The United Republic of Global Initiative on

Out-of-School Children Ministry of Education Science and Technology

TANZANIA CASE STUDY REPORT MARCH 2018

Acknowledgment 1

Acknowledgement

The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST) and UNICEF would like to express gratitude to Muhammad Q Hasan PhD, the UNICEF consultant for this Out- of-School Study and his co-worker Dr Jie Zhang, former Lecturer of University of Essex and a former UNICEF consultant, for their strong technical knowledge and analytical skills in bringing to light the profiles, barriers, bottlenecks and policy issues affecting children and adolescents out of school. Muhammad Hasan is also acknowledged for the technical support that he provided to University College of Education in the conduct of the Case study in Mara Region and qualitative assessment of the out-of-school children.

Dar es Salaam University College of Education was responsible for the qualitative assessment of the out-of-school children and conduct of the case study in Mara to assess the social cultural practices that keep children out of school. Thus, immense gratitude is also due to the research team from the Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE) namely, Professor Sam Magimbi, Professor Maurice Mbago, Dr Consolata Chua, Dr Christina Raphael, Dr Julius Mngumi and Mr Rodrick Ndomba, who led the qualitative component of the study in seven regions supported by the international consultant with whom the team interacted on a continuous basis. This interaction not only reinforced national capacities but also helped us to understand some of the complex contextual issues affecting out-of-school children in Tanzania.

Gratitude is also due to the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology and all the members of the technical reference group formed in the Ministry for the study. Thanks is especially due to Mr John Senzighe, at the Department of Policy and Planning who was the main contact point at the Ministry and helped the consultant in every aspect of the project. Furthermore, thanks are also due to Ms. Cecilia Baldeh, Chief of Education and Dr Ayoub Kafyulilo, Education Specialist, UNICEF Tanzania, who provided the necessary technical, logistical and financial support on behalf of UNICEF.

MARCH 2016 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 2 Mara Region case study report

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 4

1. Introduction 4 1.1. Mara Region administrative structure 4 1.2. Social and cultural characteristics of Mara Region 6 1.3. Economic characteristics of Mara Region 9 1.4. An overview of OOSC in Mara Region 9 1.5. The case study and its objectives 11 1.6. Organization of the Report 11

CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY 12

2. Introduction 12 2.1. Case study area 12 2.2. Respondents 12 2.3. Data collection procedure 15 2.4. Interviews 16 2.5. Observations 16 2.6. Ethical considerations in the case study 16 2.7. Data analysis 17 2.8. Summary 17 FINDINGS

CHAPTER THREE DEMAND SIDE BARRIERS TO SCHOOL Socio-cultural and economic contexts 18

3. Introduction 18 3.1. Social structure 18 3.1.1. Weak nuclear family 18 3.1.2. Serial marriages 18 3.1.3. Orphanhood, single parent, grandparent, and child-headed families 19 3.1.4. Extreme patriarchy and exaggerated masculinity 20 3.1.5. Child transfer from one school to another 20 3.1.6. Peer pressure 20 3.2. Cultural context 21 3.2.1 Cattle culture 22 3.2.2. FGM 22 3.2.3. Male circumcision 23 3.2.4. Bride wealth, early marriage, and teenage pregnancy 24 3.2.5. Witchcraft beliefs and superstition 24 3.2.6. Tribal ceremonies 24 3.2.7. Interest in schooling 25 3.2.8. Attitude towards children with disabilities 25 3.3. Economic structure 25 3.3.1. Poverty 25 3.3.2. Child labour 26 3.3.3. Indirect cost of schooling 27 3.4. Summary 27 Contents 3

CONTENTS

CHAPTER FOUR SUPPLY SIDE BARRIERS TO SCHOOLING 28

4. Introduction 28 4.1. Inadequate and poor school infrastructure and facilities 28 4.2. Inadequate funds and resources in schools 29 4.3. Lack of teacher motivation leading to low morale 30 4.4. Distance to school 31 4.5. School safety 33 4.6. Provision of meals in schools 34 4.7. Curriculum, job skills, and positive socio-cultural values 35 4.8. Summary 35

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS 36 5. Conclusion 36 5.1. Summary of the main findings 36 5.5.1. Demand side social cultural barriers to schooling 36 5.5.2. Demand side economic barriers to schooling 37 5.5.3. Supply side barriers to schooling 37 5.5.4. Policies, governance, and financing school 37

APPENDICES 38

Children interview questions 42 Head teachers, teachers and members of school committees’ interview 45 Village leaders, key informers, parents/caretakers of OOSC, children at risk of dropping out of school, children with disabilities 48 District education officers interview 50 Informed consent form for parents/guardians of children taking part in interviews 51 Consent form for interview schedules 52 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 4 Mara Region case study report

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction

This case study presents information on social cultural covered mainly by . This leaves a total land and economic factors for OOSC in Mara Region. Chapter area of 19,566 square kilometres. According to 2012 One provides background information about the study census the region has the population of about 1,743,830 area. The chapter is divided into sections in which section inhabitants (840,020 males, 903,810 females). Mara one presents the administrative structure of Mara Region, Region borders with in the North, across section two, social and cultural characteristics of the Lake Victoria, in the north, across Lake Victoria, in region, section three presents economic characteristics the West, Region and in the East, of the region, section four, an overview of OOSC, section in the south and Region in the five presents the case study and its objectives, and South west (Figure 1.1). section six outlines the organization of the report. The region has eight Administrative Local Government 1.1. Mara Region administrative structure Authorities; these include Council, District Council, Musoma Municipal Council, Administratively Mara Region is located near the District Council, Council, northwestern corner of Tanzania on the eastern shores of District Council, Tarime Town Council and Rorya Lake Victoria. It has an area of 30,150 square kilometres District Council. The region has 20 Divisions, 119 Wards and; of this, 10,584 square kilometres is water body and 409 villages.

FIGURE 1.1 Uganda Map of Mara Region Kenya

Rwanda

Burundi Kenya Lake Victoria Democratic Republic of the Congo

Rorya Musoma Tarime Urban Malawi Butiama Mozambique

Musoma Rural Mara

Bunda Serengeti

Tanzania Chapter one 5

TABLE 1.1 Secondary schools in Mara Region by districts

Administrative O level Only O level & A level Grand A level Only Grand District Govt Pvt. Total Govt Pvt. Total Total Govt Pvt. Total Total Bunda DC 25 6 31 1 2 3 34 0 0 0 34 Butiama DC 18 5 23 0 0 0 23 2 0 2 25 Musoma RD 16 2 18 1 0 1 19 0 0 0 19 Musoma UD 15 5 20 3 2 5 25 0 0 0 25 Serengeti DC 19 4 23 2 0 2 25 0 0 0 25 Tarime RD 26 1 27 2 0 2 29 0 0 0 29 Tarime UD 7 2 9 1 0 1 10 0 0 0 10 Rorya DC 27 2 29 0 1 1 30 0 0 0 30 Total 153 27 180 10 5 15 195 2 0 2 197

DC=District Council, RD=Rural District, UD=Urban District, Govt=Government, Pvt.=Private Source: Quarterly SEDP Report (URT, 2015)

The region has both government and private schools at TABLE 1.2 primary and secondary levels of education. Secondary Pre-primary and primary schools in Mara Region schools fall into three main categories – O level only, A level only, and those which combine A level and O level. Administrative Pre-primary Primary The recent quarterly report on the implementation of District Govt Pvt. Total Govt Pvt. Total SEDP and PEDP in the region shows that there are 197 Bunda DC 160 6 166 160 6 166 secondary schools in the region. Out of 197 secondary Butiama DC 85 2 87 85 2 87 schools, 180 schools are O level only (153 public and 27 Musoma RD 108 0 108 108 0 108 private) (URT, 20151). The remaining 17 secondary schools comprise two public A level only, and 15 which combine Musoma UD 38 8 46 38 8 46 O level and A level; five of these secondary schools are Serengeti DC 109 4 113 109 4 113 private. This data is summarized in Table 1.1. Tarime RD 104 11 115 104 11 115 Tarime UD 27 6 33 27 5 32 The region has 793 pre-primary schools – 751 public and Rorya DC 120 5 125 120 5 125 42 private. The region has 792 primary schools – 751 Total 751 42 793 751 41 792 public and 41 private. The distribution of the pre-primary and primary schools is illustrated in Table 1.2. DC=District Council, RD=Rural District, It can be noted that where there are urban and rural UD=Urban District, Govt=government, Pvt.=private districts, the number of schools in rural districts Source: Quarterly PEDP Report (URT, 20152) outnumbers those in urban districts by far. This might explain in part the reasons behind many dropouts in rural The reason behind this phenomenon is that pre-primary districts when compared to urban districts. The scenario schools do not have their own separate buildings but were could as well be justifiable by the fact that rural areas have introduced as units in respective primary schools. The a larger population; hence a higher rate of dropouts could one-to-one matching of pre-primary and primary schools be explained alongside that in the urban areas. It can as might not be the case in private primary schools as is the well be noted that the number of pre-primary schools case in Tarime Town Council where one primary school and the primary public schools appear to be the same. does not entail a pre-primary school and vice versa.

1. URT. (2015). Quarterly SEDP Report, April – June 2015. Mara. 2. URT. (2015). Quarterly PEDP Report, April – June 2015. Mara. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 6 Mara Region case study report

1.2. Social and cultural characteristics Among the Kuria, cattle are such a crucial economic asset; of Mara Region so highly rated that people make an effort to maintain the cattle culture even at the expense of their children’s Culture refers to a common identity among people based school life. Observations during data collection revealed on shared relations, beliefs and technology (Newman, that children as young as five and six years old were 2011:488)3. In Mara Region, distinct cultural groups herding cattle. Another characteristic of cattle culture include the Kuria, Luo, Sukuma, Gita, Zanaki, Subi, is that many pastoral households reside in the marginal Ruri, Kabwa, Mongereme, Kerewe, Ikoma, and Nata. areas of villages. REOs and DEOs reported that the Culture is broad and local since even within ethnic or outskirts of villages are strategic settlements for pasture tribal communities there are sometimes distinct sub- while centre areas of villages are more settled and have groups who may share the same tribal language but schools and other social services. This settlement pattern may not share some beliefs or norms. Among the Kuria can be observed in several pastoral villages like Katongo main ethnic group, for example, researchers observed () where the village leader told nineteen sub-groups or clans – Irege, Nyabasi, Timbaru, researchers during the case study that Sukuma cattle Linchoka, Kira, Nyamongo, Shweta, Nchari, Kenye, herders prefer to stay in hamlets called ‘T’ about eight Kirioba, Ngwereme, Zanaki, Ikoma, Nata, Sembeti, kilometres from the village centre. The consequence of Kabwa, Hunyaga, Subu, and Mara. It is interesting to this settlement pattern is what the study can reveal; that note that some of the subgroups identified, claimed tribal many children from such communities walk very long status; notably the Zanaki, Ikoma, and Nata. distances to and from school on a daily basis. Teachers, village leaders, and children themselves, reported in Cultural differences in Mara Region follow along the lines separate interviews that a long walking distance to school of language, customs, traditions, and norms (Newman, had drastic consequences on school attendance, as shall 2011:488-489)4. Formal appearances of the cultures in be revealed in the report. Mara Region (i.e. the eidos) may not be so obvious but the ethos has important bearings on the way people Possession of cattle poses a logical contradiction since behave. The ethos is the disposition of a culture which households considered to be poor have considerable determines its quality, its main themes and interests animal wealth that could easily be converted to money. (Majumdar and Madan, 2013:14-15)5. Although details Separate interviews with education officers, teachers, and of cultural characteristics related to OOSC and children village leaders revealed that among the Kuria, for instance, at risk of dropping out of school, especially of the case bride wealth is paid mainly in cattle. The leaders reported study area, will be covered in Chapter Four, this section that the cattle rich people are polygynous since cattle points to a few highlights. wealth makes it easy for them to marry as many wives as they would wish. In Masinono Primary School, pupils One of the strong cultural aspects in the region is the reported that at least six men in the village have more than cattle culture which is very strong among the Kuria and 15 wives each, because of owning many cattle. Sukuma. Nevertheless, the culture diffuses and all cultural groups and subgroups – Luo, Gita, Nandi, in Mara Region, There are also logical contradictions in the culture have adopted the cattle culture. Some people own large surrounding bride wealth, early marriages, and teenage numbers of cattle – up to one hundred head of cattle, pregnancy. Cattle may be paid for a circumcised school but even for parents with few cattle, the strategy is to girl for wealth. However, the cattle may not be invested accumulate as many cattle as possible. For example, the for the education of a brother, let alone a younger sister. Sukuma who grow rice have a strong cattle culture. Their Actually, the cattle may be used to pay for the brother’s main strategy is to buy a few goats after they sell rice and wife and thus, a chain reaction. People with cattle wealth later convert goats to cows. Once families have built large are polygynous and can at any moment terminate herds of cattle, the families move to another village with studies of a newly circumcised girl to add to the fleet of more pasture – hence completing the nomadic life cycle. wives one already has. At this point all family members get engaged and the core family can be enlarged when the father decides to add Another cultural characteristic in the region is the another wife or wives to take care of the cattle. circumcision of both girls (FGM) and boys (male

3. Newman, D.M. (2011). Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life, 9 Ed. New Delhi, Sage. 4. Newman, D.M. (2011). Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life, 9 Ed. New Delhi, Sage. 5. Majumdar, D. N. & Madan, T. N. (2013). An Introduction to Social Anthropology. Mayoor Paperbacks, Delhi. Chapter one 7

circumcision). According to a UNFPA (2014)6 fact-sheet, shoes, among other things, which serve to maintain the FGM is notorious in five regions including Manyara practice. The Kuria, Irege and Kabwa, do not have regard for (71%), Dodoma (60%), Arusha (59%), Singida (51%), circumcision in hospital as do the Luo. Hence, they (Kuria, and Mara (40%). In Mara, education officers reported Irege, Kabwa) look down upon the Luo who undertake that some ethnic groups like the Luo, Gita, Kerewe, and hospital circumcision. It should be noted that to the Luo, Sukuma do not practice FGM which means that in some circumcision is not an important rite of passage. communities the rate of FGM could be much above 40 per cent. Unlike these mentioned ethnic groups, However, for reasons of hygiene and increase in HIV/ FGM and circumcision for boys are important rites of AIDS education, some parents consider out of hospital passage among the Kuria, Kabwa, and Rege. In these circumcision unsafe and opt for a hospital procedure to communities, circumcision - FGM and circumcision circumcise their boys. This action attracts anger from for boys, is done out of hospital using ‘local surgeons’ puritans who emphasize out of hospital operations. using ‘local’ instruments. In each clan, there are special A Catholic sister of the Daughters of Charity of St. old women and men – local ‘surgeons’, responsible for Vincent de Paul in Masanga Village in Sirari Ward performing the ordeal on girls and boys. (Tarime Rural) and Jipe Moyo Trust (Musoma Rural), pioneer campaigns against FGM and traditional Circumcision is preceded by dancing and singing (unsafe) circumcision for boys. some days before the eventful nights in which the children would be taken to secret places where they are From 2014 Masanga Centre has been holding safe circumcised. A teacher at Musoma Technical Secondary circumcision camps for boys. Early this year, (2015) 250 School reported during an interview that the community boys camped for safe circumcision awareness campaigns around the school (Rwamlimi Ward) held numerous in Masanga Centre but some boys were pressurised by circumcision ceremonies last year. He said that the Kabwa parents and peers to undergo traditional circumcision people – the predominant ethnic group in Rwamlimi Ward, when they returned home. Some of those who underwent hold circumcision camps in even years and even months safe circumcision, were refused by their parents who – those divisible by two. He further said that clan leaders belong to the traditional mainstream. A sister at Masanga could decide to conduct circumcision at the end of the Centre reported during an interview that the centre hosts odd year like 2015 should the need be critical. According one Standard VII boy whose father disowned him after he to him, numerous camps were held last year (2014) was circumcised in hospital. and more camps would be organized next year (2016). Commenting on the ceremonies the teacher said, The centre also provides asylum for girls who run away to avoid FGM. In 2008, the centre received 53 girls. In ‘You could hear praise singers all the day even when you were 2013, the number of girls who sought protection rose in classes last year this month. These danced around from to 437 with more girls – about 636 in December 2014. household to another, singing songs encouraging awaiting The sister at the centre reported that these were school children to take courage. Circumcision and general life of these children; mostly in upper primary classes (Standards children are highly interwoven to the extent that children are VI and VII). Jipe Moyo Trust, on the other hand, hosts ready to miss classes to attend the ceremonies.’ (A teacher at about 52 FGM survivors. Although, there are no clear Musoma Technical Secondary School). statistics on the situation of FGM in the region, the sister interviewed at Masanga Catholic Mission, and The teacher also said that girls and boys who undergo the Catholic sisters at Jipe Moyo Trust, indicated that FGM process without screaming are considered brave (heroines is deep rooted and its abolition needs more strategic and heroes) and their parents become proud of them. The intervention measures. circumcised boys are called wa-mura (singular, mu-mura) after initiation, while girls are called wa-iseke (singular, mu- Traditionally, boys and girls marry at relatively tender iseke). The uninitiated boys and girls – uncircumcised, are ages after circumcision. According to village elders called wa-risha and wa-sagane respectively. During the pass interviewed, FGM has a negative impact on the school out ceremony, the children are always given compliments life of girls who are encouraged to leave school and and are given tokens such as money, new clothes, and marry. The elders also pointed out that like FGM, male

