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Fall 1996 The Art of the Oklad Wendy Salmond Chapman University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Salmond, Wendy. "The Art of the Oklad." The Post 3.2 (1996): 5-16. Print.

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Art at Chapman University Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Art Faculty Articles and Research by an authorized administrator of Chapman University Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Art of the Oklad

Comments This article was originally published in The Post by the Hillwood Museum, volume 3, issue 2, in 1996.

Copyright Hillwood Museum

This article is available at Chapman University Digital Commons: http://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/art_articles/82 ~ AUTUMN 5

n 1904 a team of restorers A similar story could be told embarked on preserving the of countless other oklads that I celebrated of the Old once a dorned Russian Testament , which had but were removed in the 20th been painted by Andrei Rublev century in response to a mod- between 1422 and 1427.l The ern aesthetic that saw the .---lhe- 'Po7f- project, initiated by the noted painted icon as a work of art, collector Ilya Ostroukhov, the metal oklad as merely a 3cz.. ) involved removing layers of dirt vulgar display of wealth. --Au,~MV\ \qq~ and olifa (linseed oil), and the Today, it requires an act of

if :1 THE ART OF THE OKLAD f• ·I by Dr. Wendy R. Salmond, Visiting Curator !1 I areas of repainting that imagination to appreci- Detail. Okladfrom had accrued over the ate the integral role Jeon ofSt. Nicholas centuries. Before that Ok} ads On Ce ofVelikoretsk, see fig. 6. work could begin, played in the mean- however, the icon ing of medieval had to be separated icons such as Rub- from its oklad,2 a cov- 1e v' s Trinity. To ering of beautifully visualize what the chased solid gold majority of early through w hich only must the faces, hands, and have looked like feet of the three with their covers angels were visi- \ intact, we must ble (fig. 1). With turn to the pri- its precious bur- vate devotional den of jeweled icon of the haloes, necklaces, 18th and 19th and collars, the centuries, a Trinity's oklad source that exemplified a cen- is only now turies-old tradition of honoring attracting the notice of scholars important icons with donations and collectors. Usually small and adornments, a tradition images reserved for private use that expanded the icon's role as in chapels or bedrooms, lovingly "a w indow onto heaven" by. preserved in special cases (kiots), ·building "a kind of fragile an9. passed down through gen- bridge which aspired to unite erations, these devotional icons heaven and earth."3 When the have miraculously survived with restoration was completed, the their covers intact, either oklad was not replaced. Instead, . because they continued to be it was permanently retired to the used for religious purposes until museum of the Troitse-Sergieva quite recently, or be.cause they Lavra, where it remains as ended up in private collections 'a sumptuou s example of the where the oklad was appreciated jeweler's craft, its original func- as highly as the icon. This is par- tion and meaning more or less ticularly true of the icons that forgotten. Mrs. Post acquired during her I ~ I ' 6 AUTUMN I

