Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature Literature Short

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Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature

Rachael Hutchinson, Leith Morton

Literature short on time

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 Jon Holt Published online on: 13 Jun 2016

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 Anniversary far morefocusedonpersonal andoftenidlemoments,suchasinTawaraMachi’sSalad and weseethelegacyofarejection ofanationallysharedtimeinfavourthat is the dismal reality of Japan’searlywar buildup. Flash-forward to the contemporary period by evenhumanperception.These rejectionsofhuman-centrictimewerealsoflightsfrom Perceptionist School(Shinkankaku-ha), timewasnolongeraconstant,bound dane dailyaffairs,butonesensesthatbythe1920s,forwriters likeMiyazawaandtheNew earlier decadesofthetwentiethcentury,mayhavemeticulously documentedtheirmun concerns (Holt2014).JapanesenaturalistsandI-novelists, whoreignedsupremeinthe avant-garde poetrythatlocatedhumanbeingsoutsideof time and,byextension,worldly most cosmicallyattunedpoetandawriterofgreater, Buddhist senseoftime,created characters totranscendthebondsoftime.MiyazawaKenji (1896–1933),perhapsJapan’s rary periods,theemphasisonindividualidentityandpersonal agencyrequiredfictional on theechoesofsteamtrain’(1910a:55). wrote thistanka:‘Withoutathoughtinmyhead/oneday, all day/Iwillletmyheartlinger Takuboku (1886–1912),amodernpoetwhooftenmade idle andwastedtimehistheme, idea ofhumanbeingsbeingtiedtotheclockorcalendar.Forexample,in1910,Ishikawa helped thepoetshapepoem’sscope. was notrestricting butquite the contrary: it wasliberating, because thedemandsofform (2012: 203).Thetraditional requirement in haikuandtankathatapoetsituatethepoemtime of elegance andtheprimaryliterary representation of natureforthenextthousand years’ extremely complex and highly codified view of the four seasonsthat would become the model Haruo Shiranewritesthatpoetsoftheclassical age (784–1185)‘developedandestablished an ventions of representation dictated a seasonal framework for the expression ofthese themes. poetry embraced a variety of themes (love, friendship, mourning, and so on), but the con in poetry ofthe modern (1868–1945) and contemporary (1945–present) periods. Premodern forms isthe prominence of afreersensetime in early twentieth-century writings, especially One characteristic of modern Japanese literature that distinguishes it from earlier, traditional However, bytheearlytwentiethcentury,manyJapanesepoetsclearlyrejected LITERATURE SHORT ON TIME Modern momentsinhaikuandtanka ( Sarada kinenbi , 1987): Introduction Jon Holt 2 26 1 Inliteratureofthemodernandcontempo - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 with ‘nothingness’ ( turn’ in Japanesepoetrytoday.SamHamillwritesofthe‘enormousresonances,ghostsatevery at oncebothtraditionallyJapaneseandradicallynew,toasensibilityabouttimethatlasts approach tothehandlingoftime.ShikiandTakubokuprovidetwodifferentapproaches, blazers likeMasaokaShiki(1867–1902)andIshikawaTakuboku,thereisadistinctlymodern shifts occurredinthesetwotraditionalJapanesepoeticforms.Intheshortpoemsoftrail (1868–1912) whenJapaneseculturebecameheavilyWesternizedandmodernized,dramatic early-modern create opportunitiesforinterestingpoeticcollaborationsamongtheselate-classical emerge withitsfirstseventeensyllablesasanindependentunitfromthefinalfourteento was modelledonthetwopoeticpartsofthirty-one-syllablewaka;haikuformwould ( as tanka.Thehaiku,or It isactuallyderivedfromtheolderthirty-one-syllableformof of theshortestformspoetryinworldliterature.Thehaikuhasonlyseventeensyllables. literary formslikehaikuandtanka.Thetankathearequiteshort,perhapssome the burdenofnationalhistoryandcontemporaryevents? become eclipsed incontemporary Japaneseliterature by amorepersonalidletime,freefrom time, outside of the realm of anofficial Japan time? Why hasamoreofficial, national time Has modern and contemporary Japanese poetry come to embrace moments of depoliticized are, attimes,oftenoddswith otheraspectsofculture,suchaspoliticalinvolvement. culture. In thisway, wemayalsobegintoexplore why Japanese literature and manga today time, especially to quiet and personaltime, in turnbeginstohelpusbetter understand Japanese them insteadofsimplymystifying theartevenmore.UnderstandingJapanese sensitivity to I suggestawaytoparsethose silentmomentsinordertomakesenseofthemysterieswithin and artwhohaveeverwondered whyJapanesepoemsorcomic books are so quietattimes, time seeninthesemultiplereaders oftheseformsliterature forms ofartisticendeavour. For this chapter, I willexplore the development of modernJapaneseapproaches to the depiction of seems tostandstillinthesequiet,contemplative combinations [of panels]’(1993:78–79).In Understanding Comics,identifies anapproachtocomics‘rarelyseenin theWest’where‘time comics tendtovaluetheunstated’(1986:21).ScottMcCloud, authoroftheseminalwork draws comparisons between short formpoetryandmanga: ‘Like Japanese poetry, taken bypoetsandmangaartiststothehandlingoftime.The mangascholarFrederikSchodt into manga.Iwillanalyseacoupleofexamplesheretoconsider thesimilar approach thatis are numerousexamples of adaptations ofJapaneseliterature, even haikuandtanka poetry, Japan comparedtocomicsofothercountries,eventhose theUnitedStates.Infact,there important art form, manga (comic books orgraphic narratives), which is highly developed in Japanese poetry(1989:12;16–17). haikai My focusinthischapterisonshortmomentsoftimeframedanddepictedtraditional The propensityforquiet,‘ghost’-likemomentsinJapanesepoetryareoftenfoundanother sarada kinenbi shichigatsu muikawa itta kara ii ne’tokimiga ‘Kono ajiga

one ), which was derived from and parodied classical linked verse (

finds haikai

the mu) oran‘exquisite loneliness’ ( poeticrevelers.AsthehaikuandtankaevolvedinMeijiperiod

haiku hokku, wasthefirstpoeminacommoner-linked-versesequence

Bashō, 2. Literature short on time

which

27 for

Hamill our SaladAnniversary. became so July6th you said, ‘Hey, thistastesgreat,’ sabi) thatcan be truly relished through

are

Zen-like waka, whichisnowknown

moments renga), which in turn (1989: 127)

