New Perspectives in Polar Research

Home , Camptocladius, Innaarsuit, Mangazeya, Mudyug (icebreaker), Nunavik Peninsula, Oscar II Land

Editors ISBN 978−83−62673−47−6 Krzysztof Migała, Piotr Owczarek Marek Kasprzak, Mateusz C. Strzelecki

University of Wrocław Committee on Polar Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences New perspectives Polar Club of the Polish Geographical Society Association of Polar Early Career Scientists / Poland Municipality of Wrocław in polar research in polar research New perspectives New

New perspectives in polar research

Editors

Krzysztof Migała Piotr Owczarek Marek Kasprzak Mateusz C. Strzelecki

Wrocław 2014

New perspectives in polar research

Editors

Krzysztof Migała Piotr Owczarek Marek Kasprzak Mateusz C. Strzelecki

Wrocław 2014

New perspectives in polar research

35th Polar Symposium Diversity and state of polar ecosystems 4th –7th June 2014, Wrocław

Editors: Krzysztof Migała, Piotr Owczarek, Marek Kasprzak, Mateusz C. Strzelecki

Technical editors: Magdalena Korzystka-Muskała, Marek Kasprzak,

Tymoteusz Sawiński

Reviewers: Stanisław Chmiel Michał Chorośnicki Josef Elster

Piotr Głowacki Michał Łuszczuk Andrzej Kubka Wojciech Majewski Andrzej Makowski Tadeusz Niedźwiedź Adam Nawrot Piotr Owczarek Jerzy Pereyma Grzegorz Rachlewicz Izabela Sówka Anna Styszyńska Andrzej Witkowski Piotr Zagórski Wiesław Ziaja

Cover image: Ice cliff of the Hansbreen, Hornsund (photo M. Kasprzak, 2011)

ISBN 978−83−62673−47−6

Institute of Geography and Regional Development University of Wrocław Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50–137 Wrocław, Poland

Printed by I-BiS s.c., ul. Sztabowa 32, 53-321 Wrocław

New perspectives in polar research

Contents

PREFACE (Editors) ...... 7

ARCTIC COUNCIL AND THE ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT APPROACH (M. Madej) ...... 9

OFFSHORE HYDROCARBON DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ARCTIC: MAIN DETERMINANTS AND DRIVERS (M. Łuszczuk) ...... 19

THE ROLE OF GREENLAND IN THE ARCTIC (M. A. Tomala)...... 27

JAPAN’S ARCTIC POLICY (J. Grzela) ...... 37

RUSSIAN ICEBREAKER. THE CURRENT DAY AND THE FUTURE (K. Kubiak) ...... 51

FROM POMOR’E TO SIBERIA. THE MODELS OF ECO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION IN THE CONTEXT OF RECLAMATION OF SPACES (M. P. Chernaya) ...... 61

ANTHROPOPRESSURE’S INTENSIFICATION WITH REFERENCE TO ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS (K. Kozak, M. Szopińska, A. Pacyna, K. Kozioł, S. Lehmann, Ż. Polkowska) ...... 69

THE OCCURRENCE OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS (PAHS) AND POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS (PCBS) IN THE CHOSEN AREA OF SVALBARD (A. Pacyna, K. Kozioł, M. Ruman, Ż. Polkowska) ...... 85

MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF THE RENARDBREEN AS AN IMPORTANT FACTORS DETERMINING THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS ON THE GLACIER SURFACE (BELLSUND, SVALBARD) (K. Kosek, S. Lehmann, G. Gajek, W. Kociuba, Ł. Franczak, Ż. Polkowska) ...... 97

DYNAMICS OF CHANGES IN THE CONCENTRATION LEVELS OF ORGANIC POLLUTANTS IN THE PROGLACIAL WATERS OF THE SCOTT RIVER (SPITSBERGEN, SW SVALBARD) (S. Lehmann, W. Kociuba, G. Gajek, Ł. Franczak, Ż. Polkowska) ...... 111

PROPERTIES OF DRIFTWOOD FROM BELLSUND COAST (SVALBARD): PRELIMINARY RESULTS (M. Komorowicz, H. Wróblewska, A. Fojutowski, A. Kropacz , A. Noskowiak, G. Gajek, Ł. Franczak, L. Łęczyński) ...... 123

THE DIVERSITY OF CYANOBACTERIA AND GREEN ALGAE ON ECOLOGICAL DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEGETATION IN HORNSUND AREA (WEST SPITSBERGEN, SVALBARD) (D. Richter, M. Pietryka, J. Matuła) ...... 139

POSSIBILITIES OF DETECTING NON-BITING MIDGES (CHIRONOMIDAE) IN ANTARCTICA (E. Sieredziński) ...... 165

CURRENT AND HISTORICAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES CONSTRAINED BY CLIMATE. ADMIRALTY BAY, KING GEORGE ISLAND, ANTARCTICA (POLISH OCEANOGRAPHIC PROJECTS INITIATED DURING INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR) (A. Wasiłowska, A. Tatur, M. Rzepecki, A. Borkowski) ...... 173

FACTORS CONTROLLING BEACH DEVELOPMENT IN VAIGAT STRAIT, WEST GREENLAND – INSIGHTS FROM AUTOMATED GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS (M. Drewniak, M. C. Strzelecki, W. Szczuciński) ...... 189 5 New perspectives in polar research

PROCESSES CONTROLLING THE PAST AND RECENT EVOLUTION OF COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS IN THE SOUTHERN BELLSUND, SVALBARD (P. Zagórski, M. C. Strzelecki, J. Rodzik) ...... 205

BEDLOAD TRANSPORT IN A HIGH ARCTIC GRAVEL-BED RIVER (SCOTT RIVER, SVALBARD SW) (W. Kociuba) ...... 231

FROST WAVES IN NORTH-WESTERN SPITSBERGEN (A. M. Tomczyk) ...... 247

CLIMATIC SIGNALS IN GROWTH RINGS OF THE HIGH ARCTIC DWARF SHRUB SALIX POLARIS (WAHLENB.): A CASE STUDY FROM SW SPITSBERGEN, SVALBARD (P. Owczarek, M. Opała, K. Migała) ...... 257

TREE RINGS OF DOWNY BIRCH (BETULA PUBESCENS) FROM ISLAND OF TROMSØYA (NORWAY) AS PROXIES FOR PAST TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN THE LOW ARCTIC (M. Opała, K. Migała, P. Owczarek) ...... 269

6 New perspectives in polar research

Preface

This volume is the result of 35th Polar Symposium, which took place in Wrocław on 4–7 June 2014. The conference was organized by the University of Wrocław in cooperation with The Committee on Polar Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences and two NGOs: Polar Club of Polish Geographical Society and APECS Poland. The honorary patronage over the Symposium was taken by the Rector of University of Wrocław and by the Mayor of Wrocław. The Symposium held under the theme “Diversity and state of polar ecosystems”. The meeting was attended by 170 participants (including 11 from overseas) representing 36 independent national bodies of universities and Academy of Scienc- es and nine foreign centers of Austria (1), Czech Republic (2), the Netherlands (1), Germany (1), Norway (1) Russia (3) and the UK (2). A total number of 64 oral presentations, introduced on two plenary and five thematic sessions, and 69 poster presentations highlighted the various aspects of polar sciences. The sessions were celebrated by the invited speakers: Saskia Brix- Elsig from German Centre for Marine Biodiversity Research, Josef Elster from Czech Centre of Polar Ecology and Wolfgang Schoener from Zentreal Anstalt fur Meteorologie und Geodynamik. In total, more than 130 different works were presented whose abstracts were published in the electronic version: Migała et al. 2014 (eds) Book of Abstracts 35th Polar Sym- posium “Diversity and state of polar ecosystems” 4–7 June 2014, Wrocław, 136 pp, ISBN 978−83−62673−39−1. The conference allowed to assess that in the Polish scientific community involved in the polar regions there are new lines of research and successful attempts at synthesis. The young age of the majority of speakers and a variety of research topics and the increasingly interdisciplinary nature of the research, as well as attempts at synthesis are encouraging for the future. Most of the speeches have reached a good international standard. Also was noted significant progress in methodology, modern technics and scientific equipment of polish polar research.

The Editors Krzysztof Migała, Piotr Owczarek, Marek Kasprzak & Mateusz C. Strzelecki

New perspectives in polar research

Magdalena Madej

Jagiellonian University Institute of Political Science and International Relations 5 Jabłonowskich st, 31-114 Kraków, Poland [email protected]

Arctic Council and the ecosystem-based management approach

Abstract: The Arctic region consists of a number of distinct marine and terrestrial ecosystems, which vary significantly in ecological and demographic ways. There are many existing and potential pressures, which make the Arctic ecosystems vulnera- ble. The Arctic climate is warming rapidly. Its impacts like thinning and reduced the extent of sea ice has significant implications for Arctic wildlife and human populations. The other threats are pollution and increased economic activities such as oil and gas exploration or shipping. To address these challenges, there is a need for flexible and adaptive interdisciplinary approach in the Arctic to manage ecosystems. Ecosystem-based management (EBM) provides such an approach. In May 2011 Arctic Council, which is a high-level intergovernmental forum of regional cooperation, called for the establishment of an expert group on ecosystem-based management for the Arctic environment. This article focuses on the EBM from an institutional perspective. Its main goal is to define this concept, present origins and development of the EBM approach within the Arctic Council and its most actual work on the EBM’s implementation, as well as to explain why is it so important for the Arc- tic region, especially in the time of ongoing climate change.

Keywords: Arctic, ecosystem, Ecosystem-Based Management, Arctic Council, climate change

Introduction

The Arctic is a region under the process of change. It has been transforming from an area of a little political and economic significance to a region of growing interests of main global powers. There are several factors that determine this situation, most important are climate change, globalization and modernization, as well as

9 New perspectives in polar research technological progress that improves living conditions in the North. The Arctic is warming rapidly, twice as fast as other parts of the world. The effects of climate change like thinning of the sea ice and glacier retreat cause better navigation opportunities in the Arctic Ocean and an improving access to natural resources, which has been more difficult before due to the extreme atmospheric conditions in the region. This is the reason why new stakeholders, like non-Arctic states, multinational energy corporations or environmental organizations, expand their presence in the Arctic. The growing importance and interest of the region, as a result of a climate change, has intensified a debate on the best possible solution for the comprehensive, multi- sectoral Arctic governance. The Arctic governance requires to take into consideration a number of evolving social, political, economic, demographic, cultural and environmental factors. According to Natalia Loukacheva such factors include among others emerging “environmental concerns and hazards in and beyond the region and the complex linkages between the fragile Arctic eco-biological and global systems, that pose new demands on Northern governance frameworks” (Loukacheva 2010). Ecosystem- based management (EBM) provides a flexible approach for addressing challenges such as loss of sea ice, coastal wave erosion, thawing permafrost, changes in wildlife movement patterns and cycles, altered vegetation patterns, ocean acidification, substantially increased interest in resource extraction and tourism, prolonged stress on critical social needs such as food security, increased traffic in the maritime environment, and disintegrating transportation infrastructure in the terrestrial environment (Arctic Council 2013). This article focuses on the EBM from an institutional perspective, a perspective of the Arctic Council to be precise. Its main goal is to define this concept, present origins and development of the EBM approach within the Arctic Council and its most actual work on the EBM’s implementation. It is based mainly on the documents and reports of the Arctic Council and its working groups.

Definitions of the ecosystem-based management

To begin deliberations on the EBM it is important to explain what is an ecosystem. According to Millennium Ecosystem Assessment an ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit. Humans are an integral part of ecosystems. A well-defined ecosystem has strong interactions among its components and weak interactions across its boundaries. A useful ecosystem boundary is the place where a number of discontinuities coincide, for instance, in the distribution of organisms, soil types, drainage basins, or depth in a water body. On a larger scale, regionally and even globally distributed ecosystems can be evaluated based on a commonality

10 New perspectives in polar research of basic structural units (Alcamo et al. 2003). The idea of EBM has arisen as an answer to significant ecosystem degradation and a need of a holistic approach, that underlines the importance of clearly stated management goals, interagency cooperation, monitoring of management results and leadership at the national policy levels. The fundamental step from ecological management to EBM was the need to understand the social aspects of scientific management and the recognition of human influence (Grumbine 1994). A group of American scientists classifies the criteria that academics use to define EBM:  General criteria: sustainability, ecological health, inclusion of humans in ecosystem,  Specific ecological criteria: complexity (linkages between ecosystem components and other biotic and abiotic interactions), temporal (temporal scale and dynamic character of ecosystems), spatial (ecosystem processes operate over a wide range of spatial scale),  Specific human dimension criteria: ecosystem goods and services (humans use and value natural resources), economic, stakeholder (engagement of interested parties in the management planning processes to find common solutions),  Specific management criteria: science-based, boundaries (managements plans must be spatially defined), technological, adaptive, co-management, precautionary approach, interdisciplinary, monitoring (Arkema et al. 2006). There are many definitions of EBM, however, they all emphasize consideration of the entire ecosystems (how the use of one element of the ecosystem is likely to affect another) and recognition that humans are an essential part of ecosystems (Arctic Council 2013). The United Nations Environment Programme definition states that “In ecosystem-based management, the associated human population and economic/social systems are seen as integral parts of the ecosystem. Most importantly, ecosystem-based management is concerned with the processes of change within living systems and sustaining the goods and services that healthy ecosystems pro- duce. Ecosystem-based management is therefore designed and executed as an adaptive, learning-based process that applies the principles of the scientific method to the processes of management.” (Olsen et al. 2006) SeaWeb, an international organization dedicated to creating a culture of ocean conservation, defines EBM as “A long- term, integrated approach that recognizes humans are part of and have significant influences on their environments. It is a shift away from conventional management paradigms that are often jurisdictional, short term and consider humans to be independent of nature. An ecosystem-based management plan includes adaptive management strategies and trade-offs, whether between ecosystem services, management strategies or other components of the plan, that are made as explicitly as possible.” (SeaWeb 2014).

