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Cronología1 C00 Parte I 1Portada1b Cronología ilustrada de las finanzas Parte I De los tiempos antiguos a la modernidad 2800 a.C. a 1750 d.C. Instituciones, instrumentos y técnicas Ricardo A. Fornero Profesor de Administración Financiera Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (Mendoza-Argentina) 2012 (Volumen 2) Capítulo 8 FINANZAS PARA NUEVOS TIEMPOS De 1400 a 1500 Síntesis Las finanzas y la situación política y económica desde el siglo XV 1402 La banca Medici: El formato legal de asociados independientes y una sociedad controlante Ventana: El origen del sistema de asociación en Florencia 1404 La licitud de los contratos que consisten sólo en la asunción de riesgo 1408 La constitución del Banco di San Giorgio en Génova, como for- mato de banco para el financiamiento público Ventana: Mecanismo institucional de cumplimiento Ventana: El Palazzo di San Giorgio 1420 Las transacciones financieras en Génova: La Piazza y la Loggia dei Banchi 1423 Las dotaciones en dinero y la realización de préstamos en el im- perio otomano 1434 Los Monti de Florencia y las opciones sobre instrumentos finan- cieros 1445 La inclinación a apostar y el uso de las loterías como fuente de ingreso de los gobiernos 1449 Gutenberg y el financiamiento de la impresión de la Biblia: ¿Un préstamo o una asociación con Fust? 1460 La Bolsa de Amberes y el desarrollo de su mercado de cambios 363 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 1462 Lyon: De la feria a la Bolsa, y de centro financiero europeo a na- cional 1462 Mons pietatis y la aceptación papal del interés en los préstamos Ventana: Monte dei Paschi di Siena: El banco que comienza como Mons Pietatis 1478 La prédica cristiana contra la usura y el cuerpo del usurero 1489 Las respuestas de Flandes y de Venecia a la crisis de los bancos y del sistema de reserva fraccionaria 1490 Las actividades financieras en las doctrinas judías modernas 1498 La Sala de Contratación de la Lonja de Valencia: “Es bueno el comercio que no lleva el fraude en la palabra” 364 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 Síntesis Las finanzas y la situación política y económica desde el siglo XV Hasta el siglo XV, la principal región de extracción de oro para la economía eu- ropea es Sudán. Al disminuir la producción, hay un faltante del metal, y la búsqueda de nuevos recursos impulsa las exploraciones de ultramar. Un resultado de las exploraciones de ultramar es que, en el siglo XVI, el comer- cio trasatlántico transforma a la economía europea, junto con el aumento de la pobla- ción, la mayor concentración urbana, y la inflación por la abundancia de oro y plata. 1 El comercio también se transforma. El Imperio Otomano comienza a extenderse a las regiones de las antiguas rutas terrestres entre Occidente y Oriente. Al mismo tiempo, estas rutas se hacen más importantes por el dominio portugués en el Océano Europa en el siglo XV Fuente: Sitio web Javier Villalba Ruiz de Toledo, Departamento de Historia, Universidad Autónoma de Ma- drid 1 Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the Eu- ropean World Economy in the Sixteenth Century , 1974. 365 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 Síntesis Indico. Sólo después, en el siglo XVI, con esos territorios ya estabilizados, Constan- tinopla (ya como Estambul) recupera su lugar de mercado internacional entre Asia y Europa. El comercio se orienta en las ferias internacionales de Europa. En las principales ciudades mercantiles, las actividades de intercambio comercial y financiero se hacen permanentes. Empezando en el Mediterráneo, en Italia y España, esta modalidad permanente (la Bolsa) se extiende hacia el norte de Europa, a Francia y a Flandes. Después, en el siglo XVI, esta organización se expande con fuerza en los Países Bajos, en Alemania y en Inglaterra. El centro financiero de Europa comienza a tras- ladarse hacia el norte. Por la debilidad de los gobiernos y la incertidumbre de la sucesión, en la Edad Media no puede existir un problema significativo relacionado con la deuda nacional. Sin embargo, en las repúblicas italianas, que son los gobiernos institucionalmente más fuertes, desde el siglo XIV se ensayan diferentes formas para resolver el finan- ciamiento y el endeudamiento del gobierno. Europa y el Mediterráneo en el siglo XV Fuente: Sitio web gonzaloarias.net/historimetro 366 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 Síntesis El surgimiento de un banco público que financia las actividades del gobierno se observa en Génova, a principios del siglo XV. Este modelo será replicado en otros lugares, y es una de las bases de lo que se conoce como revolución financiera de los tiempos modernos. Los banqueros-mercaderes se especializan en las finanzas, tanto en los lugares de reunión cíclica (ferias) como en los permanentes. Los genoveses primero, y después los alemanes (en especial por la relación entre los Fugger y Carlos