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Environmental Health Criteria 167 ACETALDEHYDE Environmental Health Criteria 167 ACETALDEHYDE Please note that the layout and pagination of this web version are not identical with the printed version. Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA 167 ACETALDEHYDE This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. First draft prepared by Mrs. J. de Fouw, National Institute of Public Health and Enviromental Protection, Bilthoven, Netherlands Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization World Health Organization Geneva, 1995 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. WHO Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Acetaldehyde. (Environmental health criteria ; 167) 1.Acetadehyde - adverse effects 2.Enviromental exposure I.Series Page 1 of 86 Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) ISBN 92 4 157167 5 (NLM Classification: QU 99) ISSN 0250-863X The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. (c) World Health Organization 1995 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR ACETALDEHYDE Preamble Introduction 1. SUMMARY 1.1 Identity, physical and chemical properties, and analytical methods 1.2 Sources of human and environmental exposure 1.3 Environmental transport, distribution, and transformation 1.4 Environmental levels and human exposure 1.5 Kinetics and metabolism 1.5.1 Absorption, distribution, and elimination 1.5.2 Metabolism 1.5.3 Reaction with other components 1.6 Effects on organisms in the environment 1.6.1 Aquatic organisms 1.6.2 Terrestrial organisms 1.7 Effects on experimental animals and in vitro test systems 1.7.1 Single exposure 1.7.2 Short- and long-term exposures 1.7.3 Reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 1.7.4 Mutagenicity and related end-points 1.7.5 Carcinogenicity 1.7.6 Special studies 1.8 Effects on humans Page 2 of 86 Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) 1.9 Evaluation of human health risks and effects on the environment 2. IDENTITY, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1 Identity 2.2 Physical and chemical properties 2.3 Conversion factors 2.4 Analytical methods 3. SOURCES OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE 3.1 Natural occurrence 3.2 Anthropogenic sources 3.2.1 Production 3.2.1.1 Production levels and processes 3.2.1.2 Emissions 3.2.2 Uses 3.2.3 Waste disposal 3.2.4 Other sources 4. ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT, DISTRIBUTION, AND TRANSFORMATION 4.1 Transport and distribution between media 4.2 Abiotic degradation 4.3 Biodegradation 5. ENVIRONMENTAL LEVELS AND HUMAN EXPOSURE 5.1 Environmental levels 5.1.1 Air 5.1.2 Water 5.1.3 Soil 5.1.4 Food 5.1.5 Cigarette smoke 5.2 General population exposure 5.3 Occupational exposure 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM IN LABORATORY ANIMALS AND HUMANS 6.1 Absorption 6.2 Distribution 6.2.1 Animal studies 6.2.1.1 Distribution after inhalation exposure 6.2.1.2 Distribution to the embryo and fetus 6.2.1.3 Distribution to the brain 6.2.2 Human studies 6.3 Metabolism 6.3.1 Animal studies 6.3.1.1 Liver 6.3.1.2 Respiratory tract 6.3.1.3 Kidneys 6.3.1.4 Testes and ovaries 6.3.1.5 Embryonic tissue 6.3.1.6 Metabolism during pregnancy 6.3.2 Human studies 6.4 Elimination 6.5 Reaction with cellular macromolecules 6.5.1 Proteins 6.5.2 Nucleic acids Page 3 of 86 Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) 7. EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 7.1 Aquatic organisms 7.2 Terrestrial organisms 8. EFFECTS ON EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND IN VITRO TEST SYSTEMS 8.1 Single exposure 8.1.1 LD50 and LC50 values 8.2 Short-term exposure 8.2.1 Oral 8.2.2 Inhalation 8.2.3 Dermal 8.2.4 Parenteral 8.3 Skin and eye irritation; sensitization 8.4 Long-term exposure 8.4.1 Oral 8.4.2 Inhalation 8.5 Reproductive and developmental toxicity 8.6 Mutagenicity and related end-points 8.6.1 Bacteria 8.6.2 Non-mammalian eukaryotic systems 8.6.2.1 Gene mutation assays 8.6.2.2 Chromosome alterations 8.6.3 Cultured mammalian cells 8.6.3.1 Gene mutation assays 8.6.3.2 Chromosome alterations and sister chromatid exchange 8.6.4 In vivo assays 8.6.4.1 Somatic cells 8.6.4.2 Germ cells 8.6.5 Other assays 8.6.5.1 DNA single-strand breaks 8.6.5.2 DNA cross-linking 8.6.6 Cell transformation 8.7 Carcinogenicity bioassays 8.7.1 Inhalation exposure 8.7.2 Co-carcinogenicity and promotion studies 8.8 Neurological effects 8.9 Immunological effects 8.9.1 Direct effects on immune cells 8.9.2 Generation of antibodies reacting with acetaldehyde-modified proteins 8.9.3 Related immunological effects 8.10 Biochemical effects 9. EFFECTS ON HUMANS 9.1 General population exposure 9.2 Occupational exposure 9.2.1 General observations 9.2.2 Clinical studies 9.2.3 Epidemiological studies 9.3 Effects of endogenous acetaldehyde 9.3.1 Effects of ethanol possibly attributable to acetaldehyde or acetaldehyde metabolism 10. EVALUATION OF HUMAN HEALTH RISKS AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 10.1 Evaluation of human health risks 10.1.1 Exposure 10.1.2 Health effects Page 4 of 86 Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) 10.1.3 Approaches to risk assessment 10.2 Evaluation of effects on the environment 11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH REFERENCES RESUME RESUMEN NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA MONOGRAPHS Every effort has been made to present information in the criteria monographs as accurately as possible without unduly delaying their publication. In the interest of all users of the Environmental Health Criteria monographs, readers are kindly requested to communicate any errors that may have occurred to the Director of the International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, in order that they may be included in corrigenda. * * * A detailed data profile and a legal file can be obtained from the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, Case postale 356, 1219 Châtelaine, Geneva, Switzerland (Telephone No. 9799111). * * * This publication was made possible by grant number 5 U01 ES02617-15 from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, USA, and by financial support from the European Commission. Environmental Health Criteria PREAMBLE Objectives In 1973 the WHO Environmental Health Criteria Programme was initiated with the following objectives: (i) to assess information on the relationship between exposure to environmental pollutants and human health, and to provide guidelines for setting exposure limits; (ii) to identify new or potential pollutants; (iii) to identify gaps in knowledge concerning the health effects of pollutants; (iv) to promote the harmonization of toxicological and epidemiological methods in order to have internationally comparable results. Page 5 of 86 Acetaldehyde (EHC 167, 1995) The first Environmental Health Criteria (EHC) monograph, on mercury, was published in 1976 and since that time an everincreasing number of assessments of chemicals and of physical effects have been produced. In addition, many EHC monographs have been devoted to evaluating toxicological methodology, e.g., for genetic, neurotoxic, teratogenic and nephrotoxic effects. Other publications have been concerned with epidemiological guidelines, evaluation of short-term tests for carcinogens, biomarkers, effects on the elderly and so forth. Since its inauguration the EHC Programme has widened its scope, and the importance of environmental effects, in addition to health effects, has been increasingly emphasized in the total evaluation of chemicals. The original impetus for the Programme came from World Health Assembly resolutions and the recommendations of the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment. Subsequently the work became an integral part of the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), a cooperative programme of UNEP, ILO and WHO.
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