6. UNFPA. (2014). Female Genital Mutilation Fact Sheet. Tanzania Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 8 Mara Region case study report

circumcision also has an impact on children’s school Another significant aspect of cultural life in Mara lives since after circumcision, the culture encourages Region is extreme patriarchy and exaggerated boys to consider themselves grownups, ready to masculinity. The culture of people in Mara Region marry, and raise families, which means boys are at honors male than female gender where the majority of risk of dropping out of school after circumcision. Early the males are trained to take family responsibility and marriages and teenage pregnancies are cultural aspects inheritance in the family, clan and/or community while of the same phenomenon. Both are closely associated females are prepared to be submissive and obedient with female and male circumcision and bride wealth, as to men. Due to this, men receive higher priority in mentioned above. education than women whose education is considered to be a loss as they will get married to other families Another cultural aspect in the region can be observed in hence their education will benefit other people and the characteristics of the social structure in the region. not their original families. Village leaders reported Nuclear families in this region are complex, large, and that extreme patriarchy was manifested in household weak; encompassing members of the extended family. violence where men would physically assault women Characteristic among the clans in Mara – especially the when in disagreement. A case is cited in the report pastoral communities, is polygamy, serial marriages, and about a man who beat his wife for collecting TASAF female-to-female marriages. Village elders revealed that support funds, right in front of the TASAF officer. cattle-wealthy men have a tendency to marry many wives Although the officer explained to the man that women who bear them many children, resulting in a situation that and not men were supposed to collect TASAF funds, the wealth is spread too thinly across family members, the man was adamant and burned the card, threatening making it hard for the men to meet the cost of living, the officer to stop remitting the funds, the details including the cost of school. of which are presented in the report. Exaggerated masculinity is reflected in the general life of young boys Researchers were informed by the Director of Search after circumcision. The boys, called mu-mura after for Common Grounds, an NGO based in Tarime dealing circumcision, are encouraged to consider themselves with conflict resolutions, that FGM and female-to- brave and superior to women and whoever is female marriages are common among the mainstream uncircumcised. This teaching has an adverse impact on Kuria and Wairege and that the marriages are most the school life of children in these areas as some would conspicuous in Tarime Rural District. According leave school when punished at school. The situation to informers, female-to-female marriages, dubbed is even worse when the teacher giving punishment nyumba ntobo, are marriage arrangements whereby is female. a wife decides to marry a lady to bear her husband children in case the family has no children of their own Belief in witchcraft and superstition is a common cultural for whatever reason. The woman, in consultation with phenomenon and it cuts across all ethnic groups in the husband’s kinsmen, would find a relative (married the region. A student at Tegeruka Secondary School and with children) who would bear children with (Musoma Rural) reported that students used to find the newly married woman whose children would be charms in classrooms which, according to them, are named after the deceased. This marriage arrangement associated with witchcraft and superstitious beliefs. becomes complicated when the family invites other An OOSC in Nyamwaga reported that she dropped men to take over the procreation role of the deceased out of school because she believed that someone was leaving the household with children from different bewitching her. Cases of children leaving school on fathers in the name of the deceased. The consequence witchcraft grounds were not limited to school children of this family type is that there is a sudden expansion alone as some teachers in the region were reported to of family members whom the family is unable to take have sought transfers to other regions to avoid being care of. Female-to-female marriages are related to bewitched. Mara Regional Education Officer reported serial marriages where a man would abandon a wife that last year one teacher sought transfer back to Arusha with children and marry another woman in the same or Region to avoid being bewitched. According to the REO, distant village with whom he would have children before such transfers were numerous among newly posted he leaves her again for another. Sometimes men would teachers. Likewise, a parent reported in Nyamwaga that leave wives in some villages when searching for more if he does not take his daughter for FGM, he would be economically viable jobs like trade, artisanal mining, and bewitched. Beliefs like the ones reported in this study herding cattle. One grandmother noted that this practice from Mara Region create fear in the society, and for results in many single mothers who have children with children who are already at risk of dropping out of school different fathers who do not support them at all. the likelihood of dropping out of school is a reality. Chapter one 9

Matare Primary School (sections of pupils in the area still do not attend four randomly sampled days between the school pictured) near North Mara school regularly. Children interviewed July and September (2015), reveal 287 Acacia Mines in Tarime Rural District, in this school reported that artisanal children miss school daily on average. is among the schools that get support mining and petty trade fuel the high The school has 913 children (boys 443, from the Mining Company in the Area. truancy rate. School attendance records girls 470). The school has good facilities but obtained from the head-teacher for

1.3. Economic characteristics in the region also engage in petty trading which employ a of Mara Region significant number of the youth, especially in townships and near the Tanzania-Kenya border. A detailed discussion on the The region undertakes several economic activities effects of these economic activities on children’s schooling including artisanal fishing, farming, herding cattle, shall be presented in proceeding chapters. and artisanal mining and tourism (URT, 2013)7. Mara Investment Profile (URT, 2013) shows that about 90 1.4. An overview of OOSC in Mara Region per cent of residents in the region live on agriculture. Crops grown include cassava, maize, sorghum, finger Education officers in Mara Region pointed out that the millet, paddy, beans and sweet potatoes. Cotton is the problem of children dropping out of school is alarming. They principal cash crop grown in all the regions’ districts in disclosed that the problem is increasing as the number of various proportions. Coffee, sunflower and groundnuts children increases in the region due to a high fertility rate. are grown to a lesser extent. Coffee is grown mainly in They also reported that dropping out of school is among the . Livestock reared in the region include problems facing the region in all the districts in the region. cattle, goats, sheep and donkeys. Due to the nature of However, they indicated that the problem was alarming in pastoralist activities, most of the pastoralist communities urban areas, pastoral, and fishing communities. They also are located far from schools and other social services. reported that townships and border centres face a similar Fishing is the other economic activity in the region which, problem due to petty trading. according to the report, has drawn a large number of youths from villages around the lakeshores as it employs An instance of dropout can be observed by studying recent more than 40 per cent of the region’s labour force. dropout flow in Tarime Rural District. Data from the regional Another economic activity is mining which attracts education office shows that Tarime Rural District registered a good number of young people to work as artisanal 66,493 students in Standard I to VII in 2014 and 11,385 (17.12%) miners near industrial mines such as Catamines and dropped out. The problem is not that straight forward because North Mara companies. Communities among those 55,108 (82.88%) who remained in school, many

7. URT (2013). Mara Investment Profile. Mara. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 10 Mara Region case study report

were at the risk of dropping out of school for one reason or girls did not join lower secondary, against 75 per cent of the other, as will be outlined later in the report. boys who did not join the lower secondary school. This dropout percentage is high for a year in one transitional The regional education officers also revealed that for the class from primary to lower secondary school and sheds whole region in 2014, out of 46,121 Standard VII pupils who some light on OOSC. registered for Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), 1,772 (4%), did not sit the exam. Again, out of those who Another scenario of dropouts was evident in Bugwema sat the examination that year, 18,385 (41%), joined Form I Secondary School in Masinono Village in Musoma Rural in 2015, marking a transitional dropout of 27,736 (60%), District which has a low rate of student registration and a from primary school to secondary school. The dropout is high rate of dropouts. The table below shows the trend of estimated to be higher in girls than in boys. For example, dropout in the Form IV class at the school in 2015 which out of the 18,385 (cited above), who joined lower secondary was registered in 2012 – a total of 86 children; 57 boys education (Form I), in 2015, girls were 7,247 (16%), and and 29 girls, were selected to join Form I in 2012, but boys 11,138 (25%). Table 1.3 illustrates the regional dropout only 72 joined. trend of one Standard VII class enrolled in 2008. In this class about 16 per cent of children selected to join The table below shows that only 7,247 (16%) girls joined Form I in 2012 never did, and out of those who enrolled, lower secondary school which means that 84 per cent of 47 per cent dropped out. The dropout rate is higher in

TABLE 1.3 Dropout trend for pupils registered in Standard I in 2008 in Mara Region

Reg. in Std. I Reg. for PSLE Sat for PSLE. Did not sit for Passed PSLE Joined Sec. Gender (2008) (2014) (2014) PSLE (2014) (2014) Sch. (2015)

Boys 28,231 23,088 22,082 1006 11,138 11,138 Girls 27,616 23,033 22,267 766 7,247 7,247 Total 55,847 46,121 44,349 1772 18,385 18,385

TABLE 1.4 A Four-year dropout trend in 2015 Form IV class in Bugwema Secondary School

Level Year Gender Selected to join Form I in 2012 Dropout Boys 57 5 Standard VII 2011 Girls 29 9 Total 86 14 Reported Dropped out Boys 52 24 Form I 2012 Girls 20 4 Total 72 28 Continued to Form II Dropped out Boys 28 2 Form II 2013 Girls 16 4 Total 44 6 Continued to Form III Dropped out Boys 26 0 Form III 2014 Girls 12 0 Total 38 0 Continued to Form IV Dropped out Boys 26 0 Form IV 2015 Girls 12 0 Total 38 0 Grand total dropout 48 Chapter one 11

the transition from Form I to Form II. The drop out in the high prevalence of dropouts, it suffices to assume that above class in Table 1.4 is similar to the current Form III dropouts, could reflect some of the reasons for OOSC, class which reportedly has registered 12 girls dropping in those specific pockets of the region visited. out due to early marriages since 2013 when the children enrolled in Form I. In 2014, the same class (in Form II 1.5. The case study and its objectives then), reported two pregnant cases, while this year, the Form II class in the same school, has reported the same The case study design is adopted to facilitate an in-depth number of pregnant cases. Dropout trend in 2015 Form III exploration of the OOSC children in their own social class is shown in Table 1.5 below. (NB: 106; 50 boys and cultural and economic contexts. The main idea is to 56 girls were selected to join Form I in 2013). examine many features of being out of school and being at risk of dropping out of school by considering a few cases. As in Table 1.3, the trend in Table 1.4 above, shows that Cases involved individuals, groups, organisations, events, about half dropped out of school. On the other hand, out and geographical units. Thus, the case study examined of those who registered for lower secondary school, about OOSC and children at risk of dropping out of school in a quarter dropped out when in Form III. Similarly, the table their own social cultural and economic environments. shows that the high rate of dropout is in the transition between Form I and Form II. The objective of this case study is to examine social cultural values and practices that promote or hinder the The phenomenal dropout rate can also be observed in educational participation of children from geographically primary school attendance in Tarime Rural District. The or ethnically marginalised groups. The study also aims report from the DEO in Tarime district revealed that at analysing existing curricula to determine the extent the dropout rate is highest in Standard I by 22 per cent to which positive cultural values and practices from and lowest in Standard VII by 8.6 per cent. The other marginalised population groups have been embedded to three classes with a high rate of dropout are Standard enhance demand for education. IV (20.9 percent), Standard III (19.3 percent), and Standard V (18.2 percent). The information shared in 1.6. Organisation of the report this section provides a glimpse of what is going on in the region and sheds light on the state of OOSC under This report is organised in six chapters. Chapter Two the study. Although this data relates to schools with a presents study methodology, Chapter Three presents demand side barriers to school including socio-cultural TABLE 1.5 and economic contexts, Chapter Four presents supply A three-year dropout trend in 2015 Form III class in side barriers to school, and Chapter Five presents the Bugwema Secondary School conclusion and recommendations.

Level Year Gender Selected to join Form I Dropout Boys 50 11 Standard VII 2012 Girls 56 15 Total 106 26 Reported Dropout out Boys 39 8 Form I 2013 Girls 41 14 Total 80 22 Continued to Form II Dropped out Boys 31 4 Form II 2014 Girls 27 2 Total 58 6 Continued to Form III Dropped out Boys 27 0 Form III 2015 Girls 25 0 Total 52 0

Grand total dropout 54 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 12 Mara Region case study report

CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY

2. Introduction early marriages, and bride wealth, among others which might contribute to OOSC. The region is identified as This chapter discusses the methodology used in being among the regions with diverse ethnic groupings conducting the case study in Mara Region. The study was and diverse social economic activities like artisanal guided by the Conceptual and Methodological Framework pastoralism, artisanal fishing, peasant farming, artisanal (CMF), developed by UNICEF and UIS (UNESCO Institute mining, hunting and gathering. of Statistics) (2011)­8 as part of the Global Out-of-School Children Initiative Operational Manual in defining OOSC Initially, the study was supposed to be conducted in using the Five Dimensions of Exclusion (5DE). The five Musoma Urban and Musoma Rural districts only. However, dimensions are listed below: interviews with Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) and REOs revealed that some of the social economic and 1. Children of pre-primary school age who are cultural activities were found outside Musoma Urban not in pre-primary or primary school and Musoma Rural districts. For instance, RAS and REOs 2. Children of primary school age who are reported that FGM is common in Tarime among the Kuria not in primary or secondary school and Irege who treat the practice as a rite of passage. It was 3. Children of lower secondary school age who also reported that mining activities are concentrated near are not in primary or secondary school industrial gold mines such as North Mara Acacia Mining 4. Children who are in primary school Company, and attracts many artisanal miners including but at risk of dropping out children who might drop out of school. 5. Children who are in lower secondary school but at risk of dropping out. Further, it was disclosed that the town of Sirari along the Tanzanian and Kenyan border is the hub of petty trade The listed dimensions cover not only the OOSC but also which could attract children including those in schools. children who are currently in school but at risk of dropping The administrators also reported that there is a fishing out in the three levels of education – pre-primary, primary village in bordering Lake Victoria which, and secondary school. The Conceptual and Methodological according to them, could attract children from school. The Framework (UNESCO and UIS, 2011) defines exclusion study eventually covered the following districts and wards; slightly differently depending on the population concerned. Musoma Urban, Nyakato, Mwigobero, Rwamlimi, Musoma Considering the OOSC, exclusion means excluded from Rural, Tegeruka, Bugwema, Tarime, Matongo, Nyarukoba, education. On the contrary, considering the children at risk Kemambo, Sirari, Rorya and Tai. Figure 2.1 presents the main of dropping out of school, the term means children who districts and wards involved in collecting data for the case may be excluded within education. These may be excluded study. Note that Nyakato, Mwigobore, and Nyakato Wards within education because they may face discriminatory are clustered in near proximity in Musoma Urban. For lack of practices within the school. enough space, Mwigobore Ward is not visible.