encounters or renga or -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 the illusionof‘objectivity’inordertounderstandpoem, asseeninthefollowingtanka: time in hispoetry, which often requires the reader’s imagination and thusabandons handles Shirane writesthatoriginally Shiki conceived of thegoal than rely oncenturies-old clichéd descriptions of cherry blossoms andspringlove. Haruo the seventeen- or thirty-one-syllable forms toactually describe the worldaroundthem rather ground-breaking in poetry because Shikiopened the eyesofpoets,encouraging them to use to poetrywasthatof‘sketchinglife’( of his short poems to represent, sometimes mimetically, the flow oftime. Shiki’s approach standing theshiftindepiction ofliterary time forthewayhewasabletouseveryforms poetic forms iswhatmakeshimsomodern.Forourpurposes,Shikiimportant in under documenting beautiful moments. Shiki’sexploration of thistheme in thesetwotraditional of Shiki’slate haiku andtanka is life itself. In hispoetry,Shikicherished life by meticulously ‘death, rather than love, was histheme’ (1999: 374).However,Ibelieve that the main theme well ascompleting threeimportant diaries.DonaldKeenehassaidofShiki’sdiariesthat wrote approximately 10,000 haiku,nearly2,000tankaandnumerouspiecesofcriticism, as original approachtoprivatemomentsoftimebetterthanShiki. the turnoftwentiethcentury.Untilthen,noothermodernJapanesepoetdisplayedafresh, ticularly thehaikuandtankaexperimentsofShiki,whowasactiveasbothapoetcriticat been focusedonplotdevelopments.Thesechangesinfictioncanalsobeseenpoetry,par than doing, distorts the traditional flow of Japanese fiction, which until the Meiji period had own feelings in light of external pressures. They are pensive novels in which thinking, rather These novelsallfeatureprotagonistswhoturninward,ratherthanoutward,examiningtheir Broken Commandment( impact onthefutureofmodernhaiku’(1998:38–39). only tonatureandleavehumanaffairsthemodernnovel –astancethathadprofound and mimesis’ but ‘towardstheendofhislife he believed on the feelings of a central protagonist and rendered with a psychological approach that Tsubouchi on thefeelingsofacentralprotagonistandrenderedwithpsychologicalapproachthatTsubouchi ( declared thatJapaneseliteraturehadtwopaths:onemarkedbytheactivismofpoliticalnovel early partoftheMeijiperiod.NakamuraMitsuo,animportantcriticwritingafterWorldWarII, the resistanceandrepressiontheymightfaceinopposingoligarchythatruledJapan of political freedom into the writing of literature, which was a far safer choice given kinds new ing failed inthe1880s,Japanesewriters,particularlymales,divertedtheirexcitementforpromot It 1886–1889) Shōyō practice byhisdiscipleFutabateiShimeiinnearlycompleted ) and another form of prose marked by the inward focus on the individual, centred shōsetsu) andanotherformofprosemarkedbytheinwardfocusonindividual,centred seiji

is Bedridden for nearly a decade because of tuberculosis, Shiki transcended his illness and One importantaspectofShiki’s

koborete waoku okite wakobore shiratsuyu no ha-goto nimusubu matsu noha a

widely prescribed

and

accepted The aspectoftimeinShiki’shaikuandtankasketches

later in

is perfected

notion t Hakai, 1906)andTayamaKatai,authorof reatise

that

Essence oftheNovel by

the after shasei

shasei). Keenearguesthatthemethodof naturalist

the Jon Holt

that hasnotbeenfullydiscussedisthewayhe People 28

novelists fall thenholdsteady. they holdsteadythenfall, needle after form onpine white dewdrops

Rights’ ( , 1885), then put into shinzui, 1885),thenputinto Shōsetsu

Shimazaki . shasei asbeingoneof‘objectivity

. Movement

that Drifting Clouds poetry shouldapply The Quilt( (Shiki 1904:6.218)

Tōson,

(Jiyū

who Minken Futon, 1907).

shasei was ( wrote Ukigumo,

Undō) shasei

The - - - 2

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 about whattheysaw. avoid thetedium(rikutsu)ofsuchextremeconceits,andinsteadheurgedthemtowritepoems blossoms, frost when looking at white chrysanthemums, and so on. He warned new poets to 905), whooftenfeignedconfusion( (784–1185) foundinthe Shiki eschewedthehyperbolicwitofthirty-one-syllablewakapoetsHeianperiod which sooncaptivatedthepublic,includingShiki: He wrotepoems,forexample, about baseball, a newsportimported to Japan around1882, impossibly infinitescene,allwithinthethirty-onesyllablesofpoem. power isnotonlyinShiki’sexquisitevisualframingbutalsosubtlesuggestionsofan a miracleofnature,beautifuldisplaywaterartthatseemstolastforever. The poem’s to witness is poet, to imaginethecombinedactionshappeningoverandagain.Shiki, “repeatedly”’ (Shirane 2005: 192). The cyclical nature of the grammar here requires the reader first action (beforethete-wa)andsecondaction (after the koborete wa oku),isatextbook example of the pair’s nuance in classical Japanese, where‘the Shiki’s repeateduseofthe conjunctive particle a wonderfulperiodoftimethatcouldhavelastedseconds,minutesorperhapsevenlonger. the poem’sactualachievement.Thismoderntankaismorethanavisualsketch;italsorecords (1954: 42).However,ifweconsiderthetimethatelapsesinthisshortsketch,thencanjudge history ofmoderntanka.Shiki’swaywastograspthefinenuancesnatureinafreshway’ ‘as simpleas“pinedew”’,thepoetKimataOsamuwrote,‘buthisapproachtoitwasnewin embodies thebasicprincipleofShiki’ssketchingmethod.InthissequenceShikitooksomething records theslowiterationsofdropletsastheyhold,thenfall,holdagaintopineneedles. by Shiki is farmore direct in its observation than mostpoemsof the and half-bird,whocanflysometimes bewitchmaidens,takingthemofftotheirremotelairs: poems featurethemysticalbeings knownas restricted tohissickbed,thefuton onthefloorofhis‘six-footroom’thatwasworld.These seen inthefollowingtwolatehaiku, writteninShiki’slastyearoflife,whenhewasmostcertainly describe objectsashesawthem. nant straininJapaneseliterature attheturnoftwentiethcentury,Shikididmorethanmerely occur. Thereaderreachestheendandwaitsforwhatwillhappen next:gameon! the verbcombination hajimara[mu]tosu by Shiki,aspectator,isimmediately feltinthe poem,particularly inthetactical placement of The tensionfelt by theplayerswaiting for thegame, as wellthegrowingexcitement felt from centuries-olddescriptions of cherry blossoms, autumn leaves andother classical topics. Shiki enjoyedusingnewsportsterminology in tanka, lifting up thethirty-one-syllable form ( Man’yōshū, ca.759)foritsdirectnessandlackofartifice. Shiki’s callfor Written neartheendofhislifeinaten-poemsequencedated21May1900,thispoemgreatly Although Shiki’s ba oshimete hito sorezoreni kokonotsu no hajimaran tosu bēsubōru

