Copyright by Daniel Clark Wernecke 2005
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Copyright By Daniel Clark Wernecke 2005 The Dissertation Committee for Daniel Clark Wernecke Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: A Stone Canvas: Interpreting Maya Building Materials and Construction Technology Committee: _________________________________ Fred Valdez Jr., Supervisor _________________________________ Anabel Ford _________________________________ J. Sinclair Black _________________________________ Thomas Hester _________________________________ Samuel Wilson A Stone Canvas: Interpreting Maya Building Materials and Construction Technology by Daniel Clark Wernecke, B.A., M.B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2005 Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge everyone who poked, prodded and hounded me to finish this work. First, my family has been incredibly supportive throughout this endeavor and especially my wife Melissa who has put up with my screams at the recalcitrant computer and moods when writing was not going well. I’d like to thank those who started me on this path, Jerry Kennedy and Anabel Ford, who always thought I could do it even when I wasn’t so sure. Rudy Larios, Miguel Orrego, Otto Roman, and Enrique Monterroso gave me the benefit of some of their extensive knowledge of Maya construction in the field. The late Ricardo Bueno Cano was very gracious with his time and knowledge and gave me some adventures to remember. George Andrews, though he passed away before we could complete the project we contemplated, opened his door to me without question and I will never forget. Sam Gardner assisted with some of the maps and illustrations and probably saved me from an ulcer in the process. I would also be remiss if I did not thank the supportive Carol Miller and all of my good friends on the BRASS/El Pilar Program and Gault Projects for their help. If I’ve missed anyone here – Thank you! iv A Stone Canvas: Interpreting Maya Building Materials and Construction Technology Publication No.__________ Daniel Clark Wernecke, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2005 Supervisor: Fred Valdez Jr. This dissertation will bring together from disparate sources what is known today about the building materials used by the ancient Maya and the construction technology they used to assemble their remarkable buildings. This knowledge will then be utilized to examine questions regarding Maya technology and specialization from a “bottom up” viewpoint in hopes of pointing out a valuable tool for examining the ancient Maya and delineating gaps in our knowledge. The study of Maya architecture has long depended on works on engineering and architecture that were written in the 1930’s and 40’s. While excellent for their time these works were in many cases speculative or incomplete and do not compare with modern materials research or archaeological method. Studies and knowledge, from both within and without the archaeological community, are gathered together in the first part of this work to examine what is known about the materials and technology used in building the Maya centers. The second half takes this knowledge and utilizes to examine two current scientific questions in Mesoamerica. The first is wholly practical and utilizes the v knowledge of technology and procedure to look at Maya lime burning. The specific question is whether or not the ancient Maya possessed kiln technologies beyond that of open heap burning. If they were able to use more fuel and temperature-efficient methods this would have broad implications for the reconstruction of the Maya environment as well as the Maya use of labor. The second is theoretical and takes what we know of the practical crafts and characteristics and applies that information to an examination of specialization among the ancient Maya, specifically whether or not Maya monumental buildings were planned or constructed by architects. The assumption to date has been that Maya architects existed which again holds implications for the ancient use of labor, social hierarchies and knowledge base. vi Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction ………………………………………..…1 Chapter Two: Environment and Materials……………………….…9 The Geology and Environment of the Maya Area ….....9 Stone ………………………………………………….15 Stone Acquisition and Transport……………………...17 Sascab ………………………………………………...21 Lime Cements, Mortars, Plasters, and Stuccos ………23 Clay and Other Soils ………………………………….31 Wood ………………………………………………….32 Summary……………..……………………………….39 Chapter Three: Planning and Preparation…………………………...41 Planning ………………………………………………41 Mathematics/Geometry ………………………………49 Labor Organization …………………………………...52 Ground Preparation and Foundations ………………...54 Platforms ……………………………………………...58 Summary………………………………………………63 Chapter Four: Architectural Elements: Floors and Stairs ……….. 