An Environmental History of the Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway

Tracks, Tunnels and Trestles: An Environmental History of the Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway by Heather Anne Longworth B.A., Acadia University, 2007 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of History © Copyright Heather Anne Longworth, 2009. University of Victoria All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. 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While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n’y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. ii Tracks, Tunnels and Trestles: An Environmental History of the Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway by Heather Anne Longworth B.A., Acadia University, 2007 Supervisory Committee Dr. Richard Rajala, Supervisor (Department of History) Dr. Eric Sager, Departmental Member (Department of History) iii Supervisory Committee Dr. Richard Rajala, Supervisor (Department of History) Dr. Eric Sager, Departmental Member (Department of History) Abstract The construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was not a conquest of man over nature as some historians have suggested and the driving of the last spike did not cement that victory. By studying the CPR from an environmental perspective, it becomes obvious that the relationship between the people and the environment in the mountains was two- fold: workers had an effect on the environment through fires, deforestation, excavation, and blasting, and the environment likewise had an effect on workers through the hardships of weather, challenging terrain, avalanches, and floods. Shortcuts, such as steep grades and wooden bridges, taken by the CPR throughout construction to save money and time, as well as the poor route choice, had unintended consequences for the operation of the railway. Massive deforestation and fires had repercussions for the watershed of the eastern Rocky Mountains and the choice of Rogers Pass meant that the CPR had to deal with numerous avalanches and deep snow. Steep grades and lines that were easily flooded or open to avalanches resulted in the deaths of numerous workers and expensive repairs to engines and the track. The construction of the CPR also had a notable impact on western Canada as it opened up the land to tourism, settlement, agriculture, and the lumber and mining industries. In building and operating the line, the CPR had to learn to adapt to the environment in order to carry out repairs quickly and get trains through. iv Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ iv List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. vi Chapter I ............................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction and Historiography ...................................................................................... 1 Chapter II ........................................................................................................................... 27 Hacking through the Bush: Surveying and Choosing a Route ...................................... 27 Chapter III .......................................................................................................................... 47 A Fight with Nature: The Construction of the CPR, 1883-1885 ................................... 47 The Ongoing Struggle: The First Years of Operation, 1886-1916 ................................ 87 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 130 Map .................................................................................................................................. 135 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 136 v List of Figures Figure 1: Map of British Columbia Showing the Canadian Pacific Railway .................. 135 vi Acknowledgements This thesis has been a long journey and while I did not go through the same challenges as those who built and operated the CPR, like them, I had a lot of people that helped and supported me along the way. These people are too numerous to mention them all, but there are some who must be acknowledged: My twin sister, Susan Longworth, who came up with the idea for this thesis when all I knew was that I wanted to do something with Canadian environmental history. She continually motivated me and was always there to edit and listen to the discoveries and struggles throughout my research. Anne Dance for her editing and encouragement. My supervisory committee for all their time and hard work: Dr. Richard Rajala, Dr. Eric Sager, and Dr. James Lawson. My family and friends who hosted me on my research trips to Ottawa, Vancouver, Calgary, and Edmonton. Lastly, this thesis is dedicated to all those surveyors, planners, construction workers, and those who operated and repaired the line, especially those whom I have come to know and appreciate throughout my research. Your strength, courage, and spirit in face of some of the most difficult geographic obstacles and weather are still incredible and inspirational today. HAL Chapter I Introduction and Historiography “All I can say is that the work was well done in every way,” general manager William Van Horne announced in 1885, after the last spike was driven to complete the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR).1 Van Horne‟s victorious declaration was far from correct: the 2400 mile line had been built as quickly as possible, taking shortcuts such as steep grades, wooden bridges, portions of unballasted track, and sections through the mountains that would be difficult to keep open during the winter.2 The photograph of Donald Smith hammering in the final spike is one of the best known photographs in Canadian history, celebrating a victory of man over nature. But the victory was short- lived; the track closed that first winter and numerous problems with avalanches, weather, and fires disrupted service during the first decades of operation. The history of the CPR is not simply one of man conquering nature, but one of humankind‟s diverse relationships with nature, where the environment shaped the construction and operation of the CPR as much as the workers had an impact on the environment through deforestation and grading. Difficulties with the environment along the route forced the CPR to build new tunnels, reduce grades, and build snowsheds on the mainline. This study will differ from other CPR histories in emphasizing the role of the environment in the construction and operation of the track, looking at the CPR as an adaptation to nature which was not wholly successful, and examining the cultural perceptions of railway workers and travellers toward nature. The environmental history of the CPR remains relevant to a modern-day Canada where the idea of total control of 1 William Van Horne cited in Edmund E. Pugsley, “Pioneers of the Steel Trail: Two Streaks of Rust,” Maclean’s, June 15, 1930, 74. 2 Valerie Knowles, From Telegrapher to Titan: The Life of William C. Van Horne (Toronto: Dundurn

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