11 New perspectives in polar research

Effective management plans for EBM are based on an accepted set of guid- ing principles and should:  emphasize the health of the whole ecosystem ahead of the concerns of special interests,  be focused on a particular place, with boundaries that are scientifically defined,  account for the ways in which things or actions in that place affect each other,  consider the way things or actions in this place can influence or be influenced by things or actions on land (like dams or fertilizers in the watershed), in the air (like air pollution), or in different parts of the ocean (like fishing or oil spills),  integrate the concerns of the environment, society, the economy and our institutions (McLeod et al. 2005). The Arctic Council definition of the EBM in the Arctic region is a result of collection, comparison and analysis of data enclosed in documents of Arctic Coun- cil’s working groups, that is not an ecosystem-specific concept, but rather one that applies equally to marine, terrestrial and coastal ecosystems. This definition states that “Ecosystem-based management is the comprehensive integrated management of human activities based on best available scientific knowledge about the ecosystem and its dynamics, in order to identify and take action on influences which are critical to the health of ecosystems thereby achieving sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem integrity” (Arctic Council 2013). It is based on calls for the implementation of the ecosystem approach in the Action Plan adopted at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development. This definition is also used by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES).

Origins and development of the ecosystem-based management approach within the Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is a high level intergovernmental forum, which is considered by many to be the main body for providing multilateral, complex cooperation in the region. Since 1991 it has been operating as the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) and it was formally established by the Ottawa Declara- tion of 1996. Its main goal is “to provide a means for promoting cooperation and integration among the Arctic states, with the involvement of the Arctic indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues” (Arctic Council 1996). Members of the Arctic Council are eight Arctic states, Permanent Partici- pants (indigenous peoples associations) and observers, which are non-Arctic States, NGOs and other international and regional organizations. Arctic Council is mainly conducted by high-level representatives from the Arctic states (ministers, deputy ministers, Senior Arctic Officials – SAOs), however other participants, especially indigenous peoples, have their right to speak. Its working groups are focused on two 12 New perspectives in polar research basis of the Arctic Council work – environmental protection and sustainable development (Graczyk 2013). There are six working groups of the Arctic Council. The origins and development of the EBM approach in the Arctic Council are related especially to four of them, which have undertaken particularly significant work related to EBM. The first one is the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), which was established in 1991 to monitor and assess the status of the Arctic region with respect to pollution and climate change issues and also to document its levels, trends, pathways, processes and effects on ecosystems and humans. The AMAP has produced a series of high quality reports, the most important are: Arctic Climate Impact As- sessment (2005), Assessment of Oil and Gas Activities in the Arctic (2007, 2012), Human Health in the Arctic (2009), Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Arctic (2009), Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic (2011), Arctic Ocean Acidifi- cation (2013). In all of these documents the assessment methodologies and information support EBM principles and contribute to the scientific information and foundation upon which it is based (Arctic Council 2013). Another working group is Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), established as a distinct forum for scientists, indigenous peoples and conservation managers to exchange data and information on issues such as shared species and habitats and to collaborate, as appropriate for more effective research, sustainable utilization and conservation (AEPS 1991). There are two main projects conducted by CAFF – Circumpolar Biodiversity Monitoring Program (CBMP) and Arctic Bio- diversity Assessment (ABA). CBMP organizes its efforts around the major ecosystems of the Arctic. It coordinates marine, freshwater, terrestrial and coastal monitoring activities while establishing international linkages to global biodiversity initiatives. CBMP emphasizes data management, capacity building, reporting, coordination and integration of Arctic monitoring, and communications, education and out- reach. The purpose of ABA is to synthesize and assess the status and trends of biological diversity in the Arctic. It discusses broad trends in habitat condition and extent, ecosystem function, and overall biodiversity. EBM has remained integral to all CAFF activities since its formation, nevertheless ABA report of 2013 has placed renewed emphasis on it. The part for policy makers states that one of the ABAs three cross-cutting themes is the necessity of taking an EBM approach to management. It recommends to “advance and advocate EBM efforts in the Arctic as a framework for cooperation, planning and development. This includes an approach to development that proceeds cautiously, with sound short and long-term environmental risk assessment and management, using the best available scientific and traditional ecological knowledge, following the best environmental practices, considering cumulative effects and adhering to international standards” (CAFF 2013). Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) was established in 1998. The goal of SDWG is “to propose and adopt steps to be taken by the Arctic states to

13 New perspectives in polar research advance sustainable development in the region, including opportunities to protect and enhance the environment and the economies, cultures and health of indigenous communities and other inhabitants of the Arctic, as well as to improve the environmental, economic and social conditions of Arctic communities as a whole” (Arctic Council 1998). Sustainable Development Framework Document of 2000 identifies six subject areas of special importance to SDWG: health issues and the well-being of people living in the Arctic; sustainable economic activities and increasing community prosperity; education and cultural heritage; children and youth; management of natural, including living, resources; infrastructure development (Arctic Council 2000). SDWG is currently working on the following initiatives that will inform decision-makers on the important human dimensions of EBM: Adaptation Actions for a Changing Arctic; Arctic Human Development Report 2014; Arctic Social Indica- tors; Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment II; Assessing, Monitoring and Promoting Arctic Indigenous Languages (Arctic Council 2013). SDWG is also a part of the Best Practices in Ecosystem-Based Ocean Management in the Arctic project, jointly with Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) working group. This project is built around seven case studies of how countries develop and implement ecosystem-based oceans management in the Arctic. It analyzes it and gives possible best practices for the future management (Hoel 2009). Mentioned above PAME is the most relevant working group for EBM. Ac- cording to the Nuuk Declaration of 1993 PAME was established to “assess the need for further action or instruments to prevent pollution of the Arctic marine environment and to evaluate the need for action in appropriate international fora to obtain international recognition of the particularly sensitive character of the ice-covered sea areas of the Arctic” (AEPS 1993). In 2002 PAME initiated the Arctic Marine Stra- tegic Plan (AMSP), which covers all Arctic marine areas and relates to all key activities affecting Arctic marine ecosystems. Its main goals are to reduce and prevent pollution in the Arctic marine environment, to conserve Arctic marine biodiversity and ecosystem functions, to promote the health and prosperity of all Arctic inhabitants and to advance sustainable Arctic marine resource use. One of the strategic actions of the AMSP was to identify the large marine ecosystems (LMEs) of the Arctic based on the best available ecological information (PAME 2004). In 2007 PAME established an Ecosystem Approach Expert Group to “consider information requirements including suites of indicators of the changing states of Arctic LMEs as measured against baselines of the five-module indicator approach (productivity/climate; fish and fisheries/marine birds and mammals; pollution and ecosystem health; socioeconomics and governance) to guide effective decision making” (PAME 2009a). In 2011 participants from AMAP, CAFF and SDWG joined the expert group. In 2009 PAME published the Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, which is a report focused on ships: their uses of the Arctic Ocean, their potential impacts on humans and the Arctic marine environment and their marine infrastruc-

14 New perspectives in polar research ture requirements (PAME 2009b). PAME was also involved in a work on two important reports: Best Practices in Ecosystem-Based Ocean Management in the Arc- tic, which was mentioned before, and Arctic Ocean Review.

Arctic Council’s expert group on the ecosystem-based management

Because “human activities in the Arctic are increasing, and planning and management of these activities on a cross-sectoral basis can assist in reducing conflict among activities and in supporting the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources” (Arctic Council 2011c) in May 2011 SAOs recommended to convene an ecosystem-based management expert group composed of governmental experts from the Arctic states and representatives of the Permanent Participants. Ministers representing the eight Arctic states complied with this suggestion and in the Nuuk Declaration of 2011 they decided to “establish an expert group on Arctic ecosystem- based management for the Arctic environment to recommend further activities in this field for possible consideration by the SAOs before the end of the Swedish chairmanship” (Arctic Council 2011a). The first meeting of the Arctic Council EBM expert group was held in Washington in October 2011. The main topics for discussion were: the human and socio-economic dimensions of Arctic EBM, the role and importance of traditional knowledge in Arctic EBM, identifying the types and availability of science best suited to support Arctic EBM, managing for uncertainty in the absence of information and utilizing risk-based and precautionary management approaches, match- ing research time scales to different management objectives in a rapidly changing environment. Representatives agreed to start two intersessional efforts: one working group to adapt existing EBM definitions and principles to pan-Arctic needs and another to identify high-level science and capacity needs for marine, coastal and terrestrial EBM implementation across the Arctic (Arctic Council 2011b). The second meeting held in Gothenburg, Sweden in April 2012 resulted in adopting definitions and principles of the EBM, as well as the papers on advancing EBM in the Arctic and best practices objectives. During the third meeting in Norwegian Tromsø (Octo- ber 2012), the Expert Group translated key findings from the previous documents into potential activities for the Arctic Council to consider for advancing EBM implementation (Arctic Council 2013). The comprehensive results of the expert group work are listed in the Ecosys- tem-Based Management in the Arctic report, presented at the Kiruna ministerial meeting in May 2013. It points out the main principles for the Arctic Council’s work, among which are: EBM supports ecosystem resilience in order to maintain ecological functions and services; EBM is place-based; EBM recognizes that hu-

15 New perspectives in polar research mans and their activities are integral part of the ecological system as a whole; EBM is inclusive and encourages participation of full spectrum of actors in the Arctic, successful EBM efforts are flexible, adaptive, and rely on feedback from monitoring and research (Arctic Council 2013). Activities for the Arctic Council’s EBM implementation are classified into three categories:  policy and implementation: development of an overarching Arctic EBM goal and provision of guidance to support it; exploration of ways in which Arctic States can cooperate to advance conservation and management of biologically, ecologically and culturally significant areas; adoption of best practices;  institutional: identification of a lead to assure coordination of a common approach to the work of the Arctic Council and SAOs’ institution of periodic Arctic Council reviews of EBM;  science and information: identification of important coastal, marine, and terrestrial areas; improvement of data comparability and compatibility; strengthening information exchange and monitoring (Arctic Council 2013).

Conclusions

The essence of EBM is to use our knowledge of the connections among the living organisms, natural phenomena and human activities along with economic and social science to find the best way of managing the ecosystems. As Poul Degnbol from ICES explains: “Ecosystem-based management cannot be implemented through single-sector policy alone. Different sector policies must all contribute to a cross-sectoral approach. In the case of fisheries, for example, EBM addresses both the impacts of fisheries on marine ecosystems and the impact on fisheries from other sectors, such as coastal development, offshore energy, and so forth. In this way, crosssector integration and within-sector contributions are both needed.” (UNEP 2011). EBM prepares society to climate changes and helps ecosystem be more resil- ient to them. The Arctic is a territory of eight states, governed by eight different governments, which have their own national interests in the region and vision of its future. To ensure an efficient implementation of the EBM activities in the region, the fully cooperation between all the Arctic states is essential. It is important that EBM is a priority not only within the Arctic Council, but for the each Arctic state jointly and severally. As for Norway the EBM activities seems to be a routine, there is not possible for the other countries to implement EBM before addressing some other issues first, mainly infrastructure and funding. Also, the indigenous peoples involvement should increase, as they are an integral component of the Arctic ecosystem. Maybe a good idea is to engage the non-Arctic states, such as China, Japan, Singapore and

16 New perspectives in polar research the European Union as a whole who are actively seeking the opportunities to involve in the region.

References:

Alcamo J. et al. 2003. Ecosystems and human well-being: a framework for assessment. Island Press, Washington – Covelo – London Arctic Council, 1996. Ottawa Declaration. Arctic Council, Ottawa Arctic Council, 1998. Terms of Reference for a Sustainable Development Program. Arctic Council, Iqaluit Arctic Council, 2000. Sustainable Development Framework Document. Arctic Council, Barrow Arctic Council, 2011. Nuuk Declaration. Arctic Council, Nuuk Arctic Council, 2011. Outcomes from Ecosystem-based Management Experts Group October 18–19, 2011. Arctic Council, Washington Arctic Council, 2011. Senior Arctic Officials Report to Ministers. Arctic Council, Nuuk Arctic Council, 2013. Ecosystem-Based Management in the Arctic. Arctic Council, Tromso Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS), 1991. Program for the Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Framework Document. AEPS, Rovaniemi. Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS), 1993. Nuuk Declaration. AEPS, Nuuk Arkema K.K., Abramson S.C., Dewsbury B.M., 2006. Marine ecosystem-based management: from char- acterization to implementation. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4 (10), 525–532 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), 2013. Arctic Biodiversity Assessment: Report for Policy Makers. CAFF, Akureyri Graczyk P., 2013. Rada Arktyczna jako główne forum współpracy w Arktyce. In: M. Łuszczuk (ed.), Arkty- ka na początku XXI wieku. Wyd. Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, Lublin, 281–315 Grumbine R.E., 1994. What is Ecosystem Management?. Conservation Biology 8, 27–38 Hoel A.H. (ed.), 2009. Best Practices in Ecosystem-based Oceans Management in the Arctic. Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromso Loukacheva N., 2010. Polar Law Textbook. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen McLeod K.L., Lubchenco J., Palumbi S.R., Rosenberg A.A., 2005. Scientific Consensus Statement on Marine Ecosystem-Based Management. Communication Partnership for Science and the Sea Olsen S.B., Ipsen N., Adriaanse M., 2006. Ecosystem-based management: Markers for assessing progress. UNEP, The Hague Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), 2004. Arctic Marine Strategic Plan. PAME, Akureyri Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), 2009. Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment Report. PAME, Akureyri Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME), 2009. PAME Progress Report on the Ecosystem Approach to Arctic Marine Assessment and Management 2006 –2008. PAME, Akureyri United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2011. Taking steps toward Marine and Coastal Ecosys- tem-Based Management – An Introductory Guide. UNEP Internet sources: http://www.seaweb.org/resources/ebm/whatisebm.php

New perspectives in polar research

Michał Łuszczuk

Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce The Faculty of Management and Administration 21B Świętokrzyska st, 25-369 Kielce, Poland [email protected]

Offshore Hydrocarbon Developments in the Arctic: Main Determinants and Drivers

Abstract: This chapter aims to provide a general overview of the main determinants and drivers which are responsible for exploration and exploitation of offshore oil and gas in the Arctic region today and in the future.