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' ~ : ' I I Ffg. I more than thirty years as a col- Russian culture is almost as old l· Ok/ad from the Old lector of Russian art and now as that of the icon itself. The j Testament Trinity icon, form a significant part of the . first painted .icons were 16th- 18th centuries. Hillwood collection. Over half brought from Constantinople l Painted by An drei of these are personal icons that to the city of Kiev around 988, Rublev. Gold, silver retain the metal covers with the year in which Grand Duke gilt; pearls, precious which their former owners Vladimir of Kiev converted to stones, 140 x 115 cm. sougl).t to express their reli- Eastern Orthodoxy, the religion Sergiev Posad Ml gious piety and, frequently, of the Byzantine empire. As and History Museum their awareness of changing physical embodiments of the I : I artistic fashions, particularly central Christian mystery-that i the western European styles Christ was both divine and i introduced into Russian art in mortal, spirit and flesh-icons the 18th and 19th centuries.4 acted as intermediaries between !i The history of the oklad in the earthly and the heavenly { AUTU MN• 7 worlds. Their painted images of the background of the icon, or, Christ, the Mother of God, and less frequently, by complete the provided a visible metal covers that revealed only presence through which the the faces, hands, and feet of the faithful could gain access to the holy personages depicted. invisible realm of the spirit. A Certainly, by the 16th century clear distinction was drawn, the practice of adorning icons _however, between the worship with a multitude of gifts had of icons (i.e., idolatry) and their become firmly established as an veneration, since all honor essential component of icon directed towards the painted veneration (ikonopochitanie). On image was actually intended a daily basis the veneration of for the holy personage repre- holy images took the form of sented. In the words of St. Basil lighting candles and icon lamps the Great, "The homage paid to before the icons, purifying the image is transmitted to the them with incense, bowing original." 5 and prostrating before them, The custom of honoring and especially kissing them icons with covers made of pre- (lobzanie). The donation of an cious materials (gold and silver, oklad or other adornmept to a pearls, and precious stones) particular icon was considered was introduced to Russia as an act of special piety, one that early as the 11th century.6 brought favor to the donor and Initially, such costly embellish- honor to the holy image. In ments were reserved for only addition to commissioning an the most venerated icons, such oklad for a previously un- as those that performed mirac- adorned icon, a pious donor ulous cures or protected the could refurbish or add to an Russian people from their ene- icon's existing oklad in many mies. Thus, the icon of the ways. In the case of Rubiev's Vladimir Mother of God (so i con of the Old Testament called because of its role as pro- Trinity, for example, by the tector of the city of Vladimir) mid-18th century the icon's was covered with a gold and adornments included haloes jewel-encrusted oklad soon donated in the 16th century by after it was brought to Kiev Boris Godunov, a panagia (a from Constantinople in 1136. bishop's pendant with an After this initial cover was image of Christ or the Mother stolen by the Mongols in 1237, of God) given by Fedor three more were made for the Godunov, and crescent collars icon in the course of the next (tsatas) given by Tsar Mikhail four centuries, thereby empha- Romanov in 1626, all embell- sizing the central role that the ishing a gold cover given by the Vladimir