Challenges of Adaptation to Climate Change for Cassava Farming in Musoma, Rural District, Tanzania

International Journal of Modern Social Sciences, 2016, 5(1): 52-65 International Journal of Modern Social Sciences ISSN: 2169-9917 Journal homepage: www.ModernScientificPress.com/Journals/IJMSS.aspx Florida, USA Article

Ahmad Kanyama1 and Josiah John 2,*

1Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 395, Dodoma 2 Department of Education, Musoma Municipality, P.O Box, 731, Musoma

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]

Article history: Received 16 January 2016, Received in revised form 25 March 2016, Accepted 2 April 2016, Published 8 April 2016.

Abstract: This paper examines the challenges of adaptation to climate change and variability for cassava farming in Musoma, Rural District. Specifically the paper examines (i) the perception of households and key informants on the rainfall and temperature variability in the study area, (ii) the impact of rainfall and temperature variability on cassava production, (iii) coping strategies to improve cassava yields and (iv) challenges faced in adapting to climate change and variability. Data collection methods included literature review, household questionnaire survey, key informants interviews, focus group interviews and participant observations. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis techniques was used in the analysis and processing of quantitative and qualitative data. The findings showed that there was rainfall and temperature variability in the form of decreasing rainfall trend and increasing temperature trend. This led to decreased cassava yields which affected livelihoods of the farmers. Farmers applied different agricultural adaptation measure to cope with decreased cassava yields, however, results were poor due to several challenges like poor implementation of policies and lack of adequate climate change policies to combat drought. This paper recommends that the government should put a renewed effort in coordinating strategies that are directly linked to climate change and variability policies in all sectors to overcome social, economic, and cultural barriers that affect agriculture to improve cassava yields.

Int. J. Modern Soc. Sci., 2016, 5(1): 52-65 53

Keywords: Adaptation, Climate change, Rainfall and Temperature variability, Adaptation, Cassava, Musoma Rural District.

1. Introduction

Climate change and variability has posed great challenges on small scale farmers around the world (IAASTD, 2009). Cassava is a major staple for more than 500 million people in Africa (El- Sharkawy, 2004). It is the crop with the highest total production in Africa, with 118 million MT of productions across the continent in 2010, contributing significant energy input to the population with an average 196 kcal/capita/day in 2008 (FAO, 2010). In Tanzania cassava contributes, on the average, 15% in the national food production basket and provides a source of income to large numbers of the people who grow and market in rural and urban communities (Mtambo, 2007). Main cassava producing areas in Tanzania include, the coastal strip along the Indian Ocean producing 48% of cassava, areas around Lake Victoria producing 23.7% of cassava, areas around Lake Tanganyika producing 7.9% of cassava and areas along the shores of Lake Nyasa producing 13.7% of cassava in Tanzania (Mkamilo and Jeremiah, 2005). Cassava is renowned for its drought tolerance and hardiness in stressful environments (El-Sharkawy, 2004). However, in Tanzania, cassava has been affected by climate change in many producing areas (Joseph and Adanme, 2012; Mtambo, 2007) including Musoma district where climate change has led to decline in production of cassava (URT, 2007; Kavia et al., 2007). Adaptation to climate change with regard to cassava in Tanzania has been practiced in various ways, such as growing drought tolerant cassava genotype crops, developing ways of prediction weather, improving market as well as commercializes the products (Mkamilo and Jeremiah, 2005). Smallholder farmers in Musoma district have been changing planting date according to changing weather situation, mixed cropping and planting short drought tolerant crops such as maize and millet (URT, 2008). In supporting these efforts, the Government has formulated different policies, programs and actions such as accelerate uptake of climate smart agriculture, improve agricultural water and land management, protect the most vulnerable against climate-related shocks in responses to climate change on crop production (URT, 2014,). However, existing climate change variability in Tanzania makes it difficult to generalize about the impacts of, and adaptation for climate change for different parts of Tanzania (URT, 2007). This study assesses the challenges of adaptation to climate change for cassava production in Musoma district. More specifically, this study assess i) People’s perception on the variability of two attributes of climate change in the in the study area namely, rainfall and temperature ii), the impact of rainfall and temperature variability on cassava production, iii), Coping strategies to

Copyright © 2016 by Modern Scientific Press Company, Florida, USA Int. J. Modern Soc. Sci., 2016, 5(1): 52-65 54 improve cassava production, and iv), the challenges faced in adapting to climate change to increase cassava yields.