2.1. Case study area 2.2. Respondents

Mara Region was selected as a case study area to collect This case study used in-depth interviews with OOSC, data for understanding main social cultural reasons behind children at risk of dropping out of school, the Regional the proliferation of OOSC and children at risk of dropping Educational Officer (REO), District Educational Officers out of school. The region was selected purposively, (DEOs), headmasters, head teachers, teachers, village based on the ongoing social cultural practices like FGM, leaders, key informers and parents and guardians.

8. UNICEF& UIS (2011). Global Out-of-School Children Initiative Operational Manual. Chapter two 13

ena FIGURE 2.1 Lake Victoria Districts and respective wards in the study area Rorya Musoma Urban Tarime

Butiama Study Ward ena Musoma Rural Mara Bunda Study District Serengeti Tai Mara Region RORYA Main Road Sirari TARIME anana MUSOMA Matongo URBAN Nyarukoba Nyakato Kemambo Rwamlimi

Tegeruka

MUSOMA RURAL Bugwema

The researchers introduced themselves to the respective by truancy, being over age and belonging to child gangs. REO and DEOs who were found in their respective offices. Family characteristics such as abject poverty, single Activities and respective administrative areas (wards and parent or child-headed households, being orphaned villages) with high prevalence of OOSC were identified in or disabled, including deafness, albinism, and physical consultation with the educational officers who also issued disability, were also factors affecting attendance at school. clearance for introduction and data collection. Socio- Heads of school and class teachers helped to identify economic activities and cultural practices in those places children for the study. The children involved in the study included artisanal mining, artisanal fishing, pastoralism, were the ones who were currently attending school and FGM, bride wealth, and tourism. Education officers agreed were willing to take part. Children out of school were that these mentioned activities and cultural practices identified by consulting village leaders. The study design contribute to OOSC. On the other hand, tourism was aimed to interview children who had dropped out of dropped from the case study since there was no indication school as well as children who had never attended school. from the key informers that the areas with tourism had a However, the children who were identified as never high prevalence of OOSC. In addition, the tourist district having attended school were found during interviews to was dropped due to distance to the tourist centres, travel have attended school at some point in the past. Heads of restrictions on time allowed to travel across the park, and schools, special unit teachers, and class teachers were a security threat to the researchers. selected since they were perceived to have relevant and adequate information needed for the study. Parents with Schools visited were selected in consultation with DEOs OOSC and children at risk of dropping out of school were (District Education Officers) on the basis of having high identified by heads of schools and village leaders. Village numbers of children at risk of dropping out of school. leaders were selected on the basis of their positions in The researchers visited a total of 13 schools. The visited the village administrative structure. Key informers were schools are listed in Table 2.1. identified when visiting areas where economic activities were performed. Researchers interviewed a total of Children in these schools were sampled for interviews 236 respondents in their categories. The distribution of based on their attendance at school, probably affected respondents is summarized in Table 2.2. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 14 Mara Region case study report

TABLE 2.1 Schools visited during case study in Mara Region

District Name of school Ward Village/street Nyakato A Primary School Nyakato Nyakato Nyakato C Primary School Nyakato Nyakato Musoma Urban Musoma Technical Secondary School Rwamlimi Nyarusuria Mwembeni B Primary School Mwigobore Nyerere Road Bugwema Secondary School Bugwema Bugwema Masinono Primary School Bugwema Masinono Musoma Rural Tegeruka Secondary School Tegeruka Tegeruka Kitaryo A Primary School Tegeruka Kitaryo Nyabigena Primary School Kemambo Kemambo Matare Primary School Matongo Nyangoto Tarime Bwirege Secondary School Nyarukoba Nyarukoba Sokoni Primary School Sirari Sokoni Rorya Majengo Primary School Tai Sota

TABLE 2.2 Number of respondents during case study

Regional Musoma Musoma Respondents Tarime Rorya Total level (U) (R) OOSC 23 26 10 59 At risk (included 9 children with disability) 33 40 25 10 108 REO 1 1 DEOs 2 3 2 7 Village leaders 1 1 2 4 Heads of school 4 4 4 1 13 Teachers 8 5 4 17 Parents 9 9 2 20 Key informers 4 1 2 7

The REO and DEOs provided significant background informers in their respective offices where interviews were information needed to decide on the wards to visit conducted upon consent. based on the prevalence of OOSC and cultural practices which could fuel OOSC in the region. They Heads of schools, teachers and village leaders provided also provided education reports on such related significant information on school attendance, facilities and issues as the number of schools, school facilities and infrastructure, dropout flow, children at risk of dropping infrastructure, the situation of teachers, enrolment out of school and OOSC. Heads of schools and teachers rates, capitation grants, building funds, dropout flows, also helped researchers to identify potential children at and strategies to improve school attendance. risk of dropping out of school based on indicators like disability, family background, being over age for the grade The key informers were informative in identifying social the child is in at school, and poor school attendance, cultural and geographical locations for OOSC and children among other indicators. at risk of dropping out of school. They also helped to identify social cultural practices and economic activities Likewise, teachers and village leaders together, were which mainly contribute to OOSC in the region. Key instrumental in identifying OOSC since most OOSC informers were largely people from government agencies were also known to teachers. However, the category like TASAF and EQUIP Tanzania, NGOs like Jipe Moyo of never attended OOSC could not be found because Trust, and those working in charity organizations such all the children who were introduced as never having as Masanga Catholic Mission. Researchers visited key attended school, turned out to have attended school at Chapter two 15

some point in the past. The researchers are of the opinion The two days were spent visiting regional offices for that some of the children interviewed belonged to the research permits and interviews with RAS and DEOs before never having attended category but could not confide so the researchers set off to respective wards and schools. since enrolment in pre-primary and primary education Throughout the study the driver was in no way involved in is compulsory in Tanzania. The reason could also be that the data collection process. their parents did not transfer children to new schools as they moved from one economic zone of artisanal fishing, Before the researchers travelled to the field, a research petty trade, or pastoralism, to another. (This aspect is permit was requested from the Vice Chancellor of the covered in the main report). The REO and DEOs reported University of Dar es Salaam. In addition, an introductory that some nomadic parents destroyed transfer documents letter was obtained from the Ministry of Education and or did not submit the documents to school authorities Vocational Training (MoEVT), introducing the research upon arrival, hence the children could be thought of as team to regional educational offices. Both the research never having attended, while in fact they had attended clearance and the introductory letter were submitted to the school to some grade. Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) of Mara Region. The RAS introduced the research team to the District Findings from OOSC were gathered from 59 children of Education Officers in secondary education and primary which 25 children were aged between seven and 13 years education. Researchers liaised with RAS and DEOs on and 34 children were aged between 14 and 21 years. In this potential geographical areas and schools to visit. The areas group of children, 20 of the OOSC live with both parents were identified based on the prevalence of OOSC and social while 39 children live with different cases of single parents cultural and economic activities such as artisanal mining, and guardian parents (grandmother, uncle, aunt, etc.). artisanal fishing, petty trade, and peasant agriculture. The In general, these children identified themselves as some RAS issued the letter permitting the researcher to visit from poor and some from ordinary families. As explained areas and schools identified. The officials also provided above, researchers did not find any case of never having contacts of some head teachers and headmasters for attended OOSC, and it is suspected that some of the schools to be visited. Before going to the fields, researchers, dropouts found had in fact never attended school. upon consent, held interviews with the officers in turn.

On the other hand, researchers reached 108 children at In the schools and villages, researchers introduced risk of dropping out of school. Of the 108, 63 children are themselves to heads of schools and village leaders aged between seven and 13 years, 42 children are aged where they expressed the motive of the visit. Reference between 14 and 18 years, while three children are aged 19 letters were availed as proof of permission to conduct years and above. Of the 108 children at risk of dropping research in the respective localities. The leaders helped out of school who were interviewed, 45 children live with to identify potential OOSC who were interviewed upon both parents and the rest are living with single parents, signing consent forms. (Parents and guardians signed guardians, child-headed households etc. Some of the consent forms on behalf of the OOSC.) Some of the children who live with parents come from polygynous parents and guardians were also interviewed alongside households – fathers having many wives. The category the children upon consent. Interviews were conducted of children at risk also included nine children with in village squares or in places where economic activities disability. Children are considered at risk of dropping out like artisanal fishing or artisanal mining were taking place. of school because of school records on their attendance In schools, teachers helped to identify at risk children, and the disability involved. In addition, some of the based on school attendance, disability, family background, children who were considered at risk of dropping out and age of the child in relation to the grade currently of school, were identified as coming from families in attending, among other indicators. It was assumed that difficulty – families in abject poverty, disturbed families, over-age children were at risk of dropping out of school. or marginalised families. Interviews were conducted on school premises on open grounds under trees in order not to disrupt teachers who 2.3. Data collection procedure were working in offices. After every interview, researchers thanked respondents for taking part in the study. Data for this case study was collected between 24 August and 6 September 2015 in Mara Region. It took researchers Basically, all interview data was recorded in the interview three-days travel from Dar es Salaam (20 August) to Mara guide. Researchers used separate notebooks to capture (22 August) using a vehicle hired from Dar es Salaam some information such as name of the respondent and University College of Education – DUCE. Researchers spent aspects of information like personal stories shared which two days in Musoma Urban undertaking research logistics. were not supposed to be supplied in the interview guide. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 16 Mara Region case study report

2.4. Interviews research are respect, benefit, and justice. These principles defined the overall behaviour of researchers This case study used in-depth interviews to capture as they went about working with individuals, soliciting, detailed knowledge of cases associated with social preserving, analysing, and disclosing information cultural factors fuelling children to be out of school and at collected without causing harm whatsoever to risk of dropping out of school. Interviews were arranged in respondents. These principles underlie this case study respective work places or schools at times convenient to which involved not only adults but also children, those the interviewees. Before the interviews began, researchers attending school, and out-of-school children, in Mara read out loud, details of the research to the interviewees Region, as shall be explained below. so that they understood the aim of the study and to offer their willingness to participate. After consent forms were The case study involved obtaining information from signed, the researchers proceeded with the interview intended participants – education officials, village sessions using interview guides. Interviews with children leaders, parents, key informers, and children (school lasted between 15 and 30 minutes. Nevertheless, more children and out-of-school children). The selection time was needed to interview heads of schools, teachers, of the participants was non-discriminatory because key informants, and parents and guardians. participants in the study were selected based on the fact that they had specific information that was required. Teacher or parent and guardian support was sought for For example, children who participated in the study the pre-primary school children who had problems of were selected based on vulnerability – poor school expressing themselves or were uneasy about talking to attendance, over-age, family background, and cases strangers. Out-of-school children were interviewed upon of disability, in accordance with research objectives. their official consent wherever they were found in areas Educational officials were interviewed by virtue of such as artisanal fishing, artisanal mining, petty trading, their positions; they had crucial information on areas farming, and cattle herding. In all cases researchers with a high prevalence of OOSC and could suggest to sought the children’s willingness to participate in the study researchers, schools to visit. Teachers including head and parents signed the consent forms on behalf of the teachers were selected to participate in the study children. Researchers thanked the respondents after the because they were custodians of children in respective interview sessions ended. Throughout the data collection schools and they could identify potential dropouts. process, researchers observed ethical procedures. Likewise, key informers and village leaders were selected to participate in the study because they had 2.5. Observations experience working with local communities and knew the whereabouts of OOSC. Parents were interviewed Physical conditions of schools e.g. classrooms, offices, randomly since some had children at risk of dropping out toilets, dormitories, fences, buildings under construction, and/or OOSC, hence they provided information needed and behaviours in schools, such as name calling, to explain reasons for OOSC. The selection of research corporal punishment and bullying, were observed. Some participants of this type is consistent with the principles observations were also made in areas where economic of justice and fairness, which underpin decisions made activities took place; in artisanal mining, artisanal fishing, about participants to be included in the research, and petty trade, pastoralism, and agriculture, with the aim of not driven by discriminatory intent. ascertaining some responses provided during interviews. Researchers took pictures of aspects which contribute to The principle of respect of human dignity in research, OOSC in the areas visited. Thus, pictures were taken in requires that respondents be respected; that they are classrooms, and fishing and mining areas, in an attempt valued, the context of their lives is considered, and to illustrate physical realities of what was happening their dignity is recognised. Participants took part in the in OOSC areas. Photographs were taken with the study on a voluntary basis; they were not coerced into participants’ consent. participating in the research. This voluntary intent was communicated to all participants before interviews 2.6. Ethical considerations proceeded. Closely linked with voluntary participation in the case study is the ethical requirement for researchers to obtain individual participants’ informed consent or willingness Ethical considerations refer to a requirement that to participate. During research, the researchers asked participants in research are protected by being treated individual participants to give their informed consent with dignity and respect throughout the research and sign a consent form. Sometimes, it was necessary process. The main guiding principles of ethical human to obtain informed consent from children themselves Chapter two 17

in addition to the parent and caretakers’ informed and economic circumstances surrounding OOSC were consent. The researcher had to ask for informed consent captured. Judgment was made if the necessary data was from school children even when teachers had already being collected in the light of the research objectives and given theirs. Consent forms were signed only after the questions according to Tor. The captured themes below researchers had read the details of the study out aloud, formed subsections of this report: and when the participants were willing to participate, otherwise researchers respected the participants’ • The zones of children excluded from school decisions not to take part in the study. Participants were including those who are out-of-school and those also informed that they had the right not to respond to who are at the risk of dropping out of school some questions or to withdraw at any point. Obtaining • The socio-cultural values and practices which informed consent for research is an important means of abet or aid educational participation and the demonstrating respect for the dignity of participants. demand or lack of demand for education • Positive social cultural values and practices The principle of benefit requires researchers not to embedded in the formal curricula place respondents at risk of harm or injury – through • Job skills introduced to children at an early acts of commission or acts of omission, as a result of age and the desire for alternative training their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical • Why specifically children are out of school and why and psychological. During the study, participants were specifically are children with disabilities out of school protected from harm by randomising the selection • The supply and demand side reasons of participants based on set criteria. The researchers for being out of school. also explained to the participants the details of the study, showing how information collected would be Based on the above, data collected was organised into used. One way to avoid harm is to protect the privacy major themes – social structure, cultural practices, of participants. There are two acceptable standards in economic situation, and supply side barriers. The findings maintaining privacy of respondents – confidentiality and were analysed and written into a case study report. anonymity. During case studies researchers guaranteed the respondents confidentiality, assuring them that 2.8. Summary identifying information of respondents would not be available to anyone who was not directly involved in This chapter has presented methodological procedures the study; and this assurance, in part, formed the basis observed in doing the case study in Mara Region. The of giving the informed consent. The researchers also chapter has explained that the case study evolved from explained to respondents that their identities would studying Musoma Urban and Rural to including Tarime remain anonymous throughout the study – even to and Rorya Districts which were not in the original the researchers themselves. One way anonymity was case study design. The reasons for redesigning were ensured was through not taking names of respondents not limited to diversity and variability of both social in the interview guide. In addition, all photographs which cultural practices and economic activities. The areas showed faces were blurred to conceal possible identity, covered during data collection were the ones identified and names in the captions are all not real. Where faces in consultation with the REO, DEOs, and key informers. were revealed, researchers had informed consent from The study used purposefully selected respondents both the parent or caretaker, and the photographed who were willing to take part in the study. In schools, subjects, to reveal faces; hence the subjects suffered heads of school and vulnerable children were potential no harm. Harm is also linked to the question of the respondents. In villages, researchers worked with village safety of participants so the researchers did not disclose leaders to identify respondents. Data was collected information of some parents who were responsible for using in-depth interviews which lasted between 14 and their children’s unsatisfactory school attendance or 20 minutes. The interviews were conducted in areas dropping out. convenient to the respondents without disturbing activities going on around. Observations of social 2.7. Data analysis cultural practices and economic activities in places visited were documented and used to draw findings. The After the visits, the researchers held brief evening data collected from the field was organised and classified sessions to summarise activities of the day. Numbers of into themes which were used to write the report. The interviews and observations made were recorded in a proceeding chapter focuses on the demand side barriers table matrix. Concerns raised, problem areas discussed to school – social cultural and economic contexts and emerging themes related to social cultural practices contributing to OOSC in the region. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 18 Mara Region case study report FINDINGS