Mother of God played monks of the Troitse Lavra in in the political and religious life 1754.8 Although including the of medieval Russia.7 ·donor's own image on either Judging from the mesh icon or oklad apparently was of tiny nail holes that scar the frowned upon (unli~e in the surface of many Russian religious art of Italy and icons from the "Golden Age" Byzantium), oblique personal (roughly the 13th to the early references to the donor were 16th centuries), a surprisingly permitted with the inclusion of high number of icons were at personal sa'ints on the icon's one time covered, either by borders (see fig. 6). thin metal strips stamped with The oklad also protected the ornamental patterns (bas'ma) holy image beneath in both a and nailed to the borders and literal and a symbolic sense. On ~ 8 AUTUMN

a purely physi cal level, it 17th-century image of the h elped to m itigate the Kazan Mother of God (fig. 2).10 inevitable side effects of daily Here, the symmetrical scrolls of veneration, such as oils and foliate ornament on the bas'ma abrasion from the constant border carry over onto the kissing of the icon's surface, attached haloes, diadem, and and soot and grime from the collar, all of which are studded .candles, lamp oil and incense. with cabochon paste stones set Equally important, it helped to in toothed cages. The ground of define the boundaries between the icon (the svet, literally, the this world and the one beyond, "light") is also covered with serving as "an intermediary metal bas'ma strips, leaving free j between God or the Saints only the bust-length figures of 'i installed in their paradisiacal the Mother of God and the sojourn, and the faithful offer- Christ Child. Evidently, this f ing up his prayers to them."9 icon was covered as a single At its peak in the 16th and commission, and its rather 17th centuries, the art of the modest "off the shelf''. adorn- oklad-and of icon adornment ments remained undisturbed in the broadest sense-had over the intervening centuries. expanded to include the ele- In addition to these basic ' t' ments of an entire "wardrobe" adornments, the central figures ! Fig. 2 (ubor or kuzn'). In addition to a might be covered with separate ''' Icon ofthe Kazan Mother fixed oklad (often lavishly jew- dresses (riza) of velvet or bro- of Godwith bas·ma eled and fitted with special cade embroidered with pearls oklad, halo, diadem, chambers to hold. relics), an and gold thread. Icons of the ; I and crescent collar, especially revered icon might Mother of God also received \' I I late 17th century. receive haloes (venets), diadems gifts of earrings and long strings I ~ Tempera on wood, (korona), and crescent collars of pearls known as riasny I I metal, pasu.~ stones. (ts a ta) as gifts. These three (riasy)-ornaments that were 31.40 x 26.35 cm. types of ornament appear on originally used to decorate Hillwood collection the o.klad of one of° the earliest women's clothing and that were 54.7 covered icons at Hillwood, a an important part of a Russian I 'I n oblewoman's w ardrobe.11 I. Especially large numbers of I; richly adorned icons were found I! in convents where women from ! noble families were often forcibly confi ned, or where they chose to end therr days as nuns, having left all thejr worldly pos- I ·sessions to the convent. By the mid -17th century, I w hen the practice of icon I 1 adornment seems to have sub- I I i: sided in other Orthodox coun - I I tries, the lavish decoration of 'I l icons, both those for private I use at home and for public worship in churches and monasteries, was still in vogue in Russia. When Paul of Aleppo ! accompanied Metropolitan Macarius of Antioch to Russia I in 1655, he described how, in Moseow's Novodevichii con-

