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Chapter 2 the Drivers of Nature-Based Durham E-Theses The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Africa and Great Britain. APPLEBY, HOLLY,MEGAN How to cite: APPLEBY, HOLLY,MEGAN (2021) The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Africa and Great Britain., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13961/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 i DURHAM UNIVERSITY Abstract Faculty of Science Department of Biosciences Masters of Science by Research The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Africa and Great Britain by Holly Megan APPLEBY Nature-based tourism (NBT) develops when tourists visit sites (generally protected ar- eas; PAs) to experience natural features or participate in nature-related activities such as wildlife-watching. NBT can generate revenue for conservation, local communities, and national economic development, contributing to the protection of nature’s strongholds. Despite this, the drivers of NBT are poorly understood. Using the number of tourism resources in which a species was mentioned as an indicator of their popularity for NBT, traits associated with the popularity of species were identified in this study and their use in predicting visitor numbers to African National Parks (NPs) and British PAs was ex- plored. Infrared camera traps were also piloted as visitor recorders across 27 British sites, and provided visitor count data on a cost-effective basis, especially for PAs with lower visitor numbers. The popularity of African birds was driven by range size and body mass, whereas the popularity of British birds was driven by trophic level and plumage patterning. The popularity of both African and British mammals was driven by range size and sociality, but body mass was the strongest driver in African mammals. Visitor numbers to African NPs and British PAs were driven by habitat diversity, accessibility, and wildlife popularity, but the level of human development also influenced tourism across African countries. Species currently overlooked, and sites currently underutilised by tourists relative to their traits were identified and could benefit from marketing. Pro- motion, product, price, and place marketing techniques can be used to control visitor flow, generating an equilibrium between visitor pressure and expectations, economic rev- enue, and sustainable conservation management. Additional factors, such as aesthetic landscape appeal, which could influence species and site popularity were identified and could be investigated in future study. Consultation of additional tourism resources and access to additional visitor number records, potentially through the use of infrared cam- era traps, could also enhance our understanding of which species and site features drive NBT. DURHAM UNIVERSITY MASTERS THESIS The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Africa and Great Britain Author: Supervisor: Holly Megan APPLEBY Prof. Stephen WILLIS Dr Jonathan DRURY A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science by Research in the Department of Biosciences Faculty of Science April 17, 2021 ii “It seems to me that the natural world is the greatest source of excitement; the greatest source of visual beauty, the greatest source of intellectual interest. It is the greatest source of so much life that it makes life worth living.” Sir David Attenborough iii Contents Abstract i Declaration of Authorship xvii Statement of Copyright xix Acknowledgements xxi 1 Introduction1 1.1 Current Threats to Global Biodiversity.....................1 1.2 Is Nature-based Tourism the Answer?.....................2 1.2.1 An Introduction to Nature-based Tourism...............2 1.2.2 The Benefits of Nature-based Tourism.................6 1.2.3 The Costs of Nature-based Tourism..................7 1.3 Understanding the Drivers of Nature-based Tourism............9 1.3.1 Species Attributes............................. 11 1.3.2 Site Attributes............................... 14 1.4 The Wildlife Tourism Framework........................ 16 1.5 Conclusion..................................... 17 1.6 Thesis Plan..................................... 18 2 The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Africa 21 2.1 Introduction.................................... 21 2.1.1 Nature-based Tourism in Africa.................... 21 2.1.2 Features Which Appeal to Tourists................... 22 2.1.3 Chapter Plan............................... 24 2.2 Methodology................................... 25 2.2.1 Species Popularity............................ 25 2.2.1.1 Trait Data Collection...................... 25 2.2.1.2 Species Popularity Scoring.................. 27 2.2.1.3 Statistical Analysis....................... 32 2.2.2 Tourism within National Parks..................... 33 2.2.2.1 Trait Data Collection...................... 33 2.2.2.2 Annual Visitor Numbers................... 34 2.2.2.3 Statistical Analysis....................... 34 iv 2.3 Results....................................... 35 2.3.1 Species Popularity............................ 35 2.3.2 Tourism within National Parks..................... 42 2.4 Discussion..................................... 45 2.4.1 Traits Related to Species Popularity.................. 46 2.4.2 Under- and Over-represented Species, Limitations and Recommen- dations................................... 51 2.4.3 Traits which Influence National Park Visitor Numbers....... 55 2.4.4 Under- and Over-utilised National Parks, Limitations and Recom- mendations................................ 58 2.5 Conclusion..................................... 62 3 The Drivers of Nature-based Tourism Across Great Britain 63 3.1 Introduction.................................... 63 3.1.1 Nature-based Tourism in Great Britain................. 63 3.1.2 Features Which Appeal to Tourists................... 65 3.1.3 Chapter Plan............................... 66 3.2 Methodology................................... 66 3.2.1 Species Popularity............................ 66 3.2.1.1 Trait Data Collection...................... 66 3.2.1.2 Species Popularity Scoring.................. 68 3.2.1.3 Statistical Analysis....................... 68 3.2.2 Tourism Within Protected Areas.................... 69 3.2.2.1 Trait Data Collection...................... 69 3.2.2.2 Annual Visitor Numbers................... 70 3.2.2.3 Statistical Analysis....................... 71 3.3 Results....................................... 72 3.3.1 Species Popularity............................ 72 3.3.2 Tourism Within Protected Areas.................... 78 3.4 Discussion..................................... 81 3.4.1 Traits Related to Species Popularity.................. 81 3.4.2 Under- and Over-represented Species, Limitations and Recommen- dations................................... 83 3.4.3 Traits Related to Protected Area Visitor Numbers.......... 86 3.4.4 Under- and Over-utilised Sites, Limitations and Recommendations 88 3.5 Conclusion..................................... 92 4 The Use of Modified Infrared Cameras as Visitor Recorders in Great British Protected and Recreational areas 93 4.1 Introduction.................................... 93 4.1.1 The Importance of Monitoring Visitors................ 93 4.1.2 Methods of Monitoring Visitors..................... 94 4.1.3 Chapter Plan............................... 99 v 4.2 Methods...................................... 99 4.2.1 Fieldwork................................. 99 4.2.2 Data Interpretation............................ 103 4.3 Results....................................... 103 4.4 Discussion..................................... 109 4.5 Conclusion..................................... 112 5 Implications for Protected Area Management 113 5.1 Product....................................... 114 5.1.1 The Wildlife-based Product....................... 114 5.1.2 The Nature-based Product........................ 117 5.2 Place........................................ 119 5.3 Price........................................ 121 5.4 Promotion..................................... 121 5.4.1 Species Promotion............................ 122 5.4.2 Site Promotion.............................. 123 6 General Discussion and Conclusion 125 6.1 What are the Traits of Species that Attract Tourism?............. 125 6.2 What are the Features of Protected Areas that Attract Tourism?...... 127 6.3 Can Modified Infrared Cameras be Used to Monitor Tourism Visitation?. 129 6.4 Recommendations for Future Study...................... 129 6.4.1 Species Popularity............................ 129 6.4.2 The Drivers of Visitor Numbers..................... 129 6.4.3 Future Changes in Nature-Based Tourism Potential......... 130 6.5 Conclusion..................................... 131 A Appendix A 133 A.1 Supplementary Material for Chapters2 and3................. 133 A.1.1 Habitat Classifications for Bird Species................ 133 A.1.2 Habitat Classifications for Terrestrial
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