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THE UNIVERSITY of CALGARY Women and Sustainable THE UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Women and Sustainable Development: An Empirical Analysis of Ecoferninism by Kelly A. Fredell A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR ME DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS COMMllTEE ON RESOURCES AND THE ENVIRONMENT CALGARY, ALBERTA SEPTEMBER, 1996 National Library Bibliothaue nationale 191 dCam& du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services bibliographiques 395 wdri~trset 395, rue WeQingttn -ON K1AW -ON K1AW Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accorde me licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant a la National Library of Canada to Biblioth&ue nationale du Canada de reproduce7loan, distn'bute or sell reproduke, pdter7disttriuer ou copies of hismer thesis by any means ven&e des copies de sa Usede and in any form or format, making quelqpe manih et SOW p1p this thesis available to interested foreqpe ce soit pour mettre des persons. exemplaires de cette Wse a la disposition des personnes intetess6es. The author retains ownership of the copyright in Wer thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial erdracts la thbni des extds substantieb de fiom it may be printed or otherwise celle-ci ne doivent itre imprimCs ou reproduced with the author's autrementreproduits sans son permission. This thesis reports the findings of a case study on the Tehri dam protest in Northern India. These findings are used to examine two fundamental ecofeminist propositions. Considerable evidence in support of ecofeminism has been drawn from the Chipko movement. This research documents the Anti-Tehri dam movement, a contemporary Chipko protest. The thesis documents the geographic and sociocultural context of Garhwal, explores the relationship between sustainable development and ecofeminism, builds connections with Gandhian perspectives and presents the regions social movements. The findings fail to support the ecofeminist propositions. Instead, the Tehri dam protest is motivated by a strong sense of connection felt by Garhwali's with their place. This penon-place connection is the foundation of individual and cultural Garhwali identity. Identification theory is considered in reference to environmental changes which threaten this important source of identity and self definition. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS During the past two and a half years, many people have provided me with support, strength, guidance and assistance. The Shastri-lndo Canadian Institute provided me with financial support during my field work in lndia and assisted me in complying with India's bureacratic requirements. Dr. Rich Revel, was instrumental in securing my admission in the Committee on Resources and the Environment program and has also provided me financial assistance. My supervisor Dr. Merlin 8. Brinkerhoff challenged my thinking, supported my scholarly interests and tolerated my unconventional approach which allowed me to trust my own instincts. Dr. Sloane Dugan contributed valuable editorial advice from the original proposal to the final draft and has offered his unconditional support throughout. My research in lndia would not have been possible without the assistance and support of my Indian colleagues. Professor Vinay Bourai educated me in the nuances of Garhwali culture, organized research assistants and most importantly he, Abha and his family opened their home to me. Marnta Panwar and Madhu Mism generously gave of their time and expertise. Without them, I would not have been able to complete this work. Nimisha Rana's enthusiasm, friendship and care during my time of need will not be forgotten. Ram Prasad Bhatt was a diligent and conscientious translator. He asked me difficult questions about my research and furthered my understanding of Garhwali culture. Finally, this work is dedicated to the many people of Tehri who supported me and took part in this research. Ho and Jyoti were my guardian angels and Erika Wilkens' friendship has been a constant source of energy, perspective, laughter and love. To all of you, my heartfelt thanks. DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the women and men of Tehri Garhwal who are fighting for their survival. TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval Page .................................................. ii ... Abstract ....................................................... III Acknowledgements .............................................. iv Dedication ...................................................... v Table of Contents ................................................ vi CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................. 1 CHAPTER TWO: ECOFEMlNlSM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ... 7 Introduction ............................................... 7 Ecofeminisrn .............................................. 8 Cultural Ecofeminism ....................................... 11 Sustainable Development ................................... 16 Conclusion ............................................... 18 CHAPTER THREE: THE PROBLEM ................................ 19 Conclusion ............................................... 24 CHAPTER FOUR: THE CONTEXT ................................. 25 Geography ............................................... 25 Map 1: Location of Tehri Garhwal ....................... 27 Map 2: Dam location in Tehri Garhwal district ............... 28 The People of Garhwal ..................................... 29 CHAPTER FIVE: THE SOCIAL MOVEMENTS OF GARHWAL ........... 35 Gandhi. Sawodaya and Sustainable Development ................ 35 The Chipko Movement ...................................... 37 The Uttarakhand Movement ................................. 41 Chipko and Uttarakhand Revisited ............................ 44 Chipko and Uttarakhand as Women's or Environmental Movements . 46 The Anti-Tehn Dam Movement ............................... 48 Tehri Dam and Chipko ...................................... 53 CHAPTER SIX: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................... 57 Introduction .............................................. 57 ScopeandPurpose ........................................ 57 Casestudy .............................................. 58 Datasources ............................................. 60 Sampling ................................................ 63 Analysis ................................................. 64 Research Limitations ....................................... 65 CHAPTER SEVEN: GENDER. THE ENVIRONMENT AND PROTEST: AN ISSUE OF IDENTITY ......................................... 68 Introduction .............................................. 68 Population Characteristics ................................... 69 Table1 ............................................ 72 Theprotest .............................................. 76 Table2 ............................................ 77 Table3: ........................................... 78 Table4: ........................................... 79 Person and Place Attachment ................................ 80 Motherland ............................................... 86 Table5: ........................................... 86 Women and the Natural Environment .......................... 89 Table6 ............................................ 89 Views on the Relationship with the Natural Environment ............ 94 Security ................................................. 97 Social Capital ............................................. 99 Economic ............................................... 100 Discussion .............................................. 103 CHAPTER EIGHT: IDENTIFICATION THEORY ...................... 112 On Identification .......................................... 112 Identification Theory ...................................... 112 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION ................................. 118 REFERENCES ................................................ 123 vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Efforts to modernize the third world in the image of the economically and technologically progressive West have largely failed to realize the stated goal of enhancing conditions and quality of life for the people of Southern nations (Korten, 1990, 1995; Sachs, 1993; Braidotti et a/, 1994; Harcourt, 1994). Instead, these efforts are often followed by conditions of increased poverty, gender inequalities, wealth disparity and environmental degradation (Korten, 1990, 1995; Shiva, 1989; Braidotti et al, 1994). Recent analysis of development has stimulated considerable criticism, debate and insight into the causes, results and alternatives to development's implicit commitment to unlimited growth. Ecofeminism and sustainable development are two areas of discourse analysing destructive modes of development and exploring alternative approaches toward enhancing living conditions within socially sustainable and ecologically responsive limits. Building alternative visions and sustainable approaches to quality of life improvements is the goal of both the ecofeminist and sustainable development discourses. While sustainable development scholarship has focused less on gender issues and more on the underlying assumptions and processes toward attaining sustainability, ecofeminists have focused upon the analysis of the problem, emphasizing women's role toward resolving the declining world conditions. In response to these conditions of environmental and social decay, grassroots protests have emerged worldwide associated with the anti-nuclear, peace, environmental and feminist movements. Linking women's involvement in these protests and the awareness of their gender-specific
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