1 vent, "around the columns are I I AUTUMN• 9

placed small silver gilt icons in heaping of separate adorn- Fig. J two rows, qne above the other, ments on an icon was summar- Icon ofrhe Three Handed many of them adorned in pure ily stopped in 1722, when Peter Mother of God with gold and stones without price," issued an ukaz (decree) .to the oklad, 1743-90. while "around the church and recently formed Holy Synod, Tempera on wood, surrounding the four columns ordering the removal of all silver, painted enamel. were placed very large icons on superfluous trappings from 31.91x21.30 cm. which nothing was visible but church icons and their transfer Hillwood collection the hands and faces, and per- to the Treasury ''for safe keep- 54.16 haps with great difficulty one ing."13 Pearl edgings, diadems, could see a bit of the clothing, riasny, tsatas.. and earrings but all the rest .yas thick, were removed from icons, and chased silver with niello."12 pounds of pearls were stripped This public practice of icon off and stockpiled in church adornment was profoundly sacristies. Henceforth, the altered in Russia by the sweep- icon's more medieval trappings, ing reforms of Peter the Great with their sometimes pagan in the early 18th century. The associations, were relegated to •10 AUTUMN the past, and icon adornment Such changes in the external was almost entirely confined to appearance of Russian icons did the fixed cover and the halo. not fundamentally affect the I A more gradual transforma- enthusiasm for icon adormnent tion of the icon's appearance in the post-petrine period. As I took place in the course of the in preceding centuries, the I 18th century, as western tastes donation of lavish gifts to the for the baroque, rococo, and church was still considered an I ! neoclassical styles permeated all important political gesture I I aspects of worship, from church made by the ruler. Empress I. r architecture to the painting and Anna (r. 1730-40) commis- I I adornment of icons. For the sioned sumptuous oklads for I 18th-century Russian seeking two of Russia's most revered i l to express his piety in the new miracle-working icons, the i . language of imported forms, a Gruzinskaia (Georgian) Mother revered family icon could com- of God in Moscow's Trinity fortably accommodate quite an Church and the Kazan Mother '' I eclectic range of western styles. of God in St. Petersburg.1 s I An icon of the Three Handed During the reign of Alexander I I: Mother of God (Troeruchitsa) at (r. 1801-25), yet another oklad Hillwood shows the fluctuation was made for the Kazan of artistic fashion in the 18th Mother of God in preparation century (fig. 3). Painted in for its installation in the new 1743 at the beginning of Kazan Cathedral in St. Empress Elizabeth's reign (the Petersburg. The design-'-for a painter, R. V. Vasilevskii, added gold oklad worked in high his signature and the date on relief with a radiance tipped the lower right border), the with diamonds-was commis- . ~ icon itself reflects the prefer- sioned by a merchant named ence for northern Baroque Konosov, but it was ultimately painting, in the full-faced approved by the emperor him- Mother of God, with her pink self. In addition to the four complexion and protuberant, pounds of gold and _l,432 dia- sparsely lashed eyes, and in the monds used in its production, ! ! tow-headed Christ Child. Fifty the oklad was set with precious I I years later, in 1790, a silver stones, over half of them I: oklad was commissioned for donated by Alexander's wife the icon, perhaps by a grand- and by his mother, Maria child of the original owner~ Its Fedorovna. The finest ruby was l 1 I leafy scrolls, floral sprigs, and the gift of Grand Duchess I I robust cherubs display a florid Ekaterina Pavlovna.16 rococo taste that faintly tinged Among the population at i with baroque elements, must large the periodic updating and I'I. Ii have seemed already out of refurbishing of oklads contin- date in the last years of ued, as revered family icons Catherine the Great's reign, were passed from generation to ! iI when neoclassicism pre.domi- generation. The recovering of i nated. The narrow haloes of an old icon frequently coin- i I I . 17th-century oklads have given cided with its "renewal" (i.e., I''. I I way to sunburst radiances, the darkened surface was while the flat, five-pointed dia- repainted in keeping with con- dem with its medieval over- temporary artistic fashion). In I I tones is supplanted by a small 'I the 19th century, the prefer- r: split crown reminiscent of the ence among more educated new Imperial regalia intro- people for academic and realist duced into Russia during the painting was echoed -by an I ' 18th century. overwhelming fondness for AUT U MN •11 more sculptural oklads, from eral declirie in taste, compared beneath which the painted fea- to that of "our ancestors [who] tures of the blessed peered out loved to decorate the holy as if "through slits in dough." icons, and yet did not presume Just as icons of the 17th cen- to cover their revered images tury and earlier were repainted with solid metal covers, and in keeping with the realist spirit covered only the edges of the of the times, so too their old icon with bas'ma oklads."18 . I' bas'ma oklads were unceremo- A striking example of this niously removed and discarded, shift in taste is an icon of St. all in the name of icon venera- Nikita fighting with the Devil. tion. Some critics blamed the Now in the Hillwood collection, clergy "with their low tastes ... the border of this 17th-century for the dressing of icons in icon had at one time been cov- Fis. 4 heavy sealed covers, with holes ered with a narrow bas'ma Jeon of SI. Nikitafi9h1in9 cut out for the faces and feet oklad, as the rows of tiny nails the Devil. late 111h and hands [to allow] for kiss- and nail holes in the surface century. Tempera ing." 17 Others, nostalgically clearly indicate (fig. 4). Around on wood. looking back to the time before the mid-19th century the. icon's 32.38 x 27.30 cm. Peter the Great's reforms, owner decided to replace the Hillwood collection · :1 attributed the change to a gen - old-fashioned bas'ma with a 54.41 I I

