mathematics HEALTH ENGINEERING DESIGN MEDIA management GEOGRAPHY EDUCA E MUSIC C PHYSICS law O ART L agriculture O BIOTECHNOLOGY G Y LANGU CHEMISTRY TION history AGE M E C H A N I C S psychology History of Ecology and Environment: India Subject: HISTORY OF ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT: INDIA Credits: 4 SYLLABUS Studying Ecology & Environment: An Introduction Sources of Study, Indian Landscape, Nature-Human Interface Environment, Early Societies and Agricultural Societies Nomadic Pastoralism, Hunting-Gathering, Resource Use and Human Societies, Agricultural Diffusion and Regional Specificities-II, Agricultural Diffusion and Regional Specificities-I, River Valley Civilization, Origins of Agriculture Appropriation of Environment & Indian Philosophy Metal & Mineral Resources, Forest Resources, Water Resources, Energy Resources, Transitions, Conservation Through Ages, Man-Nature Relationship Colonialism, Environment and Modern Concerns Resource Management: Water, Resource Management: Forests, Environmental Agenda, Understanding of Environment, Alternatives, Environmental Resources and Patents, Biodiversity, Development and Environmental Concerns Suggested Reading: 1. Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas by Donald Worster, Alfred W. Crosby 2. Visions of the Everglades: History Ecology Preservation :by Tommy Rodriguez 3. An Ecological History of India : Madhav Gadgil (Author), Ramachandra Guha (Author) Chapter 1 Studying Ecology and Environment: An Introduction STRUCTURE Learning objectives Nature-human interface Indian landscape Sources of study Review questions LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: Understand the nature. Describe the nature-human interface. Describe the physical features. Understand the landscape perceptions NATURE-HUMAN INTERFACE Defining Nature Nature is not an easy term to describe as it incorporates mainly of the visible manifestations of geography. Raymond Williams defines nature as, ‗the material world itself, taken as including or not including human beings.‘ Tracing the history of the term he suggests that ‗nature‘ has often been used to describe the ‗countryside‘, the ‗unspoiled spaces‘, as also ‗plants and creatures other than man.‘. Surely the common sense in which nature has been described relates to environment, where even the human has been an integral component. In the context of our discussion, therefore, nature and environment convey almost the similar meaning. In exploring human- nature/environment connection we consider the natural circumstances and powers that affect and sometimes determine the actions of human groups. In excess of an extensive era of time in history this connection operates at two dissimilar stages; at one stage it wields power as a widespread ongoing procedure, and at the other it acquires the form of the connection of specific human groups to their ―immediate environments‖. For our purpose we do not especially favor any one of the two and give a narrative that tends to draw information from both as the situation demands. In the case of the Indian sub-continent an extremely wide range of climatic and topographic situations prevail to power the environment. As a result a delicate balance is maintained flanked by extreme environmental circumstances which is comparatively easily disturbed and we experience varying degrees of uncertainties extending in excess of one or more climatic zones. In the context of nature-human interface these environmental changes have had their role in determining the development of human history. Locating Man In providing an identifiable status to man vis-à-vis environment our objective has been to start at a point where human groups become discernible as a collectivity. The question of the origin of humans is not our primary concern here. In information an understanding in relation to the procedure of development of humankind is more significant to us as it helps us grasp the simultaneous development of man-nature connection. Till recently, up to the post-enlightenment period, the concept of a divine origin of nature and humans had been in prevalence. The human beings were also subject to an evolutionary procedure was a theme strengthened through the theory first proposed through Charles Darwin. In his job The Origins of Species, Darwin argued that dissimilar species had undergone to procedure of development and this development was the result of minor variations in the features of the individual members of species. These features were inherited through the successive generations and as a result of this extensive sequence of inheritance new species were able to evolve and emerge distinctively. Darwin also proposed that the adaptive capability of species influenced the chances of their survival and he termed it as the procedure of the ‗survival of the fittest‘. The evolutionary model had made another significant contribution towards our understanding of man as a ‗unique animal‘, an animal who could adapt to dissimilar natural circumstances and mainly importantly could vary the nature/environment for its survival. The procedure of human version to environmental circumstances was accompanied foremost through the introduction of apparatus and their use through the primitive man. The significance of apparatus in the study of the development of humankind can be realized from the information that this whole procedure has been classified in conditions of the excellence of apparatus and the nature and excellence of the material used in creation the apparatus. Therefore the earliest era in human history, also described pre- history, has been termed as Paleolithic. This was followed through Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Iron Age, and so on. For the convenience of also accounting for implements other than apparatus, we term this procedure as the development of artifacts and begin our investigation of man‘s connection with nature throughout this significant stage of human action. A Maker of Artefacts The human beings are endowed through nature to be reflective and active. Their biological development has given them the capability to set up adaptive connection with nature. Though, we can only be speculative in relation to the factors and adaptive impetus responsible for the development of human skill to forge artefacts. Indeed this skill necessity have evolved in excess of a extremely extensive era of time and would have begun with the local materials that were easily available and were suited to serve the purposes planned through the objects. We know from archaeology that the first artefacts made through humans were of stone and had made their appearance more than two million years ago. This had marked the beginning of the Palaeolithic Civilization. It was an extra ordinary occurrence and showed ―a high stage of forethought and knowledge of materials‖ on the part of the Stone Age Man ―suggestive of acute powers of observation and deduction and of a sensitive awareness of much of the available potential of the world approximately‖. Like other animals, the initial mode of sustenance for humans was hunting and gathering. Mainly of these artefacts were made with the objective of assisting them in their quest for food, hunting, and gathering. Stone apparatus were used primarily for cutting plants, digging root crops, scrapping wood and obtaining honey. There were two broad groups of stone apparatus for the era: ‗core‘ apparatus and ‗flake‘ apparatus. Core apparatus were those apparatus which were made from the superior blocks of stone. Flake apparatus were those apparatus which were made from the little bits or flakes which would approach off a block of stone when it was hit almost certainly for creation core apparatus. The mainly significant core tool was hand-axe. Hand-axes were basically used for processing of meat and did reflect great physical dexterity. In the creation of the stone apparatus here was a definite proof of the beginning of man‘s effort to adapt to the nature through applying his mind and creation use of in the vicinity available material for better functioning. The appropriation of natural circumstances was still confined to the mainly rudimentary stage, yet the act was extremely important for it heralded the procedure of modification of natural circumstances for better management of natural possessions. The Palaeolithic growths were followed through the growth of microlithic apparatus and this stage is termed as Mesolithic Civilization. We are now witness to a greater manages of man in excess of the tool-creation industry as the apparatus now become lighter and more efficient. In addition to stone we now discover more diversity in the use of materials for creation microliths. Bone, animal horn, bamboo, and wood make an appearance. The excellence of artefacts produced throughout this era is suggestive of an improved technological competence. It is logical to assume that such competence would also have helped grow many other skills of working on materials other than stone e.g., wood, bamboo etc. The knowledge of by fire for clearing grasslands and forests beside with these additional skills was a definite advance in excess of the previous stage in so distant as the management of natural possessions was concerned. It is approximately this time that early rock art specimens become available. An analysis of the depictions made in these specimens brings out the information that the humans had through this time become acutely aware of the animal world and had begun to illustrate signs of seeking refuge,