each of these Mileti, David Neal, Joanne Nigg, Walter process, which might also enable practi- technologies also has its limitations. We Peacock, Uriel Rosenthal, Robert Stallings, tioners to interact with one another and will first review each ofthese technologies, and Kathleen Tierney. During the last forty with researchers during emergency time and then we will examine illustrative years, in particular, we have observed the periods to employ the knowledge and applications for mitigation, planning and development of a ever larger body of experience of others at a critically useful resoonse. Finallv.8. we will consider several knowledge which has been shared among time? The purpose of the current paper issues, which one may be wise to keep disaster researchers through various is to offer a few suggestions in answer to in mind when pursuing the use of journals which have emerged during these questions and to raise a few cyberspace to fill to information dissemi- this time period. The International important issues, which may be useful to nation void previously noted. Sociological Association's International keep in mind pursuant to implementing CD-ROM Research Committee on Disasters (RC39) answers to these questions. The CD-ROM was introduced in 1981, has served as a networking link for primarily to store high-quality, digitised disaster researchers from around the Implications of the music (Goldberg 1996). Two companies world. Various international conferences information technology are now regularly held to facilitate the Recent technological advances have re- gave birth to the CD, Sony and Philips (Fischer 1998a). Both saw much greater sharing of research findings and practi- sulted in a communications explosion tioner concerns. Research centres with and a levelling of information hierarchies use for the product. Even without compres- & sion a CD can hold up to 650 megabytes of international reputations periodically (Burstein & K~ine1995, Davis Botkin 1994). The revolution that these emerging digital data of any kind. CD-ROM drives offer workshops for the same purpose. National government emergency manage- technologies have created is transforming are now in widespread use among com- ment organisations have created strate- how we work, live, communicateand learn puter users. Libraries could store the equivalent of 250,000 pages of text on a gies for facilitating the development of (Drucker 1993, Gates 1995, Jones 1995). single disc. Companies could store records emergency management training degree Workers can communicate with the com- for an entire year on one disc. A disc for programs at universities (for example, in pany CEO by email without having to CD-ROM use can be duplicated, depending the USA there is the Federal Emergency traverse the chain of command. Students are able to access a wealth of information on volume, for less than a dollar. CD-ROM Management Agency Higher Education on-line as well as communicate directly is also easy to distribute via bookstores, Project). with professors at any institution in the record stores, software stores, mail-order Challenge world. Any citizen who has access to a houses, andso forth. And, CD-ROM already Despite the wealth of knowledge and computer connected to the Internet can has a large user base-over 17 million experience gained in recent decades, a quite easily access holdings of libraries (for example see Goldberg 1996), and here-to-fore insurmountable challenge around the world, publications lists at growing rapidly. Desktop, as well as laptop,

Australian Journal of Emergency Management computers now being sold usually contain by trainees at diverse geographical CD-ROM a CD-ROM drive. This feature ensures a locations throughout a nation or around Products currently available are those sizeable target audience for CD-ROM the world via televised, often closed designed as classroom teaching aids. content. Multimedia materials on CD- circuit, broadcasts. With continued Multimedia products currently marketed ROM continue to flow into the market- proliferation of the new technologies, we employ CD-ROM technology to provide place at an exponential rate. Encarta (1997) will undoubtedly find more learning, users with encyclopedic information serves as one early example of how not training, and conferencing conducted by including text, pictures, audio, and video only text, but also pictures and video can these means. When the technology is vignettes. Encarta enables the user to be interactively accessed through the use more universally adopted, then resources access the topic of his or her choice for a of CD-ROM. (time and travel funds) may be saved multimedia learning experience e.g. how a hurricane forms. The Federal Emergency Email when the principals do not have to physically relocate in order to meet for Management Agency (FEMA) has produ- Electronic mail, for those who are not instruction. ced, under contract with Sytel, Inc., field familiarwith it, is ameans by which indiv- Distance learning can also be charac- training course materials on CD-ROM iduals can communicate with one another terised as instruction occurring via which herald the entry of FEMA into the by electronically mailing text through usage of this technology pursuant to cyberspace. Their