CHAPTER THREE DEMAND SIDE BARRIERS TO SCHOOL Socio-cultural and economic contexts

3. Introduction cousins and nephews all stay under one roof where they are also considered to be part of the family (Majumdar The CMF (UNICEF & UIS, 2011) identifies two aspects and Madan, 2014). This definition of an extended of demand side barriers – the social cultural practices nuclear family was reflected in most of the families and experience of children; and economic circumstances observed during interviews in Mara Region. Interviews and household priorities. These are called demand side with parents and grandparents revealed that some barriers since they inhibit the demand for education of the extended families were too large to manage in on the part of children. These factors, though existing situations of meagre resources. locally, are outlined in this chapter with a view of elucidating their impact on achieving Education For All For instance, a grandmother at Nyarusuria fishing area, (EFA) embedded in the Dakar Framework of Action reported that polygyny was common in the region, (2000) which contributes to the eight goals of millennium adding that it resulted in large, extended, complex, development. The chapter is an attempt to explain the and weak families. The grandmother also reported social cultural and economic environments which act as that some unmarried women had the tendency to have barriers to education in Mara Region. children with different men in their fathers’ households, resulting in large family structures. She further said that 3.1. Social structure the family structure is also enlarged when a divorced mother returns home with children and continues to The social structure of a society has a greater influence on bear more children with other men while at home. This the development of the society especially the attainment of situation results in weak monitoring of children’s general the formal education. As literature from other researchers upbringing, let alone monitoring school attendance (UNESCO, 2010; Kane, 2004) shows, the social structure and progress. It also becomes difficult for such families may act as a barrier to child school enrolment, retention and to afford the cost of schooling for such children; completion, especially for girls, children with disabilities, consequently children in these families become potential orphans and other marginalised children. This section dropouts. It should be noted that in Mara, the nuclear explores the context of OOSC and the social structure as (i.e. conjugal) family is weak. An extended family is a factor which is perceived to directly and/or indirectly common and results in weak focus by the father and contribute to children being out of school. mother on the education of their children.

3.1.1. Weak nuclear family 3.1.2. Serial marriages

It is the most common practice and characteristic of Serial marriages contribute to OOSC and it affects many African cultures that one’s parents, grandparents, children in all dimensions of exclusion. During an Chapter three 19

interview with a key informer, it was revealed that there 3.1.3. Orphanhood, single parent, are different scenarios of serial marriages in Mara grandparent, and child-headed families Region. The informer reported that one such scenario is when customs sanction married men to inherit wives During interviews, it was revealed that many children at of deceased siblings and have children with such wives risk of dropping out from school, were living with their on behalf of the deceased for the reason of continuing grandparents, guardians, or single mothers. The children the name of the deceased family. Another scenario is interviewed separately reported that either one or both a situation where couples are not capable of bearing parents had died or travelled to another region in search children for whatever reason, the wife then marries of a new artisanal job. Some of the children living with another woman (a female-female marriage arrangement grandparents or aunts had endured traumatic experiences called nyumba ntobo) who would bear children in the after their parents had separated. For many of the family to keep the man’s name after the man dies. The families under such conditions, children do not attend informer reported that such marriages leave children, school regularly, hence the risk of dropping out of school. who might be from different fathers, without proper The situation becomes worse when the guardians lack school care; hence the children are pushed out of the adequate income to afford the cost of education for these formal school system. The informer reported that serial children, and there is no one to encourage them to go to marriages destabilise former families back home, as the school, as well as monitor their progress. men find it hard to adjust and accommodate children in their former families. Many cases of this nature were reported during interviews. One of the cases was reported by a nine- Serial marriages are also manifested in situations where year-old girl at Rwamlimi Ward in Musoma District. The men would marry and have children with different women girl reported that when she was in Standard II, her father as these men move from one economic zone (artisanal died and her mother travelled to Mwanza to look for a fishing, artisanal mining, petty trade, pastoralism), to job. The girl was living with her divorced aunt who was another, seeking more viable grounds. It was reported in raising a young child. The girl left school when she was interviews in different parts of the region, particularly in in Standard III because the aunt could not afford the cost Musoma, Tarime and Rorya Districts, that it is common of her education. The girl reported further that she was for men to marry and abandon several women in turn after willing to go to school if someone paid for her school having several children with them. uniform and exercise books.

A key informer in Masinono Village reported that At Nyarusuria fishing community (Rwamlimi Ward, nomadic and reckless lifestyles of men looking for more Musoma Urban), a widow (48) reported that she had six lucrative job opportunities, encourage serial marriages. children whom she could not take to school and therefore It is important to note that, although men do like was helped by Nyakato A Primary School, in terms of having children with many wives, they virtually take no exemption from school contributions. Despite being responsibility for the former wives and children left behind assisted by the school, the social economic condition of this when they take new wives and have more children with widow was so poor that two of her children, a boy and girl, the new ones. The informer said that this tendency of were forced to drop out of school at Grade 3 and Grade 5 marrying and remarrying contributed to the increase of respectively, due to the failure to support them. She further the number of children who never go to school. revealed that she had two grandchildren to take care of.

A number of children interviewed in Masinono Primary Although single parenting was reported to result from School, revealed that they were not living with their fathers. several factors including death of a spouse, many of These children happened to be the ones identified by their the cases stemmed from parent separation or divorce. teachers as having critical attendance problems. Teachers Children interviewed at Masinono Primary School in in this school said that such children eventually end up Masinono Village, Musoma Rural District, reported to dropping out of school since their mothers alone could not live with single parents, particularly mothers, following afford to take care of all the children from different fathers, separation. These children reported that they stayed and meet their basic needs, including their educational with mothers because their fathers had left home and needs. A seven-year-old boy at Nyarusuria fishing re-established themselves elsewhere where some community in Rwamlimi Ward (Musoma Urban), reported were reportedly living with partners or had remarried. that a mother, who was a petty trader in the fishing Some children reported to be living with grandparents, community, had been abandoned by his father and could particularly grandmothers. A widowed grandmother not afford to send him to school. at Nyarusuria fishing community reported that she Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 20 Mara Region case study report

was living with three primary school age grandchildren 3.1.5. Child transfer from one school to another after their divorced mother had passed away two years back. The woman said that efforts to get the man to Child transfer is another factor which contributes to OOSC take care of the children had proved futile after the man in the region. The REO, DEOs and heads of schools reported travelled to an unknown place. It appears that mothers that transfers of children who are never reintroduced to and grandmothers have no choice but to cling to children school, contribute to the OOSC rate. They also reported even when they take new partners or remarry. It appears that parents become reluctant to enrol their children back in also that family separation weakens the nuclear family school once relocated to new economic zones. For instance, structure resulting in OOSC. children from nomadic households as observed among the pastoralists, were reported to end up being school dropouts. 3.1.4. Extreme patriarchy and In Kataryo A Primary School, teachers said some parents in exaggerated masculinity pastoral households do not to report their children to school authorities upon reaching new destinations. The REO and Education officers and parents in the region said that DEOs also reported that some children lack interest in going culture of people in Mara Region honours male more than back to school when parents lose the transfer documents or female gender and that many boys are trained to take on take too long to reintroduce them to school. family responsibility and inheritance in the family, clan and/or community. An interview with a key informer The REO further explained, that most of the children who revealed that the Kuria consider the boys, rather than the are transferred to Musoma Town Municipality, are a result girls decisions in the family. And when married, boys are of serial marriage whereby the father marries another expected to be decision makers and exercise control over wife and abandons the former wife and children. In such their wives and manage households. An instance of male circumstances, the mother decides to transfer children dominance was reported by a TASAF officer who revealed to aunts or other relatives in town, hoping for assistance. that a wife was brutally beaten by the husband (Kuria) It thus appeared that most of these children, though and her TASAF identity card burnt when she collected transferred, ended up being out of school. TASAF support funds. According to the TASAF officer, the husband thought it was improper for the wife to collect 3.1.6. Peer pressure the support funds. Pressure from fellow children provides a strong force for A teacher at Musoma Technical Secondary School said that school children to miss school before eventually dropping exaggerated masculinity can be observed in male circumcision out. Pressure to leave school comes from success stories where hospital circumcision is considered inferior. The teacher from peers who left school for ‘intruding mines’ in villages said boys who undergo hospital circumcision are considered near mines, like Acacia’s North Mara Mining Company in ‘women’ – not complete; and some would redo the process in Nyamongo (Tarime Rural District). At Bwirege Village, a the village to retain the ‘lost manhood’ status. The teacher said Form II dropout reported that he and four others left school that among the Kabwa and Kuria, once the boy is circumcised for ‘pori’ (the term used for intruding mines and pilfering traditionally (mu-mura), no girl has the right to refuse his stones) last year, after their fellow student picked a precious marriage proposal, provided the parents can meet the dowry stone which he sold to a pota ‘buyer’ and got plenty of money in the form of cattle. to spend lavishly. One year has passed and the four students still hope to hit a rock one day, as more and more students Education officers, teachers, and parents interviewed said leave school in pursuit of their own success stories. that circumcision has impact on the enrolment and school attendance of both boys and girls. During interviews with This finding concurs with CASSAD (2005)9, Njoku individual children in Tarime district, children reported (2007)10, and Okeke et al. (2008)11 who point out that peer that when circumcision camps are organized during school pressure is one of the important factors that influences terms, boys who join the camps would miss classes until the dropping out of children from school. They show that they are completely healed.

9. Centre for African Settlement Studies and Development (CASSAD) (2005). The Problem of Boy Drop-outs in Nigeria: Strategic Analysis and Priorities for Intervention. Final Report of FME/UNICEF Commissioned Study. 10. Njoku, Z.C. (2007). Improving Female Access to Education in Northern States of Nigeria: The Perception of Teachers, Parents, and Community Leaders. Journal of the Nigerian Academy of Education (JONAED), 3(1), 44-60. 11. Okeke, E.A.C, Nzewi, U.M and Njoku, Z.C. (2008). Tracking School Age Children’s Education Status In UNICEF A-Field States. Chapter three 21

One success story of an OOSC in Nyamongo Ward

The teacher of a primary school near North Mara Acacia Mining Company recently met a former student who left school in 2009 to join pori ‘intruding the mines’ when he was in Standard VII. On this occasional day, the teacher was in Nyangoto Village going to school on foot when a car pulled up after he waved for lift. The teacher was surprised to find out that the driver was a former student – one of the long time Standard VII dropouts. The student told the teacher that he had bought the car using the money he got from ‘intruding’ the mines.

When the teacher was dropped at the school, the boy gave the teacher Toyota Corolla the teacher bought after OOSC offered TShs. 10 million/, telling him, ‘Sir, buy him TShs. 10 million/ to buy himself a bicycle yourself a bicycle’.

in Nigeria, OOSC visiting villages with an air of wealth 3.2. Cultural context symbolized in material possessions like a new dress, telephone handset, money for snacks, and sunglasses, Culture refers to a common identity among people based would influence fellow children to leave school. on shared relations, beliefs and technology (Newman, 2011:488). In Musoma, distinct cultural groups include Likewise, at Nyakato C Primary school in Nyakato Ward the Kuria, Luo, Sukuma, Gita, Zanaki, Subi, Ruri, Kabwa, Musoma Urban District, incidences of peer pressure were Mongereme, Kerewe, Ikoma, and Nata. Culture is broad reported though not resulting from success stories rather and local since even within ethnic or tribal communities from fear instilled by fellow pupil gangs – popularly known there are sometimes distinct subgroups which may as ‘wapiga chaka’ (bush boys). During an interview, one share the same tribal language but may not share some ex-gang pupil reported that he joined the gang because beliefs or norms. Among the Kuria main ethnic group, of pressure from fellow pupils and the fear of corporal for example, researchers observed nineteen sub-groups punishments from teachers, among other reasons. or clans – Irege, Nyabasi, Timbaru, Linchoka, Kira, Engaging in gang activities such as loitering in streets, Nyamongo, Shweta, Nchari, Kenye, Kirioba, Ngwereme, caused some of them to miss classes for some time. The Zanaki, Ikoma, Nata, Sembeti, Kabwa, Hunyaga, Subu, ex-gang pupil revealed that sometimes they had to steal and Mara. It is interesting to note that some of the money from home to be able to support gang activities. subgroups identified, claimed tribal status; notably the Zanaki, Ikoma, and Nata. In the REO office, one of the education officers reported to have intercepted an arranged marriage of two primary Cultural differences in Mara Region followed along the lines school girls – Standard IV and Standard V, in which the of language, customs, traditions, and norms (Newman, one (in standard IV), influenced the other to get married. 2011:488-489)12. Formal appearances of the cultures in According to the officer, although there had been Mara Region (i.e. the eidos) may not be so obvious but the intervention in the event in early September 2015, there ethos has important bearings on the way people behave. had been no guarantee that the parents would not allow the The ethos is the disposition of a culture which determines girls to marry secretly. It appears that peer pressure affects its quality, its main themes and interests (Majumdar and children in all dimensions of exclusion except dimension Madan, 2013:14-15)13. One of the strong cultural aspects in one and eventually it ‘pushes’ them out of school. the region is the cattle culture as explained below.