2. Study Area

The study was conducted in Musoma rural District, one of the eight districts of Mara region in Northern Tanzania. It is bordered to the north by the Musoma Urban Districts, to the east by the Butiama District, to the south by the Bunda District and to the west by Lake Victoria. It is located at an elevation of 1,292 meters above sea level. Its coordinates are 1°45'0" S and 33°49'60" E in DMS (Degrees Minutes Seconds) or -1.75 and 33.8333 (in decimal degrees). The district has averaged rainfall 650 mm annually, high average Temperature 28 ºC and low average temperature 18 ºC (Musoma Rural District Council, 2014). The study was specifically carried out in the wards of Nyakatende and Mugango in Musoma rural District which were hit by temperature and rainfall variability presumed to have affected agriculture production notably for smallholder farmers (URT, 2010). According to Musoma Rural District Executive office, the overall district population in 2015 was 330,953 of which 159,326 were male, and 171,627 were female. According to the Ward executive officers, Nyakatende ward had 22,527 people, while Mugango ward had 16,086 people, making a total of 25,066 people in the two wards. Nyakatende had 3,884 household and Mugango ward had 2,637 household (ibid). The two wards made a total of 6,521 households.

3. Methodology

Data collection methods included literature review, household questionnaire survey, key informants interviews and participant observations. Questionnaires and interviews were used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data. Quantitative data was obtained from household survey while qualitative data was obtained from direct observation, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Secondary data was obtained from published books and reports, unpublished reports, maps, journals and web sites. Of the total 6521 households in the two wards of Nyakatende and Mugango, 153 households were involved for questionnaire survey, 91 households for Nyakatende and 62 households for Mugango. The sample size was obtained using the the formula below (Yamane, 1967):

N n  1 N(e2 )

Nyakatande ward is made up of five villages and Mugango wards is made up of three villages. The distribution of households’ respondents in village appears as shown in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Distribution of Household respondents in each village

Villages Kabegi Kigera Kamguruki Kiemba Nyakatende Kuruaki Nyang’oma Kwibara Total

H. Sample 12 41 8 19 11 7 14 41 153

Percent (%) 7.8 26.8 5.2 12.4 7.2 4.6 9.2 26.8 100

Source: Field data, 2015

Interviews were conducted with 15 key informants. Those involved were involving 2 ward executive officers, 2 village executive officers, 3 village leaders, 2 members of food committee, and 3 agriculture extension officers (see Table 2). Focus group discussion (FGD) was carried out in respective wards involving 8 households’ respondents organised by Ward Executive Officers. The data from interviews and FGD supplemented data obtained from questionnaires. Observation was carried out to complement other methods such as questionnaires and interviews. Transect walk was carried with a villager with experience in the area showing the effect of climate change on cassava crop and observing the dynamics of adaptation to climate change in the area. Through transect walk, it was possible to observe and records enough relevant information necessary for the study. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16.0) tool was used to compute mean, display frequency distribution and percentage and for drawing histograms. Cross tabulation was used to obtain the relationship between variables and qualitative data was analysed using structural-functional and content analysis.

Table 2: Distribution of key informant Title DAO WAEO WEO VEO VCP VEL Total No. of key informant 1 2 2 4 3 3 15 Percentage (%) 6.7 13.3 13.3 26.7 20 20 100 Note:, DAO-District Agricultural Officer, WAEO-Ward Agricultural Extensional Officer, WEO-Ward Executive Officer, VEO-Village Executive Officer, VCP-Village Chairperson, VEL- Village Elders: Source : Field data, 2015

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Subsistence Farming as the Main Occupation

Occupation for sustaining living in the study area was in various forms. As Table 3 shows, 86.3% of the respondents were engaged in subsistence agriculture, 9.2 % in livestock keeping, 3.3 % were civil servants and 0.7 % were engaged in petty trade. Thus most of the respondents were engaged in subsistence farming.