personal communi- connectivity through cyberspace. In this instance the trainee is able to access web enhancing disaster mitigation, planning, cation is stored in the host computer. sites, digitised video and audio presen- response and recovery. There is a paucity Through using email software one tations, instructional chat rooms, and of multimedia materials suitable for individual can correspond with another communicate via email or digitised video disaster training or planning purposes are, anywhere on the net. Email addresses are and audio. In the future such distance as of this writing. There is definitely a proliferating daily as the rush to connect learning will use the CD-ROM, Web sites, market vacuum waiting to be fdled. If we continues. Connectivity for email is and digitised video far more than it does look into our crystal ball, one can envision currently most often achieved through as of this writing. Early uses of these state-of-the-art training materials being desk or laptop computers, modems and technologies include the medical prac- produced by well-trained, highly skilled telephone access to a commercial service titioner who, while at a location distant teams of curriculum developers for use or through one's place of employment. from his patient, is interactively providing not only in traditional classrooms of Email is currently most used for personal diagnostic information during real time. current and future emergency manage- and business correspondence. Increasingly courses are being developed ment personnel, but also for use via Web sites which students or trainees enrol for and cyberspace courses. Instructional mate- We are only a few steps down a road that complete through cyberspace. These Web rials could include dynamic, interactive promises to lead to readily accessible courses (e.g. Fischer 1998b) provide the approaches to disseminating information information and real time communi- opportunity for the student to proceed at and providing training in areas such as cation (Gates 1995). Hundreds, perhaps his or her own pace, to enter the cyber- principles of emergency management, thousands, of new home pages appear on space classroom at the time and day of building a disaster resistant community, the World Wide Web daily (Kidder and his or her choosing, and to increase his or a survey of natural disaster agents and Harris 1997). This medium is currently her active participation in the course and hazardous materials. The use of such CD- proliferated by businesses with an entre- with the instructor. Web courses are ROM based materials may provide for preneurial orientation, government and beginning to include the following in their greater student-centered learning which service agencies, and universities. For cyberspace classroom: text material, is highly engaging and interactive. This those not yet familiar with the web, it is a lecture notes, video vignettes in which the technology bas the potential to move the network of computers with the ability to instructor provides instructional snippets trainee from passive receptacle to active communicate through the use of software (video and audio), links to other materials learner. Since a tremendous amount of such as 'search engines' or 'browsers'. and sites, links to tutorials, class chat text-based, video, and audio information Information files are stored on host rooms, on-line synchronous and asynch- can be stored on such a disc, the potential computers. The browsers are used to ronous interaction with the instructor. for an emergency management work- locate specific cyberspace addresses or force which is highly trained and very to search for all locations with a similar Examples of applications to knowledgeable is great. name. The websites are the stored files enhance mitigation, planning Email in the various linked computers, which and response An inexpensive, easy, and fast way contain the information accessible Multimedia CD-ROM, email, Internet web of communicating between friends, through the browsers. sites, and web courses all comprise a acquaintances, and co-workers, email has continually emerging array of the new proliferated to the point where hundreds, Distance learning through web information technologies which are being perhaps thousands of new users enter the courses applied to education and emergent; information highway daily. Disaster re- 'Distance learning' simply refers to the personnel training activities. Most searchers primarily use it to interact with concept that the instructor is in one applications to date have been in other one another as well as with practitioners location while the students are in fields of endeavour. Market driven, and government agencies. Some emer- another-and each student may be in a applications in the USA have been aimed gency management professionals com- different location from one another. It is at the primary and secondary education municate with one another by email presently often characterised as that markets. How they are currently being during normal time to exchange personal which occurs through satellite linkage applied to disaster research, training, and and professional information. They are rather than connectivity through cyber- education and how they may be