Keywords: Arctic region, hydrocarbon resources, oil and gas

Introduction

The multidimensional transformation taking currently place in the Arctic is driven by interlinked processes of climate change, globalisation, modernisation, and technological advance. While most of these factors come from outside the region, their results and consequences accumulate within the borders of the circumpolar north and profoundly change and challenge all Arctic ecosystems. One of the aspects of this transformation – drawing special attention of Arctic social scientists – is the “opening” of the region to new types of human activity such as new forms of polar tourism or offshore drilling and/or expansion of activities already present in the region, e.g., shipping or mining. It should be noted, however that, while most of the recently identified threats to the Arctic’s natural landscape are already occurring, many of the suggested social opportunities and economic benefits associated with the transformation of the region will occur farther in the and/or might actually be based on fears and hopes. A critical assessment of such ‘expectations’ is an urgent need both from the perspective of objective examination of the processes taking place in the Arctic and in terms of the development of the knowledge-based decision-making processes that could support national and regional governance institutions. Such an approach is especially important with respect to the hydrocarbon resources in the Arctic, because the region that has been designated “an emerging

19 New perspectives in polar research energy province” (SDWG Report 2009, AMAP 2010) and is a place of conflicting claims over access to those energy resources and supplies (Johnston 2012, Janicki 2012, Hough 2012, Nong 2012, Łuszczuk 2011). Due to global warming temperatures in the Arctic have risen more and faster than in other parts of the globe. As a result, the Arctic natural environment has been transformed in all dimensions, including its flora and fauna, oceans, rivers, snow, ice, glaciers and permafrost, and a truly global interest in the region has been evolving (Koivurova, Hossain 2008). And while the shrinking of the Arctic Ocean ice cap has opened the region for increased activities by different state and non-states actors, one of main issues of interest is the potential of the Arctic’s nonrenewable energy resources. It is estimated that the Arctic can account for as much as 20% of the world’s undiscovered but recoverable oil and natural gas resources (Gautier et al. 2009). The presence of hydrocarbon resources in the region has been known for centuries, but only in recent years has a wider opening for offshore resource extraction and navigation become potentially technically and economically feasible (Bish- op et al. 2010). The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the general significance of Arctic hydrocarbons, primarily offshore oil and gas, for regional and global energy security by tracing recent developments taking place in each of the Arctic Ocean costal states. It is argued that while neither the Arctic hydrocarbon production nor the debate about it is certainly not new, that intensity has not yet been matched by a significant increase in on-the-ground activities (Arctic Council 2009). It is claimed (Marsh Risk Management Research 2013) that “only 22 of the 174 fields discovered [in the Arctic] have produced hydrocarbons, with an average lag time of 13 years. Just 38 new fields are expected to come into production between 2012 and 2018”. Similar opinion are expressed by Lindholt and Glomsrød (2012). Following very optimistic visions and plans triggered in 2008 by the USGS (Gautier et al. 2009), the time has come for more careful analysis based on the initial lessons from the projects already underway (DNV GL 2014, Ermida 2014). These offer arguments suggesting that the private sector (International Oil Companies) or state-owned companies (National Oil Companies) operating in the Arctic countries are not so eager to participate in substantial exploration expenditures and other accompanying investments. This of course influences the question of the impact of the Arctic hydrocarbons on the regional and global energy security.

Oil and gas in the Arctic – basic facts

The Arctic region consists of parts of eight countries – Canada, Den- mark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States. Finland and Sweden do not border with the Arctic Ocean and ipso facto are not pre-

20 New perspectives in polar research senting any jurisdictional claims in the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas (Łuszczuk 2010). While about one-third of the Arctic is covered by the northern lands of the North America, Asia and Europe, another third consists of the offshore continental shelf, with waters generally less than 500 meters deep and the remaining third comprises ocean waters, usually deeper than 500 meters with a maximum depth of 5,500 metres (EY Report 2013). While the Arctic Ocean, covering an area of approximately 14 million square kilometres, is the smallest of the world’s five oceans, it has the widest continental shelf of all the oceans. The shelf is both wide and shallow off Europe and Asia, all the way from the Barents Sea in the west to the Bering Strait. In some areas of the Arctic the continental shelf extends a significant distance towards the North Pole. Much (if not most) of the Arctic’s waters are currently ice-covered for most of the year. However, the polar ice cap has been noticeably receding in recent years, quite possibly as a consequence of global climate change, and this produces a lot of threats and opportunities for resource exploitation and energy security in and out of the region. Labelling the Arctic an “emerging energy province” is a substantial change with the past when almost no attention was paid to the Arctic’s energy resources (Arctic Council 2009). There were two reasons for that. Firstly, the costs of produc- ing and transporting Arctic oil and gas to markets were prohibitively high, meaning that only really huge oil and natural gas fields reducing the costs could be profitable. Secondly, much more affordable hydrocarbons were available in other areas without such problems (Arctic Council 2009). However, large Arctic oil and natural gas discoveries were made in Russia in 1962, with the discovery of the Tazovskoye Field and in U.S. Alaska in 1967 with the discovery of the Prudhoe Bay Field. To date, most petroleum developments in the Arctic have taken place in Alaska and Northern Russia. By the beginning of the 21st century about 10% of global oil production and 25% of global gas production took place in the Arctic (Lindholt 2006). It should be highlighted that around 97% of current Arctic oil and gas production is from onshore developments in Russia and Alaska (Arctic Council 2009). Approximately 61 large oil and natural gas fields have been discovered so far in the Arctic Circle – 43 in Russia, 11 in Canada, 6 in Alaska and 1 in Norway (Arctic Council 2009). Lindholt and Glomsrød (2012) predict that exploration and production in Arctic offshore regions will increase, although under quite specific conditions. In 2008, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) released a wide- ranging assessment of Arctic oil and gas resources, estimating the region’s undiscovered and technically recoverable conventional oil and natural gas resources (Gautier et al. 2009). Of the 33 Arctic sedimentary provinces that the USGS evaluated, 25 were found to have a greater than 10% probability of having oil or gas deposits larger than the equivalent of 50 million barrels of oil. The assessment sug-

21 New perspectives in polar research gested that approximately 90 billion barrels of oil, 1669 trillion cubic feet of gas, and 44 billion barrels of natural gas liquids (NGLs) may remain undiscovered in the Arctic. This means that the Arctic’s share of undiscovered oil and gas are estimated to be as much as 13% and 30% of total global resources, respectively. It should also be underscored that of the 412 billion barrels total of oil equivalent (boe), approximately 84%, of the oil and about two-thirds (67%) natural gas is expected to be found offshore. With respect to energy security issues it is worth mentioning that Russia is estimated to hold more than half of the total Arctic resources (Russia holds the largest amount of natural gas resources, while the largest oil resources are in Alaska). The main question that appears then is if and/or under what conditions these resources can become commercially exploitable and affordable, given the current and expected prices of hydrocarbons? Before trying to answer this question, it would be helpful to first identify the drivers standing behind the developments of the Arctic hydrocarbons.

Development of exploration of the Arctic offshore hydrocarbons – main drivers facts

The development of Arctic resources is a complex issue, due primarily to the high-costs and high-risks characteristic to any Arctic activities. It should be clar- ified, however, that the attractiveness and feasibility of Arctic hydrocarbon development are correlated with many different factors, processes, and issues that can be considered as key determinants or drivers (Harsem et al. 2011). These can be ar- ranged into four main clusters that may reveal opportunities and/or restrictions for further development. The first cluster, “Scope and pace of climate change in the Arctic”, includes phenomena such as the decline of sea-ice coverage (Harsem et.al. 2013), expanding access and transport routes, unprecedented extreme weather conditions, increased coastal erosion, new Arctic pollution sources and additional local emissions contributing to climate change, e.g. ozone, black carbon, aerosols. Includ- ed among the factors making up the second cluster, “Economic conditions and global markets”, are the state of national and regional economies, economic potential of hydrocarbon development, the dynamic global energy landscape (gas shell in the North America or offshore gas resources in the East Africa), intensifying interactions between different fuels, technologies, markets and prices. It is worth mentioning here that Solanko and Vilmi (2013) identify two major shifts in global energy markets in the past ten years that have seem to have a vital impact on the prospects for Arctic offshore hydrocarbons extraction. These are emerging Asian economies, that use more than half of all energy produced globally and stimulate current growth in global energy consumption and traditional energy markets have been effectively challenged by the arrival of unconventional hydrocarbons and plentiful liquefied

22 New perspectives in polar research natural gas, resulting in a significant drop in natural gas prices in North America even as energy prices have remained high in Europe Third cluster, “Advances in offshore technology and maritime transport industries”, is composed of such complex issues as improved technology for offshore oil and gas exploration that reduce environmental impacts and enhance safety, infrastructure for production and transport, and co-operative approaches and technical capacity to address pollution, oil spill and rescue operations (Martin 2013). It should be highlighted that as operators continue to move further North into more extreme Arctic territories, they re-evaluate the safety and risk profiles and find a need to take with them “an increasingly complex supply chain of equipment suppliers, technical advisors and other specialist partners” (DNV GL 2014: 22. Gao et al. 2010). Within the fourth cluster, “Policy developments”, the following factors should be mentioned: governments' policies, development of international governance frameworks and rules for oil and gas extraction, global and regional climate agreements and regulations, and pressure from some NGOs. Discussions about the prospects, costs and risks of oil and gas production in the Arctic usually devote a lot of attention to the challenges of resource recovery. The most important of these are: 1. harsh polar climate including the intense cold for much of the year, long periods of near-total darkness, the potential ice-pack damage to offshore facilities, etc. 2. limited existing infrastructure for effective and safe exploration, production and transport (e.g. ice-breakers, tankers, rigs) and telecommunication, as well very long distances between destinations, 3. extraordinarily long project lead times that usually pose a high risk of growing costs, 4. difficulties and risks connected with spill containment and spill recovery actions 5. overlapping or competing economic sovereignty claims to seabed resources laying on the Arctic continental shelf. Additionally, there is the long-running US/Canada dispute over the boundaries of the Beaufort Sea. The other long- running dispute, between Russia and Norway in the Barents Sea, was resolved in late 2010, 6. country-specific environmental regulations and taxation regimes, 7. increased protests and objections from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), noting that the Arctic environment is a unique ecosystem and warning of potential irreversible ecological chain reactions. One famous example is the attempt by the Greenpeace activists to board a Russian oil-rig Prirazlomnaya in September 2013 (BBC 2013).

23 New perspectives in polar research

Concluding remarks

Hydrocarbon developments in the Arctic, traditionally viewed and discussed as a vital feature of the present and future situation of the whole region, now seem to be moving to another phase. While there is still a growing interest in the region’s resources and some investments have been made (Ermida 2014), the very special and extreme Arctic conditions remain major challenges for even exploratory drill- ings. What is also interesting and highly important is that, despite apparent differences between the Arctic states’ policies in regards to their Arctic resources, all of them cooperate in providing an appropriate legal framework for the future production. The Arctic Council is main locus of this cooperation (Arctic Council 2013). In 2011, the Council member states concluded the Agreement on Coopera- tion on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, the first binding treaty concluded under the Council's auspices (Łuszczuk 2014). This was followed in 2013 by the Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution, Preparedness and Response in the Arctic. Actually as Arctic waters become increasingly accessible as a result of a warming climate and the interest in different types of maritime activities is slowly growing, it should be highlighted that the Arctic environment presents a set of spill response and recovery challenges that are not seen elsewhere in the world. These challenges are harsh weather, remoteness, insufficient infrastructure to support a response, cold temperatures that reduce the effectiveness of equipment, and the presence of ice for much of the year in some areas (EPPR 2013). Thus, effective spill prevention practices are viewed as critical to ensure the protection of the Arctic marine environment from oil pollution incidents. In this context Arctic energy security will be oriented primarily to the security of energy resource exploitation in coming decades.

Acknowledgement: This chapter has been drafted as a part of research supported by National Centre for Science post-doctoral fellowship under the grant: DEC-2011/04/S/HS5/00172.

References:

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24 New perspectives in polar research

DNV GL, 2014. Challenging climates: The outlook for the oil and gas industry in 2014, (access : http://www2.dnvgl.com/l/21052/2014-challenging-climates-pdf/747dw – 24.01.2014) EPPR, 2013. Summary Report and Recommendations on the Prevention of Marine Oil Pollution in the Arctic 2013 Summary, (access: http://www.arctic-council.org/eppr/ – 20.05.2014) Ermida G., 2014. Strategic decisions of international oil companies: Arctic versus other regions. Energy Strategy Reviews 2(3 –4), 265–272 EY Report, 2013. Arctic Gas and Oil, EY Report May 2013, (access: http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/Arctic_oil_and_gas/$FILE/Arctic_oil_and_gas.pdf – 18.01.2014) Gao X., Barabady J., Markeset T., 2010. An approach for prediction of petroleum production facility performance considering Arctic influence factors. Reliability Engineering and System Safety 95, 837–846 Gautier D.L., Bird K.J., Charpentier R.R., Grantz A., Houseknecht D.W., Klett T.R., Moore T.E., Pitman J.K., Schenk C.J., Schuenemeyer J.H., Sørensen K., Tennyson M.E., Valin Z.C., Wandrey C.J., 2009. Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas in the Arctic. Science 324 (5931), 1177–78 Harsem Ø., Eide A., Heen K., 2011. Factors influencing future oil and gas prospects in the Arctic. Energy Policy 39 (12), 8037–8045 Harsem Ø., Heen K., Rodrigues J.M.P., Vassdal T,. 2013. Oil exploration and sea ice projections in the Arctic. Polar Record, FirstView, 1 –16; DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0032247413000624 Hong N., 2012. The energy factor in the Arctic dispute: a pathway to conflict or cooperation?. Journal of World Energy Law and Business 5 (1), 13–26 Hough P., 2012. Worth the Energy? The Geopolitics of Arctic Oil and Gas. Central European Journal of International and Security Studies 6 (1), 75–90 Janicki W., 2012. Why Do They Need the Arctic? The First Partition of the Sea. Arctic 65 (1), 87–97 Johnston P., 2012. Arctic Energy Resources: Security and Environmental Implications. Journal of Strate- gic Security 5 (3), 13–32 Koivurova T., Hossain K., 2008. Offshore Hydrocarbon: Current Policy Context in the Marine Arctic. Arctic Transform, (access: http://arctic-transform.org/download/OffHydBP.pdf – 19.03.2014) Lindholt L., 2006. Arctic natural resources in a global perspective. In: S. Glomsrød, I. Aslaksen (eds), The Economy of the North. Oslo: Statistics Norway Lindholt L., Glomsrød, S., 2012. No big bonanza for the global petroleum industry. Energy Economics 34 (5), 1465–1474 Łuszczuk M., 2010. Rozwój sytuacji międzynarodowej w Arktyce a delimitacja obszarów morskich na Oceanie Arktycznym. Stosunki Międzynarodowe – International Relations 42 (3 –4), 139–153 Łuszczuk M., 2011. The Arctic In Transition. Regional Issues and Geopolitics On Thin Ice. Teka Komisji Politologii i Stosunków Międzynarodowych PAN, Oddział w Lublinie 7, 101–116 Łuszczuk M., 2014. The Regional Significance of the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement. Rocznik Bezpieczeństwa Międzynarodowego 8 (1), 38–50 Marsh Risk Management Research, 2013. Managing Risk on the New Frontiers of Energy Exploration. (access: https://uk.marsh.com/Portals/18/Documents/MRMR%20New%20Frontiers%20of%20Energy%2 0Expl%202013_A4.pdf – 24.03.2014) Martin A.S., 2013. Deeper and Colder. The Impacts and Risks of Deepwater and Arctic Hydrocarbon Development, (access: http://www.sustainalytics.com/sites/default/files/unconventional-oil-and- gas-arctic-drilling_0.pdf – 22.04.2014) Solanko L., Lauri Vilmi L., 2013. The transformation of global energy markets, BOFIT Online 6, (access: http://www.suomenpankki.fi/bofit_en/tutkimus/tutkimusjulkaisut/online/Documents/ 2013/bon0613.pdf – 10.01.2014

New perspectives in polar research

Magdalena Tomala

Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce The Faculty of Management and Administration 21B Świętokrzyska st, 25-369 Kielce, Poland [email protected]

The Role of Greenland in the Arctic

Abstract: Along with the progressive warming of Arctic climate the importance of Greenland as a relevant element in geopolitical system of Arctic region will grow. The increasing availability of local energy resources and rare earth metals will result in increased interest of the island by the outside parties: China, EU, Denmark and other. Active political and economic factors aimed at Nuuk will thus be gaining momentum. This occurrence will be accompanied by the increasing desire of Green- land to a full of a political sovereignty. This article discusses the interests and relationship of Greenland in three areas: with Denmark, EU and China. The analysis answers the following questions: Can Denmark follow the rapidly increasing international interest in Greenland? What are the challenges facing the Danish- Greenlandic relationship? Is Greenland with limited capabilities able to handle further interest from major global powers? While the Arctic is a laboratory of the challenges at stake in 21st century, Greenland appears as a laboratory of the challenges that the Arctic is facing: climate change, natural resources, competition between global powers, shipping routes, security issues.