12. Newman, D.M. (2011). Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life, 9 Ed. New Delhi, Sage. 13. Majumdar, D. N. & Madan, T. N. (2013). An Introduction to Social Anthropology. Mayoor Paperbacks, Delhi. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 22 Mara Region case study report

3.2.1 Cattle culture 3.2.2. FGM

Cattle culture is very strong among the Kuria and Sukuma. The circumcision of both girls and boys is an important Nevertheless, the culture diffuses and all cultural groups rite of passage in all the tribes in Mara Region except and subgroups in Mara Region have adopted the cattle the Luo. Nevertheless, the absence of FGM among the culture. Cattle is such a core element in the lives of the Luo does not remove the problem of early marriage and people in the region that it affects children in all the five children dropping out of school because Luo girls and dimensions. Cattle culture encourages children in both boys feel adult and ready to marry at a relatively tender primary and lower secondary schools to value cattle more age. It appears that ideas in the main culture (Kuria) have than any other activity including school, and parents diffused to Luo who also marry early. would rather have their girls and boys look after cattle than attend school. Interviews with key informers in Tarime district revealed that traditionally, local surgeons carry out the circumcision Interviews with pupils at Masinono Primary School without any hospital procedure like anaesthesia, and the revealed that children as young as preschool are at risk girl or boy who stands the painful ordeal without flinching, of dropping out of school due to taking care of cattle. The becomes a ‘small celebrity’ in the village. The parents of risk is however greater to boys in Standard VI and VII every girl who is circumcised give elders TShs. 5,000/; during the dry season as they are supposed to ensure that part of which pays the local ‘surgeons’; thus perpetuating cattle get water and good pasture along Lake Victoria, the culture. Girls are given tokens in the form of money, which is almost three hours walk from the village; the clothes, goats, and even cows, by relatives and neighbours tendency which puts many children at risk of dropping out after the circumcision as a sign of appreciation. Among of school. the Kuria, FGM is viewed positively and once girls are circumcised, the local society encourages them to feel One of the girls in Bugwema Secondary School also that they are adults and ready to marry. During interviews reported during an interview that she normally goes to the students at Bwirege Secondary School, Tarime, school late as she is supposed to milk at least 20 cows reported that quite often girls leave school after they every morning before going to school, which results in her undergo FGM. being late for school almost every day. Girls in primary and lower secondary school may be taken out of school for In school, a circumcised girl – a mu-iseke , can refuse marriage to men with cattle. punishment from teachers – both males and females, whom she considers uncircumcised. Sometimes, some Interesting about cattle culture is that a person may own girls who have undergone FGM feel uncomfortable to one hundred cattle which is enough wealth to send a study together with uncircumcised girls – derogatively child for a university degree but he may not do so. A girl called wa-sagane. The circumcised girls – wa-iseke, are in Bugwema Secondary school said during an interview already at risk of dropping out of school and what is that the home environment is not conducive to private needed for them to drop out of school is only a trigger studies as they live in a thatched house with no light for in the culture, like an older man with some cattle for studying at night despite the fact that her father owns bride wealth. more than seventy cows which could have been used to improve their livelihood. Although FGM is practiced in Mara Region, the actual percentage of girls undergoing FGM in different The cattle culture appears to permeate almost every other communities is not known. However, the data gathered aspect of family relations such as polygyny and early from the Catholic Mission of the Daughters of Charity marriages. A man with many cattle can, at any time, marry of St. Vincent De Paul in Musoma Diocese, which run many wives including young girls in schools after the girls St. Catherine Labouré Centre in Masanga (Tarime Rural undergo FGM. During an in-depth interview with students District), that deals inter alia with anti-FGM campaigns, at Bugwema Secondary School, one girl student said, 'We revealed that many girls are reluctant to undergo FGM have in this village, more than five men with more than 15 and run to the centre for protection every year during wives each, and one of our former class mates is married circumcision period. Some of these children never want to one of these cattle-rich men'. This statement was to go back to their homes. According to the interview with confirmed by several other students in the school. This sisters of Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent De Paul, is a clear indication of how cattle wealth is used, not for it was revealed that this year (2015) there are ten girls ensuring children are educated, but rather marrying more staying in the mission because their parents are violent wives, even those at school going age. since they had refused to undergo FGM. Chapter three 23

St. Catherine Labouré Centre pioneering anti-FGM campaigns

FGM survivors at St. Catherine Labouré Centre in Masanga (Tarime district), run by the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent DePaul in Musoma Diocese, reported that they had taken a lot of courage to run away from FGM.

Children placed in school in other regions return to the centre during holidays. The survivors at the centre said that they feel insecure when they are out of the centre since some of their family members might try to force them back to FGM. Last December more than 600 girls attended the anti-FGM awareness camp organized at the centre.

Above: FGM survivors (From left): Erisa (9), Maria (12), Scholastica (12), Violet (15), Suziana (15). Except Scholastica, the rest ran away from FGM. Erisa and Suziana are from Masana Village near the centre. Maria and Violet sought police protection before they were brought to the centre last year (names used not real).

The Jipe Moyo Centre in Musoma Urban, also support man. He said that the Kuria boys who did not undergo some of these children among others. During in-depth traditional circumcision were perceived as misfits and a interviews with the sister taking care of the centre, it danger to community cohesion. was revealed that the Jipemoyo supports children aged between 7 and 17 years to ensure that children are safe, A teacher at Musoma Technical Secondary school and assists them in improving their emotional health reported that circumcision as a custom, establishes through counselling and training. The data from the norms which clan members would not question or dare to centre also revealed that between January and August contradict. He said that among the Kuria and the Kabwa, 2015, it received 26 girls who had run away from FGM the boy is considered grown up and able to make his practices. Among these 14 were taken back home while own decisions after circumcision. In circumcision camps, 12 were still staying in the centre. the teacher said, the boys are encouraged to marry and start their own life. They are allowed to build little huts The circumcision of girls (FGM) has more negative around their parents’ homesteads and start relationships impacts on the schooling life than male circumcision. It with girls, some of whom might be potential wives. In should be noted that FGM by itself, does not necessarily relation to schooling, children interviewed said that the keep a child out of school, but rather the institutions that custom encourages OOSC because a circumcised boy create a cultural environment which encourages girls to – a mu-mura, may refuse corporal punishment or any marry early and leave school. other form of punishment and even drop out of school because of one event of punishment from a female 3.2.3. Male circumcision teacher. (It is even more insulting to the boy if the female teacher is thought to have never undergone FGM or is Education officers, parents, and village leaders reported a male teacher believed to be an outsider (coming from that male circumcision is as an important rite of passage non-Kuria clan); hence uncircumcised. In a nutshell, the for boys as is FGM for girls. A parent in Nyarukoba circumcision makes school boys potential candidates for Ward in Tarime Rural District whose children – boys and dropping out within 2DE and 3DE. The study revealed that girls, were circumcised, reported that circumcision was some children do not join school once again as they end considered central to the lives of all clan members as it up getting married because they consider themselves as defines respective roles and responsibilities of individuals grownups and ready to raise families, and take up clan and and instils in the boys clan values related to being a community responsibilities. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 24 Mara Region case study report

Data obtained from Masanga camp however shows that 3.2.5. Witchcraft beliefs and superstition currently boys are made aware of safe circumcision. In this year alone (2015), 250 boys camped at Masanga Another key element contributing to OOSC is beliefs camp, running away from unsafe circumcision. However, in witchcraft and superstition. The interviews with some went back home for traditional circumcision due participants revealed that some of the pupils in the study to pressures from parents, relatives, and peers who area were scared of going to school, others dropped out of feel that hospital circumcision does not make one a school, while some teachers sought transfers due to the real man – mu-mura. Some of those who undergo safe fear of witchcraft and superstitious beliefs. For instance, circumcision are rejected by their families. a Form II OOSC aged 16 years, told the researcher that she left Bwirege Secondary School (Tarime Rural District) 3.2.4. Bride wealth, early marriage, in May 2015 because she believed that someone was and teenage pregnancy bewitching her. The girl reported that every time she entered classrooms she felt high fever and could not Early marriages and teenage pregnancies are facets read or could not write. But when she was taken to the of the same phenomenon. Both are closely associated hospital she was not diagnosed with any sickness. Other with female and male circumcision and bride similar cases of witchcraft were reported during individual wealth. The culture encourages this and there are interviews with the students at Tegeruka Secondary many reflections in everyday life. The REO in Mara School in Musoma Rural District who reported that some Region revealed during an interview that teenage of their fellow students were possessed by demons when pregnancies, the paying of bride wealth in the form at school. The students also reported that sometimes they of cattle, and early marriages are common among found charms, dead owls, and food remains, in classes girls in upper primary (Standard V to VII) and lower which they associated with witchcraft beliefs. Witchcraft secondary school for girls who underwent FGM. and superstition contribute to OOSC because some Early marriages apply for both girls and boys after parents would take their children out of school when the circumcision. Because they consider themselves adult children complained at home. after circumcision, it is hard for the education officers and teachers to deal with them when they drop out. The problem of witchcraft and superstitious beliefs was reported to affect teachers. This was evident during an The interviews with students in Bugwema Secondary interview with the REO who reported that some new School in Masinono Village revealed that more than teachers from Kilimanjaro, Arusha, and Manyara, sought ten girls in the school were married and/or became transfer on grounds of witchcraft beliefs. pregnant before they reached Form III. Some of these girls were paid a bride price of more than twenty 3.2.6. Tribal ceremonies cows. Some of these girls were not forced by their parents to get married but rather thought it was Another factor which contributes to OOSC which prestigious to be married to a rich man; a man owning was observed in Mara Region, is tribal and traditional a large herd of cattle. ceremonies like burial rites and circumcision. During in-depth interviews, teachers in Bugwema Secondary There are contradictions in the culture surrounding School explained that among the Luo, for instance, bride wealth, early marriages, and teenage funeral ceremonies last from two to four weeks; the pregnancy. Cattle may be paid for a school girl. duration depending on the wealth of the family. These However, the cattle are not invested for the education ceremonies are always accompanied by dancing, of a brother let alone a young sister. Actually, the eating, and drinking a home distilled gin. A teacher at cattle may be used to pay for the brother’s wife and Musoma Technical Secondary School also reported that thus, a chain reaction is perpetuated. The brother circumcision celebrations done during daytime also drive may also marry at a tender age and may marry a girl children out of school as they normally include groups of schooling age. The extreme, but not rare case, is moving from one household to another. Such ceremonies when the father uses the bride wealth obtained by attract school children including those within 2DE and marrying off his young daughter, to marry a school 3DE to miss classes. girl himself. The other extreme but not rare case, is when the brother of the married school girl is asked Teachers further revealed that the Luo have a custom of to look after cattle obtained by marrying off his building a hut for girls and boys to live separately from teenage sister. This brother now becomes a child who their parents once they reach puberty. This is supposed is at risk of dropping out of school. to give them freedom to do whatever they want including Chapter three 25

attending the ceremonies without interference of the disabilities study in mainstream classrooms. The interview parents. Thus once there are ceremonies in the village, with the REO (Special Education) and teachers in the these girls and boys go to celebrate for weeks and inclusive schools, indicate that there are many children abandon school. with disabilities whose parents do not feel the necessity to educate them. The data from the REO office reveals the 3.2.7. Interest in schooling number of these children as shown in Table 3.1.

School teachers, village leaders, and parents – about 20 TABLE 3.1 to 30 per cent of parents, showed that lack of interest Inclusive primary schools in Mara in school among parents and guardians contributed to OOSC. This factor had to do with areas where the rate of Children Type of OOSC was high; near mining areas, fishing communities, S/N School enrolled Total disability pastoral communities, and petty trade areas. However, the M F observed lack of interest has to be viewed in the reality of Albino 23 32 55 1 Mwisenge B the culture of those parents and the prevailing economic Blind 21 14 35 and social conditions and poverty. The statement which 2 Mwembeni B Deaf 44 35 79 can be made here is that parents do not just lose interest Deaf 25 23 48 in their children’s education, they lose interest and may 3 Nyarigamba Physically 3 1 4 not be motivated in a specific cultural milieu like cattle disabled culture either. The parents may be poor but some are what are described in popular parlance and culture as ‘ordinary Grand total 116 105 221 people’. The liking of cattle may compromise and affect the education of children even when there are enough Teachers at Mwembeni B Primary School explained resources to educate a child in the family. that the community does not value education for children with disabilities in the region. They claimed This lack of interest in children’s education is contrasted that parents are aware of the existence of the special by the parents who invest much effort and money in school but do not want to bring their children to their children’s education in the region. The researchers the school. An interview with the special education observed many English medium primary schools in teacher at Mwembeni B Primary School revealed that Musoma Urban District and in the small town of Tarime. parents of children with disabilities tend to hide their In Tarime town, some of the parents send their children children at home, thus excluding them from educational across the Tanzania/Kenya border for primary and opportunities. Further, one pupil ( a girl) with hearing secondary education in Kenya. The researchers observed impairment at Mwembeni B Primary School revealed that school buses from Kenya dropping pupils in Tarime town she was highly discriminated against at home by her aunt after school. In Sirari town at the border with Kenya, the because she could not hear properly. researchers also observed parents sending their children to primary and secondary schools in Kenya on foot. Some 3.3. Economic structure Tanzanian students were also seen studying in Kenya at Kisii University, Isebania campus, which is only a few 3.3.1. Poverty hundred yards from the border. Poverty (income poverty) was mentioned by many 3.2.8. Attitude towards children with disabilities respondents as one of the major factors driving children out of school. An OOSC in Masinono Village said that From the teachers and education officers in Mara Region, his guardian could not afford contributions for him to it was obvious that very few children with disabilities complete Standard VII studies this year. Another OOSC attended school. Data from the REO, with regard to now living with grandparents who cannot afford his school the Special Education Unit, revealed that Mara Region needs, said that he dropped from Bugwema Secondary implements an inclusive education policy in some schools School in the village after his parents had passed away. in agreement with the call for Education For All (EFA), Some children in school confided that income poverty including children with disabilities. Ntarigamba Primary made some of their fellow children leave school. They also School, Mwisenge B Primary School, Nyakato A Primary said some were working to feed siblings at home. Income School, Mwembeni B Primary School and Musoma poverty appeared to affect children in all five dimensions Technical Secondary School in Musoma Urban District of exclusion since any child could find himself out of are examples of inclusive education where children with school at any age with the demise of parents. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 26 Mara Region case study report

3.3.2. Child labour that occasionally the step brother gives him some cash - between TShs. 1,000/ and TShs. 2,000/, after he herds Child labour was found to be a cross-cutting issue in almost cattle. Another twelve-year-old Standard VI girl reported all economic areas in studied districts. In Masinono Village that a fellow pupil had recently stopped attending school (Musoma Rural District) which is a predominantly pastoral because his parents were forcing him to herd cattle. community, a parent said in an interview that usually when spouses separate or one of them dies, the oldest child is In a visit to unregulated mines in Mlimani Village in forced to take care of the siblings. According to this parent, Tegeruka Ward (Musoma Rural district), the researchers this child (first born) may start working in order to take care observed under age artisanal miners at work. It could of the siblings even when working would cost the child’s be observed that even school age children who were schooling. A fifteen-year-old OOSC in Masinono village who attending a makeshift nursery school in the mine, joined is the first born living with a single mother and five siblings, the mine workforce helping mothers vend food. reported during an interview that he left Masinono Primary School last year after his father passed away and he has to The head teacher of Nyabigane Primary School in Kemambo work to take care of his siblings and mother. A Standard V Ward (Tarime Rural), reported that the school was notorious ten-year-old girl in Katario Primary School, who lives with for dropouts and that about 50 to 60 children on average out a single mother, reported that she helps the mother during of 739, miss school every day. The teacher ascertained that school hours to sell milk and water to workers near mines truant children came from surrounding villages of Nyangoto, at Mlimani mines village and Catamines. Another pupil, a Nyakunga, Genkuru, Matongo, and Nyamwaga and some Standard VI twelve-year-old, in the same school, reported to came as far as Mugumu. In an interview with an OOSC in be selling water, milk, and other amenities to workers in the Kwamarera village (Nyamwaga Ward, Tarime Rural), it was mines, during school hours. revealed that a good number of lower secondary school boys left school for pilfering gold rocks in the nearby North Mara In another interview, a parent reported that parents in Acacia Mining Company. Another OOSC girl reported that marginal communities – pastoral communities, would her brother who dropped out of school in Form III is now rather have their children herd cattle than attend school. working as a security guard in the mine. A thirteen-year-old boy in Masinono Primary School who lives with a polygynous step father, reported that the father In Katario A Primary School which had many cows, the head forces him to herd cattle in school hours. The boy also said teacher reported that about 50 per cent of boys (seven-year-

Pictured in Kataryo Village in Kataryo Artisanal Gold Mines, Joseph (9) reported that he does not attend any formal school

The makeshift nursery school in Kataryo mines. The Joseph (9) (not his real name) is one of the children attending founder is an enterprising man who decided to take care the makeshift nursery school in Kataryo mines where the of children when parents are busy digging gold or doing number of miners was in the thousands in the past. Children other businesses in the mines. The Chairperson of Kataryo like Joseph are likely not to attend school should the parents Village said that near this mine, a Canada based company, not move to the village centre where Bugwema Primary Catamines, is setting up an industrial mine likely to open School is located. next year. Chapter three 27

olds and older), sometimes miss classes because of herding in a household. The money is targeted to assist parents to cattle. The number of boys herding cattle is 100 per cent buy shoes, school uniforms and other necessities. TASAF for Standard VI boys (nine-year-olds and older ). In Katario benefited a total number of 5,765 families in 34 villages village one of the boys, a six-year-old, was observed herding (14 wards out of 21 wards), by August, 2015. The target is goats in the school compound. It transpired during an to support a total of 6, 346 beneficiaries in the district. interview with the head teacher that the boy was in preschool and that the teacher was the boy’s father. 3.4. Summary