no shasei shasei 3 Hefavouredtheoldpoetryof innovation also included expanding the possibilities for poetic diction. innovation alsoincludedexpandingthepossibilitiesforpoeticdiction. Collection ofEarlyandModernJapanesePoetry might beconsidered a formofrealism, which was becoming adomi Shasei 2. Literature short on time ) about seeing snow when actually looking at plum mitate) aboutseeingsnowwhenactuallylookingatplum also allowed for the possibilities of poetic imagination, as also allowedforthepossibilities ofpoeticimagination,as inthelastlinetodescribeanactionthatisabout , mountain-dwelling spirits, usually half-man tengu, mountain-dwellingspirits,usually half-man 29 –te and the boundparticle is settobegin. the baseballgame positions: each taketheir The ninemen The Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves Collection ofTenThousandLeaves te-wa) arerepeated: “constantly”, 4 Yet this ‘white dewdrops’ tanka Yetthis‘whitedewdrops’tanka He carefully Man’yōshū. He carefully (Shiki 1904:6.72) wa (okite wa kobore, ( Kokinwakashū, - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 contemplative combinations’ (1993:79). often usedtoestablishamood orasenseofplace,timeseemstostandstillinthesequiet, an integral part of Japanese mainstream comics almost from the very beginning film. Furthermore,McCloud astutelynotesthat‘aspect-to-aspect’transitions‘havebeen act ofimaginative‘closure’is whatcomicsrequireofthereader,farmorethanaviewer of paper bytheartistisaidedand abettedbyasilentaccomplice’,thereader(1993:68).This McCloud describestheactofreadingcomicbooksasone in which‘everyactcommittedto the juxtapositiontechniqueofwhatMcCloudcalls‘aspect-to-aspect’ paneltransitions. scenes fromthetwopoemsaboveweretranslatedintomanga, theywouldcertainlyuse well ashowillustratorssimilarlydepictthepassingoftime inmanga.Forexample,ifthe comic-book pagecanaidinourunderstandingofhowtime functionsinShiki’sworksas albeit withdifferentdegreesofsuccess.AnalysinghowShiki’s poetryistranslatedtothe goes withhim. somewhat rare,betweentheperson‘going’acrossfield andaclose-uponthethingthat ( the heat-strickenfield,clingingtobackofitshuman host.Thehaiku’scutting-word ating forest.Inthe‘mask’poem,finalimageoftengumaskseemstobouncethrough these poems,fillingintheblankbetweenimagesofpowerfultenguandprolifer imagination ofthereadertocreativelyaddcontextbetweenfirstandsecondimages record botholdandnewJapaneselifeinaformwithhistorycenturiesold.Theyrequirethe cut andframedbyShiki,whohasexpandedthepoweroftraditionalhaikuhavingthem and wornbyacontemporaryJapanese.Thesescenesarenotsnapshotsbutmovingpictures remaining virginwoodinMeijiJapan;thecustomsanddressofoldJapanbeingperformed life andcustomswithmodernJapaneselife:thesuperstitionoftenguagainststill- than traditional.Timeiscrucialtothesepoems,asShikijuxtaposespremodernJapanese supernatural elementofthetenguinthesepoemstoultimatelymakethemmodernrather forest inwhichthedivineordemonicnaturespiritshaveguardedforages.Shikimixes the tengu-maskpoem.Thispoemisquitepossiblyabouttimebeforetime,markingavirgin the readertoimagineastorythatunfoldsovermuchlongerperiodoftimethanscenein the secondimageineachpoem. scene, markingthetime when theaction begins andendsbypositioningthefirstimage against poet slowlyunfoldstwolarge,dynamic scenes. Readerswillcreate their ownclosureonthe The poemsarebettersavouredwhenthereaderappreciatesthatinonlyseventeensyllables, elapses ineachpoem,addingtothemysteryandflavouroftheseincrediblyshortverses. ing of them as realistic ‘snapshots’, the reader should note that a significant period of time Both haikudescribetwoscenes,whichthetenguinhabit (at leastbyproxy).Ratherthanthink kireji Shiki’s lifestoryandpoetryhaveoftenbeenadaptedfor televisionaswellmanga, In the‘axes’poem,Shikiproposesacause-and-effectrelationship,butthispoemrequires men oou hito yatenguno natsu noyuku ki noshigeri ono irashimezu tengu sunde ) shearsthepoem into two halves, separating them in the middle of theline,which is Jon Holt 30 mask onhisback. there goesamanwithtengu Into thesummerfields let noaxesin. For thetengulivethereand How thickthesewoods! (Shiki 1925:3.739) (Shiki 1925:3.743)