applied also increasingly likely to communicate space. The instructor or trainer is viewed in thefuture will be addressed. with disaster researchers. This use of They also often supply mitigation, sites. Sometimes tutorials are also email helps to break down boundaries preparedness, response and recovery availableas well as instructional video and and hierarchies. One goal of the Natural information. Some of this information is audio digitised vignettes. Interactive, Hazard Centre's (University of Colorado, quite detailed and specific. For example, computer corrected quizzes provide Boulder) annual workshop is to facilitate information can be found on how to rapid feedback. Course chat rooms are practitioner-researcher interaction- prepare one's home for a hurricane or often available to provide a cyber- cyberspace interaction eliminates the flood. Specifics are even provided down classroom for students to interact with restrictions of time and place and to the level ofaddressing plumbing needs, others also in the cyber-course. On-line facilitates ongoing communication complete with a diagram to help the office hours are posted by the professor throughout the year. Anecdotal infor- homeowner. Virtually all sites have been enabling the student to interact with their mation, however, suggests this created by international or national course instructor. form of practitioner-researcher (and emergency organisations. Several states One illustration of this cyberspace researcher-practitioner) communi- have developed such an opportunity. The approach is the Emergency Management cation is in the early stages adoption. Its opportunity also exists for local emer- Certificate Program currently under potential is far from being realised. In the gency management organisations to development at various universities. future, researchers are likely to regularly do the same-tailoring the provided For example, Millersville University of invite practitioner input (through email) information to the needs of their com- Pennsylvania (USA) is currently pursuing on research questions the practitioners munity. the possibility of developing five would like answered. Conversely, practi- A plethora of increasingly sophisticated multi-disciplinary web-based courses: tioners are likely to use email to seek Web sites will undoubtedly emerge in the Sociology of Disaster, Natural Hazards, public policy advice from researchers. future which will incorporate the use of Hazardous Materials, Issues in Email will likely be incorporated, far more multimedia materials and email (inclu- Geographic Planning, and Principles of than it is now, in the education and ding chat rooms) in the dissemination of Emergency Management. University training of emergency management basic knowledge about disaster agents, credit would be earned as the cyber- personnel (we will return to this theme mitigation needs as well as response and student completes each course. An later when we consider the use of web recovery procedures. Linkage with Emergency Management Certificate courses for educating and training other sites will undoubtedly increase would be awarded upon completion of emergency managers). Disaster chat dramatically resulting in an intricate the five-course program. Both the univer- rooms (addressing mitigation, planning, network of educational and training sity credits and the certificate would he response, recovery issues) can be expec- materials produced by the best among us useful to emergency managers in the USA ted to be used more widely, not only for for ready access by any of us. The ability when making application for Certified normal time education and training activ- to build a disaster resistant community Emergency Manager status (obtained ities but also for consultation during should be enhanced in the process. through application to the International disaster time periods. Direct email Association of Emergency Managers). consultation during normal and emer- Web-based university courses Cyberspace holds the potential for gency time periods, with one or several Distance learning is currently charac- facilitating the dispersion of the accum- specialists, willlikely become increasingly terised primarily by teleconferencing or ulated knowledge base to all those who common (for additional examples please satellite connectivity. Future distance access such programs from anywhere in see Anderson 1995, Birkens 1994, Botterell learning will encompass much more. Web the world. 