Keywords: Arctic, Greenland, international relation, foreign affairs

Introduction

The recent effects of global warming in the Arctic (Maxwell 1992) have many countries and international organizations interested in the situation (Neumann 2012, Wright 2013). The source of attention of entities in international relations are economic benefits arising from the exploitation of natural resources, especially crude oil and rare earth metals, that have not been mined due to the harsh climatic conditions (Hansen et al. 2013). It can be hypothesized that the area of the Arctic concerns one of the sensitive areas of the globe where indicated conditions may apply to the unique combination of opportunities and contemporary threats to securi- 27 New perspectives in polar research ty in the region. Interesting in this perspective is the geopolitical position of Green- land, that previously remaining on the sidelines of international relations nowadays is becoming a key player in the global system. Here collide interests of any relevant world powers such as China, Denmark, and the European Union. The objective of this contest on one hand are deposits of raw materials of “Green Island” and on the other hand – environmental issues of the case sovereignty of the indigenous population issues and also economic development. Ongoing diplomatic and political game on the division of influence in the far Northern is so important in some respects from the point of view of the same Green- land. It is the result from fact that the international community increasingly demonstrates a willingness to accept a situation in which entities other than the state can receive legal capacity to enter into this agreement, signing treaties, or even taking voice in the international arena. The purpose of this article is an analysis of the international situation in the region, after the Act of 12 June 2009 authorizes the Gov- ernment of Greenland to negotiate and conclude international agreements with third countries and international organizations. What role does Greenland play in geopolitical system, where the clashing interests of China, Denmark and the European Union? This article will discuss the joint interests of these three entities, which seems to be very interesting from the point of view of international relations. Each of them has their goals in Greenland and seemingly seems to be contradictory with each other. It can therefore be predicted that Greenland based on the opportunities and threats, will achieve sovereignty had to be on side of someone. But does it have to do that? These questions remain unanswered for the time being but in this work will be presented arguments of the parties to the conflict. It is important for understanding the relationship between Greenland, Denmark, European Union and China.

The concept of international roles and status of Greenland

In terms of W. Kostecki foreign policy “The process of formulating and implementation of national – interests of state in relation to other countries and participants in the international system” (Kostecki 1988). This definition indicates that if Greenland does not have sovereign state status cannot arise in the international relation as an entity pursuing its own interests or play international roles? As indicated J. Kukułka and R. Zięba, leading foreign policy, the state implements multiple international rules what in perspective allows to define the relationship between his political declaration and the actual action targeted on these objectives (Kukułka, Zięba 1981). Therefore, according to M. Bielecka notion “international role of the state can be understood (...) organized and purposeful system the State interactions on the other participants of international relations as a function of the subjective assessment impact of the external environment” (Bielecka 2004). Although the author indicates

28 New perspectives in polar research here that the definition refers to the international roles of the State and not the nation, or other entity. Elsewhere she emphasizes “The concept of the role of the international (...) is not usually identified with the behavior of individual units, but rather with the external policies of the state. Operation within the greater, the international polyarchy system makes the roles are formulated for the purposes of the specific nature resulting from the specificity of the system. This applies especially to its participants. In this case, there are mainly the states. Of course there are also the other participants of international relations, such as international organizations, transna- tional corporations, or interest groups who play a number of international roles” (Bielecka 2004). According to J. Zajac (2013) and P. Bartosiewicz (2007) for non-state entities, playing role in international relations draws attention. P. Bartosiewicz believes that “both the state and international organizations, as the main elements that constitute the global geopolitical space, play in the three-dimensional extent of certain international roles” (Bartosiewicz 2007). When bring up the issue of the international roles, most political scientists have in mind the roles of international countries, and not the other participants – who are treated as secondary manner. However P. Bartosiewicz (2007) indicates that, paradoxically, the role of secondary participants (analyzed in this nation of Greenland) may in fact be far greater than the average observers of international life we used to think. The author refers to the theory of declining created in the 70s according to which “the state as the primary participant in the international relations, it ceases to play a dominant role in the modern world. Its place is taken by international organizations, which link state networks of various connections”. Indicated above definitions allowed Greenland to accept the nation can play the role of international, despite the lack of full statehood and sovereignty. In this paper attempts to answer the question of what roles in international relations fully Greenland and what is the effectiveness of its impact on other countries.

Role of Greenland in international relations

There are many ways of classification of international roles. One of the most powerful classification presented K. Holsti (1987), extracting as many as 17 major types of international roles. Taking into account the aspirations of Greenland to achieve independence and sovereignty we can assign its own potential roles builder. Such an approach hides declared by the Government of Greenland towards its policy and widening sovereign rights. Undoubtedly speaks for independence of Greenland that society inhabits these areas – Inuit – have a distinct identity, its own language and culture. The same, position of the island shows more on the direction towards North America than to

29 New perspectives in polar research

Europe. While analyzing economic issues, we should indicate pointing to the arguments of supporters of sovereignty, who believe that the subsidies Danish only lead to passivity and subordination to the metropolis. Depending on separation from Denmark, Greenland would gain the expected profits associated with the extraction of mineral resources (Rasmussen 2013). In Greenland there are ongoing debates around the issues of how to build their own potential based on its raw material resources. In 2009, performed a further step on the road to achieve sovereignty, frozen the cost of subsidies from Denmark, which every year lose their value. Since that time, Greenland is looking for their chance to be self-sufficient. It is known from the nearest future Greenland will no announce independence, since the same transition to full autonomy, took 30 years. Before the referen- dum held in 2009, the then Prime Minister of Greenland Hans Enoksen while he spoke, that the aim of his government was the introduction of full independence until 2021, although the Foreign Minister of the government Kuupik Kleist – Per Berthelsen wasn’t reacting so optimistic to issues of independence, pointing term at least 20–30 years (Szwed 2013). Also, Greenland deputy Palle Christensen of Democrats (groups sceptical towards the idea of the independence of the island) claimed that “We cannot do it without Danish grants, so we cannot give up now. Only after spatial deposits we should think about loosening the bonds of Copenhagen” (Forsal 04.03.2014). While in the perspective of decades, this vision seems feasible. Crucial in the construction of their own potential will have raw materials policy, which was the subject of debate during the last election. During the elections the two political party’s clashed, Residing in the Office left-wing party leader Kuupik Kleist Inuit Ataqatigiit was a supporter of foreign investments, while his policy was considered a controversial. He introduced the system of preferences for investments of large scale, which in the opinion of society and opposition gave too many privileges to companies which have invested in Greenland over 670 million in mining projects. “We cannot rely solely on fishing. We need to develop the mining and industry sectors” – said the former prime minister weekly “Sermitsiaq”. While his counter can- didate Aleqa Hammond retorted that Greenland cannot uncritically allow for the exploitation of their natural resources, but should provide the greatest benefit to the local government and residents. The leader of the party Siumut claim to take the introduction of mining fees and more lucrative licensing rules. In rematch, Kleist accused the opposition of stoking nationalist sentiments and separatist aspirations. On how to build their own potential prejudge the results of the election, after which the party of Aleqi Hammond announced changes in the policy of the current prime minister resource. New Prime Minister selected in 2013, announced that she wants to grant the exploitation of uranium and other ores, if they contain no more than 0.1 percent uranium oxide. Instead, Simut party requires that mining companies

30 New perspectives in polar research pay immediately for the right to exploitation of deposits, while former Prime Minis- ter Kleist's party planned to collect taxes only when the mining companies will be profitable. Inuit Ataqatigiit Party lost because at the end of 2012, passed a law which allowed foreign investors to pay their workers in accordance with the rules in force in their homeland. This meant much smaller profits to the budget of Greenland than the minimum wage in Greenland. It was a nod to China, which has announced that it will invest 2.3 billion dollars in the mine, which will be sent to China 15 million tons of iron ore per year. For the construction of the mine was intended to bring about 2–3 thousand Chinese people. The vision of a mass influx of foreigners did not like many Inuit, who feared that foreign companies will have too much to say (Czarnecki, Kublik 2013). Another method of research on the roles of international applied S. Walker, who starting from the theoretical classification of roles, applied it to reinterpret made earlier empirical studies (Walker 1987). He distinguished six international roles: consumer, producer, warrior, conciliator, provocateur, the hegemon. Referring to the classification proposed by Walker we should look at Greenland term and taking account of climate change that are taking place in the World. Today Greenland is not a power of raw materials but global warming may lead to fundamental changes in the region. What is most valuable in Greenland is hidden under a layer of ice covering more than 80% surface of the country. We are talking about resources such as petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, aluminum, nickel and copper, precious metals such as gold, platinum and also rare metals like titanium, tungsten, tantalum, niobi- um, and even uranium. As the media indicated it is “a real array of Mendeleev table”. Craving such a treasure is caving the world, including not only countries like China, EU Member States, Denmark, USA, Canada or even Australia, but also large worldwide corporations. As the Foreign Minister of Greenland said for the “China Daily” – “We are not a tycoon commodity today, however, in the future we will be” (Ningzhu 2014). Besides, not only the rare metals stir up the interest of entities in the international relations. London Mining, a company affiliated with the Chinese steel plants to open iron ore mines here, which was mentioned earlier. The value of the project is estimated to be approximately 2.35 billion dollars. American concern Alcoa in the area of Greenland contemplates the construction of the aluminum smelter, where the raw materials were transported from Brazil and Australia. In turn, British Cairn En- ergy spend in 2010–2011, $ 1.2 billion on oil exploration nears the island (Nyvold 2012). We should emphasize that so far the suffered the cost has not brought the expected results. Despite this, competitive company Seadrill (the largest company in the fields of oil exploration offshore), do not be discouraged by the results of the competition, recently signed a contract for 1.18 billion dollars. Powerful and risky investments of multinational corporations in Greenland stem form the potential of the island. The experts from Wood Mackenzie estimate deposits in Greenland and

31 New perspectives in polar research around 20 billion barrels of oil, which would constitute largest unexploited deposits of oil decks today in the world. Their value would be 2 trillion dollars. The fact that in the future Greenland may become a resource base for the world's economies testi- fies also number of operating licenses in Greenland, which increased from 33 in 2005 to 75 in 2011. The total estimated that geological and mining companies issued in 2010,100 billion dollars on minerals exploration and oil even more on oil exploration. The direction of research, initiated by the earlier mention K. Holsti later continued the research team under the direction of M. and Ch. Herman. On the basis of these analyzes, distinguished six orientation roles in foreign policy such as: ex- pansionist, active independent, focused on the impact, mediation, opportunistic and development. Greenland can be attributed to opportunistic orientation, which is characterized by a willingness to take action favorable and use of existing circumstances. The entity is not interested in playing here active role in the international community, it is leading politics of flexible moves collaborated to make best use of the situation. The leaders representing the orientation are by characterized by the complexity of the decision-making process, a slight lack of confidence in other countries, too much faith in the ability to control events, not a great need for dominance and strengthening friendly relations with others as well as low levels of na- tionalism. The leaders of these countries may be discriminated against by other entities. Greenland balances between the different countries involved in Greenlandic raw materials: like China, Denmark, USA, Canada, Australia, Great Britain and the European Union. The biggest challenge for the Nation of Greenland is – as told by Degeorges – “would not become a weak player in the Arctic region” (Degeorges 2013b). As he indicated, in order to have all the prerogative, you cannot have a weak state, because the consequences of poor policy of Greenland in the Arctic will be a threat to its energy security. To achieve independence Greenlanders need to build a strong state structures and a strong economy, independent of the power of influence of world powers and international corporations (Degeorges 2013a). What is important it is the proper selection of the principles governing cooperation partners? Interest in Greenland is high, as evidenced by numerous diplomatic meetings conducted by the Greenland authorities. Already in November 2011, Li Keqiang – Deputy Prime Minister of China met with Over Karl Berthelsen, who included the post of Minister of industry and natural resources. This meeting showed that China is interested in Greenland. So did South Korea in April 2012, when Xu Shaoshi – the minister for lands and resources lead delegation to Greenland. In June 2013, to Denmark with a three-day visit came President Hu Jintao, though apparently not talked about rare earth metals. During Hillary Clintons visit to Greenland one of her first question was about rare earth metals. Greenland is visited by the most important politicians of the world, for ex-