Most - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 or atmosphere. narrative development and lack the subtlety of ‘aspect-to-aspect’ panels, whichfocusonmood classify these three panel transitions as ‘subject-to-subject’ because they merely express linear look ofbewilderment by Shiki’ssister,Ritsu, his caregiver. Using McCloud’spanel types, I to a brief image of Shiki looking out into the garden. The third panel cuts to a close-up of a can beapalliative thathelpsrelieve coughingspellsfortuberculosis sufferers.)Thenitcuts with apanel of thehanging gourd ( storyboard foracheaptelevised manga versionofShiki’sMySix-FootSickbed Those ClassicswithManga( tion ofShiki’shandlingtimeformangaisfoundinthecheaplyproducedseries this secondpoemofthesetwith animage nity andwhatremainingtime hehasagainstthedemandsofdeath.Themangaalsopresents episode inShiki’slife;itfails to capturethespiritofhaiku,inwhichShikidefendshis dig with a coughing, dying Shiki occupying the frame. The manga simply dramatizes an important accomplished. in the fifth panel, Shiki heroically completes the haiku with the swish ofthe brush. Mission a poignantmoment intime–thiscase,the lackoftime. in the sequence, Shiki described not only a concrete visual image but also joined that image to to thedramatic tension ofthismoment.Originally,insecondhaiku,like thepreviousone The latteractionisrealizedfirst,muchtotheregretofsubject. ously overdays.Thehealthofthepoetic persona hingesonwhichaction is completed first. for thetwoactions: the gourd’s blooming and ‘(my)phlegm blocking up’happensimultane Beichman speaks ofisnotspatial buttemporal. There isatensionbetweenthe time required Certainly inthispoemaboutthebeginningofflowersandendahumanlife,‘distance’ was tryingovercome the distance between himself and thebeauty he observed’(1986:102). tion fromit, but inthislastpoemheparticularly ‘lamented the separation’, noting that ‘he choked byphlegm’(2013:188). farewell to the world, it contains atouch of haiku humor, the incongruity of aBuddhabeing ‘Shiki sees himself,’ Keene writes, ‘as a Buddha (a dead man), but even though this was his Donald Keene’stranslation: onstrates howShikicherishedlifebydocumentingthepassingoftimeinhispoetry.In in flagrantignoranceofthepoet’sstyle.Themostfamouspoemthreeagaindem exploding. Theun-creditedartistsdepicttwoofShiki’sthreedeathbedpoems as iftheinvalidauthorShikiwasasuperheroracingagainsttimetostopbombfrom originals. Themangafizzlesbecausethepanel-to-panel movements are actionoriented, all ofwhicharedisappointingbecausetheyfailtocapturethemoodandspiritShiki’s adaptation featuresanumberofhishaikupoemstranslatedintosequential-artformat, For the manga version ofthispoem (Figure 2.1),the poem is broughttolife more like a A particularlyawfulexampleofJapanesecomic-bookstorytellingandpooradapta In the manga version of the next poem (Figure 2.2), Janine Beichman observes that Shiki typically identified with nature or noted his separa hotoke kana tan notsumarishi Hechima sakite 5 The following panel contains looks of surprise from Shiki’s disciples. Finally, (Shiki 1925:3.759) Manga dedokuha)byVarietyArtWorksStudiosandtheir drama thanacarefully drawn manga.Thesequencebegins hechima), whichsetsthe scene. (The juice from the hechima 2. Literature short on time of ahaggardShiki,again as akindofpunctuation 31 ( Byōshō rokushaku, 1902).This189-pageByōshō stuffed withphlegm. see theBuddha The spongegourdhasbloomed; the poem appears in the foreground (Keene 2013:188)

( zeppitsu) Finish - - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 Figure 2.1 to-aspect approach instead of subject-to-subject, they could have conveyed the true spirit of this use it to illustrate the wasted state of the writer. Perhaps if they had attempted to use an aspect- mediated byasenseoftime.Idisagree withthemangaartists’handlingofscene;theysimply gling forsolong,thepatienthas nomoretimeleft. the patient to live longer. The poem ends on the sharp realization that after waiting and strug- medicine could have beenproduced, perhapsslowingthecourseof disease andallowing flower ofthehechima bloomed earlierandthe resultant vegetables been harvested,theneeded coughed up anincredible amount ofphlegm, indicating the severity of hisdisease. Had the There is alongbackstory prior to thisscene, as the person sufferingfromtuberculosis has In each poem, there is a balance between the first and second images; each set of images is In eachpoem,thereisabalance betweenthefirstandsecondimages;eachsetofimagesis ma niawazu hechima nomizumo tan itto

extreme-action sequence( Variety ArtWorks’versionofShiki’s‘ My Six-FootSickbed Jon Holt 32 Hechima sakite’poemrenderedinthestyleofan does notcomeintime. but the Four gallonsofphlegm– , 173). hechima elixir (Shiki 1925:3.759) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 Japanese poetry and manga. Next, I will consider a few other approaches to poetic time in tanka Japanese poetry andmanga.Next,Iwillconsider afewotherapproachestopoetic timeintanka length oftheintervalbetween juxtaposed imagesisacrucialelementintheartofbothmodern possibilities fortemporalflow inthesemangapanels(1993:81–82).Theflowoftime,and the the spatialshiftsofpagelayout todescribevisual‘rhythms’ratherthanfullyconsiderall the the possibilitiesofanewkind ofimaginedtimethatoccursinmanga,buthefocusedmore on in Japanmorethananywhere else,comicisanartofintervals’,McCloudwrites,hinting at time inthejuxtapositionsofhisfifthtypecomic-bookclosure, especiallyinmanga.‘For in thesequentialartofcomicbooksisuseful,buthedidnot fullyconsidertheimportanceof tanka. McCloud’sanalysisofthetypesclosure–particularly aspect-to-aspecttransitions– of imagesbutalsotheusetemporalgaps,astrongfeature bothmodernformsofhaikuand feeling throughthejuxtapositionofimages,usuallyinvolving notonlygapsbetweenthetypes perhaps evenirony,inthewaythattimesadlyplayedoutfor its poeticpersonainhisfinaldays. poem anditscompanion,whichKeenerightlycharacterizes ashavingasenseofhumour,or Figure 2.2 Thus far, I have discussed how manga can successfully or dismally communicate a mood or Thus far,Ihavediscussedhowmangacansuccessfullyordismally communicateamoodor

‘Tan itto’byShiki,adaptedintomangaform( 2. Literature short on time 33 My Six-FootSickbed , 175).