1996, Butler 1994 & 1995,Gant 1996). courses are being designed that will enable The new information technologies have emergency management personnel to the potential to assist emergency manage- Web sites complete courses, or other types of ment in any number ofways. For example, A cursory survey of current disaster- training, without the necessity ofattending emergency time consultation could be related web sites in the academy, govern- class during a certain time period each provided by appropriate university or ment agencies, emergency organisations week for a semester. Web courses will government personnelas wellas those who and businesses suggests that we are in the instead provide the opportunity for one offer themselves as consultants. Such very early stages of applying this tech- to complete the educational experience individuals can he listed and accessed nology as well. While variation is obse~ed through cyberspace. The web student is through web sites, rendering them acces- in the scope and detail found at such sites, able to access the curriculum materials at sible 24-hours-a-day through email, fax, they basically appear to have the same his or her leisure, anytime of any day, page, or telephone. A rumour control web goals. Academic sites usually identify progress at his or her own rate, and is site and a community advisor could personnel, outline current research actively involved in the learning process- participate in an emergency time chat projects, provide on-line literature search not a passive vessel into which infor- room for and or respond to email. In capability, provide mission statements, mation is poured. addition, information could be provided offer publications lists, and link to other Once enrolled, the cyber-student is able through cyberspace which provides an all- sites. Some also provide miscellaneous to access the secured web course site. hazards check list of what the emerging information including student oppor- What is found there? The cyber-student EOC should consider during pre-impact, tunities at their research centers, career is welcomed and usually finds a detailed impact, post-impact periods. Encarta-style opportunities in emergency management, course syllabus. The learning objectives information sites could be provided which alumni accomplishments and so forth. and agenda for each cyher-class are take advantage of multimedia options Disaster relevant government agencies normally encountered next. The required including pictures, video, animation and and organisations tend to provide on-line text materials may be found in some sound. 'Students' of any age, grade, or assistance through email capability as well combination on-line, in hard copy, via location could access such via search as on-line assistance application forms. CD-ROM, or through links with other engines whether it be for emergency time

Australian Journal of Emergency Management use, normal time education or personal burdened with ever greater volumes of no way of distilling one from the other. growth. increasingly sophisticated software. . . so The outcome? information may be much so the memory size must be incorporated into public policy, which Limitations: a few issues to increased. The cycle continues and the leads to ineffective or inappropriate consider machine must be replaced. If we think disaster mitigation or response activities. While the information revolution appears about it, most of the software is not even One purpose of bureaucratic hierarchy to offer a means to redressing earlier used and most of that which is used has is provide checks and balances. While the limitations in disseminating disaster so many functions that are never really lnternet provides the user with quick mitigation, planning and response infor- used-only to upgrade with greater access to greater volumes of information, mation, there are problems inherent to capacity for non-use. The point? Some of a greater burden is placed upon the the process. Quarantelli (1997: 96-104) us need massive computer capacity while consumer of such information. has insightfully identified ten issues, others need much less. Is having an ever- The limitations of which may be problematic with the increasing capability the means to greater advent of these new technologies: non-verbal communication productivity or an end in itself-an end Instant, worldwide communication via the probability that the 'rich will pursued primarily to enhance prestige? become richer' in dealing with disasters; email and web site access contributes to a If so, the process does not help alleviate more rapid dissemination of needed infor- the possibility that technology that is a the problem of the rich getting richer. 'means' will be turned into an 'end' in mation. Anecdotal information again sug- itself; What about information overload? gests email interaction often results in the inevitable information overload With the help of any Internet search miscommunication. When the non-verbal problem; engine, a practitioner or researcher can communication clues are lacking, it is the loss of, or outdated, information; gain access to a fair amount of infor- more difficult to ascertain the intended the greater likelihood of the diffusion mation on, for example, disaster miti- meaning. A friendly joke can more easily of inappropriate disaster relevant gation. In fact, ifwe conduct such a search be misconstrued as sarcasm resulting in a information; today the result may be 45,000 hits! Even damaged relationship. Some find it easier the implications of even further diminu- if all the located items proved valuable to to be informal and speak more freely via tion of non-verbal communication; the searcher-a big if, that is just too email. Sometimes it would be better to let intra- and inter-level group communi- much information to digest. Perhaps the such thoughts go unsaid. cation will be made even more difficult; Internet is so effective at locating every the negative consequences of the prob- possible related item on the net that the Group communications