3.3.3. Indirect cost of schooling Chapter Three has presented some findings on the social cultural and economic factors which contribute to OOSC in Indirect cost of schooling refers to costs directly paid to Mara Region. Firstly, the researchers found that polygyny schools by parents and guardians. The cost is indirect resulted in large, extended families which had a negative because it is recorded as contributions for free education impact on the schooling of children since the costs involved for children where payment by parents or guardians were prohibitive. Secondly, serial marriages were found to would not be expected. During interviews, children, result in irresponsible fathers who left their poor wives to both OOSC, and those at risk of dropping out of school, bear the burden of bringing up children on their own. Thirdly, attributed their pathetic state to contributions including a nomadic type of life, especially for pastoralists, forces water charges, watchmen, and meals, among others, to the children to be out of school. Fourthly, peer pressure be paid to school. These contributions, the children said, from fellow children who are out of school and who have pushed them to the marginal line, adding that although succeeded economically serve as an incentive for those in primary education was said to be free, their parents and school to drop out. A good example of this was a student guardians thought they were still paying school fees, who had bought a car using money that he obtained from especially when the contributions were high compared intruding the mines near Acacia Mining Company in North to local rural economies. Hunt (2008) points out such Mara. Cultural practices such as cattle culture, FGM, male costs of education are a reason why parents removed circumcision and witchcraft were also found to contribute their children from school or could not send them at all. to OOSC. In Masinono Village the researchers were told by Other students left school because teachers asked them key informers that parents were happy to see their children not to come to school until they had money to pay for out of school so that they could look after their cattle. For their outstanding contributions for direct school costs. All girls, it was reported that there was a tendency for them these arrangements adversely affect children’s progress to leave school after undergoing FGM. On the other hand and interest in schooling; hence placing the children at risk a circumcised Kurya boy (a mu-mura), would not usually before finally phasing them out of school. accept corporal punishment from a female teacher and would even consider it an insult if the female teacher had The findings from the REO office in Mara Region revealed not undergone FGM. Under the circumstances, circumcised that some of the parents were assisted to cover costs of boys become potential candidates for dropping out of school. schooling for their children by the Tanzania Social Action Witchcraft was reported by the REO, teachers and students Fund (TASAF)14. An interview with a TASAF officer themselves, to contribute to OOSC. New teachers from in Mara Region revealed that TASAF provides cash to Kilimanjaro, Arusha and Manyara who sought transfers parents; TShs. 6000/ per month per student in secondary on grounds of witchcraft, as reported by the REO and a school, TShs. 4000/ per month per child in primary Form II girl who dropped out of Bwirege Secondary School school and TShs. 2000/ for a pre-primary pupil. The in Tarime District, are cases at hand. Main economic factors officer also revealed that the highest amount of cash in that were found to be associated with OOSC include abject the region TASAF provided to marginalised households in poverty and indirect cost of schooling, usually termed as 2015, was TShs. 78,000/. The officer further revealed that contributions, pertaining to payment of water charges, the support depends on the number of children at school watchmen, meals, etc.

14. Tanzania Social Action Fund (TASAF) is a more targeted social protection programme that helps to address some short term needs of families when sending their children to school. TASAF implements Productive Social Safety Net in which one of its Sub Components is Cash Transfer (CT) which comprises two benefits. The first benefit is a Basic Cash Transfer per household being transferred to all eligible registered households; and the second is a Variable Conditional Cash Transfer for households with children to serve as an incentive for households to invest in the human capital of their children. The Variable Conditional Cash Transfer for households with children is subject to participants’ compliance with a set of activities. These activities are of Health Conditionality Compliance and Education Conditionality Compliance. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 28 Mara Region case study report

CHAPTER FOUR SUPPLY SIDE BARRIERS TO SCHOOLING

4. Introduction The presence of adequate and well constructed toilets in schools is another positive supply factor for education. In This chapter highlights the main education supply Tanzania, the official pit latrine ratio for girls is lower (1:20) indicators in Mara Region related to the five dimensions than that of boys which is (1:30). When it comes to the of exclusion. The factors revealed include inadequate study, the findings reveal that some schools like Masinono and poor school infrastructures and facilities, inadequate Primary School was once closed for lack of toilets. The and poor resources in schools, lack of teacher motivation head teacher reported during an interview that the school leading to low morale, distance from school, provision of had been closed for one and a half months after the toilets meals in schools and school safety. The findings from the were filled up and children had to rush to bushes to relieve case study show that supply side barriers to schooling themselves. In general, many schools visited, except those affect all dimensions of exclusion (1DE - 5DE). near the mines built by support of the North Mara Acacia Mining Company have toilets in deplorable conditions. 4.1. Inadequate school Majengo Primary School in Rorya district with 595 pupils infrastructure and facilities has only four toilet holes which were observed to be full – a new pit latrine was under construction. The same was One of the important supply factors for quality education observed in Nyakato primary schools in Musoma Urban is the presence of adequate and well-constructed District where toilets were dilapidated. In inclusive schools classrooms, offices, and toilets. At Nyakato A, B and like Nyakato A Primary School and Musoma Technical C Primary Schools in Musoma Urban District, for Secondary School, there were no special toilets and instance, researchers observed overcrowding and bathrooms for children with physical disability. Common to many children seated on the floor. The head teacher of all toilets was water shortage which made toilets unsavoury Nyakato A Primary School reported in an interview that and impossible for the children to use. many students sit on the floor because of the shortage of desks and chairs. She said, for instance, that the Lack of proper toilet facilities for children with Standard VI class had 102 children in a room meant for disabilities, as illustrated above, is more complicated only 45 children and that children squeeze themselves when running water is in great shortage. A large into available desks and many sit on the floor. She also percentage of the schools which were visited, lacked reported that Standard IV has 124 children, and an average running water. Observation in schools revealed pupils of 30 children sit on the floor for lack of space, even to with containers with which they fetched water from squeeze into desks and chairs. homes. Water is such an important hygiene component as it is used in cleaning toilets and maintaining the school Commenting on teacher-pupil ratio, the head teacher environment. Poor school environment contributes to reported that the ratio was as high as 1:178. The same OOSC and it affects children in almost all five dimensions trend was also observed in Bugwema Primary School of exclusion. This situation is a surprise because there in Musoma Rural District where the classroom-pupil is no shortage of fresh river, lake, rain, and underground ratio was 1:170. The visit to Sokoni Primary School in water in Mara Region. Tarime Urban, revealed a similar high classroom-pupil ratio. In all these schools, great numbers of pupils were The Regional Education Officer said during an interview that observed sitting on the floor and others attending classes the North Mara Acacia Mining Company was supporting in uncompleted classrooms without chairs or desks. The government’s efforts to improve school infrastructure, findings are similar to Woodhead et al. (2009) and World especially of schools near the mines. The education officer Bank (2008) who point out that growth of admissions said that Matare Primary School had already been completed inadequately matched by school and classroom while Bwire Secondary School was under extension. A visit to construction, often leave students in classes that are Matare Primary School in Nyamongo village in Tarime district outside or overcrowded, with high student-teacher ratios. revealed several modern schools and teachers’ houses Chapter four 29

Toilet used by pupils with disabilities at Mwembeni B Primary School

Teachers at Mwembeni B Primary School safe from falling down on the way or at explained that pupils with disabilities – the door when trying to enter the toilets. intellectually challenged and those with autism specifically; would not mount up to Teachers further reported that they the toilet rooms unassisted since there are also had to help shower them but in the no rails, staircases, or ramps. This situation absence of the right place for washing is dangerous as occasionally some pupils or protective gear, the job becomes fell down when trying to get to the toilets daunting. The situation is worse since on their own. Often teachers have to carry teachers have to share the toilets with the children to the toilets to keep them children with disabilities.

Above: One of the doors of a toilet for children with disabilities at Mwembeni Primary School. Teachers have to assist children with disabilities to step on the rock while entering the toilet. Teachers said quite often children fall down while entering the toilet if not assisted.

built by funds from the mining company. Researchers also observed modern office facilities like office chairs, tables, The North Mara Acacia Mining Company file cabinets, dust bins, desks, chairs, and sports facilities supports education development in and sportswear in the schools. The head teacher at Matare communities near the mines Primary School reported that the items had been donated by the mining company.

During the study, researchers observed garbage bins donated by the North Mara Acacia Mining Company at Bwirege Secondary School in Nyarukoba Ward where the company is currently building new classrooms and offices.

4.2. Inadequate funds and resources in schools

According to PEDP and SEPD, schools are supposed to receive annual grants for improving the teaching and learning environment. The money is supposed to purchase teaching and learning materials, pay for examinations, buy Top: A section of Matare Primary School administration books and carry the cost of minor maintenance in schools. block built by funds from the mining company. Bottom: A section of the library facility in the school with furniture Public schools, both primary and secondary, in Mara donated by the mining company. Nevertheless, this school Region, are underfunded because the government which like many schools near the mines, runs under capacity is supposed to issue capitation grants and building funds because of low demand for education which is partly to schools, does not remit the amounts in time and as caused by attraction to gold money. projected in annual budgets. There is concern about the capitation grants policy in all schools visited in Mara Region. Teachers said that the proposed TShs. 10,000/ for each primary school pupil and TShs. 25,000/ for each secondary school student, have not been revised for years, despite the rising costs of running schools.

In Musoma Urban District, for example, the flow of capitation grants in secondary schools in 2014/2015 was as indicated in the table 4.1 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 30 Mara Region case study report

TABLE 4.1 Capitation flow in one of Mara Districts

Number of Amount Amount of grant S/n School Deficit Students required received 1 Musoma Tech 930 23,250,000 6,225,735.36 17,024,264.64 2 Mara 588 14,700,000 3,715,596.08 10,984,403.92 3 Songe 455 11,375,000 2,977,516.22 8,397,483.78 4 Bweri 681 170,225,000 4,775,816.38 12,246,683.62 5 Nyabisare 418 10,450,000 2,507,035.84 7,942,964.16 6 Buhare 424 10,600,000 2,854,518.78 5,088,445.38 7 Iringo 354 8,850,000 2,191,415.88 6,658,584.12 8 Morembe 701 17,525,000 4,587,782.66 12,937,217.34 9 Kiara 834 20,850,000 5,463,765.72 15,386,234.28 10 Kamunyonge 363 9,075,000 2,475,268.16 6,599,731.84 11 Mukendo 271 6,775,000 1,751,586.78 5,023,413.22 12 Nyamiongo 465 11,625,000 2,736,543.22 8,888,456.78 13 Makoko 554 13,850,000 3,892,944.44 9,957,055.56 14 Mwisenge 720 18,000,000 4,978,727.10 13,021,272.9 15 Nyamitwebiri 490 12,250,000 3,105,296.00 9,144,704 16 Nyasho 424 10,600,000 2,693,362.60 7,906,637.4 17 Mshikamano 543 13,575,000 3,710,897.44 9,864,102.56 18 Baruti 587 14,675,000 3,895,191.54 10,779,808.46 Total 9,802 228,025,000 64,539,000.2 (28.3%) 163,485,999.8 (71.7%)

The Mara Regional Education Officer reported that in parents not to contribute to school progress as used to be 2014 primary schools in the region received less than 30 in the past, claiming that education was the government’s per cent while secondary schools received less that 40 sole responsibility. per cent of the projected grants. Similarly, the officer said, both primary and secondary schools did not receive any In terms of staff and their qualifications, the recent funds to complete construction of classrooms and other quarterly report in the implementation of SEDP (URT, school facilities. The officer also complained that the 2015)15 shows that the region has a deficit of 856 (55%) amount disbursed did not reach schools timeously and in secondary school science teachers. Tarime Rural District predictable intervals. Teachers were concerned that the has a 34.3 per cent secondary school teacher deficit system of issuing grants was not in any way transparent to – currently the district has 451 teachers but the actual school heads. In one of the schools in Bugwema Ward, the requirement is 668 teachers. Gender imbalance was also headmaster had this to say: noted in Tarime Rural District where 348 teachers were males and only 103 were females. Since female teachers I know there is an amount that the ministry deducts for books can be useful in building self esteem in girls and thereby but I am not sure how much. It is not very clear exactly how help reduce the risk of dropping out of school, their much (money for books) or how many books were supposed to scarcity reflects the inability of the schools to manage girls be received in schools. What we know is only what we receive at risk of dropping out of school. at the end of the day. There is normally no fixed date or month to receive the next part of the grant. 4.3. Lack of teacher motivation leading to low morale Interviews with the District Education Officers in Musoma Urban, further revealed that political interference in Opportunities for teacher professional development were education matters adversely affected school progress. It found to be very limited in the schools visited. In Musoma was reported that some opposition party politicians asked Urban District, teachers revealed that they needed special

15. URT. (2015). Quarterly SEDP Report, April – June 2015. Mara. Chapter four 31

courses in teaching vocational skills, the subjects which Teachers described their wage of 'TShs. 10,000/ per were not then part of college curriculum. Teachers in pre- day' (i.e. five US Dollars per day), as low, leading to job school sections also reported that they lacked requisite dissatisfaction. Teachers in Sokoni Primary School in Sirari training in preschool pedagogy since they were trained in Ward (Tarime Rural District) said that low wages forced the mainstream without any specialisation in preschool some of them do other income generating activities such education. In Musoma Technical Secondary School, as petty trade or ferrying people by motorcycles during special unit teachers said all content subject teachers office hours. According to Hunt (2008) and Lewin (2011), needed training in sign language in order to support badly paid and poorly motivated teachers would provide students with hearing impairment. low quality educational experiences. They also argue that available data indicates a link between these factors and low Teachers in special education units expressed the need for performance, dropout and repetition. incentives, as working with children with disabilities was more demanding than teaching normal children. Poor working environment in school was reported by teachers in all schools visited, as another prime teacher demotivating factor in Mara Region. Interviews with teachers revealed that teachers lacked decent office spaces and toilets. In Majengo Primary School (Tai Ward, Rorya District), the head teacher reported that the school had only one staffroom which was shared by all teachers. Observations in the staff room revealed that the room was also the storeroom where items like farming equipment and implements were kept.

There were piles of firewood in the same office which was an inconvenience to teachers. A Standard VII teacher reported that they worked under difficult conditions as there were no office tables and chairs to work on. This revelation was witnessed in all schools visited as they also lacked proper office The plight of special unit teachers furniture – office tables, chairs, cabinet files, and drawers, among other items. In Nyakato A Primary School, teachers reported that they had one staff room for all teachers. Teachers Teachers of pupils with special needs have to undergo also reported that their toilets were dilapidated and that they training twice. First they undergo the normal two-year were forced to share the newly built toilets in the nearby teacher training for a grade A teacher's certificate. Second, Nyakato C Primary School with pupils. they undergo another one-year certificate course for special needs; which makes a total of three year's training. 4.4. Distance to school

A special education teacher at Mwembeni B Primary School Cases of long walking distances to school were reported as explained that chances for further education for special one of the causes of children being out of school, especially education teachers appear to be limited. Nevertheless, in pastoral and mining communities, as these communities the teacher said, they work with these children because tend to be located on the outskirts of village centres where they wanted to help them as she notes: schools are located. Distance to school has two facets related to dropouts – the physical distance and safety on the way Unlike teaching normal children like Duesdedit (5) (not to school. The head teachers at Kataryo A Primary School his real name), teaching children with special needs is (Musoma Rural) and Masinono Primary School, reported that more demanding. Lack of incentives for teachers in special wild animals like elephants and hyenas scare school children education units is a demotivating factor. on their way to school. A similar case was reported by the academic master at St. Catherine Laboure English Medium Furthermore, teachers for children with special needs are Pre-primary and Primary School in Masanga Sirari Ward supposed to be given one to two years paid official leave (Tarime Rural). The teacher reported that three elephants after every five years of working; something which is not walk across the village between July and September every guaranteed. They claimed that their requests for official year and scare children on their way to school. The teacher annual leave are denied on the grounds that there are no said children’s attendance goes down in the morning during other teachers to take care of the children in their absence. the time the elephants walk across the village. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 32 Mara Region case study report

Teachers’ office and toilet observed in selected schools

Firewood piled up at the centre of the staff office at Majengo Ramshackle staff toilet for both female and male teachers Primary School in Tai Ward in Sota village (Rorya District). at Masinono Primary School. The head teacher reported The head teacher reported that the firewood was temporarily that the school received no building funds for the toilet, let stored in the office. alone for finishing classrooms under construction.

