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Canting the Cradle: the Destruction of an Ancient CANTING THE CRADLE: THE DESTRUCTION OF AN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION by JANE ELIZABETH MARSTON submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR P.S. VERMAAK CO-SUPERVISOR: N.J. VAN BLERK FEBRUARY 2013 DECLARATION Student Number: 5330491 I, Jane Elizabeth Marston, declare that CANTING THE CRADLE: THE DESTRUCTION OF AN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 25 February 2013 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the following people: Professor P.S. Vermaak for his invaluable advice and guidance with the writing of this dissertation Nico van Blerk for his assistance and suggestions My mother for proof reading my work Lynne Anderson for proof reading and for her uncomplaining and repeated assistance when the computer defeated me My parents for their unflagging support and encouragement in every aspect of my life ii SUMMARY Iraq is a country of great cultural significance as it is where civilization first began. As a result of its lengthy occupation, it is virtually one large archaeological site. In spite of numerous warnings to the governments of both the United States and the United Kingdom, no efforts were made to protect the Iraqi National Museum in Baghdad when the American-led coalition unlawfully invaded Iraq. Indeed, orders were given not to interfere with the looting. During the occupation that followed, the United States failed to take steps to protect Iraqi cultural property. In terms of international law, it was obliged to protect Iraq’s cultural property. The United States also chose to exacerbate its unlawful conduct by occupying archaeological sites and damaging them further by illegal construction. As a result many significant sites have been irreparably damaged or destroyed. Their conduct was the result of complete indifference to the Iraqi cultural heritage. Although their actions render them in breach of international law, it is unlikely that the United States will ever be prosecuted for its actions. KEY TERMS Iraq, Mesopotamia, cultural property, inventions, excavation, invasion, Iraqi Museum, Baghdad, looting, destruction of archaeological sites, occupation of archaeological sites, efforts to recover looted property, efforts to aid Iraq Museum iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................ii SUMMARY...............................................................................................................................iii KEY TERMS.............................................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................................iv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................1 1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS............................................................................................5 2 HYPOTHESIS................................................................................................................5 3 METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................6 4 SOURCES......................................................................................................................7 4.1 Archaeological Sources.....................................................................................7 4.2 Political Sources................................................................................................8 4.3 Textual Sources.................................................................................................9 4.4 Legal Sources...................................................................................................10 5 OUTLINE.....................................................................................................................10 CHAPTER 2. THE IMPORTANCE OF IRAQ.....................................................................12 1 Introduction..................................................................................................................12 2 Achievements...............................................................................................................15 2.1 Writing.............................................................................................................15 2.2 Schools and Scribes.........................................................................................16 2.3 Mathematics....................................................................................................17 2.4 Religion, Astrology, Astronomy.....................................................................18 2.5 Medicine.........................................................................................................21 2.6 Royal Innovations...........................................................................................23 2.7 Legal Codes and Law.....................................................................................25 2.8 Other Innovations...........................................................................................27 2.9 Influences in the Ancient World.....................................................................28 3 Conclusion...................................................................................................................34 iv CHAPTER 3. PREPARING THE INVASION......................................................................36 1 The Political Agenda....................................................................................................36 2 Legal Requirement for a United Nations Resolution...................................................39 3 Efforts Made to Protect Iraqi Cultural Property Prior to the War................................42 3.1 Efforts by Individuals and Organisations........................................................42 3.2 Efforts by the Iraqi National Museum in Baghdad.........................................50 4 Is there a Legal Obligation to Protect Cultural Property during War?.........................52 4.1 The 1954 Convention.......................................................................................53 4.1.1 Looting................................................................................................54 5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................60 CHAPTER 4. THE LOOTING OF THE MUSEUM..............................................................63 1 The Museum in Context................................................................................................63 1.1 The Birth of the Museum..................................................................................63 1.2 The Effect of Sanctions upon the Museum.......................................................66 2 The Looting of the Museum..........................................................................................67 3 The Loss of Knowledge................................................................................................74 4 Efforts by American Forces to Protect the Museum’s Cultural Property.....................79 4.1 The Facts..........................................................................................................79 4.2 Explanations for the Failures............................................................................86 5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................91 CHAPTER 5. THE DAMAGE TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES..........................................95 1 Destruction of Archaeological Sites..............................................................................95 1.1 Damage to Sites by Looters..............................................................................96 1.1.1 Nimrud................................................................................................96 1.1.2 Nineveh...............................................................................................98 1.1.3 Nippur.................................................................................................100 1.1.4 Umma.................................................................................................101 1.1.5 Isin......................................................................................................101 1.1.6 Hatra...................................................................................................102 1.1.7 Other Damaged Sites..........................................................................103 1.2 Damage to Sites from Military Occupation.........................................................104 1.2.1 Ur........................................................................................................104 v 1.2.2 Babylon..............................................................................................108 1.2.3 Samarra..............................................................................................113
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