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! I Fig.5 Ok/ad from icon ofSt. : , ,I Nikita fi9htin9 the Devil, I. mid-19th century. Gilt" I I I j metal, 32.38 x 27.30 cm. Hillwood collection : i 54.41 '

new, solid metal cover (fig. 5), ple, an icon of the Chernigov- :I rather reminiscent in shape Il'inskaia Mother of God was and ornament of the found in a dark storeroom in daguerreotypes that were the Church of the Resurrection becoming popular in Russia at Smolnyi in St. Petersburg, i around that time. An attempt and it soon b egan to effect '' I ! was made to convey not only a miraculous cures. It was then sense of depth through linear l ' perspective, but also of sub- permitted to be hung in a promi- stance to the 's body nent part of the church and to be through modeling. This oklad honored with the burning oflamps I: thus represents one way in . and candles before it and to have which 19th century Orthodox prayers said. Several of the ! ! Russians attempted to reconcile church's regular visitors then : I the aesthetic and intellectual expressed a desire to have a gilded ! i i: demands of their age with the wooden frame made for the icon, at I: p~inciple s of icon veneration. their own expense, and then zeal- : I Although tastes in icon ous people were soon found to painting and decoration may adorn it with a rich silver gilt have changed by the late 19th oklad with diamonds, amethysts, i ' century, the sincere desire to pearls and other stones. I : l honor the holy icons through I I . all available means had in no By the end of the century, the way waned. In 1851, for exam- icon's "biographer" recorded, it AUTUMN •13 was kept in "a large and mag- mem·orable examples of this nificent gilded kiot made in trend. Henceforth, the muse\lm 1891, thanks to the zeal of the rather than the church became church's parishioners, to com- the icon's habitat, a secure and memorate the miraculous stable environment where the escape of Alexander ID and his traditions of icon veneration family [from a railroad acci- (so harmful to the icon as a dent] on 17 October 1888."19 work of art) had no place. Although only the most revered A second, rather more sinis- icons received such lavish ter reason for the oklad's gen- attention, the sheer number of eral demise can be found in the 19th-century icons that have campaign to confiscate church survived with their covers valuabl.es, which was autho- intact, however mass-produced rized by the Soviet government and modest, provides com- in 1922 on the pretext of rais- pelling visual evidence of the ing funds for the victims of the organic connection that existed catastrophic Volga famine. As a in the Orthodox mind between result of this campaign-the an icon and its "dress." first in a series of attacks on Given this brief survey of the church property that lasted oklad's enduring importance, well into the l 930s-large we may reasonably wonder quantities of church plate, vest- why a tradition so widely ments, and icon covers were a~cepted as an integral part of melted down for their gold or an icon's meaning for over silver content. The destruction nine hundred years fell so was not entirely indiscriminate, rapidly from grace in the first thanks in large part to the three decades of this century. efforts of Glavmuzei, the orga- Judging solely by the present- nization in charge of creating day appearance 6f most museums and protecting works medieval Russian icons that of art during the early Soviet have been restored to their period. Instructions issued to original paint layer, we might those in charge of the confisca- well conclude-quite wrongly- tions categorically forbade "a) that the oklad was a phenome- stripping old bas'ma, tsatas, and non confined exclusively to the haloes from icons, crosses, 18th and 19th centuries, a royal doors, rizas and other period long considered one of such objects as they might dec- "decadence" in the history of orate, and b) removing stones icon painting. Two explana- and pearls from objects made tions for the oklad's demotion prior to 1725."20 As a conse- can be offered. First, oklads quence, significant pieces of undoubtedly fell victim to the liturgical art were preserved "rediscovery" of icons as pow- and added to the nation's erful works of art in the early museum collections as exam- 20th century, thanks in large ples of decorative art. An odd part to the new science of icon. by-product of the confiscation restoration, which for the first campaign was an exhibition time revealed the brillian~ col- mounted at the Hermitage ors and expressive forms of Museum in 1923, comprising medieval paintings buried "material that was fairly under centuries of dirt and unusual in museum practice. overpainting. The Old Testa- Most of it consisted of [18th- ment Trinity icon by Andrei century] icon oklads, removed Rublev and the Vladimir from the actual icons, so that in Mother of God (stripped of its those places where one had oklad and restored in 1919) are been accustomed from child- ..14 AUTUMN hood to see an image there suggest that this was an impor- were gaping holes, often of a tant commission, made for an very unnerving shape."21 icon that was highly revered in One of the finest oklads at the 16th century.22 The original Hillwood is almost certainly a icon was either destroyed, veteran of the confiscations and removed for separate sale, or Ffg. 6 lootings of the 1920s and 1930s. earmarked for a museum collec- Ok/ad from an icon ofS t. This unusually large silver oklad, tion. The oklad, however, was Nicholas of Ve/ikoretsk depicting St. Nicholas of clearly too recent in date to with scenes from his life. Velikoretsk with scenes from his qualify as a national treasure, 1775. Silver gilt, life, was made in Moscow in and yet too fine in its workman- niello, paste stones, 1775 (fig. 6). The quality of the ship to be melted down for its 57.47 x 46.35 on. workmanship and the presence silver content. Perhaps it was A Hillwood collection of the patron saints depicted on instead set aside for sale to for- 54.12 niello plaques on the border eigners in the state-run comrnis- l t I I.