Table 3: The main occupation of the respondents Occupation of the respondents Frequency Percent (%)

Subsistence farmers 132 86.3 Livestock keepers 14 9.2 Petty traders 1 0.7 Civil servants 5 3.3 Others 1 0.7 Total 153 100.0 Source: Field data, 2015

4.2. Rainfall Variability in the Study Area

Table 4 highlights perceptions of the 153 respondents regarding changes in rainfall pattern. 94.1% felt that there were notable changes in rainfall and 5.6% felt that there were no changes.

Table 4: Perception of rainfall pattern for 8 villages Villages Responses

Yes %

Kabegi (n=12) 12 100 Kigera (n=41) 41 100 Kamguruki (n=8) 8 100 Kiemba (n=19) 17 89.5 Nyakatende (n=11) 9 81.8 Kuruaki (n=7) 6 85.7 Nyang’oma (n=14) 11 78.6 Kwibara (n=41) 40 97.6 TOTAL 144 94.1 Source: Field survey data, 2015.

More specifically, Figure 1 shows that 88.2 % of the respondents across the villages felt that there was a decline in rainfall pattern. Only 11.8 % felt that, there was an increase in the amount of rainfall. With regards to interviews with key informants, 100 % felt that rainfall had declined in the past decade causing prolonged drought.

88.2 100

40 11.8

20 % Respondents% 0 Increase Decrease

Figure 1: Rainfall trend- household’s perception. Source: Field data, 2015.

Households and key informants perceptions about the variability of rainfall relate to the meteorological rainfall data collected from different places in the District, indicating fluctuation and general decline of rainfall from 2005 to 2014 (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Rainfall trend in Musoma District. Source: TMA, Musoma airport office, 2015.

4.3. Temperature Variability

With regard to perception of Temperature variability, 97.7 % of the households respondents felt that there was an increase of temperature and 2.5 % of the respondents felt there was the decline of temperature (see Table 5).

Table 5: Temperature trend-households’ perception Responses Temperature Increased Temperature Decreased Respondents (n=153) 149 (97.5%) 4 (2.5 %) Source: Field survey data, 2015.

As for key informants, 100 % felt that temperature had increased in the past decade causing prolonged drought. Perception from households and key informants concerning increasing temperature relates to the data of Temperature from Meteorological Station office (Musoma airport) of Musoma District, from 2005 to 2014 indicating the steady increase of Temperature in the district. In 2005 the annual average Temperature was 28.9 0 C while in 2014; the annual average Temperature was 29.4 0 C, an increase of annual average Temperature of 0.5 units (See Figure 3).

30 Av.Temp 29.5 Linear 29 (Av.Temp)

28.5 28 Temperature Temperature oC in 27.5 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Years

Figure 3: Temperature trend in Musoma District from 2005-2014 Source: TMA, Musoma airport office, 2015.

Figure 4 below indicates the relationship of climate variables. The Temperature is increasing while rainfall is decreasing. From the figure below, red line indicates the decline trend of rainfall while the green linear line indicates the increase trend of temperature in the District.

Figure 4: Relationship between Rainfall and Temperature patterns Source: TMA, Musoma airport office, 2015.

4.4. Decline in Cassava yields Vs rainfall and temperature variation

As shown in Table 6 below, the trend of climatic variables, i.e., temperature and rainfall shows an inverse relationship. The production of cassava crop shows a declining yield trend which corresponds with the decline of rainfall and inverse proportion with the increase in temperature.