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 beloved andoriginaltankapoetsofJapan’smodernperiod. major innovator in the tanka form. Like Shiki, Takuboku remains even today one ofthe most tanka, novels and (later) literary essays, but he is knownin modern Japanese literature as a ralism). Takuboku attempted to ride the wave of romanticism and then naturalism by writing journal of itsday(from1900until 1908, whenitsbrandofromanticism was eclipsed by natu by the1910GreatTreasonIncident( works, which blended a cry for social justice with a socialist perspective, awakened in the poet advancement in thetankagenre,farmoreadvancedoftwoarelatter group of both representing his romantic period and his ‘lived-life’ ( Yosano Tekkan and Akiko’sliterary journal, achieved fame atanearly age, debuting with hisfreeverse( the itoshii ga second (ichibyō Takuboku wrote,‘Inlifeeachsecondisonethatnevercomesbacktwicetoyou.Ilove all, it wasinitsperfect ability to capture small moments of feeling inapoet’slife. In 1910, power ofuta, Writing abouttankatenyearsafterShiki’sdeath,IshikawaTakubokustillbelievedinthe highly personal–andhowsuchamovechangedthestakesofJapaneseliterature. in ordertoclarifyhowShikiandotherlaterpoetscreatedanewsenseoftime–onewhichwas to the realization that he has been toiling in vain for all of his life. Takuboku’s handling of poetic to therealization thathehasbeentoilinginvain forallofhislife.Takuboku’s handlingofpoetic all ofthepoet’slifebyproxy.There isapregnantpauseherewhereTakuboku’spersonacomes stares athishands–foramoment, forseconds,minutesorperhapsmore–whichmayrepresent within theweeks,monthsoryears ofthepersona’stotaldailylife.Infinalsequencetime, he seikatsu). Thesecondistherepetitivetemporality ofwork,workandmorethattakesplace time isthelargestsenseoftime, thepoet’s‘life’or‘lived-life’( final poignantmoment,asthepersonastaresathimselfinanact ofself-rebuke.Thefirstperiod elapsed inthedramaticspaceofthistanka. final line, withitsonomatopoeic frustration as well as amimetic sense ofthe flow ofpoetic persona’s thoughtsintime. The up tenofhistotal thirty-onesyllables,butithas greateffect,reproducingboththefeelingof expectations ofhimselftoalow,disappointingawarenesshisactualcircumstances. in combination, producingabittersweet senseofironyashechronicleshowfallsfromlofty its people. Takuboku’s poetry records the moments of excitement and frustration, sometimes Tokyo, provide for his family or just enjoy the fruits of modernity that Meiji Japan promised poetry, andhispoemsreflect the day-to-daygrindofhavingtoscrapeupmoneygetbyin poet The repetition of the five-syllable phrase Takuboku’s The poem speaks of at least three periods of time, all of which are conflated in the poem’s The poemspeaksofatleastthreeperiodstime,allwhich areconflatedinthepoem’s uta isthemostconvenient,leasttroublesomeformofpoetry’(1910b:289).Takuboku

jitto teomiru raku ninarazari hatarakedo naowaga-kurashi Hatarakedo like

Tanka aspuremoment:Takuboku’spoetryofoureverydaylives his

associate or theoldestwordfortanka. If thethirty-one-syllable form wastosurviveat Handful ofSand(Ichiakunosuna)wasagroundbreakingcollection of tanka,

Kitahara ). I don’t want to lose any of them. Because it is so tiny, that’s why

Hakushū jitto (‘deeply’or‘intently’ staring), alsodrawsout thetime Taigyaku jiken

hatarakedo (‘Iwork,yet’)isariskymove,taking (1885–1942), Jon Holt I stareatmyhands. work, yetmylifegetsnoeasier I workand 34 Morning Star ). Havingfailed to become a successful

Takuboku , written with the kanji for kurashi, writtenwiththekanjifor seikatsu-ha) phase. In terms of shi) attheageofseventeen in (Myōjō), the most prestigious (Ishikawa 1910a:19)

continued

write

tanka -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 with poetry a similar approach to the depiction of elapsed time. Sekikawa Natsuo and Taniguchi with poetryasimilarapproachtothedepictionofelapsedtime.SekikawaNatsuoandTaniguchi understand notonlyhowtimeishandledinmodernJapanesepoetry,butalsomangashares examples ofexcellentlyproducedmangaadaptationsJapanesepoetryexistthatcanhelpus ple of how a manga team poorly executed their adaptation of Shiki’s life and art. Fortunately, the opposite:it’sshort;that’swhatmakesitconvenient’(1910b:288). them aspartofthemodernsensibility.‘Peoplesay[tanka]isshortsoit’sinconvenient.I’d that thethirty-one-syllableformoftankawasperfectforcapturingmomentsandshowcasing stop, orstretchoutnearlyinfinitely,whilethemomentresonateswithinpoet.Takubokuwrote poetry featuresmomentsinwhichonehasanepiphanyaboutlifeorone’slife,andtimeseemsto (tanka) time is much different from Shiki’s handling of time in his haiku or tanka. Takuboku’s Jirō’s Takuboku addsuphisdailyexpensesandrealizestheimpossibilityofstayingoutdebt. team showthesequenceofeventsthatledupto‘Iwork’poem(Figure2.3),asfictional ined producedsomeofthepoet’smostfamoustanka.Infollowingsequence,creative Taniguchi beautifullyrendersmomentsinTakuboku’slife,especiallythetheyimag literary andpoliticalfigures,focusesonTakubokuforonevolume.Sekikawalovinglywrites Figure 2.3 Earlier, whendemonstratingShiki’sradicaljuxtapositionsofpoetictime,Iprovidedanexam

The Times of ‘Botchan’

of ‘Botchan’ Takuboku’s moment of poetic inspiration captured by Sekikawa and Taniguchi (The Times , 152). ( ‘Botchan’ no jidai 2. Literature short on time 35 , 1987–1997), a five-volume history of late Meiji , 1987–1997),afive-volumehistoryoflateMeiji - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 response. This purely spontaneous reaction (‘without thinking’, ern thirty-one-syllable verse that Tsubouchi Toshinori says began with Takuboku, matured McCloud’s term (1993:59).Thistechnique of reader identification isacharacteristic of mod in a way to invite readers to imagine themselves in the poet’s cartoony form, or ‘icon’ to use Takuboku’s manga form is more fully depicted than a white outline, the artist frames the figure iconic persona, whichtheyseethemselves as anyway(Usami1999:258–261).Although thinking theyaregettingtheactual poet inthetankaandinsteadtheyendupwithageneric, a genericform,whathecallsthe‘whiteoutline of theempty“I”’,whichluresreadersinto and visually. Tanka poetTakano Kimihiko (1941–) describeshowtanka personae take on poet, perhaps imagining themselves in the faint outlines of his image, rendered both poetically tion andlookinghelpless,anopenimagecompelling his readerstoidentifywiththedefeated in twoways.First,Taniguchi depicts the paused moment of Takuboku lying in thefetal posi is justonepersonamongmanytryingtomakeendsmeet. position, we begin to have a greater understanding of – rather, compassion for – Takuboku, who the effectofmakingviewerseeTakubokuascompletelydisempowered,butinourgodlike somewhat godlike,againenhancingthemoodinanotheraspect-to-aspecttransitionthathas in anear-fetalpositionofdespair,hisfaceburiedhands.Theviewer’sisnow to thepoetasheenunciatesopeninglinesoftanka.ThefinalpanelclosesonTakuboku actual documentwrittenbyTakuboku,thepoet’spovertyhitshome.Taniguchiswitchesback the desperaterealityofmoment.BecauseTaniguchiusesaphotographicreproductionan panels, the third panelcutstothe accounts ledger.Thisis an aspect-to-aspect shift,accentuating sense offrustrationandsadnessfeltinthefirstpanel.FromprevioustwoTakuboku-centred transitions aswell(depictingTakubokufromdifferentangles),twopanelshelpamplifythelong page consistsofmainlysubject-to-subjectpaneltransitionsandpossiblymoment-to-moment adapters didforShiki’spoetry.Theemphasishereisonmoodratherthanaction.Althoughthe subject; however, he is more careful not to rush the depiction of itspoetic time than the manga Collection Leaves of TenThousand Things aboutTanka’( the conception of howmuchtime elapsesintheshortthirty-one-syllable form. In‘Various origins andbecomeamoremodernvehicle of expression. Hisideasaboutnewtankainvolve about thefutureoftanka, Takuboku wrotehow tanka should evolvefromitsconservative mulated a numberofideasthatshapedthedirection of thetanka’s development. Concerned outside one day, was surprisedby a dog jumping at him and uttered ‘Shit!’ ( awareness oftimeinordertobe modern. rade must bethepoemsofourfuture’ (1910c:298–299).Likeotheryoungpoetssuchashiscom clear images,whichconstituteastrong,identifiablefeatureof Takuboku’s style. the fix onanimagethatisbasedthefeelingofamoment’spassing’ (1989:76).ForYoshimotoand Takaaki, Yoshimoto astutely observed, ‘What makes you [Tawara] like Takuboku is how you both nuances oftimedepictedinthemanga.InadialoguewithTawaraMachiandcriticYoshimoto late 1980s(Usami1999:259–261). with Taniguchi’s manga adaption successfully conveysthespiritandartofTakuboku’spoetry Over fivepanels,Taniguchimaintainsaconservativeapproachtothedepictionofhis Takuboku compared theprocessoftankacompositiontofeeling hehadwhenwalked Takuboku for In thelastfewyearsofhislife,perhapsatpeakliterary powers, The secondwayTaniguchiskilfullyandauthenticallycapturesTakuboku’sartisthroughthe Botchan