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I I I I : iI ·II AUTUMN ..15 sion shops of Moscow and 3.' Andre Grabar, Les Leningrad. No doubt to increase Revetements en or et en argent des its salability, the oklad was sup- icones hyzantines du moyen age plied with its present "icon," (Venice, 1975), p. 6. which was hastily painted in oil 4. Of the 86 icons in the on chipboard. No covered icon Hillwood collection, 41 have in the Hillwood collection more silver or metal covers. The nail vividly illustrates the artistic and holes in some of the oldest historical value of oklads, as well painted icons show that they as their vulnerability to change. too were at one time covered. Thanks to the vagaries of 5. The liturgical meaning of Russian art collecting in the these words is explained in 20th century, it is in small Leonid Ouspensky arid western collections such as that Vladimir Lossky, The Meaning of of the Hillwood Museum that Icons, trans. G. E. H. Palmer and the identities of many icons of E. Kadloubovsky (Crestwood, the 18th and 19th centuries NY, 1982), p. 32. have been best preserved, not 6. The earliest examples only as examples of icon vener- appear to be the large icon of ation but also as accurate reflec- St. Peter and St. Paul from the tions of artistic taste at every iconostasis in the Cathedral of level of Russian society-from St. Sophia in Novgorod (ca. the tsar to the peasant. Unlike 1050) and the Korsun Mother medieval icons of the Golden of God from the same church. Age, whose full glory became See Grabar, p. 23, figs. 3-4 and visible only after they were "lib- E. A. Gordienko and A. N. erated" from their original cov-. Trifonova, "Katalog serebri- ers, later icons are most fully anykh okladov novgorodskogo themselves when seen through muzeia-zapovednika," Muzei 6 the thin, highly ornamented (Moscow, 1986), pp. 209-24. layer of their oklads. 7. Two of the covers are now in the Armory Museum in the Moscow Kremlin. They are dis- Notes cussed in Grabar, pp. 68-72, l. On the icon itself see V. I. and illustrated in Antonova and N. E. Mneva, Gosudarstvennaia Oruzheinaia Katalog drevnerusskoi zhivopisi. Palata (Moscow, 1988), figs. 24 Opyt istoriko-khudozhestvennoi and 26. klassijikatsii. Tom J.XI-nachalo 8. These donations super- XVJveka (Moscow, 1963), pp. seded an earlier donation by 285-90. On its restoration, first Tsar Ivan the Terrible of "a in I 904-190 5 and again in pearl-embroidered icon-cloth 1918, see Ju. G. Malkov, made in the workshop of "K izucheniiu 'Troitsy' Andreia Anastasia Romanovna, his first Rubleva," Muzei 8 (Moscow, wife, and also a new gold 1987), pp. 239-58. mounting together with 2. The vvord oklad derives diadems, haloes and crescent from the verb okladyvat' (to collars decorated with chasing, edge or border). It is frequently multi-colored enamel and sap- used interchangeably with the phires, rubies and chrysolites." term riza (literally, a chasuble), T. V. Nikolaevna, Sobranie although the riza is more accu- drevne-russkogo iskusstva v rately that part of the oklad that zagorskom muzee (Leningrad, represents the clothing of the 1968), pp. 11, 226. figures depicted, often a piece 9. Grabar, p. 4. On the litur- of fabric embroidered with gical meaning of oklads see also pearls, gold thread, or stones. I. A. Sterligova, "O liturgich- •16 AUTUMN eskom smysle dragotsennogo ubora russkoi ikony," in Vostochnokhristianskii khram. Liturgiia i iskusstvo (St. Suggested Readings Petersburg, 1994), pp. 219-26. Barns, John R., Icon Collections 10 .. 0n the Kazan Mother of in the United States (Torrance, God, one of the most wide- CA: Oakwood Publications, spread icons in Russia, see 1991) Ouspensky and Lossky, The Meaning of Icons, p. 88. Gates ofMystery. The Art of Holy 11. On these components of Russia, edited by Roderick 16th-century icon coverings Grierson (Fort Worth, TX: see V. T. Georgievsk.ii, "Ikony Intercultura and the State Ioanna Groznogo i ego sem'i v Russian Museum, n .d.) Suzdale," Starye gody (November, 1910), pp. 13-17. Glade, Shirley A., "A Heritage 12. Quoted in N. Kondakov, Discovered Anew: Russia's Russkaia ikona, vol. 3, part 1 Reevaluation of Pre-Petrine (Prague, 1929), pp. 33 and 35. Icons in the Late Tsarist and 13. Georgievskii, p. 19. Early Soviet Periods," Canadian- 14. Kondakov, Russkaia American Slavic Studies, 26, nos ikona, p. 37. 1-3 (1992), 145-95 15. E. Poselianin, ed., Bogomater. Polnoe illiustrirovan- Ramos Poqui. Guillem, The noe opisanie ee zemnoi zhizni i Technique of Icon Painting posviashchennykh ee imeni chu- Harrisburg, ·p A and Wilton, CT: ; :1 dotvornykh ikon (St. Petersburg, . Morehouse Publishing, 1990) l 'I 1909?), p. 545; Viacheslav I Mukhin, Tserkovnaia kul'tura Sankt-Peterburga, (St. Peters- burg, 1994), p. 133. 16. Mukhin, p. 135. 17. Kondakov, p . 48 .. 18. D.K. Trenev, "Sokhranenie pamiatnikov drevne-russkoi ikonopisi," Ikonopisnyi sbornik 1 (1907), p. 5. 1 9. the history of'this icon is related in Poselianin, pp. 245- 48. 20. The relevant decrees and instructions are published in Kazanskii muzeinyi vestnik I (1922), pp. 225-30. 21. L. Matsulevich, "Vystavka tserkovnoi stariny v Ermitazhe," Sredi kollektsionerov 1-2 (1923), p. 46. 22. On the origins of this type of icon see S. P. Belov, "Ikona 'Nikola Velikoretskii' 1558 g. iz Sol'vychegodska," Pamiatniki kul'tury. Novye otkry- tiia. Ezhegodnik 1987 (Moscow, 1988), pp. 202-6. I I :! I : i 1