Table 6: Rainfall and Cassava production data trend since 2005/2006-2013/2014 Year Average Average Cassava Increases Decreases Rainfall p.a Temperature ºC Production (tons) 2005/2006 58.26 mm 28.9 60825 Bench Mark Bench Mark 2006/2007 96.19 mm 28.3 58375 - 2450 2007/2008 66.11 mm 29.6 52374 - 6001 2008/2009 66.09 mm 29.4 24452 - 27922 2009/2010 94.81 mm 29.2 59550 35098 - 2010/2011 93.45 mm 28.8 42300 - 17250 2011/2012 104.99 mm 29.2 68250 25950 - 2012/2013 48.87 mm 28.9 51250 - 17000 2013/2014 64.84 mm 29.4 25835 - 25415 Source: TMA (Musoma Airport Office) & Musoma District Council Documentary, 2015.

4.5. Smallholder Farmers Adaptation to Climate Change in the Production of Cassava

Results from household questionnaires showed that 100% of the respondents felt that they do undertake adaptation strategies against climate change and variability to improve cassava yields. They used strategies such as growing crops that are drought resistant and taking short period to mature, practicing mixed agriculture, use of organic manure, planting trees, practicing multiple cropping, changing crop planting calendar, cultivating along water sources, cultivation along valley, use of inorganic fertilizer and practicing agro-forest and mulching (Table 7). Corresponding to households results, during interviews with Ward Extension Officers, it was underscored that smallholder farmers use organic manure, grow crops that are drought resistant and taking short period to mature, practice multiple cropping and cultivating along water sources and in valleys. Interview with Village Elders showed that farmers use raised ridges in planting cassava. They felt that, a raised ridge is useful in conserving scarce water for irrigation.

Table 7: Ways applied in adapting climate change by household Variable Measures Frequency Percentage (n=153) (%)

Practicing mixed agriculture 138 90.2 Use of organic manure 122 79.7 Growing crops that are taking short period and drought tolerant 114 74.5 Practicing multiple cropping 111 74 Planting trees 100 65.4 Changing in crop calendar 92 60.1 Cultivating along water sources 52 34 Cultivating along valley 41 26.8 Use of inorganic manure 23 15 Agro-forestry and Mulching 17 11.1 Source: Field data Survey, 2015. Note: Data based on multiple responses, n= Sample size

4.6. Challenges Facing Cassava Farmers in Adapting to Climate Change Results of households’ questionnaire show that all respondents felt that they face challenges in coping with climate change and variability in cassava farming. As shown in Table 8, these include lack capital; persistent shortage of irrigation water; lack farm and agriculture input; lack of appropriate technology; lack information and education; increase of pests and diseases.

Table 8: Challenges facing cassava farmers in coping with climate change. Variable measures Frequency Percentage (n=153) (%)

Lack of capital 142 92.8

Shortage of water 141 92.3

Lack of farm and agriculture input 141 92.3

Lack of adaptation technologies 140 91.5

Lack of information and education 131 85.6

Increasing pests and diseases 140 91.5

Source: Field data Survey 2015. Note: Data, based on multiple responses, n= Sample size

Interviews with Ward Agricultural Extension Officers (WEAOs) revealed that, small cassava farmers could not irrigate cassava farms because it was very expensive for them to buy water pumping machines. They also reported that Pest and diseases were some of the main problem for cassava farmers. Interviews with WEO showed that the majority of smallholder farmers lack capital to invest in technological tools such as buying mechanized inputs like tractors, fertilizer, pesticides and seeds.

4.7. Government Support in Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability

During interviews with key informants i.e., District Agricultural officer, DAO, Ward Extension Agricultural Officer WAEO, it was felt that the government do provide some services to adapt to climate change in the form of promotion of irrigation, financial aid and credit to farmers, supplying agriculture and farm inputs and subsidies including provision of recommended cassava seeds, education and employment of ward extension officers. However, 94.8% of the household respondents across the study area felt that there was inadequate support from Government to support cassava farmers in adapting to climate change (Figure 5). Similarly, in an interview with village chairpersons, it was underscored that ward extension officers were insufficient, village agricultural extension officers were not provided, and no cassava seeds that were distributed to the community by the responsible authority.