In Masinono Village, a pastoral community in Bugwema school, to go home. Pupils also revealed that most of them Ward (Musoma Rural District) for instance, teachers prefer to opt out of lunch for fear of being punished if they reported that some children from pastoral households are late from lunch. Other children revealed that due to live very far from school making it hard for them to fear of punishment when they are late for school, some maintain regular school attendance. Some children of them decide not to go back to school at all after lunch, confirmed during interviews that they walked between which results in more severe punishment the next day, two and three hours to school and similar time on their hence some decide to quit school completely. return. A thirteen-year-old Standard V pupil in Masinono Primary School, living in Kinyangirere village, and whose A similar situation was observed in schools near gold mines. attendance at school was not regular, reported in an A teacher at Bwirege Secondary School in Nyarukoba Ward interview that it took him about two hours to walk to (Tarime Rural) near North Mara Acacia Mining, reported school. The head teacher in Masinono Primary School that some students found it more appealing to engage in which offers midday meals to pupils, emphasized that mining than walking long distances to school. An OOSC distance from school affects children more on the day that residing in Kwamarera Village in Nyamwaga Ward reported the school does not offer meals (Wednesday). On this day, that he left school because he had to walk a long distance he said, the attendance at school becomes very low. home where he lived with his uncle, a gold business man.

At Tegeruka Primary School, the interview with students A student at Tegeruka Secondary School also reported at different intervals of time, showed that the majority that long walking distances affected him academically of pupils do not go home for lunch due to long walking since he had less time to focus on studies. He said that distances (one and a half hours to three hours). An although he did not walk to school on foot as most of his interview with the headmaster in the same school fellow students, he rode a bicycle for about 45 minutes on revealed the school timetable allocated a lunch break of sandy, stony and rough road on a daily basis which made one hour, whereby pupils were expected to go home for him too tired to undertake private studies on his return lunch and come back to school as the school timetable home. The headmaster revealed that some secondary demanded. According to the head teacher, in this school, school students in Tegeruka Secondary School rented it is an order from Regional Administrative Secretary rooms in the village centre to avoid walking long distances. (RAS), for schools in the region to run from 8:00am, break He emphasized that the problem facing the students at 1:00pm for lunch and resume at 2:00pm – 4:00pm, renting rooms in the village centre was safety and lack of not allowing sufficient time for children staying far from parental guidance and assistance with their schooling. Chapter four 33

4.5. School safety Bullying and name calling in schools Corporal punishment was one of the reasons reported to cause children to feel unsafe in many of the schools visited in Mara Region. According to Nyakato primary schools, for instance, teachers said they caned children to enforce compliance with school regulations. In an interview, a pupil reported that caning in the school was excessive and created a hostile school environment. Ex-gang boys reported that they joined gangs for fear of being canned at school, among other reasons, hence they preferred to be outside school during school hours.

Bullying was also reported as another factor for schools being unsafe. In Nyakato A Primary School, a twelve- year-old boy in Standard IV, reported that older boys assaulted him the day before the researchers’ visit. Observations of the victim revealed that the boy had sustained wounds in the mouth, had swollen eyes and had a tattered shirt which according to him was caused by the incident. In the same school, the researchers also observed a girl being beaten with sticks by three Girls are more prone to bullying and name calling. Some name boys right behind the head teacher’s office. Many pupils calling incidents are associated with chronic illnesses like were seen carrying sticks at school and after school on the sickle-cell anaemia. Above: Fatima (not her real name) their way home. Teachers explained that pupils carrying aged 9 years (centre) in Standard IV at Nyakato A Primary sticks were school prefects and that at times they were School said some older girls call her ‘katope’ instead of her instructed to report stubborn pupils, noise makers, proper name. Teachers need to ensure that such children truants, mischief makers and such like, to teachers. are not stigmatised and discriminated against. However, it was not clear from the observations that all pupils carrying sticks and hitting others were prefects or that the school had a clear policy on bullying. Name calling affects more girls and children with disability than normal children. Name calling associated with disabilities and illnesses constituted stigma which made victims feel uncomfortable and unwanted. In an interview with a teacher at Mwembeni B Primary School it was revealed that stigmatisation of the children with disabilities was so common that some parents, whose children did not have a disability, did not like to register their children in inclusive schools. According to the teacher, children who were intellectually challenged, were derogatively called in Swahili taahira (imbeciles), instead of their proper names.

In Nyakato C Primary School, a Standard III boy with albinism reported that other children called him mzungu (a white man) or cheupe (white) referring Bullying affects children, especially the marginalised. Above: to his skin colour. He also reported that people Mashaka (not his real name) aged ten years, is one of the considered him disabled. Name calling was not limited victims of bullying in Nyakato A Primary School. The boy to disabilities because even children with chronic said a gang of boys attacked him a day before. Observation illnesses were also name called. A Standard IV pupil at revealed that he suffered wounds on the face and his eyes Nyakato A who had sickle-cell anaemia, said she was were swollen. He claimed that his shirt was also torn during called katope (mud), because of her fragile health. the fateful incident. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 34 Mara Region case study report

Safety of children with disabilities was also revealed by as surrounding the school compound. At Bwirege teachers at Mwembeni B Primary School as one of the Secondary School in Nyamongo Ward, Tarime District, challenges that keeps them out of school. Interviews with a parent said lack of fences and hostels at the school teachers and students in this inclusive school, disclosed contributed to OOSC and children at risk of dropping out incidents of children with disabilities (especially the of school. All the schools visited in Mara Region have no intellectually challenged children), being harassed or fence and gate, which could be the case with all schools knocked down by motorcycles and fast approaching cars in the region. on their way to and from school. Teachers also pointed out that the situation was worse with deaf children and the 4.6. Provision of meals in schools intellectually challenged who might not hear or understand a hooting or revving car around them. There are cases of Teachers reported that school meals are an important the children being hit and injured by motorcycles and cars incentive to retain children in schools. The head teacher every school term. This was also evident to researchers at Nyakato A Primary School said that hunger made when they arrived at school and were told an intellectually pupils, who reside in distant places, desert classes challenged pupil had been knocked down by a motorcycle towards midday. A visit to one of the primary schools on his way to school. He had been injured and was taken to which provides school meals under PCI (Project Concern hospital by teachers that day. International) support in Bugwema Ward, revealed that school meals were a catalyst for pupils to attend school. Further, in all the schools visited, teachers said that The head teacher in Masinono Primary School confirmed lack of fences surrounding the schools made the school that providing meals in schools had increased school environment unsafe for pupils. Observation in Nyakato attendance. Teachers in Masinono Primary School pointed A and C Primary Schools showed community members out that since PCI, an NGO which provided meals in roaming about in the school compound, some of them schools, started to introduce meals, school attendance believed to belong to boy gangs, mixing freely with pupils had improved significantly, especially in days that meals in the school. Teachers complained that the monitoring were provided. Teachers observed that the attendance of of pupils in these schools was extremely difficult due pupils on Wednesdays, the only days without PCI meal to lack of fences separating the two schools, as well support, was very low.

School meals in Masinono Primary School – Musoma Rural District

Pupils dishing out meals to fellow pupils at Masinono Primary School. PCI sponsors school feeding in the school. There are no meals on Wednesday since parents and guardians cannot afford TShs. 500/ contribution per month.

Project Concern International (PCI) has been offering meals to 103 schools – 51 schools are in Bunda District and 52 are in Musoma Rural District. The aim of school meals is to increase attendance and increase children’s access to education. Chapter four 35

4.7. Curriculum, job skills, and offered job-based education in secondary school but they positive socio-cultural values remembered the handicraft lessons in primary school. The teacher for technical subjects at Musoma Technical Secondary The primary school curriculum appears to include some School, reported that although students are taught technical topics on handicrafts; activities designed to introduce education, the lessons are not taught effectively due to children to requisite skills for jobs. Interviews with shortage of equipment and /or qualified teachers. teachers and children in all schools visited in Mara Region, said that the job skills embedded in the formal 4.8. Summary primary school curricula, in the form of handicrafts, could help prepare pupils for jobs upon leaving school, The chapter presented evidence of inefficient service but lack of a modus operandi for imparting the skills, delivery in schools, affecting supply to schooling, cutting posed a significant setback. across almost all dimensions of exclusion (1DE- 5DE). Limited investment in the educational sector has resulted The primary school curricula appear to have embedded in poor infrastructure and facilities, inadequate funds to some aspects of social cultural values like sports and run schools, shortage of teachers, poor remuneration for personality development which one might consider teachers and lack of incentives for teachers. Other supply positive. These subjects are designed to build good side factors are distance from school and school safety. citizenry and impart skills in sports. However, teachers The chapter also revealed the hostile aspects of schools interviewed, reported that the teaching of these subjects expected to retain children through their primary and is taken for granted, as head teachers assume that any secondary education. These factors determine the number teacher can teach them, unlike subjects such as history, of OOSC while at the same time place children at risk of the sciences, or mathematics, which are considered to dropping out of school. require some subject specific qualifications. The chapter also presents interventions to improve quality Unlike primary school curricula, the secondary school of schooling in Mara Region. These include support from curricula appear to be silent on job skills education. TASAF, the North Mara Acacia Mining Company and PCI. Students in secondary school said they were not The interventions of the PCI school feeding programme component, have proven to be particularly important in improving attendance at primary schools that get the assistance. However, the interventions have not been on a scale that can make an impact on the majority of learners, especially the vulnerable children. The next chapter presents conclusions and recommendations. Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 36 Mara Region case study report

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS

5. Conclusion

This case study has presented socio- The demand side barriers are categorised Social cultural practices like traditional cultural and economic factors behind into two; social and cultural practices and circumcision for girls and boys, traditional increasing OOSC in Mara Region. The children's experiences, and economic ceremonies, and bride wealth in the study drew on the five dimensions of circumstances and household priorities. region are deeply embedded within exclusion (5DE) model, embedded in The socio-cultural factors are manifested cultural institutions, hence it is hard both Global Out-of-School Children in characteristics of family structure to track and deal with, even when the Initiative Operational Manual (2015) and cultural norms and practices – associated effects of school attendance and Conceptual and Methodological polygyny, serial marriages, single parents, are made vivid. Framework (2011). Although children child-headed families, extreme patriarchy, of primary school age are typically beliefs in witchcraft and superstition, and Vulnerable children like orphans, single- the focus of the case study, since tribal ceremonies. In addition, cultural parented children, those living in difficult they are at the centre of the efforts to activities such as cattle herding, artisanal conditions, children with disabilities, achieve universal primary education, fishing, artisanal mining, and artisanal and children with chronic illnesses, it has become important to look farming are among the activities fuelling were found to be potential OOSC due beyond the primary school age the proliferation of OOSC. The economic to community attitude, stigmatisation children to consider large out-of- factors are manifested in poor economies and discrimination. school populations among children of the parents or guardians. Abject poverty of lower secondary school. Thus, the of the families of the children results in Involvement of school children in income case study involved collecting views inability to meet the cost of schooling; generating activities such as artisanal which would explain why children miss thus making some children leave school. mining or fishing in the region leads to low and finally leave school. The views demand for school, especially when the were collected only from identified The supply side barriers are defined as out-of-school side provides chances for children in both primary school and multiple impediments to the provision ‘quick’ and more direct income. lower secondary school since children of quality schools (UNICEF & UIS, of primary or lower secondary age 2011). The study has found that poorly The migratory nature of communities who do not participate in education motivated teachers, poor school (artisanal miners, artisanal fishermen, programmes are considered as being infrastructure, scarce facilities, school pastoralists, petty traders) in Mara out of school, including the over under-resourcing, distance to school, and Region, derails the demand for education age in pre-primary and non-formal safety, are the main supply side barriers as children keep moving with parents in education. in the studied region. search of more viable ventures.

5.1. Summary of the Extreme patriarchy and exaggerated main findings masculinity in the region lessen demand for education since the culture encourages 5.5.1. Demand side social cultural children to marry at the expense of barriers to schooling schooling. The practice leads to gender imbalances where more girls are subjected Most dropout cases in schools visited, to early marriages for wealth. stem from basic characteristics of family structure, manifested in serial In schools visited, beliefs in superstition and marriages, female-female marriages, witchcraft appear to discourage students single parenthood, and child-headed from attending school regularly, while at families with many children. the same time contributing to OOSC. Chapter five 37

Some parents and children interviewed, areas away from village centres where the form of handicrafts, could help prepare seem to be dissatisfied with school schools are built are increasingly pupils for jobs upon leaving school, but because the curriculum does not offer the becoming discouraged from attending lack of a modus operandi for effective children requisite knowledge and skills for school regularly. teaching, poses a significant setback. immediate use outside school. The study found that high teacher-student 5.5.4. Policies, governance, 5.5.2. Demand side economic ratio stemming from increased enrolment, and financing school barriers to schooling leads to overcrowded classrooms which adversely make school life unbearable to Schools and villages visited have strong Abject poverty makes some parents some children who find reason to miss policies on school attendance but are let and guardians in Mara Region fail to school and drop out later. down by WEOs and VEOs who are the afford indirect school costs even in main enforcers. It has been reported that contexts of free education, as observed Teachers interviewed, reported that teachers cannot do anything after they in schools visited. they lack motivation to teach effectively have reported truants and those who because of low salaries. Teachers in leave school to WEOs and VEOs. Child labour, as observed in petty trade, special units suffer low morale because artisanal mining, artisanal fishing, and of the lack of incentives to teach children Schools visited have strategies to herding cattle in the region, derails with disabilities. ensure that the school environment demand for school among children who is safe for all children at all times. are made to consider businesses more The study found that there is an acute However, observed cases of bullying important than school. shortage of properly trained special need to be investigated and measures needs teachers. The consequence of this taken for redress. Indirect cost to school in Mara Region shortage is that there is higher teacher- appearing in the form of ‘contributions’ children ratio in classes. Schools which offer meals face the (security guard wage, water charges, challenge of persuading parents to school meals) in free education setting, School based violence, bullying and contribute for their children’s meals on lessens the demand for school, especially harassment of marginalised children a sustainable basis. Schools need to among the majority of low income earners. by older children, especially boys, name work closely with parents via school calling associated with different forms committees in order to encourage parents 5.5.3. Supply side barriers of disabilities, and corporal punishments to pay for school meals. to schooling observed in some schools, minimize the supply side to quality schooling in In schools where special units have been Inadequate and poor facilities in schools Mara Region. introduced, schools need to continue to like dilapidated structures (classrooms, demand facilities and requirements to offices, and toilets) and incomplete Positive social cultural values embedded cater for children with disabilities. classrooms, lead to low school supply in the curricula, including sports and which invariably affects attendance personality development, were found Irregular remittance of projected and retention. to be insufficient. It appears that lack capitation grants and building funds was of teachers to teach these subjects, found to result in some schools having half In schools visited, long walking distances increasingly make the subjects useless. completed buildings and in some cases no to school discourage children from facilities like toilets, at all. attending classes regularly. Children The study found that job skills embedded coming from households in marginal in the former primary school curricula in Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 38 Mara Region case study report

APPENDICES Appendices 39 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 40 Mara Region case study report Appendices 41 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 42 Mara Region case study report

Children interview questions

(OOSC, children at risk of dropping out of school, children with disabilities)

Respondent No District Ward Village Start time End time Date

The following set of questions should be asked to all children interviewed:

1. Personal information a. Age b. Sex c. Personal appearance

2. Family background a. Where do you live during the day and the night? b. Demographic status (e.g. alive or dead parents, living together or separated, living with an uncle or grandparents) c. How long have you lived in this area? d. How long have your parents/caretaker lived in the area?