32 New perspectives in polar research ample, in September 2013 the island has visited South Korean President Lee Myung-bak, a corporation Kores (Korean Resources Corporation) entered into an agreement with a local mining company Nuna Minerals on the joint exploitation of rare earth metals (Degeorges 2013c). On the market of these metals necessary in the electronics industry monopoly is China while Korean Samsung, LG and Hyundai are global leaders in computers, smartphones, tablets and other electronic devices. Due to the situation in which the Korea is looking for a way to break out of depending on the Chinese monopoly. It is not surprising that the former Prime Minister of Greenland K. Kleist many years was under pressure from foreign investors and politicians of the Europe- an Union, the United States and China. During the rule of the policy was issued more than 100 mining concessions. The flagship project, which previously was mentioned, supposed to be launching production of iron or by the British company Lon- don Mining at the cost of 2.3 billion dollars and exports of raw materials to China. In the work of the fjord near Nuuk was supposed to take part 2 thousand workers from inside the state. The local community has expressed its opposition on this project in the elections of 2013, because such a large migration represents about 4 percent increase in the population of Greenland. Aluminum factory with thousands of new jobs is also plans to open a giant Aluminum Company of America – Alcoa Inc. then the Americans arouse less concern of cultural invested them with aggressive investments and the Chinese economic expansion. It is interesting conflict of interest between China and the European Union about the influence in Greenland. K. Kleist had difficulty to communicate with the European Commission. Organization from Greenland in common so-called memo- randum of understanding to ensuring European countries to access to resources in Greenland. However Greenlanders, were not satisfied with the protracted negotiations and just before elections Kleist threatened with the countries of the old continent soon will lose the possibility of exploitation of natural resources of the island. As a result of bureaucratic delays at EU levels, Greenland quickly and entered into a similar agreement with China. To such paces Greenland, the only thing European Commission could claim is a limitation of Chinese activity on the island (Degeorges 2012). The European Union itself is planning to strengthen mutually beneficial cooperation with Greenland, which allows combining infrastructure and investment capacity or building potential in the exploration and mining of raw materials. On behalf of the European Commission in June 2012 in Nuuk signed a letter of intent on cooperation in the field. However, it is at the same slow, bureaucratic – and from the very beginning is not competitive with the Chinese regime, which makes decisions quickly and doesn’t need to consult the most important issues. EU Commis- sioner for Industry, Antonio Tajani, in June 2013, visited Greenland and sought the opportunity to use valuable elements by EU companies. However China does not

33 New perspectives in polar research miss a step and it is also engaged in intensive negotiations. Greenlandic society despite fears about the presence of China in Greenland does not close itself relation with this great power (EurActiv, 2013). It can also be noted that Denmark also un- derstands the policy of Greenland. As evidenced by the joint meeting the Minister of Greenland and the Danish ambassador in China. On February17, 2014 the Danish Ambassador Erik Vilstrup Lorenzen and Greenland Foreign Minister Kai Holst An- dersen in an interview with “China Daily” indicated that they started conversation with two Chinese concerns about mining cooperation in Greenland (copper company Jiangxi Province). Kai Holst Andersen emphasized that if this cooperation will end successfully, it will be a good start to expand cooperation with other Chinese companies in Greenland. China in return promises access to its market for Denmark and Greenland, and collaboration on scientific research involving the Kingdom of Den- mark and Greenland (Ningzhu 2014). At present, about 58 percent Companies engaged in mineral exploration in Greenland come from Canada and Australia. Companies from European Union represent only 15% (including Denmark, Germany, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom). Although European companies have three-quarters permits for exploitation in Greenland they have just a few concessions for the exploration and engage in a small way in this type of activity (most of the concessions is in the hands of Great Britain, Germany and Denmark). To this must be added the reports of the release of the Arctic under the ice, which is in the future to facilitate maritime transport. Ice-free part of Greenland would increase over the next 30 years from 380 to 410 thousand sq. km. In conclusion it should be noted that at present it is difficult to speak of the profits from the exploitation of deposits in Greenland but if in the end, a number of attempts will be successful, Greenland will change beyond recognition both in terms of economic, political, but mainly change its role in the international arena.

Summary

The occurrence of different types of international roles Greenland depends on the conditions of foreign policy. The effectiveness of these roles, however, depends on many different kinds of dependencies occurring between them. The above analysis can extend the thesis, and in this case the role of Greenland in 2009, began to change from participant who has its role imposed by the international community to the entity, which in the future may be a decision maker in its case. Not unreason- able can also be a statement due to possibility of extraction raw materials from Greenland it could become a future entity which will impose to other international roles. To cope with the increasing of international interest, one of the most important

34 New perspectives in polar research challenges is the development and uses their potential. For this it can indicate the potential, opportunities and threats Greenland, due to its international roles: 1. In assessing the energy potential, geologists recommend that on Greenland are located some of the world's largest resources of various raw materials. Due to global warming, access to anything becomes cheaper and easier – this will consequently take advantage of the opportunity for economic development in Greenland, so that in the future may become a sovereign state and independent of Denmark subsidies. 2. One of the major threats facing Greenland is actually using itself as raw materials giant. Island is managed by only 44 people (9-bedded government, 31-bedded par- liament and 4 mayors, Greenland Department of Foreign Affairs has 15 people), which threatens possibility of government corruption. 3. Pointing to the opportunistic orientation of Greenland we must indicate on the need to diversify the countries of origin of foreign investment. It can be assumed that the major projects in Greenland will be largely financed by Asian countries (threat of monopolization rare resources management). Hence the danger flowing cultural civilization. There is therefore a need to strengthen political relations in Greenland with its closest neighbors – the Nordic countries, the European Union, Canada and the United States.

References

Bielecka M., 2004. Role międzynarodowe państwa. In: R. Zięba (eds), Wstęp do teorii polityki zagranicz- nej państwa, Adam Marszałek, Toruń, 177 Bartosiewicz P., 2007. Zagadnienie ról międzynarodowych państw internacjologii. Polityka i Społeczeń- stwo 4, 7 Czarnecki M., Kublik A., 2013. Grenlandia po wyborach otworzy złoża metali ziem rzadkich. Gazeta Wyborcza (access: http://wyborcza.biz/biznes/1,101562,13556869,Grenlandia_po_wyborach_otworzy_zloza_metal i_ziem_rzadkich.html#ixzz2vkReNrnE) Degeorges D. 2012. China in Greenland: A challenge for the European Union. EurActiv 15.06.2012, (access: http://www.euractiv.com/specialreport-rawmaterials/china-greenland-challenge- europe-analysis-513343) Degeorges D. 2013a. Denmark, Greenland and the Arctic. Challenges and opportunities of becoming the meeting place of global powers, Royal Danish Defence College, Copenhagen, 6–9 Degeorges D. 2013b. Grenlandia - nowy potentat na rynku surowców?. "EurActiv" 15.07.2013, (access: http://www.euractiv.pl/wersja-do-druku/artykul/grenlandia--nowy-potentat-na-rynku-surowcow- 004863) Degeorges D. 2013c. Greenland and the Arctic: Still a role for the EU. "EurActiv" 12.07.2013, (access: http://www.euractiv.com/sustainability/greenland-arctic-role-eu-analysis-529282) Forsal 04.03.2014. Pierwsze złoża ropy i gazu odkryte na Grenlandii podsycą nastroje separatystyczne w tym kraju Greenland rejects EU request to limit rare earths exports. EurActiv 15.01.2013, (access: http://www.euractiv.com/sustainability/greenland-rejects-eu-request-lim-news-517057) Hansen S.H., Pedersen L.C., Vilsgaard K.D., Nielsen I.E., Hansen S.F., 2013. Environmental and Ethical Aspects of Sustainable Mining in Greenland. Journal of Earth Science and Engineering 3 (2013), 213–224 Holsti K.J., 1987. National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy, In: S. Walker (eds), Role Theory and Foreign Policy Analysis, Duke University Press, Durham, 28 35 New perspectives in polar research

Kostecki W., 1988. Polityka zagraniczna. Teoretyczne podstawy badań. PWN, Warszawa, 106 Kukułka J., Zięba R., 1981. Ewolucja międzynarodowej roli Polski odrodzonej. Studia Nauk Politycznych 4, 80–81 Maxwell B., 1992. Arctic Climate: Potential for Change udner Global Warming. In: R.L. Jefferies, J.F. Reynolds, G.R. Shaver, J. Svoboda (eds). Arctic Ecosystems in a Changing Climate. An Eco- physiological Perspective, Academic Press, California, 23–26 Ningzhu Z., Bigger Chinese role sought in the Arctic, (access: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-02/18/c_133123759.htm) Neumann A., 2012. European Interests as regards Resource Exploitation in the Arctic: How Sustainable are European Efforts in this regard?. The Yearbook of Polar Law IV, 619–645 Newman H.R., 2010. The mineral Industries of Denmark, Faroe Island and Greenland. U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2010 13.2–13.3 Nyvold M., 2012. Banner oil exploration year possible in 2013. Oil & Minerals 4, 6 Rasmussen M.V., 2013. Greenland Geopolitics: Globalisation and Geopolitics in the North. Copenhagen, 18–25, (access: http://nyheder.ku.dk/groenlands- naturressourcer/rapportogbaggrundspapir/Greenland_Geopolitics_Globalisation_and_Geopoliti cs_in_the_New_North.pdf) Szwed K. 2013. Autonomie duńskie na drodze do uzyskania niepodległości. Ius et Administratio 2, 101 Walker S., 1987. Descriptions of Foreign Policy Role Orientations, In: Role Theory and Foreign Policy Analisis, Duke University Press, Durham Wright T.C., 2013. China’s New Arctic Strategem: A Strategic Buyer’s Approach to the Arctic. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 15 1, 1–30 Zając J., 2013. Role międzynarodowe państwa średniego – aspekty teoretyczne. Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe 4, 15

36 New perspectives in polar research

Joanna Grzela

Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce The Faculty of Management and Administration, The Chair of the Northern Europe Countries 21B Świętokrzyska st; 25-406 Kielce, Poland [email protected]

Japan’s Arctic Policy

Abstract: The Arctic is an area attracting more and more interest of the international community. During the last two decades the Arctic transformed from a forgotten land into a place accumulating increasing international attention. The main reason are significant changes occurring here as well as an increase of the world’s demand for oil and gas. The fact that Asian countries are very much interested in the Arctic illustrates the increased significance of this region in international relations. These states desire to gain crucial position on the High North, mainly due to economic reasons. Japan focuses primarily on scientific interests related with this area – Japan is the first among Asian countries, which participated in scientific studies devoted to Arctic’s natural environment. Japan has been accepted as an observer in the Arctic Council during the 8th ministerial meeting of the Council that was held in Kiruna in Sweden in May 2013. During this meeting ambassador Nishibayashi said that melting of the Arctic ice opened new possibilities within this region, especially for researchers, as well as companies, which increased the awareness and interest Japa- nese have in the High North.

Keywords: Japan, Arctic, polar research, Arctic Council, High North

Introduction

During the last two decades the Arctic transformed from a forgotten land in- to a place accumulating increasing international attention. Globalisation brought new players to the Arctic. Seventeen years after establishing the Arctic Council, the Council granted a permanent observer status to five non-polar Asian states: China, India, Japan, Singapore and South Korea. The interest and participation of initially non-Arctic European entities concerning international relations, and now Asian nations, emphasize and reflect growing significance of the High North. This way, we 37 New perspectives in polar research are facing an increased marine activity and intensified engagement within the region seen from the side of countries located in Asia (Jakobson 2012). Geopolitical dynamics in the Arctic stands as a political consequence of climatic changes, more economic possibilities as well as international competition on one hand and multilateral cooperation on the other. The Arctic may soon become not only the main source of energy resources, but also the global transportation node. Sea ice vanishing on the North Pole provides the possibility to develop the international sea transport and may enable shipping along the shortest route between Europe and Asia. Certain sea routes, which are currently open only for a very limited period of time during each year, or are only used with assistance of extremely costly ice-breakers, may become accessible for a longer period of time due to climate warming and may not require utilization of special equipment. Similarly, routes that nowadays are completely impassable may soon become accessible, and entirely new roads can be discovered. All these scenarios offer much shorter and much cheaper sea routes than the ones currently utilized. The shortest route connect- ing Europe and China, namely the Northwest Passage (tract running along Siberian coast), is nearly twice shorter than the one leading through the Suez Canal. It also shortens the time spent on the road from 33 to 20 days, which reduces load transportation costs. The ice sheet is the only obstacle in using the Passage. Sailing in the Arctic is impossible without support of nuclear icebreakers. The so-called Northeast Passage runs between Arctic Canadian islands (Northern Sea Route – NSR (Myllylä 2011). This water passage leading from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific along the Russian part of the Arctic from the Sea of Barents through Siberia and to the Far East, shortening the journey between the US east coast and Asia or Europe. This route is free from ice only during two months a year. Compared with the Panama Canal this passage is one-third shorter. (Jaworski 2009, Caputi 2013, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Island 2006). In September 2012 the Arctic ice reached its lowest level in history. While on one side it resulted in truly real concerns on climatic changes, but on the other side it made this region a centre of interest due to increasing access possibilities to possible energy sources (Arctic Sea Ice News & Analysis 2012). Vanishing ice reveals new areas for human exploitation. It is the first time when access to oil, gas, minerals and fish, previously blocked by thick ice, is becoming a possible and remunerative source of income. The Arctic may become the most important global source of food and clean water. Economies of Asian states strongly depend on foreign commerce. Therefore their activity in establishing partnerships with Asian states is quite understandable. This is related with new transportation routes and rights to exploit natural resources lying beneath the thick Arctic ice. Beginning of Japan’s interest in the High North reach the Treaty of Paris signed on 9 February 1920 and concerning management of the Svalbard archipelago. This country, as one of signatories of the Treaty, has certain rights and obligations, including the right to fish and hunt within the territory and on territorial waters (art.

38 New perspectives in polar research

2), free access and entry to this area (art. 3), to establish international meteorological station (art. 5), treatment of citizens of states – signatories equally to Norwegian citizens as far as methods of obtaining, performing the ownership property, including the rights concerning mineral resources. (The Spitsbergen Treaty, 1920). Despite initial scientific interest in the High North, Japan is considered to be the country, which relatively lately joined the geopolitical competition in the Arctic.