Terayama Toki

Aika manga artist Taniguchi, Takuboku clearly expressed the passing moments of time in mangaartistTaniguchi,Takubokuclearlyexpressedthepassing momentsoftimein

Shūji (Toki

Uta noiroiro),Takuboku wrote that the Zenmaro

the

1960s

1885–1980),

and , but‘ourpoemsaretheofourday

was

used Jon Holt

Takuboku 36

with

great

felt

success

that uta didindeed begin with omowazu shirazu ) isthebirth

tanka

Tawara

needed kon

Machi

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 poetry intermsofapproach,lineationanddiction.‘Thisisagoodpoem’,Takubokuwrites: junior colleague,TokiAika,aniconoclastwhochallengedallthetraditionsofthirty-one-syllable lives countless“ah”momentsthatcanformatanka’(1993:86). strongly reminiscent of Takuboku’sthoughtsonthe form: ‘We normally have in ourdaily the best form to capture and represent these small moments, Tawara explains, her comments something. WhenIthink“Ah!”makeamemoofthatfeeling’ (1989: 10).Moreover,tankais her poems.‘There’snosettime. I’ll beonthetrain, or walkingaround,andsuddenlycreate practice, Tawara saidinanearlyinterview that she doesnotsitdown toplanandconstruct have afeeling that givesyousomekindof“ah!”’(1993:86).Intermshercomposition “wavering” of the heart (kokoro no “yure”). It doesn’t matter how small it is, as long as you no tsue),the5–7–5–7–7form(1989:189).‘Thefirststepforonetocomposeatankais ing itasher‘momentofah!’(ā to iu shunkan), whichiscaptured by her‘magic wand’ ( sudden, spontaneousreactionstoone’sworldandcoollycapturingresponsetheevent. control, howevermomentarily,oftheirtime.Moderntanka,Takubokuproposes,comesfrom tion isobvious:tanka’s convenient form will give modern Japanese people the power to take day, doyouthinktimewillstopitshandsforme?’(1910c:298).Takuboku’sanswertohisques through theday,Takubokurhetoricallyasks,‘EvenifIcryout“Shit!”onehundredtimesina living asamodernJapanese,whoseuniquehistorynowrequiresthemtobesurprisedconstantly Instead, Iwanttofacemyproblemsheadon,witheyesopen,surprisedbynothing’. conveying epiphanies:‘Thesedays,actually,Ithinktomyself,“Idon’twantbesurprised.” to fleetingmomentsthatpopupinourdailylives,disappear,andgo’(1910c:299). of atanka.‘Tanka will not die,provided that you have people who feel a loving attachment tanka could rally the masses of Japan’s stifled society, even better. Takuboku’s poem can be tanka couldrally themassesofJapan’sstifled society,evenbetter.Takuboku’s poemcanbe that themasses would embracetanka for itsabilityto critique thesystemsofpower.If the (1910c: 298).TokiandTakuboku, earlywritersofsocialistliteratureinlate-MeijiJapan,hoped world andcapturemomentsof time’inordertocreateartthatcanbeappreciatedbythemasses by any thousand people’ and thus we see that modern tanka poets ‘look straight ahead at the Interestingly, Takubokusays of bothpoemsthattheycould‘elicitthesamekindfeeling similarly modernapproachtotanka. critic. Takuboku humbly ranksoneof his ownpoemsfar below Toki’s‘piss’forits conservative here insteadofthestandardkanjicharactersforit,hedefended itagainstarivalmagazine’s Although TakubokucriticizedTokiforusingtheromanizedformofword An exampleofthekindsurprise-momenttankathatTakubokuadvocatesisonebyhis Tawara Machi,writingseventyyearslater,wouldechoTakuboku’sstatement, reformulat- Takuboku felt that the secret to modern tanka composition required a newer approach to yakiato norengaueni aki noyoniji mite samenu ni tetorareshiyume Katsura shusho ya tobakari aki nokigasuru syōben