able acceleration of fads and fashions information consumer actually becomes The problematic aspects of the diminu- associated with computers; less efficient as a result. The situation is tion of non-verbal communication the kinds of general social not likely to get better any time soon as observed between individuals can only be infrastructures and cultures necessary every day brings another explosion of further exacerbated when we multiply for the adequate functioning of more and more web sites. their impact in intra- and inter-group communication. The potential is great for disaster-relevant technology; Some information will quickly become the certainty of computer system- an acceleration of misinformation, outdated, others lost miscuing, and misinterpretation. related disasters. While journal articles and academic Will the poor be books take on a life of their own after Fads and fashions further disadvantaged? publication by remaining on microfilm Those of us who author textbooks which While the price of computer hardware and in the librarystacks for years to come, encompass a particular version of soft- and software continues a downward the information consumer is easily able ware, (e.g. Fischer 1996) soon discover at trend, the ability to obtain the latest in to determine which these items is least one new version of the software has the new technology is heavily skewed outdated. The efficacy of the information been released by the time the book is toward those who have the financial available on the Internet is not as readily published. Since most textbook publishers resources to make the continual race discernible. Furthermore, anecdotal would like a three-year run, imagine how toward the cutting edge. Those who evidence suggests that many web sites far behind such a text becomes by that comprise the lower socio-economic appear only to quickly become obsolete third year. Computer hardware and levels within wealthy nations as well as when the site webmaster fails to update software fads move very quickly and are perhaps the majority ofcitizens in poorer the site in a timely manner. Alternately, sometimes humorous to observe. The nationsarelikely to tind hemse elves failing sites often disappear from the web laptop is a wonderful way to write and 1 farther and fariher behind in the infor- resulting in the loss of a valuable resource. communicate when away from the home mation based global economy i.e. office. It can be humorous to observe all the rich become richer syndrome. The problem of diffusing the'techno geeks'in airports, hotel lobbies The probable outcome of such a scenario inappropriate information and beaches checking into the home is the further solidifying of current world Not all web sources are created equally. office. Is productivity enhanced? Often. order, rather than the attainment of The inherent advantage of democra- Is this a fad that brings some of the earlier levelled hierarchies and a greater sharing tisation provided by the Internet through mentioned electronic prestige? Probably. of resources. the levelling of hierarchies also creates at The use of Power Point in presentations least one unintended consequence. Those is another example. An emerging pattern Will technology be an 'end' who are truly expert may appear equal is discernible. The computer trendsetter rather than a 'mean'? to those who have no background in in the organisation makes a Power Point How many of us have experienced some the field. An information consumer presentation. What happens? Two things: version of the following? Our office unfamiliar with the literature would have underlings emulate, and the product is computer becomes increasingly over-

Spring 1999 over used sometimes complicating the hire themselves out as consultants. Web Increased Hazard Mitigation', un- communication process that it was inten- sites could list such individuals, along with published paper, Natural Hazard Research ded to enhance. For example, some essen- their email addresses and telephone and Application Information Center, tially abuse the audio options involving numbers at which they could be paged University of Colorado, Boulder. the bells and whistles. 24-hours-a-day. In addition, information Davis S. and Botkin J. 1994, The Monster could be provided in cyberspace which Computer system Under the Bed: How Business is Mastering failure provides an all-hazards check list of what disaster the Opportunity of Knowledge for Profit, as a new the emerging EOC should consider during Our increased dependence upon Simon & Schuster, NY. pre-impact, impact, post-impact periods. Drabek T.E. 1996, Sociology of Disaster computer technology in our individual, Encarta style information sites could group, societal, and global lives sets the Course Instructor Guide, Federal Emer- be provided which take advantage of stage for a potential new form of disaster: gency Management Agency National multimedia options including pictures, that which may occur with a massive Emergency Training Center, Emmitsburg, video, animation and sound. 