Japan polar researches

Growing political engagement of Japan in the Arctic is supplemented with mass national scientific and research projects. Japan is deeply engaged in research works. It is one of a few non-western states conducting polar researches. It has continued this kind of research since 1957, focusing mainly on the South Pole. In the year 1990 Japan officially joined the Arctic scientific community by becoming a member of the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) as a non-arctic state. What is more, in the year 1990 Japan established the Arctic Environment Re- search Centre (AERC) at the National Institute of Polar Research (NIPR). In 1991 the Centre created a research station in Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard Islands, in cooperation with the Norwegian Polar Research Institute. Furthermore, several institutes and agencies, including Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAM- STEC), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and numerous universities, conduct the research activity. Since 1991 the NIPR is engaged in many national and international research activities in the Arctic conducted on land areas. Whereas JAMSTEC initiated sea studies in cooperation with the United States of America. JAMSTEC conducted its first oceanography studies in 1998 on Mirai research vessel. Japan conducts constant observation of the environment and the climate, as well as sea scientific studies in the Arctic, in cooperation with scientists from various countries, including member states of the Arctic Council and other organisa- tions. Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) initiated an interdisciplinary scientific project aiming to elucidate and evaluate the global influence posed by changes taking place in the Arctic, entitled “Green Network of Excellence (GRENE)”. Japanese community of scientists established a Japan Consortium for Arctic Environmental Research (JCAR) affiliating about 300 scientists. JCAR was created to strengthen research capabilities and to develop cooperation between scientists, while it focuses on planning scientific researches in the Arctic concerning the environment protection and human resource development (Written Statement by the Delegation of Japan at the Second Meeting of Deputy Ministers of the Arctic Coun- cil 2012 Stockholm). The Ocean Policy Research Foundation (OPRF) is yet another

39 New perspectives in polar research institution, which has been established as a think-tank organisation for the Japanese shipbuilding sector. In 1990 the name of the Foundation was changed into Ship & Ocean Foundation, and its activity was expanded and covered research and analysis of sea issues in general. In 2002 it once again changed its name into Institute for Ocean Policy – SOF, and currently it acts as the Ocean Policy Research Foundation. This foundation realised several research projects in the Arctic, especially as far as the Northern Sea Route is concerned. In the 90’s this foundation initiated a research project entitled: “International Northern Sea Route Programme” (INSROP), which was financed by the Japanese Nippon Foundation, and was realised in cooperation with Fridtjof Nansen Institute in Norway and Central Marine Research and Design Institute in Russia. This venture stood as one of the first international research projects aiming to prove the technical feasibility of the Northern Sea Route – as an international sea commercial route (OPRF Activities: INSROP 2014). The main conclusion from INSROP research leads to a statement that the considerable growth of the international commercial shipping on the Northern Sea Route is possible – as far as economic, technological and environmental categories are concerned. Practical results of researches encouraged the Ocean Policy Research Foun- dation to undertake yet another project – namely the Japan Northern Sea Route (JANSROP), which was to examine feasibility of the NSR as far as the Japanese ship-building industry is concerned. The main aim of the project was to induce the interests of Asian states in the NSR by presenting the information on natural resources within the region, not to mention scenarios relating the development of marine transport infrastructure. (OPRF Activities: JANSROP Phase II 2014). At this point it is worth mentioning that Japanese shipping enterprises have not used the NSR yet. The main reason lies in the fact that it is less profitable due to provisions charged by Russia based on the current flow of loads. Still, for the most part of the year it is necessary to sail with the assistance of Russian nuclear icebreakers. At the end of July 2012, V. Putin created a federal state institution – the Administration of the Northern Sea Route, which regulates icebreaker service for vessels. The Russian government settles appropriate fees basing on the regulations stated in natural monopoly law (Arctic Info 2012, Nothern Sea Route Information Office 2014). Moreover, according to L. Jakobson, Japanese shipping specialists commonly believe that the publicized quick melting of the ice cap is vastly exagger- ated, and commercialisation of the NSR requires time (Jakobson, Lee 2013). Several ministries began creating their programmes concerning Arctic development, including the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT), which is responsible for formulating policy associated with the Northern Sea Route and for providing information on the possibility to use it. In March 2012 MLIT announced that it should be evaluating NSR as an international shipping route, taking into consideration the economic benefits, safety warranties and natural environment protection. (Jakobson, Lee 2013). In the light of increasing climatic changes as well

40 New perspectives in polar research as their possible and observed influence on the Arctic environment (systematic melting of the Arctic icecap), the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology implemented its research programmes. In March 2010 it submitted reports on institutional cooperation within the scope of observations within the cryosphere. In June 2010 the Arctic Research Examination Working Group was established in MEXT, and in August 2010 the Group published its periodical report. The prepared report offered creating a Consortium for Arctic Environmental Researches in order to facilitate and intensify the cooperation between research institutions (In- termediate report of the Arctic Research Examination Working Group 2010). And so in May 2011 the Japan Consortium for Arctic Environmental Researches was created as a platform meant to coordinate research activities. In June 2011 (as mentioned) MEXT introduced the “Green Network of Excellence” (GRENE) – a programme created to simplify implementing ecological innovations and environmentally friendly technologies. By means of collaboration between universities and research institutions, GRENE is to promote high level of scientific researches all over the world, as well as to coach and develop human resources. In 2011 the Arctic Climate Change Research Project, managed by NIPR and JAMSTEC, was instigated under the auspice of the GRENE programme. It affiliates more than 300 scientists from 35 research institutions, who focus on all elements within the Arctic climatic system: atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, land and ecosystems, by conducting interdisciplinary works. It is worth mentioning that Japan supports the indigenous people in the Arc- tic, recalling its own experience with the indigenous Ainu people, who have been acknowledged by the state as autochthons, having their individual language, religion and culture, only in 2008. Ainu people share certain features with the Arctic people, including animistic beliefs (Heritage of Japan 2014). What is interesting, an exhibition devoted to Ainu people, organised in Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in 1999 was called: “Ainu: Spirit of a Northern People”, and William Fitz- hugh – custodian of the Arctic Anthropology National Museum of Natural History and at the same time Director of Arctic Studies Centre – was among the curators of this exhibition (Arctic Studies Center 2014, Bennet 2013). It is quite interesting that the map presenting indigenous people of the Arctic states, elaborated by W.K. Dallmann from the Norwegian Polar Institute also indicates Ainu people as indigenous Arctic people, simultaneously indicating Japan as on of the High North countries.

Arctic business of Japan

Despite its interest concerning the Arctic, the government of Japan does not hold any official policy regarding this particular area. Nevertheless, the influence

41 New perspectives in polar research posed by climatic changes is becoming increasingly obvious and hence the government of Japan began the process aiming to define its role and interests this country has in the High North. Such actions partially result from fast melting of the Arctic ice cap, caused by the global warming (this influences not only the Arctic Ocean with its ecosystem, but also leads to growing level of seas all over the globe), next to changes within the Earth’s climate – problems that Japan finds extremely important. Since 2009 the Arctic has attracted increased attention among Japanese nation. What previously instigated significant anxiety was the fact that Russians set a flag of their country at the bottom of the sea at the North Pole in August 2007. This operation had a symbolic but quite meaningful significance. In Japan this event was comment- ed as the beginning of “run for resources” (Ohnishi 2013). Seiko Hashimoto – Japanese Secretary of State (vice-minister of foreign affairs) issued an official statement during the meeting of the Arctic Council held in Washington in April 2009, celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Arctic Treaty, and declared the fact that Japan will be willing to apply for the status of permanent observer in the Arctic Council (Hashimoto 2009). From this moment on the government of Japan participated in meetings of the Arctic Council as an ad hoc observer. One year later, in April 2010, Japan submitted its formal statement concerning Arctic policy (Horinouchi 2010). This statement said that Japanese interests in the Arctic focus on several issues: 1. natural environment (stands as the fundamental aim of Japanese engagement. Climatic changes pose an influence on the global ecosystem. The government of Japan believes that “the Arctic region should be considered as a part of heritage common for the whole humanity. The international community should protect and use it for peaceable aims”. Therefore Japan feels responsible for protecting the natural environment within this area, not only as a member of the international community, but also as a country undertaking active efforts to protect global environment); 2. economy (Japan is enumerated among the most active countries as far as commercial transactions with Europe, East Asian states, United States of America, as well as Near East are concerned, and at the same time it is a country possessing not many natural resources and that is why it is interested in navigation related issues and natural resources in the Arctic. In case when the ice cap in the Arctic shall continue to melt, the distance between Japan and Europe or Northern America will shorten drastically, which may possibly lower the transportation costs. The Arctic is an alternative to economic needs faced by Japan, a wealthy nation, yet depending on importing natural resources, including gas and petroleum, mainly from the Near East (The Federation of Electric Power Companies of Japan 2011). Japan is only self- sufficient in 16% of its energy supply. It is the biggest importer of liquefied natural gas, and the second biggest importer of coal and third biggest oil importer. Japan’s energetic system (World Nuclear Association 2013) requires to diversify energy sources. After earthquake in eastern Japan and Fukushima nuclear disaster in March

42 New perspectives in polar research

2011, Japan became more open to new energy sources (The Economist 2012). It is worth emphasizing that Iran is the main petroleum supplier for Japan, which taking into consideration the American sanctions towards this country is associated with a certain political risk (in September 2013 the USA released Japan from the necessity to respect sanctions on petroleum purchase). In December 2011 the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) issued a set of measures aiming to ensure stable supplies of fuels and natural resources, which should be treated with priority following the earthquake in Japan (The Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry - METI 2011). Taking the above into consideration, Japan cannot ignore abounding energetic resources in the Arctic. What concerns national energetic safety, the Arctic becomes an increasingly attractive region, enabling to diversify supplies and suppliers, as well as significantly shortening the route for transporting resources (Toriumi 2011, Matsuo, Kida 2012). In 2012 Gazprom – the biggest Russian company export- ing natural gas – sent the first order of liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Hammer- fest in Norway to Tokota in Japan by the North Route, which according to the Rus- sian consortium, is appropriate for international transportation of liquefied natural gas LNG both within the technical and commercial aspect. (Rodova 2013). In Au- gust 2013 Norway used the same route and sent oil products (including gasoline) to Japan (Yep 2013). In 2012 Japan Oil, Gas, and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) participated in technological test associated with exploring natural gas from methane hydrates. The test took place on North Slope on Alaska and aimed to diversify not only sources, but also suppliers. This project was conducted by an American Company, ConocoPhillips, and was financed by the U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. Depart- ment of Energy’s National Energy Technology Laboratory 2014, U.S. Geological Survey 2014); 3. safety (the government does not anticipate any circumstances, which would require presence of Japanese navy in the Arctic region. It is in the interest of Japan to ensure a stable and safe use of the Arctic Ocean by developing cooperation between coastal states. As far as the ability of the Japanese government to conduct marine activity in polar regions is concerned, Japan has three icebreakers: Shirase, Soya and Teshio); 4. governing the region (Japan acknowledges that legal issues concerning the Arc- tic Ocean should be solved according to the UNCLOS Convention; in case of undertaking any works on establishing new regulations, it is crucial to consider occurring changes, with considerable participation of interested states – not only coastal states. Japan aims to cooperate with countries of the Arctic region within various fields, as well as outside these fields. Scientific researchers are often conducted in cooperation with Canada, Norway and Russia. Conferences organized by Norwegian and Finnish embassies in Tokyo devoted to discussions on the Arctic policy of Japan and collab-

43 New perspectives in polar research oration between these countries in this aspect were perceived as quite important events. Contacts with Russia are also related with the above. Both parties found a particular reason for closer contacts – they are both afraid of Chinese engagement in the Arctic and they are both looking for measures to protect against such possibility. When Xue Long – Snow Dragon icebreaker managed to pass the Northern Sea Route in the year 2012 and was the first Chinese ship to do so, Russia definitely supported Japanese efforts to obtain the status of an observer in the Arctic Council, simultaneously completely ignoring Chinese candidature. What is more, in May 2013 Japanese energy company, Inpex Corporation, signed an agreement with Rus- sian oil giant, Rosnieft, to jointly discover Russian oil fields in the Okhotsk Sea (Inajima, Okada 2013). It was the same year when Moscow defended candidature of Tokyo as an organized of Olympic Games in the year 2020. Through contacts with Russia, Japan is trying to use the Arctic potential and gain support for its position towards Chinese policy. Closer cooperation will also enable Japanese corporations and institutions to obtain a wider access to energy resources at the High North. The Russian part of the Arctic is an attractive place for Japanese investments. Strong relations with the most significant player in the Arctic region will also make it possible to reach the effect of a lever in the Arctic Council. Russia also finds these relations quite attractive. Interests of this country moved from Europe towards Asia, and this is where Moscow seeks alternative for its economic contacts with China, as well as powerful partnership with other states from this region. Russian leader desires to develop economic cooperation with Japan based on complementarity principle between natural resources that Russia offers and modern technological solutions provided by Japan. Japanese know-how within the scope of energy sources’ extraction and marine operations may prove advantageous for Russian exploration companies. Whereas Russian seamen are experienced as far as working in challenging weather conditions is concerned, and this is exactly what Japanese companies might really need (Tonami, Watters 2012, Sinclair 2014). In March 2012, Ocean Policy Research Foundation presented eight points covering recommendations relating the Arctic policy to the Japanese government:  elaborate a national arctic strategy,  intensify scientific activity in the Arctic,  actively participate in protecting the natural environment of the Arctic,  engage in a more intense manner in researches devoted to natural resources within the Arctic region,  quickly react to logistic changes and to opening new and shorter sea routes on the High North,  elaborate a new national safety plan concerning transportation along the Arctic shipping routes and reactions to any military attacks on the Arctic Ocean,  significantly contribute to establishing order within the scope of management concerning the Arctic Ocean, 44 New perspectives in polar research

 quicken dialogue between Japan and Arctic States, in particular with Russia, as well as establish the Japan-Russian Arctic Forum (OPRF 2012). In September 2010 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan established the Arctic Task Force in order to help identify Japan interests and activity forms undertaken by this state in the Arctic (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 2010). This team was obliged to fully control and monitor changes within this region in multiple fields: economy, safety, and environment protection, next to the Law of the Sea. On 28th March 2013 the Japan Institute of International Affairs (JIIA), cooperating with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Japan published a report on Arctic management and strategy concerning Japan. Authors of this document recommend to consider the Arctic as a developing political area, not to mention the fact that Japan may become a substantial regional actor and participate in this dynamic process. The document holds six recommendations for the government of Japan: 1. establish relations with Arctic Coastal States as far as research exploration and development are concerned; 2. ensuring proper realisation of UNCLOS; 3. ascertaining closer cooperation with the United States in the field of Arctic issues; 4. playing crucial role in protecting natural environment, basing on Japanese knowledge and technology; 5. conducting a more active diplomacy within the Arctic region; 6. intensifying Arctic Policy of the state by centralizing researches and actions focused in a single governmental entity – the Arctic Office in the Council of Minis- ters (The Japan Institute of International Affairs 2012). According to A. Tonami from the Nordic Institute of Asian Studies at Co- penhagen University, Japan government approved the political significance associated with the Arctic, which was accentuated in declarations stated in renewed bilat- eral agreements on scientific-technological cooperation with Germany and Canada, which emphasize the significance of the Arctic as an area where common researches can be undertaken (Tonami 2013).