V), desarrollan sus lucrativas actividades comerciales y financieras. Cumplen la función financiera para aquellos gobiernos que no han resuelto de modo institucional su financiamiento. Con la mayor facilidad de crédito, los proble- mas de la deuda del gobierno que aparecen son más graves; se observan en el siglo XVI, en Francia, durante el reinado de Francisco I, y después en España, con Felipe II. 367 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 Formas de asociación 8 1402 La banca Medici: El formato le- gal de asociados independien- tes y una sociedad controlante A fines del siglo XIV, los banqueros florentinos, recuperados de la crisis de 50 años antes [ver 5, 1345], están en un período de expansión. Según los registros de la cámara que los agrupa ( Arte del Cambio ) hay 71 bancos en 1399. Entre éstos, en 1397 comienza a funcionar el banco Medici, que sería el más destacado durante buena parte del siglo XV. La estructura de propiedad era uno de los problemas que tenían las casas bancarias con fi- liales en otras ciudades, como las de Bardi, Peruzzi, Acciaiuoli, etc. [ver 5, 1244] La descen- tralización era sólo geográfica, y la compagnia era propiedad completa de la familia. Esto re- quería un control extremo, ya que exponía a la firma de modo pleno a los problemas de cada filial. Giovanni di Bicci de Medici (1360-1429), que funda la casa banca- ria en 1397, inicia la expansión en 1402 con una estructura diferente, que puede caracterizarse como un sistema de centro y radios ( hub and spoke , o network-star ). El centro es la compagnia basada en Florencia, que mantiene una participación en cada filial, las que se forman como sociedades independientes. El administrador de estas filiales tiene responsabilidad ilimitada por la misma y, desde un punto de vista práctico, los acreedores consideran a cada filial como independiente, con lo que se protege al resto del sis- tema. Cada año se disuelven las sociedades filiales, se calculan las ga- nancias, y se vuelven a formar, con los mismos o con otros inversores. Esta descentralización legal y financiera aplica la innovación que se había introducido po- co antes, y permite que el banco Medici funcione durante casi un siglo. La complejidad es- tructural de este sistema estimula el desarrollo de un procedimiento contable que, a diferencia de los existentes en ese momento, es más despersonalizado, de modo que los registros sean transparentes y comparables. El banco Medici funciona financiando las actividades de los negocios de la familia (en se- da, textiles, alumbre, etc.) y también con operaciones financieras en cada localidad. En 1460, en su máxima expansión, los negocios bancarios y comerciales internacionales se realizan con filiales en Italia (en Pisa, Venecia, Roma y Milán) y en Londres, Brujas, Ginebra y Avignon. Durante mucho tiempo, también hay una filial itinerante, que sigue los desplazamientos del Papa para atender sus necesidades financieras (por eso se decía que los Medici actuaban como “banqueros de Dios”). La coordinación desde el centro, que incluye la compensación de operaciones entre filia- les, hace posible aprovechar las diferencias de tasas de interés entre las ciudades de la red. 368 8. Finanzas modernas De 1400 a 1500 Formas de asociación Ventana El origen del sistema de asociación en Florencia John Padgett (n.1951) y Paul McLean (n.1964) estudian detalladamente la organiza- ción empresarial en red con un centro. A partir del análisis que hace Federigo Melis (1914-1973) de los archivos de Francesco di Marco Datini (o Datini de Prato, c.1335-1410), consideran que “el sistema Datini, si no fue el primer ejemplo de esta nueva forma organiza- cional, estuvo entre los primeros”. Melis denomina a esta organización un sis- tema de haciendas ( sistema di aziende ), podría decirse un sistema de asociación (partnership system ) o compañía conglomerada. 2 Enfatizan que si bien la accomandita , o aso- ciación con responsabilidad limitada, se esta- blece legalmente en Florencia en 1408, no es una modalidad muy usada hasta el siglo XVI [ver 4, 1150]. “Quizá esto puede atribuir- se a la difusión de su sustituto funcional, el sistema de asociación”. “Después de revisar las investigaciones de los sistemas de aso- ciación florentinos, determinamos que el momento de esta inven- ción fue el año 1383.” Señalan que es una consecuencia de la transformación política de la ciudad después de las revueltas de 1378. Comienza a ser una república oligárquica que sustituye a las corporaciones o ligas como red social predominante (o, más bien, las absorbe). Padgett y McLean identifican, en el período 1383 a 1399, trece sistemas de asociación que consideran grandes , con tres o más fi- liales, y once que son más pequeños, con una o dos filiales. Los principales son de Francesco di Marco Datini (c.1335-1410), Vieri di Cambio de Medici (1323-1395) y Giovanni di Bicci de Medici (1360-1429).
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