67 Floors and Pavements ………………………………...67 Stairways ……………………………………………..72 Summary ……………………………………………...81 Chapter Five: Architectural Elements: Walls, Columns & Windows………………………………………………83 Walls ………………………………………………….83 Doorways and Columns ………………………………94 Windows and Vents …..…………………………….101 Summary……………………………………………..105 Chapter Six: Architectural Elements: Vaults, Roofs, and Roof Crests .107 Vaults and Roofs ………..…………………………..107 Roof Crests …..……………………………………..128 Summary ….………………………………………..141 Chapter Seven: Tools …………………………………………………143 Survey, Layout, and Measurement ………………..…143 Digging and Quarrying ………………………………148 Transport …………………………………………….152 Masonry ……………………………………………..155 vii Plaster and Stucco Work …………………………….160 Woodworking ……………………………………….161 Summary …………………………………………….165 Chapter Eight: Implications ………………………………………...167 Did the Maya possess advanced lime burning technology? ………………………………………….168 Did the Maya have Architects? ……………………...175 Chapter Nine: Conclusion ………………………………………….188 Appendix A: Maya Chronology ………………………………….191 Appendix B: Glossary …………………………………………….192 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………..197 Vita………………………………………………………………………..…231 viii List of Figures Figure 1.1. Maya sites noted in the text …………………………………6 Figure 2.1. Geology of the Maya area ………………………………….10 Figure 2.2. Environmental Zones of the Maya area ……………………14 Figure 2.3. Shaping building stone ……………………………………..19 Figure 2.4. Maya quarrying …………………………………………….19 Figure 2.5. Lime manufacturing cycle ………………………………….26 Figure 2.6. A Maya “heap” lime burn ………………………………….27 Figure 2.7. Clay structure in EP7 tunnel ………………………………..33 Figure 2.8. Bajareque construction ……………………………………..34 Figure 2.9 Carved wooden lintel ………………………………………35 Figure 3.1. Maya E-groups ……………………………………………..44 Figure 3.2. House of the Governor, Uxmal …………………………….44 Figure 3.3. Xaman glyph ……………………………………………….46 Figure 3.4. Moldy wall with graffiti at Tikal …………………………...48 Figure 3.5. Maya superposition, EP7 at El Pilar, Belize ………………..55 Figure 3.6. Platform at Tikal ……………………………………………58 Figure 3.7. Masonry at Becan …………………………………………..60 Figure 3.8. Dry stone masonry at Lubaantuun ………………………….60 Figure 3.9. Masonry cell construction …………………………………..61 Figure 3.10. Retaining wall at El Pilar …………………………………...63 Figure 3.11. Settling crack in Maya pyramid …………………………….64 Figure 4.1. Sascab floor …………………………………………………69 Figure 4.2. Plaster pavements …………………………………………...71 Figure 4.3. Preclassic round plaster structure …………………………...72 Figure 4.4. Stairway at Bolonchen ………………………………………74 Figure 4.5. Construction stairway on Maya pyramid ……………………75 Figure 4.6. Temple IV at Comalcalco …………………………………..76 Figure 4.7. Stairway at Luubaantun ……………………………………..76 Figure 4.8. Stairway at Copan …………………………………………..78 Figure 4.9. Structure 1 at Xuphil ………………………………………..79 Figure 4.10. The Castillo at Chichen Itza ………………………………...79 Figure 4.11. Stairway at El Pilar ………………………………………….80 Figure 4.12. Stairway on Structure IV at Becan ………………………….81 Figure 5.1. Bajareque dwelling ………………………………………….84 Figure 5.2. Wall detail at Manos Rojas …………………………………88 Figure 5.3. Negative batter at Tulum ……………………………………91 Figure 5.4. Wall butt joint ……………………………………………….93 Figure 5.5. Wooden lintel in position ……………………………………95 Figure 5.6. Maya God erecting a lintel ………………………………….95 Figure 5.7. Jamb insert in Maya doorway ………………………………97 Figure 5.8. Columns from the Court of a Thousand Columns ………….99 ix Figure 5.9. Masonry piers ………………………………………………100 Figure 5.10. Zoomorphic façade …………………………………………102 Figure 5.11 Windows in Maya temple …………………………………..103 Figure 5.12. Vent holes in La Iglesia …………………………………….104 Figure 5.13. Holes in vault mass ………………………………………....104 Figure 6.1. True corbel vs. Maya vault ………………………………….110 Figure 6.2. Structural elements in a Maya range structure ……………...111 Figure 6.3. Boot shaped vault stones …………………………………....114 Figure 6.4. Consolidation of a Maya vault …………………………...…117 Figure 6.5. Loten’s proposed scaffolding ……………………………….120 Figure 6.6. Mansard roof at Palenque …………………………………...123 Figure 6.7. Dry stone corbelling on a tholos tomb ………………………124 Figure 6.8. Vault styles ………………………………………………….125 Figure 6.9. Composite roof at Piedras Negras …………………………..126 Figure 6.10. Flat beam and mortar roof …………………………………..127 Figure 6.11. Roof crests at Tikal ………………………………………....130 Figure 6.12. Balaam Ku figure …………………………………………...132 Figure 6.13. Roof crest at Xuphil II ………………………………………134 Figure 6.14. Gendrop’s crest style map …………………………………..136 Figure 6.15. Temple I at Tikal ……………………………………………138 Figure 6.16. Roof crest styles …………………………………………….138