Japan – the permanent observer of the Arctic Council

The government of Japan turned to the Arctic States asking them to support the notion on obtaining the status of the permanent observer in the Arctic Council. During the meeting of the AC observers and ad hoc observers that was held in Stockholm on 6th November 2012, representative of the government of Japan, Shuji Kira, ensured in his statement that Japan has earned the status of a permanent observer due to its active contribution in actions undertaken by the Arctic Council. He also guaranteed that Japan shall respect sovereignty of all member states, their sovereign right and jurisdiction: As a state, which has always appreciated “the state of

45 New perspectives in polar research law” allow me to sustain the support for the opinion stated in the Ilulissat Declara- tion indicating that extended international legal frames, including the law of the sea, are being applied to the Arctic Ocean (…) Japan acknowledges and respects the sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdictions of all members in the Arctic Council. (Kira 2012). On 19th March 2013 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs appointed Masuo Nishibayashi to be the ambassador of the Arctic affairs. Justification of this decision reads as follows: Japan is outside the Arctic region, yet since Japan is a sea state and a state paying considerable attention to global environmental issues, it has to be properly engaged in international discussions related with the Arctic. By appointing the ambassador of the Arctic affairs, Japan demonstrates its engagement in polar matters. What is more, this appointment may help make the politics of Japan in the Arctic more coherent, as currently there are many agencies engaged in actions within this region. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 2013). Japan has been accepted as an observer in the Arctic Council during the 8th ministerial meeting of the Council that was held in Kiruna in Sweden in May 2013. During this meeting ambassador Nishibayashi said that melting of the Arctic ice opened new possibilities within this region, especially for researchers, as well as companies, which increased the awareness and interest Japanese have in the High North (Ohnishi 2013).

Conclusion

The fact that Asian countries are very much interested in the Arctic illustrates the increased significance of this region in international relations. These states desire to gain crucial position on the High North, mainly due to economic reasons. Japan focuses primarily on scientific interests related with this area – Japan is the first among Asian countries, which participated in scientific studies devoted to Arc- tic’s natural environment and which undertook the realization of the project aiming to determine profitability of the Northern Sea Route. Scientific knowledge gained in the course of researches conducted by this country may stand as crucially helpful in creating the Arctic’s sustained development strategy. Protecting the natural environment within this area is a crucial issue for Japan because of possible outcomes resulting from visible climatic changes taking place in this region. What is more, taking into consideration that Japan has no legal interest relating the access to natural resources present in the Arctic, it is highly important for this country to conduct international studies in cooperation with coastal states in order to secure its interests (including economic and safety issues). That is why, since the year 2010, as a result of growing interest of international society in the High North, the government of Japan gradually initiated the process concerning formulation of the Arctic policy in long-term perspective, concentrating not only on possibilities, but also on challenges

46 New perspectives in polar research appearing together with the melting ice cap. On one hand Japan is afraid that the intensified commercial activity and exploration of potential Arctic resources can lead to military presence and activity around northern waters surrounding the Arctic. On the other hand, it perceives benefits related with opening new shipping routes on the North Pole, which can become the cheaper and shorter alternative for the following Canals: Panama Canal and Suez Canal, and this gives Japanese harbours a competitive advantage when compared with Hong Kong, Shanghai and Singapore. Japanese invest in studies devoted to using gas hydrates as the source of energy (during the years 2002–2008 this country allocated about 60 million USD for financing production tests in the Canadian Arctic). In order to be effective in its undertakings, the government of Japan should gain support from enterprises interested in economic and logistic possibilities available in the Arctic. Japan’s Arctic policy should continue to be based on scientific studies, but it should also take into consideration the economic engagement and cooperation within this matter with coastal states, as to ensure diversification of energy sources, which would simultaneously signify greater energetic safety.

References

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48 New perspectives in polar research

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New perspectives in polar research

Krzysztof Kubiak

Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce The Faculty of Management and Administration, 21B Świętokrzyska st; 25-406 Kielce, Poland [email protected]

Russian Icebreaker. The current day and the future

Abstract: The Russia has the greatest flotilla of icebreakers in the world. The group consists of conventional (diesel-electric) ships and nuclear ones. The main task of the vessels is to maintain sea lines of communication at the Arctic Ocean. Thanks to the icebreakers Russia can control the North East Passage (Northern Sea Route). The vessels also play important military role because they are able to assist warships during operation in the North. The nuclear icebreakers are also the very valuable element of Russia’s Arctic Search and Rescue system. It must be underlined that Russian Federation develops its SAR (Search and Rescue) possibilities at the Far North. At present SAR operations, as well as oil spill response actions on the tracks of the Northern Sea Route are organized by Ministry of Transport of Russia Directly for SAR task is responsible State Marine Emergency Rescue Service of Russia through the Marine Operations Headquarters. There are two such Headquarters: in the Western sector of the Arctic – on the basis of the Federal State Unitary Enter- prise “Atomflot” in the Eastern sector of the Arctic – on the basis of “Far Eastern Shipping Company”. The first company has, among other values, six nuclear icebreakers the other one has four diesel-electric icebreakers. Usually in disposition of SAR service there are four nuclear and one diesel-electric icebreaker. The rescue group with special diving and oil spill response equipment are carried by ships (one nuclear and one diesel-electric). The paper shows the present day of Russian icebreakers and the future development of these group of vessels.

Keywords: Arctic, Russia, policy, shipping, icebreakers

Opening ceremonies for the Sochi Paraolympic Games took place On March 7th, 2014. During the show the giant mock Russian icebreaker sailed across the stadium floor. She was called “Mir” (which means “peace” or “world”) and she was playing a key role in conveying the main message of the Games: coming together and breaking down stereotypes and biases. But the show also had another undertone.

51 New perspectives in polar research

Earlier, on October 23rd , 2013, with regard to Winter Olympic Games, the world’s largest icebreaker “50 Let Pobedy” (“50 Years of Victory”) reached the North Pole. This voyage clearly manifested the industrial- scientific- military complex in Russia. The state-owned operator of Russia’s nuclear icebreaking fleet, “Atomflot”, spon- sored the voyage. The controversial Russian polar explorer and policymaker Artur Chilingarov carried the Olympic torch to the North Pole (The Sochi 2014…, 2013). In Sochi the main prop of that ceremony can be also treated as a reflection of the special role of icebreakers (and Arctic) for Russia. It is not clear where and when the first ship which had been designed and built intentionally for icebreaking appeared. According to a few authors, the first one was City Ice Boat No. 1, which was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837. She had 51 meters wooden hull reinforced with iron coverings and two 250-horsepower steam engines. The vessel was able to operate in strong icy conditions. According to another sources the first icebreakers started their service in the mid 1840’s on Hudson River in the United States and on the Elbe River in Ger- many. The first iron icebreaker was built in Russia in 1860’s of 19th century. The boat was originally named “Pilot”, and was built as a steam-powered propeller tug. The conversion was done in 1864 under an order of its owner, the local merchant and shipbuilder Mikhail Britnev (Михаил Осипович Бритнев, 1822–1889) in 1864. She had the bow altered to achieve an ice-clearing capability – about 20° raise from keel line. This allowed the boat to push itself on the top of the ice and consequently break it. Britnev fashioned the bow of his ship after the shape of old Pomor1 boats (called “koch”2), which had been navigating icy waters of the White Sea and Barents

1 Pomors or Pomory ( о о ры) are Russian settlers, primarily from Novgorod, and their descendants living on the White Sea coasts and the territory whose southern border lies on a watershed which separates the White Sea river basin from the basins of rivers that flow south. The traditional livelihoods of the Pomors based on the sea included animal hunting, whaling and fishing. In tundra regions they practiced reindeer herding. Sea trading in corn and fish with Northern Norway became important. This trade was so intensive that a kind of Russian-Norwegian pidgin language Moja på tvoja (or Russenorsk) developed on the North Norwegian coast in 1750–1920. During the 2002 census, it was possible for respondents to identify themselves as “Pomors”, this group being tabulated by the census as a subgroup of the Russian ethnicity. However, only 6,571 persons did so, almost all of them in Arkhan- gelsk Oblast (6,295) and Murmansk Oblast (127). 2 The koch was a special type of small one or two mast wooden sailing ships designed and used in Russia for transpolar voyages in ice conditions of the Arctic seas, popular among the Pomors. Because of its additional skin-planking and Arctic design of the body and the rud- der, it could sail without being damaged in the waters full of ice blocks and ice floes. In the 19th century the anti-ice floe protective features of koch were adopted to the first modern icebreakers. The keel length of the boat was about 10–25 meters. It had 13 combination ribs, each consisting of several details. The keel was also a combination of several parts. Bulk- heads divided the body into several cross-section compartments. The koch had the flat deck. A typical boat carried one square sail on each of its two masts, and, usually, two triangular sails on the bowsprit. 52 New perspectives in polar research

Sea for centuries. The first modern icebreaker was used between 1864–1890 for navigation in the Gulf of Finland between Kronstadt and Oranienbaum, thus extending the summer navigation season by several weeks. Inspired by the success of the Pilot, Mikhail Britnev built a second similar vessel “Boj” (“Battle” in Russian) in 1875 and a third “Buoj” (“Buoy” in Russian) in 1889. In the winter of 1870–1871 the Elbe River was covered by ice and the phenomenon disrupted port operation in Hamburg and caused huge commercial losses. Due to mentioned reasons Germans purchased the “Pilot's” design from Britnev to make their own icebreaking boat. She was named “Eisbrecher I” (Pavel, Wieselov 1993). Advances in shipbuilding technology resulted in the creation of the icebreaker, a vessel strong enough to not only withstand the crushing power of ice, but to break through it. This technology finally opened most of the ice covered Arctic Ocean to military, scientific and commercial interests. In Russia Vice-admiral Stephan Makarov (Степан Осипович Макаров, 1849–1904) was credited with the construction of “Yermak”, the first true icebreaker. She was built for the Imperial Russian Navy by Armstrong Whitworth in Newcastle upon Tyne at its Low Walker yard and was launched in 1898. The icebreaker was commissioned on 17 October 1898. She arrived in Kronstadt on March 4 of 1899 after breaking through ice and a formal reception was held to mark her arrival. Later in 1899 she reached 81°21' N north of Spitsbergen. In 1916, the first linear Russian icebreaker was ordered to support the regular navigation along the northern coast of Russia. The icebreaker was built by Arm- strong Whitworth in Newcastle upon Tyne and completed as “Svyatogor” in Febru- ary 1917. During the allied intervention against the Bolsheviks in Northern Russia (1918–1919) she was scuttled by the Royal Navy. They raised her for use in the White Sea and later brought her to Scapa Flow for minesweeping. “Svyatogor” was returned to the USSR under the trade agreement in 1921. In 1927 she was renamed to honor Bolshevik diplomat Leonid Borisovich Krasin. Up to the beginning of the 1950s she remained one of the most powerful icebreakers in the world (Nataliya, Marchenko, 2009).

Table 1. Ice thickness in different areas.

Area Ice thickness (m) Baltic Sea – Gulf of Finland 0.4 Baltic Sea – Gulf of Bothnia 0.8 Caspian Sea 0.7 Azov Sea 0.8 White Sea 0.8 Barents Sea 1.2 Sea of Okhotsk (East Siberia, Sakhalin) 1.4 The Kara Sea (Arctic) 1.8 Source: Koren J, V., 2014. 53 New perspectives in polar research

In 1921, the Floating Marine Institute in the USSR was founded for multi- disciplinary study of the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, rivers, islands and coastal areas. Its first cruise was carried out on the icebreaking steamer “Malygin”. Later, a new special vessel “Persei” was built in Arkhangelsk. In the eastern sector of the Arctic, regular steamer cruises from Vladivostok to Kolyma commenced, and in 1927, ships from Vladivostok came to Tiksi in the Laptev Sea and even the Lena River. In 1928, icebreaker “Krasin” reached the ice camp of the Italian airman Nobi- le and took part in the rescue. The icebreaking steamer “Malygin” approached the camp from the southeast and carried out valuable scientific observations in the northern part of the Barents Sea. Icebreaking steamer “Sedov” explored the western and southern part of Frantz Josef Land. The first nuclear powered icebreaker, “Len- in”, was built in 1959 at Admiralty Shipyard, Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). The most powerful nuclear icebreaker in the world is the Russian (former Soviet) “Ark- tika” (Nataliya, Marchenko 2009). Since 1978 Soviet ice-breakers and ice-strengthened carriers have maintained year-round navigation to Dudinka, port city for the industrial complex at Norilsk. Thus, ships are routinely plying the ice-covered waters of the Barents and Kara seas throughout the winter, a rare occurrence around Alaska and in the Canadi- an Arctic. Summertime navigation along the entire NSR, including the numerous rivers, estuaries, and deltas of the Russian northern coast, continues to be expanded through the application of a broad range of advanced marine technology. Much of this technology has been developed in Finland and the Russian Federation. After the fall of Soviet Union power and the end of the “Cold War” a significant regression in Russian involvement in the Arctic could have been observed. Yeltsin’s administration struggled with serious challenges of both internal and international nature, and had not devoted significant attention to High North. Additional- ly a very deep financial crisis dramatically deteriorated investment opportunities of the state, and the process had quickly and severely affected the Arctic. The Russian Far North became “the land without future, the land without hope”. The situation changed radically in the early 2000s. President Putin, using price increase of energy resources as an essential tool for the reconstruction of the global position of Russia, renewed the Russian active policy in the Arctic3. The part of this policy is a plan to renew the fleet of icebreakers. The role of icebreakers rises also due to Russian idea of commercialization the Northern Sea Route. At present in Russia the state offers the ice breaking services through the two state companies: “Atomflot” (nuclear icebreakers) and “RosMorPort” (non- nuclear icebreakers) but there are also some private ice breaking services. An exam-