94.8

100

5.2 Percentage% 0 Yes No Responses

Figure 5: Effectiveness of Government support to cassava farmers. (Source: Field data, 2015.)

4.8. Discussion

This study has shown (basing on households perceptions and meteorological data) that Musoma rural district experiences climate change and variability in the form of declining rainfall trend and increasing temperature (Table 4, Table 5, Figure 1 and Figure 4) which lead to reduced cassava yields (Table 6). According to household responses, agricultural measures to cope with reduced cassava yields due to drought included use of organic manure, growing crops that are drought resistant

Copyright © 2016 by Modern Scientific Press Company, Florida, USA Int. J. Modern Soc. Sci., 2016, 5(1): 52-65 62 and taking short period to mature, practicing multiple cropping and cultivating along water sources and in valleys (Table 7). However, households in the study reported that they face different challenges as they coped with climate change and variability in agriculture. These include lack of capital, lack of farm and agriculture inputs, shortage of water, lack of adaptation technology, lack of information and technology, lack of information and education, increase of pest and diseases (Table 8). These challenges were also expressed by key informants. The results also showed that 94.8% of the household respondents felt that there was inadequate support from Government to support cassava farmers in adapting to climate change (Figure 5). These weakness in supporting cassava farmers occur against the backdrop of the government’s developed sector policies, programs and projects to improve the livelihood of small scale farmers. The government formulated Agricultural and Livestock Policy of 1997, with the aim of improving the wellbeing of the people whose main occupation and way of life is based on small scale farming. The policy point out that, the government will support small holder irrigation schemes, facilitating availability of soft loans for local distribution of inputs, facilitating development of farm equipment as well as stimulating the production of drought tolerant crops (URT, 1997). The government faces difficulties in implementing these policies due to various reasons such as inadequate and untimely communication to inform farmers on potential climate induced risks and associated adaptive technology (World Bank, 2013). For instance despite the current risks and assumptions that climate change will exacerbate pest and disease outbreaks, very little is known about the potential impacts of climate change and research capacity at the national level is limited (Lukumbuzya, 2013). Constrains of implementation of policies lies in the limited financial initiatives that would support climate resilience activities. Most of the initiatives designed to improve finances of rural communities has focused on establishing Savings and Credit Cooperative Societies (SACCOS), but these remained limited in scope (Lukumbuzya, 2013). Another huddle on the implementation of government policy on irrigation is that water availability and climate impacts in irrigation planning are not fully understood (Nkonya, 2013). The problem is exacerbated by weak coordination of integrated water resources planning and limited watershed management with likelihood of development of plans for irrigation sometimes made without inventory of available water sources (URT, 2014). For example, in interviews in this study with a Village Chairperson (VCP) and village elders it was felt that (VEL) people depended on scarce rainfall for agriculture, yet their area was surrounded by water sources like Lake Victoria and seasonal rivers which were unutilized. On the whole, the limited capacity of Cassava farmers in Musoma rural District to adequately adapt to climate change and variability as argued by Gemma and Nigel, (2011), is due to limited local knowledge on climate change and lack of reference to climate change and variability across national development priorities in Tanzania.

5. Conclusion

Cassava contribute significantly energy input to the population and is renowned for its drought tolerance and hardiness in stressful environment yet in Musoma Rural District, cassava yield has progressively declined despite efforts done by farmers to cope with climate change and variability. Factors contributing to this limitation include poverty, poor implementation of policies, limited local knowledge on climate change and lack of reference to climate change and variability across national development priorities. Effective climate change adaptation process will depend on a number of social, economic and cultural boundaries that must be overcome and how the government can formulate coordinated strategies that are directly linked to climate change and variability in all sectors that affect agriculture to enable improving cassava yields.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Musoma Rural District Council Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Extension Officers, Ward Executive Officers, Village elders and the people of Nyakatende and Mugango Wards for their moral and provision of the data needed for this article.

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