sureba

shimijimi 2. Literature short on time 37 in mybonesautumn’shere. I p-i-s-sandfeel On thebricksofacharredruin on anautumnnightat2a.m. so thedreamwent,andIwokeup by PrimeMinsterKatsura and myhandtaken ‘Hey!’ Ijustgotsaidtome (quoted inIshikawa1910c:297) (1910c: 298) (‘p-i-s-s’) syōben (‘p-i-s-s’) mahō - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 class, capitalism andthesellout-intellectualism’ (Ishikawa1910c:299). His tanka serve as sad reminders that his life ‘was sacrificed for the systems of patriarchy, ready to deny the potential power of his art to criticize the political and literary establishments. wrote thattanka were his‘sadtoys’:attheendoflife, Takuboku wasdesperate but notyet By rejecting that mightstimulate acritique of problemsfacedbyJapanese,especially women (1999:142). cuss publicincidents, stillcontinued todominate the genre,defeating and subjugatingstyles literature, found thatTawara’sstyleoftanka,although deficient in (quoted inKanai1999:140).Inthelate 1990s, KanaiKeiko,ascholar of modernJapanese in tanka continues even to this day. In her newest guide to writing poetry, which she co-wrote very muchfollowinginTakuboku’sfootsteps.Herapproach of capturing the ‘ah!’moment like thatofascientistandthestraight-talkingapproachbarbarian’(1909:217). moment changes( person whofreelyanddirectlyrecordsreports,withoutanyornamentation,themoment-to- 1909), Takubokurejectsartforart’ssakeandpromoteshisvisionofatruepoetwho‘mustbe for modernpoetry,includingthat of freeverse. In anotheressay,‘PoemstoEat’( of tanka,arealso‘necessary’( handcuffed. These‘momentsofourbusylives’that‘popupandgo’,whichbecomethecore up asapartofKatsura’spurgethesocialistleft:phrase‘myhandtaken’indicatesbeing moment ofshock,horror,andfearthatevenaleftistsympathizerlikehimselfwouldberounded and washorrifiedbytheactionsofconservativeleader’(1980:114).Thepoetdepictsa ‘because at the time of this poem’s composition, Takuboku knew of the Great Treason Incident many ofhisopponents.‘Thisinterpretationdoesnotseemplausible,’writesIwakiYukihiro, greeting interpreted inanumberofways, even one thatallowsforTakuboku’shand being shaken as a the possibility of discussingpublic incidents ( the mostarethoseeverydaymomentswealltakeforgranted. That’swhyifIamaskedabout ‘From the very beginning when I started writing way, disavowing her poetry from others which would challenge political or social norms: systems. Ina 1992 roundtable discussion, Tawara responded to a question in the following straight-talking barbarian’ or ‘ascientist with finediscernment’, able to criticize ideological cal awakening with thissmall and modest literary form. Asatankapoet,Tawara is notlike ‘a who isoneofthegreat tanka teachers today, does notpromote the same possibility for politi stimulate critiques ofthestatusquo;butcontemporary poet, hererepresented by Tawara, poets isthat Takuboku envisioned tanka as atool to help the massesawakenpolitically and ing thetankaform,andthusliterature, for ourselves.Whatisdecidedly different aboutthetwo everyman, the ‘us’ (wareware)that Takuboku envisioned would be empowered by ourclaim Tawara’s emphasisontheproduct(the‘eternal snapshot’) isentirely devoid ofthelumpen eternal, almost mythic part oftime.Everyonecanrecognize it andfeelthat moment. However, to theoriginal, in the sense that she positsthat tanka has the power tomake a single moment an formula in hercareer. It istruethat Tawara’s reformulation of Takuboku’s poetics is veryclose shashin)’ (2014:63). the thirty-one syllables and they continue on, becoming snapshots of eternity ( Takuboku’s definition. Tawara additionally explains that those scenes‘areheldwiththepinof ‘landscapes thatcomeandgoeachmomentbymoment’(2014:63),clearlyborrowingfrom with On onehand,TawaraMachihaspractised writing tanka since 1987with On theotherhand,Tawarahasconsistentlypromotedadepoliticized version ofTakuboku’s

pop-song

jikensei in her poetry, Tawara clearly differs from her precursor Takuboku, who similarly

lyricist jiji kokkokunohenka

Hitoto ‘great

man’ Yō ) in Takuboku’s thinking, and actually the only grounds hitsuyō) inTakuboku’sthinking,andactuallytheonlygrounds

2014,

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she Jon Holt

38 urges jiken

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) inmy poems, well, I can’t answer that’ her

powerful apprentice

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 3 in hisIntroductiontoTankahandbookthatthenotionofsequencedtimeisimportant and tankastillremainsstrong.OkaiTakashi(1928–),acontemporarypoet,explains somewhat depoliticizedbyhissuccessors.Shiki’sinfluenceonthehandlingoftimeinhaiku In thecontemporaryperiod,Takuboku’svisionoftankamomenthassurvived,albeit 1 of theliteraryandvisualartsJapan. short moments of time, however mundane or potentially revolutionary, areasignificant aspect to thisdayandcanalsobeseeninvisual narratives like manga, prompting us toconsiderthat brief ‘ah!’ moment or anunfolding eternity, has remained a salientfeature of tanka and haiku pelled their successors to appreciate time in their poetry. This focus ontime, whether it is a a sharedlegacy left by Shikiand Takuboku, one maysaythat these experimental poets com even shorterpoems,hishaiku,whichencapsulated a senseoflong-elapsedtime.Tospeak form, albeit in different ways, hasbecome endemic to the genre. Shiki was able to create tanka poets –showshowShiki’sandTakuboku’shandling of time inthe thirty-one-syllable of the reader’s ownmusingsaboutthepersona’sallcangoonforanindefinite period final line, there is no closure for the reader either. The bee’s flight, the persona’s musings and and wondering how far his bee will go from here? Without an answer to the question in the on thescene: how longwill the poet’s personasitthere on hispatio, looking at the garden representative, the bee). The poet’s persona,like the reader of thispoem, postpones closure the final line opens upthe scene toinclude the poet’saweandwonder at spring (andspring’s (1988: 111).Okaidoesnotaddmorethanthis,butanotheraspectofthepoem’scharmisthat (isshun nohaaku)the line “having passedoverthe green” is absolutely central to the poem’ The finallineisquitelightandhasasenseitwasaddedon.momentwhenhegrasped seems likethepoetwaswonderingallalong,“Wherewillbeego?”butthatisnotcase. only after the fourthline(‘havingpassedovergreen’),whenpoemtrulyopensup.‘It Okai writes of this poem that it does not pivot (henka) on the bee. Instead, the change happens (1909–1987): nature 2 Mitsuo argued that ‘In one sense, the path from poem

obsolete ishowit makesabiglieoutofsomething small.’ who delineatestheparticularqualities ofdifferent kindsofNaturalisminMeijiJapan(1981:3–4). is stillacontentious topic. Nakamura’s viewhasbeenbalanced by critics like Kenneth G.Henshall, Karatani great path that led to the destruction [of modern Japanese literature]’ (1950: 75). This assessment,as Masaoka Shiki,‘ Nakamura The Takuboku’s 1910collection time. izuko niyukishi midori oyogirite tobu hachiga akaruki niwao haru madakino

descriptions.