3. Family social status a. Education level of the parents/caregiver b. Occupation of the parents/caregiver c. What is the primary language spoken at home? d. What tribe/clan do you belong to? e. Economic status of your parent/caretakers (e.g. wretched, very poor, middle, rich)

4. Are you attending school? What type of school?

5. Is education important to you? Why?

6. Do you think your parents value your education (do your parents care if you are in/out of school)? How do you know if they value your education?

7. What are you currently doing? (If the child is in school, ask what he/she does when not in school, because activities outside school may increase risk for dropping out.)

If employed: a. Who is your employer? b. What kind of employment do you do? c. How much do you earn per month?

If self-employed: a. What type of activities are you doing? b. How much are you earning per-day/month from the activity you are engaged in?

If working at home: a. What are you doing at home?

If other activities: a. Indicate (begging, street child, sex worker etc.) Appendices 43

8. Did you, or do you know anybody who missed classes? Please provide explanations. (Probe only after the respondent has provided the answers). • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth, Nyumba Ntobo • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings, other ceremonies • Cattle rustling • Disability • Pregnancy • Bullying • Presence of violence (e.g. corporal punishment, sexual harassment, emotional harassment) • Chronic sickness (child or in the family) • HIV and Malaria • Exam results • Learning difficulties • Any other?

9. Did you know anybody who left school? Please provide explanations. (Probe only after the respondent has provided the answers). • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth, Nyumba Ntobo • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings, other ceremonies • Cattle rustling • Disability • Pregnancy • Bullying • Presence of violence (e.g. corporal punishment, sexual harassment, emotional harassment) • Chronic sickness (child or in the family) • HIV and Malaria • Exam results • Learning difficulties • Any other?

10. Did you know anybody who never attended school? Please provide explanations. (Probe only after the respondent has provided the answers). • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth, Nyumba Ntobo • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings, other ceremonies • Cattle rustling • Disability • Pregnancy • Bullying • Presence of violence (e.g. corporal punishment, sexual harassment, emotional harassment) • Chronic sickness (child or in the family) • HIV and Malaria • Exam results • Learning difficulties • Any other?

11. What do you think you are losing by not going to school?

12. What do you think you are losing by going to school? Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 44 Mara Region case study report

The following set of questions should be asked only to children who are out of school:

1. Have you ever attended school?

YES - the child is a dropout (i.e. attended school before)

a. What type of school did you attend (ward, mission, English medium, private, special school, etc.) b. When did you leave school? c. At which level of class did you leave school? d. Why did you leave school? e. Why are you currently not going back to school? f. Would you like to go back to school? g. What will make you go back to school? h. What other kinds of training different from formal school which you would like to join? i. Why would you like to join this kind of training?

NO - the child never attended school

2. Why are you not going to school? 3. Would you like to go to school? 4. If not, why? 5. What will make you go back to school? 6. What kinds of training different from formal school which you would like to join? Why would you like to join this kind of training?

The following set of questions should be asked only to children with disability:

Observe and note down the disability without asking the child him/herself.

Questions if the child is in school:

1. Is there any name calling at the school you attended? 2. If YES, what are the reasons for name calling? 3. Who perpetrate name calling in school? 4. Does school provide you any support?

Questions if the child is out of school:

1. Were you ever refused school because of your disability? 2. What are the initiatives in your community for the disabled children to go to school?

Questions regardless whether the child is in or out of school:

1. How does the community around you perceive children like you? 2. What are the initiatives for the disabled children in your community?

The following set of questions should be asked only to children who are in school but at risk of dropping out:

1. Does your school provide meals? 2. How far is your school from home? 3. What transport do you use to get to your school? Appendices 45

4. How safe is the way to school? 5. How safe is your school? 6. Who pays for your education? 7. What do you think you are losing by going to school?

The following questions maybe asked but are they appropriate questions to children?

8. What is the agreed contribution from the parents to school (cash and kind) 9. How much contribution has been made by your parents/caretaker? 10. Implementation of the formal curriculum in the schools to see if children are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught 11. Implementation of the formal curriculum in the schools to see if children with disabilities are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught 12. Actual job skills introduced at primary and secondary schools curriculum 13. Specific additions which parents and pupils think should be added to or taken off the official the curriculum 14. What job skills do you learn at home?

Head teachers, teachers and members of school committees’ interview

Respondent No District Ward Village Start time End time Date

1. Does your school have children at risk of dropping out? • Please indicate geographical locations of those children What are the main economic activities in those locations? • What are the cultural believes and customs in those areas? • Has you school ever been closed due to having very few students?

2. Are there any specific locations/areas in the village where FGM, Bride wealth, child work/labour, female-female marriages etc. are practiced?

3. What do you think are the important supply and demand side barriers of education in your school?

4. What existing policies, and or strategies to retain students in school are in your school?

5. Are there any existing policies and or strategies to bring dropouts/never attended back to school?

6. What are the specific policies for children with disabilities and other marginalised children in your school?

7. What are the existing alternative education opportunities are available for such children in your school?

8. How do parents/ caretakers contribute to the schools financially or in terms labour/in kinds?

9. What are the specific reasons for children being OOC or being at risk of dropping out of school in this area? Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 46 Mara Region case study report

10. What is the current... • school teacher/student ratio • teachers’ qualification • training opportunities for teacher i ii iii

11. What is the minimum salary scales for teachers in pre-primary, primary and lower secondary schools. (Govt/non-government schools)

12. What is the amount of capitation grant received per child in this year in your school

13. What do you think children loosed for being in school?

14. What do you think students are losing for being out of school?

15. What is the amount of development funds received from Government in your school this year?

16. What type of support does your school receive from TASAF, NGOs, missions, etc. to support : • OOSC • Children at risk of dropping out of school • Children with disabilities

17. How does the community perceive children with disability?

18. What are the initiatives for the disabled children in this village?

19. What are the initiatives for the disabled children in this school?

20. Does your school provide meals to children?

21. Do you know cases of children in your school who missed classes, left/never attended school due to the following reasons:- Please provide explanations • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings

22. How safe are the children on their way to school?

23. How safe are the children at school?

24. How safe are the teachers in school?

25. Who pays for children education?

26. Do you think children are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught in your school?

27. Do you think children with disabilities are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught in your school?

28. What are the actual job skills introduced at primary and secondary schools curriculum? Appendices 47

29. Specific additions which you think should be added to or removed from the official curriculum to make it attractive to OOSC?

30. Observations Checklists in schools

A. Observe the adequacy and condition of the various facilities and support services at school which might contribute to the risk of children dropping out of school.

Remarks on the condition of Item Type Required Available Deficit the facilities Administration block 8 classrooms 8 teachers houses 2 laboratories A library Kitchen Dispensary/health facility Dining hall/assembly hall Stores Students’ tables Students’ chairs Adequacy of buildings Pit latrines (i) Boys (1 hole for 30 boys) (ii) Girls (1 hole for 20 girls) Other types of toilets(specify) (i) Boys (ii) Girls Counselling rooms (i) Boys (ii) Girls Teachers’ toilets (i) Male (ii)Female Quality of Buildings are constructed using buildings durable materials Classrooms' doors wide enough Requirements for wheel chairs for disabled Pavements without stairs students Toilets for children with disabilities Girls’ special rooms Girls special requirements Special bins for disposing sanitary towels for girls Electricity Sports facilities Running water Other services Washing facilities available Transport Other; specify

SOURCE: MOEVT (school inspectors Training Manual), 2006:88- 91 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 48 Mara Region case study report

Village leaders, key informers, parents/caretakers of OOSC, children at risk of dropping out of school, children with disabilities,

Respondent No District Ward Village Start time End time Date

1. Personal information a. Age b. Sex

2. Your social status i) Education level ii) Occupation iii) What is the primary language spoken at home? iv) What tribe/clan do you belong to?

3. How long have you lived in this area?

4. What is the economic status (e.g. wretched, very poor, middle, rich)?

5. Do you think parents in this area value education for their children? Where do OOSC in this area live during the day and night

6. Has your child ever attended school?

If YES: a) What type of school did she/he attend (ward, mission, English medium, private, special school, etc.) b) When did she/he start school? c) When did she/he leave school? d) At which level of class did she/he leave school? e) Why did she/he leave school? f) Would she/he like to go back to school? g) What will make her/him go back to school? h) Why is she/he currently not going back to school? i) What other kinds of training different from formal school which you would like her/him to join? j) Why would you like her/him to join this kind of training?

If NO: k) Why didn’t your child go to school? l) Do you plan for your child to go back to school? If NO, why?

7. What is your child currently doing?

If employed: c. Who is her/his employer? d. What kind of employment does she/he do? e. How much does she/he earn per month? If self-employed: f. What type of activities is your child doing? g. How much does she/he earn from the activity she/is engaged per-day/month? If working at home: h. What is she/he doing at home? Other activities i. Indicate (begging, street child, sex worker etc.) Appendices 49

8. Do schools provide meals?

9. How far is the school from home?

10. What transport do children use to get to your school?

11. Do you know anybody who missed classes, left/never attended school due to the following reasons:- Please provide explanations • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings

12. What job skills do children learn at home?

13. How safe is/was the way to school?

14. How safe is/was the school?

15. Who pays for children education?

16. Do you think children are losing by not going to school?

17. Do you think children are losing by going to school?

18. What is the agreed contribution from the parents to school (cash and kind)

19. How much have you contributed this year?

20. Do you think children are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught?

21. What job skills are introduced at primary and secondary schools curriculum? Specific additions which parents think should be added to or taken off the official the curriculum to make them attractive to OOSC?

Question number 24 to 30 should be asked to parents of children with disability only

22. Is there any name calling at the school your child attended?

23. If YES, What are the reasons for name calling?

24. Who perpetrate name calling in school?

25. How does the community around you perceive children like her/him?

26. What are the initiatives for the disabled children in your community?

27. Do you think children with disabilities are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught? Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 50 Mara Region case study report

District education officers interview

Respondent No District Council (Rural/Urban) Start time End time Date

1. Personal information a. Age b. Sex

2. Which wards/schools contributes/ contributed largest number of OOSC in your district in the past few years • Please indicate geographical locations of those schools • Among those, are there schools which are/ have been closed or have very few students? • What are the main economic activities in those locations? • What are the cultural beliefs and customs in those areas?

3. Are there any specific locations/areas in the village where FGM, Bride wealth, child work/labour, female-female marriages, petty trade, A. mining, pastoralism, A. fisheries, etc. are practiced?

4. What do you think are the important supply side and demand side barriers of education in your district?

5. What existing policies, and or strategies to retain students in school are in your district?

6. Are there any existing policies and or strategies to bring dropouts/never attended back to school?

7. What are the specific policies for children with disabilities and other marginalised children in your district?

8. What are the existing alternative education opportunities available for such children in your district?

9. How do parents/ caretakers contribute to the schools financially or in terms labour/in kinds?

10. What are the specific reasons for children being OOS or being at risk of dropping out of school?

11. What is the current. • school teacher/student ratio • teachers ‘qualification’ • training opportunities for teachers

12. What is the minimum salary scales for teachers in pre-primary, primary and lower secondary schools. (Govt/non-government schools)

13. What is the amount of capitation grant received per child in this year

14. What is the amount of development funds received from Government in your district this year? How is the fund distributed among schools in your district?

15. What type of support does your district receive from TASAF, NGOs, missions, etc. to support : • OOSC • Children at risk of dropping out of school • Children with disabilities

16. How does the community in the district perceive children with disability?

17. What are the initiatives for the disabled children in your district?

18. Do schools in your district provide meals to children?

19. Do you know cases of children in your district who missed classes, left/never attended school due to the Appendices 51

following reasons:- Please provide explanations • FGM • Male circumcision • Bride wealth • Baptisms, confirmations, weddings

20. How safe are the children on their way to school in the district?

21. How safe are the children at school in the district?

22. How safe are the teachers in school in the district?

23. Who pays for children education in the district?

24. Do you think children are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught in schools in your district?

25. Do you think children with disabilities are actually learning what they are supposed to be taught in schools in your district?

26. What are the actual job skills introduced at primary and secondary schools curriculum?

27. Specific additions which you think should be added to or removed from the official curriculum to make it attractive to OOSC?

Informed consent form for parents/guardians of children taking part in interviews

A study on out of school children – UNICEF and MOEVT

Hello, my name is (name of the researcher)from DUCE, UDSM. I am here on behalf of MOEVT, and UNICEF which is responsible for safeguarding the lives of children in Tanzania and the world and ensuring their wellbeing and safety.

We are conducting a study on out of school children in Tanzania Mainland and in . Your ward/shehia is among the selected areas for this study. This study will help the MOEVT, to formulate appropriate policies and plans for ensuring that children who are out of schools go back to school or get alternative learning opportunities such vocational training. Participants in the study includes; parents/caregivers, teachers, school children, out of school children, community members, ward/shehia leaders, government leaders. However it is very important for us to talk to Children and Youth who are at school but at risk of dropping out of school and those who are out of school. Your son/ daughter will be invited to join in the face-to-face interview with the researchers but he/ she is not obliged to take part or to answer any questions that he/she doesn’t want to.

If you agree that your child can participate in the interview and is also willing to participate then I will ask the child some questions and I will write down the answers. What the child tells us will be kept private. I will only share the answers with the team involved in this research. Names will not be linked to answers.

You can ask questions about this study at any time. If you have additional questions about this study, you can contact the research team leader through 0714801629.

Do you have any questions now?

Do you give your consent for your child to participate in the study?

Yes 1 No 2 Global Initiative on Out-of-School Children 52 Mara Region case study report

Person Obtaining Consent:

I have discussed this study with the person named below and have answered their questions in a language s/he understands. I believe this person understood this explanation and voluntarily agreed to give consent for their son/ daughter/ other to participate in this study.

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Parent/ Guardian Date

Printed Name of Parent/ Guardian

Name of Child for whom consent has been given

Consent form for interview schedules

Greetings Hello, my name is (name of the researcher) from DUCE/UDSM. I am here on behalf of MOEVT, and UNICEF in Tanzania which is responsible to safeguard the lives of children in Tanzania and the world and ensure their wellbeing and safety.

Introduction We are conducting a study on out of school children in Tanzania Mainland and in Zanzibar. Your ward/shehia is among the selected areas for this study. This study will help the MOEVT, to formulate appropriate policies and plans for ensuring that children who are out of schools go back to school or get alternative learning opportunities such vocational training. Participants in the study includes; parents/caregivers, teachers, school children, out of school children, community members, ward/shehia leaders, government leaders.

Confidentiality The information provided will remain to be confidential and used strictly for the purpose of this study. No part of the information you will provide can be disclosed to a third person without your prior consent. When we write the report we will not disclose your identity and we will only use the information for the purpose of the study to help those who make policy and create programmes for children.

Consent As a (title of the respondent) you are requested to participate in this study and provide the necessary information that is within your capacities regarding the out of school children. The information you are going to provide will contribute to the understanding of the causes of the children being out of school or dropping out and not joining schools. Your participation in this study is voluntary. No fee will be provided, and you are free to leave the study at any point in case you feel uncomfortable to continue.

If you accept to participate in this study kindly respond to the questions faithfully, provide as detailed and accurate information according to your knowledge. You are free to refuse to respond to any particular question.

If you accept to participate in this study, kindly sign below.

Signature Date

The United Ministry of Education Republic of Science and Technology Tanzania