'Students' of computer system failure. Akin to the MD. any age, grade, or location could access Drucker P. 1993, Post-Capitalist Society, blackouts experienced in several urban such via search engines whether it be for areas in the United States in recent HarperCollins, NY. emergency time information or normal decades, a massive computer system Encarta 1995,1997and 1998, Microsoft, time education or personal growth- failure could result in a loss ofinformation Seattle, WA. which at the very least has, once again, on such a scale that serious economic Fischer H.W. 111 1996, The Sociologistj the potential for contributing to the disruptions may result. What mitigation Statistical Tools: Computer Based Data knowledge base of the larger community strategies should we employ? How should Analysis Using SPSS Windows, University and the expected resulting benefits for we prepare to respond to and recover Press of America, Landham, Mawland. mitigation, planning and response. from such an event? To what extent has Fischer H.W. 111 1997, ~ocio\og~of While all of these ideas, both those an infrastructure been developed to Disaster on the Internet, (www. millersv. ' currently employed as well as those in our address this eventuality? edul-srg). future, may actually contribute to infor- Fischer H.W. 111 1998a, Response to Social infrastructure and culture mation overload, one of Quarantelli's con- Disaster, University Press of America, Sociologically speaking, it is the social cerns, strategies such as email mentoring Landham, Maryland. structure and culture of a group that will help to educate many as to appropriate Fischer H.W. 111 1998b, Web Courses: guide's behaviour and helps meet human sources to turn to for such information. Social Statistics & Sociology of Disaster. needs. If we apply the sociological The danger will, of course, be that inac- www.rnillersv.edu/-socanth. perspective to the information highway curate and outdated information will, as Gant D.B. 1996, The Potential Impact of what do we observe? Throughout human Quarantelli fears, exist on the net. Of Information Technology on the Structure history, technological advances have often course, these problems have already of lnterorganisational Relationships out-paced human ability to socially existed before the advent of these new During Crisis Response: The Pennsylvania absorb and effectively incorporate new technologies, though their dissemination Floods of 1996, Institute of Behavioral technologies. The problematic aspects was usually not as readily widespread. Our Science, Boulder, CO. of the new information technologies new technologies will still be used by Gates B. 1995, The Road Ahead, Viking, discussed above are arguably the direct humans-with all their limitations. These New York, NY. result of these technologies outpacing our problems will continue even in cyberspace Goldberg R. 1996,MultiMedia Producerj development of the emerging social (on a brighter note, at least for academics, Bible, International Data Group Company, structure and culture needed to guide us. the continuation, even exacerbation of Chicago, IL. We will develop an infrastructure and a such problems further justifies the need Interactive Multimedia Association, guiding culture. The question at this junc- for those in the academy). 1996, www.ima.org. ture is to what extent will they be dysfunc- References Jones S.G. (ed.) 1995, Cybersociety: tional, rather than functional, in our Anderson P.S. 1995, 'The Biggest Mutual Comptiter-mediated Communication and individual, societal, and global needs? Aid System on Earth: the Internet Community, Sage, Thousand Islands, CA. Quarantelli (1997) admonishes us to in Emergency Management', NCCEM Kidder G. and Harris S. 1997, HTML proceed with care. In his view 'if we do a Bulletin, pp 7-9. Publishing for Netscape, 2"* Edition, Ven- good job, the actual future will bedifferent Birkerts S. 1994, Gutenberg Elegies: The tana Communications Group, Research from the [problematic] future'. Current Fate ofReading in an Electronic Age, Faber Triangle Park, NC. and future uses of the new information and Faber, Boston, MA. Multimedia Development Group 1996, technologies may provide great assistance Botterell A. 1996, The Emergency Infor- www.mdg.org. in addressing the information-sharing mation Infrastructure, (www. incident. Quarantelli E.L. 1997, 'Problematical void, they will not, however, be the comlpapers1eii.htm). Aspects of the InformationlCommuni- panacea that some envision. Burstein D. and Kline D. 1995, Road cation Revolution for Disaster Planning Warriors; Dreams and Nightmares Along and Research: Ten Non-Technical lssues Concluding comments and Questions', Disaster Prevention and the Information Highway, Dutton, New The new information technologies will, no ManagementJournal.Vo1.6, York. (2), pp 94- 106. doubt, be more effectively used in the Butler D. 1994,'The lnformation Revo- future. The current generation ofweb sites lution and Disaster Management', The Author's contact details: only hint at their potential. For example, CUSECJournal,Vol. 2, pp 4-10. Henry W. Flscher can be contacted by ernail at: emergency time consultation could be Butler D. 1995, 'lnformation Systems [email protected]. His web site is provided by appropriate university or www.mlllersv.edu~-rig and Knowledge Transfer. Prospects for government personnel as well as those who Better Understanding, Opportunities for

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