The

Kōjin Nanigoto mo omoukotonaku /hiichinichi / kasha nohibiki ni kokoro makasenu

similar

writes, Utayomi ni atauru shō atauru ni Utayomi

To approach

‘has

demonstrate

attained A HandfulofSand(Ichiakunosuna)

tanka

2. Literature short on time the

his status

shared [5]’, (1898:22).‘Thegreatreason why Conclusion

point,

Notes of 39

a by

truism Okai

Satō, where willitgonext? having passedoverthegreen through itabeezooms my lightenedgarden Early spring

borrows in Broken Commandment to

Okai Japanese (1910a:55).

(quoted inOkai1988:110) and

tanka literary

Tawara

from

theory’

–

all poet waka hasbecome The Quilt

(1993: contemporary

Satō isfoundin

76).

wasthe Satarō

This -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:46 25 Sep 2021; For: 9781315762210, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315762210.ch2 Schodt, Frederik(1986) Shirane, Haruo (2012) 4 —— (1989)Mahōnotsue —— (1993)Tankaoyomu,Tokyo:Iwanamishoten. Bashō,Stanford, of Poetry the and Memory, Cultural Landscape, Dreams: of —— (1998)Traces Sekikawa, Okai, Takashi(1988) —— (1898)‘ —— (1904)Takenosatouta,inShikizenshū(15vols),Tokyo:Arusu,1924–1927,vol.6,1–275. Masaoka, Shiki(1925)Haikukō,inzenshū(15vols),Tokyo:Arusu,1924–1927,vol.3,289–760. Karatani sono to sōshitsu” “Chibusa Fumiko Nakajō ka?: datta mono no dare wa Kanai, Keiko (1999) ‘Chibusa Iwaki, Yukinori(1980)IshikawaTakuboku zenshū Takuboku —— (1910c)‘Utanoiroiro’,inIshikawa zenshū Takuboku Ishikawa, Takuboku(1910a)IchiakunosunainIshikawa Holt, Jon (2014) ‘Ticket to Salvation: Nichiren Buddhism in Miyazawa Kenji’s Henshall, KennethG.(1981)The Quilt and Other Stories by Tayama Katai, Tokyo:UniversityofTokyo Hamill, Sam(1989) Beichman, Janine(1986) Nakamura, Mitsuo(1950)Fūzokushōsetsuron McCloud, Scott(1993) —— (1987)Saradakinenbi 5 Keene, Donald(2013)TheWinterSunShinesIn Kimata, Osamu(1954) —— (1999)ModernJapaneseDiaries,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress. —— (1909)‘Kū beki shi’, inIshikawa Takuboku zenshū —— (1910b)‘ Tawara, Machi(2008) —— (2005)ClassicalJapanese:AGrammar,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress. even faults the great

more imaginativeinvolvementfromadvancedreaders. the otherhand,type5(aspect-to-aspect) demands moresophisticatedrenderingtechniquesand thus One detects ahierarchyinMcCloud’s sixtypes,wheretype1(moment-to-moment) issimplistic; on in thenextpanel we seethe punch delivered to thejawofvillain, knocking him out (1993:70–79). comics, for example, rely heavily on type 2, where one panel shows the hero winding up a punch and (3) subject-to-subject; (4) scene-to-scene; (5) aspect-to-aspect; (6) non-sequitur. American superhero English) River, shirazu mo’ (Itoogooff /like the waves that disappear around /the stakes holding the nets/at the Uji could havebeenasinthepoem:‘ McCloud describedsixtypesofpaneltransitions: Shiki California: StanfordUniversityPress. Nihon nowatashi(TankatoNihonjin:V ni’, inTsubouchiToshinori (ed.), tame kangaeru o “watashi” no “Joka” jidai; Press. vol. 5,4–43. Press. 294–300. shobō, 1978, vol.1,3–76. Press. Japanese JournalofReligiousStudies

Kōjin the

1980, Natsuo

were

river Utayomi ni atauru shō’, in atauru ni Utayomi

(1993) Ichi riko shugisha to yūjin no taidan’, in no yūjin to shugisha riko Ichi

vol. ‘superfluous’

of and

Bashō’s Ghost,Seattle,Washington:BrokenMoonPress.

the 4,

Ima wahajimeruhitonotankanyūmon

Origins of Modern Japanese Literature, Durham,NorthCarolina: Duke University Taniguchi, Pūsan nohana

Kindai shūka:hitotosonosakuhin Understanding Comics,NewYork:HarperCollins. 283–289. Japan and the Culture of the Four Seasons

Manga! TheWorldofJapaneseComics eighty Masaoka Shiki ,

Tokyo: , Tokyo:Kawadebunkobungei.

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clans zeibutsu) (1898:15).

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Kawade Mononofu no/yasoujikawaajiroki ni/isayounaminoyukue

/ ,

(1992) powerful Tokyo: ,

, 41.2,305–346. poet Tokyo: Masaoka Shiki zenshū (15vols),Tokyo: Arusu, 1924–1927, Shiki Masaoka , Bibliography ), Tokyo:Iwanamishoten,138–156.

shobō. Tokyo:

‘Botchan’ nojidai:Kanoaozorani

Hitomaro Bungei ,

Jon Holt , NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress. men Tokyo:

Kōdansha. 40

Ōfūsha.

all).

shunjū.

, Kawade

Tokyo:

(1) moment-to-moment; (2) action-to-action; (fl. Shiki Ishikawa Takuboku zenshū, Tokyo: Chikuma Takuboku Ishikawa ,

Tokyo:

ca. , Tokyo:Kadokawabunko. ,

felt

Tokyo: 680–700) Chikuma shobō.

Kōdansha. the , NewYork:Columbia University

first

Chikuma ,

Tokyo:

shobō, for

three ,

not Tokyo: Ginga tetsudō no yoru’, no tetsudō Ginga

, Tokyo:Futabasha.

lines 1980, Kōdansha.

being shobō, Tanka nowatashi,

(the

Chikuma vol.

1980,

final

direct 4,

210–219.

three

vol. shobō,

he in 4,

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Machi ), Tokyo:Iwanamishoten,258–288.

and

Hitoto, ’, inTsubouchi Toshinori (ed.),

Yō

(2014) 2. Literature short on time

Tanka notsukurikata,oshietekudasai,Tokyo:Kadokawa 41 Tanka nowatashi,Nihonwatashi Zadankai: kindai bungaku ni okeru (Manga dedokuha),Tokyo:East (Tanka to