3 Russia controls half of Arctic coast line, 40 % of its land territory is situated beyond Arctic Circle. The High North generates 20% of Russian GDP. In term of resources about 95% of its gas, 75% of its oil, 96% of its platinum, 90% of its nickel and cobalt and 60% of its copper reserves are found in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. 54 New perspectives in polar research ple of private ice breaking services is given by Gazprom icebreakers that were intended to assist the oil export from the Prirazlomnaja oil field. It was mentioned that the icebreaker “Lenin” was the world’s first nuclear- powered surface vessel. She remained in service for 30 years (1959–1989), though new reactors were fitted in 1970. The vessel led to a series of larger icebreakers launched from 1975. These powerful vessels have two 171 MWt OK-900 reactors delivering 54 MW at the propellers and are used in deep Arctic waters. The “Arkti- ka” was the first surface vessel to reach the North Pole, in 1977. The seventh and largest Arktika-class icebreaker – “50 Years of Victory” (“50 Let Pobedy”) entered service in 2007. She is designed to break through ice up to 2,8 meters thick. For use in shallow waters such as estuaries and rivers, two shallow-draught Taymyr-class icebreakers with one reactor delivering 35 MW were built in Finland and then fitted with their nuclear steam supply system in Russia. Earlier the nuclear icebreakers were operated by commercial ship owner but in 2008 the special company was established to provide maintenance and service for nuclear-powered icebreakers and special fleet. It is called “Atomflot” (Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Atomflot”). Establishing of “Atomflot” has created an unified icebreaking and maintenance complex of civil atomic fleet in Russia. “Atomflot” is supervised by State Nuclear Energy Corporation “Rosatom”. At present “Atomflot” has four nuclear icebreakers with two nuclear reactors and two nuclear icebreakers with a single reactor power plants as well as nuclear lighter “Sevmorput”. The icebreakers have been providing regular shipping of Russian and foreign cargoes along the Northern Sea Route. The maintenance fleet includes two floating technical bases – “Lotta” and “Imandra”, the vessel for shipping liquid radioactive wastes called “Serebryanka” and vessel for radioactive control “Rosta-1”. Three nuclear icebreakers (“Lenin” “Sibir” and “Arktika”) are out of service. Russian icebreakers are gradually deteriorating. All six active nuclear- powered vessels will be decommissioned in 2014–2025 (Paul, Goble 2013). It is the main reason why Rosatom called for bids to build two more of these universal icebreaker vessels, for delivery in 2019 and 2020. It took place in January 2013. Larger third-generation “universal” LK-60 icebreakers are planned as dual-draught wide- beam ships of displacement 25 450 tons without ballast and 33 500 with ballast (with variable draught from 8.5 m to 10.8 m and the highest ice class – 9). She should be able to handle three meters of ice. In August 2012 Baltijsky Zavod Ship- building won the contract for the first new-generation LK-60 icebreaker powered by two RITM-200 reactors delivering 60 MW at the propellers via twin turbine- generators and three motors. Rosatomflot expects to have the pilot version commissioned in 2018 at a cost of RUR 37 billion. In August 2013 Baltijsky Zavod- Sudostroyeniye was licensed to install the RITM-200 reactor units from OKBM

55 New perspectives in polar research

Table 2. “Atomflot” nuclear icebreakers.

Full Amount Max Years of Length x width x Endurance Name displacement of speed built draft [meters] [months] [tones] reactors [knots] “Rossija” 1981–82 “Sovietskij 1983–89 23,625 148.0 x 23.0 x 11.0 2 21 7 Sojuz” “Jamal” 1986–93 “Tajmyr” 1987–88 21,100 151.8 x 29.2 x 8.9 1 19 4 “Wajgacz” 1987–89 “50 liet 1989–94 25,840 159.6 x 30.0 x 11.0 2 21 7 Pobiedy” Source: Atomic Icebreakers Technical…, 2014.

Afrikantov for the pilot model. Keel-laying took place in November. A more powerful LK-110 icebreaker of 110 MW net and displacement 55 600 tones is planned too (Russia to build... 2012). The biggest icebreakers’ owner in Russia is company called “RosMorPort”. Federal State Unitary Enterprise “RosMorPort” (FSUE “RosMorPort”) was created by the order Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Property Relations to provide the safety of navigation in the water area and on the ways to seaports, contribute to development of the Russian sea transport infrastructure and higher competitiveness of the Russian seaports and take active part in realization of federal target programs of the Russian sea transport development. The company is responsible for maintenance and development of the assigned federal property in the seaports all over the Russia. “RosMorPort” operates but the huge flotilla of non-nuclear icebreakers: open sea icebreakers, heavy harbor icebreakers and light harbor ones. The program of Russian icebreaker shipbuilding in 2012– –2020 provides for the construction of four diesel icebreakers with the power output of 16–25 MW. United Shipbuilding Corporation (USC) is “RosMorPort” signed a contract for the construction of an icebreaker with the power output of 25 megawatts worth 7.5 billion RUR and three contracts for the manufacture of icebreakers with the power output of 16 megawatts for four billion RUR each. In the Russian Federation non-nuclear icebreakers, icebreaking research and supply vessels are also operated by commercial, non-state companies (Table 3). It should be underlined, that icebreakers play crucial role at the Russian Federation SAR (Search and Rescue) system at the Far North. At present SAR operations, as well as oil spill response actions on the tracks of the Northern Sea Route are organized by Ministry of Transport of Russia (Министерство Транспорта Российской Федерации). State Marine Emergency Rescue Service of Russia (Государственная орская координационная и аварийно-спасательная служба Российской Федерации, Гос орспасслужба России) is directly responsible for

56 New perspectives in polar research

Table 3. Russian non-nuclear icebreakers, ice breaking supplay and research vessels.

Length Vessel Owner (operator) Completed Remarks [m] Ex-Finnish “Karhu”, heavy “Karu” RosMorPort 68.3 1958 port icebreaker “Ivan Kruzenhstern”, 1964 “Yuriy Lisanskiy”, 1965 RosMorPort 62.0 Heavy port icebreakers “Fyodor Litke”, 1970 “Semen Dezhnev” 1971 Ex-Swedish “Thor”, heavy “Tor” RosMorPort 79.5 1964 port icebreaker Ex-Finnish “Apu”, heany “Dudinka” Norilsk Nickel 79.5 1970 port icebreaker “Yermak” RosMorPort 130.0 1974 Open-sea icebreaker “Admiral Makarov”, 1975, FESCO 120.0 Open-sea icebreakers “Krasin” 1976 “Kapitan Izaylov”, 1976 RosMorFlot 52.2 Heavy port icebreakers “Kapitan Kasolapov” 1976 “Kapitan Plakhin” Severo-Zapadny Flot 71.0 1977 River icebreaker 1977/1991 “Kapitan Sorokin” RosMorPort 130.2 Open-sea icebreaker (refit) “Kapitan Zarubin” RosMorPort 74.4 1978 River icebreaker “Kapitan Bakaev”, 1978 “Kapitana Chadayev”, RosMorPort 71.0 1978 River icebreakers “Kapitan Krutov” 1978 “Talagi” Rosneft 84.2 1978 Supplay ship 1978/1990 Open-sea icebreaker and “Kapitan Nikolaev” Murmansk Shipping Co. 125.8 (refit) rescue vessel Open-sea icebreaker and “Kapitan Dranitsyn” Murmansk Shipping Co. 121.3 1980 research ship Open-sea icebreaker used “Kapitan Khlebnikov” FESCO 121.3 1981 as the cruise vessel “Magadan” FESCO 78.5 1982 Heavy port icebreaker “Smit Sahlalin”, 1982 Smit Singapore 75.5 Suppaly vessels “Smit Sibu” 1982 “Yuri Topchev”, Gazprom Neft Shelf 84.4 2006 Supplay vessels “Vladislav Strizhov” “Svietlyy”, Anchor Handling Supply Lukoil 65.0 2007 “Vzmorye” Vessel “Toboy” Lukoil 73.3 2008 Supplay vessel “Varandey” Lukoil 88.8 2008 Supplay vessel “Moskva”, 2008, RosMorPort 97.2 Heavy harbor icebreakers “St. Petersburg” 2009 “Longepas”, 2009, Lukoil 64.4 Supplay “Kogalym” 2010 1982/1989 “Mudyug” RosMorPort 89.8 Heavy harbor icebreaker (Refit) “Vladymir Ignatiuk” Murmansk Shipping Co. 80.6 1983 Supplay vessel “Dikson” RosMorPort 78.5 1983 Heavy port icebreaker “Kapitan Yevdokimov, 1983 “Kapitan Demidov”, RosMorPort 73.0 1984 River icebreakers “Kapiyam Moshkin” 1986 Antarctic supplay and “Akademik Fyedorow” AARI 139.0 1987 research vessel “Rjurik”, 2004 Sovfraht 36.5 Light port icebreakers “Askold” 2005 “FESCO Sakhalin” FESCO 93.5 2005 Supplay vessel 57 New perspectives in polar research

Length Vessel Owner (operator) Completed Remarks [m] “Pacific Enterprise”, 2006 “Pacyfik Endeavour”, Swire Offshore 77.6 2006 Supplay vessels “Pacific Endurance” 2006 “Polar Pevek” Riber Shipping 74.4 2006 Suplay vessel Baltic: “Yermak”, “Kapitan Nikolaev”, “Kapitan Sorokin”, “Moskva”, “Saint-Petersburg”, “Mudjug”, “Tor”, “Semen Dezhnev”, “Kapitan Izmailov”, “Kapitan Zarubin”, “Ivan Kruzenstern”, “Karu, “Yuriy Lisyanskiy”, “Kapitan Plakhin”, Sea Of Azov: “Kapitan Krutov”,”Kapitan Moshkin”, Okhotse Sea: “Magadan”, “Vladislav Strizhov”, Caspian Sea: “Kogalym”, “Svetly”, “Vzmorye”. List of non-nuclear icebreakers shipowners (operators) which have vessels under Russian flag: AARI - Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (Государственный научный центр "Арктический и антарктический научно-исследовательский институт"), Far Eastern Shipping Company, FESCO (Дальневосточное Морское Пароходство), Gazprom Neft Shelf (Открытое акционерное общество «ГАЗПРОМ»), LUKOIL (Открытое акционерное общество «Нефтяная компания ЛУКОЙЛ», Murmansk Shipping Co., MSCO, (Мурманское Морское Пароходство), Norilsk Nickel (Норильский Никель), Riber Shipping. RosMorPort – Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Rosmorport” (ФГУП «Росморпорт»), Severo-Zapadnyj Flot (?), Smit Singapore, Sovfracht - Sovfracht-Sovmortrans Group (Группа компаний Совфрахт-Совмортранс), Swire Offshore, Source: The world icebreakers… 2011; ice braking supply and research vessel fleet, Finnish Transport Agency, Helsinki 2011; Major Icebreakers… 2013.

SAR tasks which are executed through the Marine Operations Headquarters. There are two such Headquarters: in the Western sector of the Arctic – on the basis of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise “Atomflot” (Федеральное государственное унитарное предприятие “Ато флот”, in the Eastern sector of the Arctic – on the basis of "Far Eastern Shipping Company" (Дальневосточное орское пароходство). It is impossible to Russia, as a country with the access to the Arctic Ocean, to do without an icebreaker fleet. The icebreakers are destined to carry out nationwide tasks in search-and-rescue operations, support of polar research expeditions, weather monitoring, as well as to accomplish missions assigned to the Russian Navy (Pavel, Gudwyev 2012). However, whether the icebreaker vessels under construction would be used to resolve the entire range of the above problems or the primary goal thereof would be the development and further shipping of energy resources would depend on the vector of national economic development chosen by the Rus- sian leadership (Pavel, Gudwyev 2012). If Moscow is to make the Northern Sea Route successful, it will need more icebreakers to ensure that the route stays open all year long. That would require a minimum of five to six nuclear-powered icebreakers and eight to ten non-nuclear ones dedicated to this route alone. (Many others are

58 New perspectives in polar research needed for northern Russian ports.) This is probably a correct assessment, which can be considered the basis for forecasting the future of Russian icebreakers.

References

Goble P., 2013. Window on Eurasia: ‘How Many Icebreakers Does Russia Need?’, access: http://windowoneurasia2.blogspot.com/2013/08/window-on-eurasia-how-many-icebreakers.html – 17.04.2014) Koren J. V., Winterization of LNG Carriers, (access: http://www.thedigitalship.com/powerpoints/nors07/lng/jan%20koren,%20dnv.pdf – 9.04.2014) Gudaev P, 2012. Upgrading russian icebreaker fleet: an acknowledgement of business conditions or a strategic requirement?, (access: http://russiancouncil.ru/en/inner/?id_4=150#top – 19.04.2014) The world icebreakers, ice braking supply and research vessel fleet, 2011. Finnish Transport Agency, Helsinki Russia to build the world's biggest icebreaker, (access: http://rt.com/business/russia-icebreaker-arctic-ice- 293/ – 12.02.2014) Major Icebreaker of the World Explanatory Piece, 2013. United States Coast Guard, (access: http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg552/docs/20130718%20Major%20Icebreaker%20Chart.pdf – 12.04.2014) The Sochi 2014 Olympic Torch lights up the North Pole, 2013. (access: http://torchrelay.sochi2014.com/en/news-the-sochi-2014-olympic-torch-lights-up-the-north-pole – 03.05.2014) Atomic Icebreakers Technical Data, (access: http://www.rosatomflot.ru/index.php?menuid=35&lang=en – 14.02.2014) Wieselov P., 1993. Prodlit navigaciu. Tiechnika Mołodiozy 6 1993, (access: http://filologdirect.narod.ru/history/2006_04_03.pdf – 12.04.2014) Marchenko N., 2009. Experiences of Russian Arctic Navigation. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions June 9-12, 2009 Luleå, Sweden, (access: http://www.unis.no/35_STAFF/staff_webpages/technology/nataly_marchenko/Marchenko_POA C09.pdf – 17.04. 2014) Problemy Severnogo morskogo puti, 2006. Nauka 2006. Moscow

New perspectives in polar research

Mariya P. Chernaya

National Research Tomsk State University, Faculty of History 34 Lenina Avenue, 634050 Tomsk, Russian Federation [email protected]

From Pomor’e to Siberia. The Models of Eco-Cultural Adaptation in the Context of Reclamation of Spaces

Abstract: Reclamation of spaces by Russia from Kievan Rus to Early Modern period is the spreading out of ethno-cultural and state territory. Colossal spaces (from the White Sea region to Siberia) embraced diverse natural and climatic zones, that stipulated forming of various eco-cultural adaptation models and local cultural variants were formed, those had the all-Russian basis. Ecological features of Russian North (Eurasia’s north extremity and arctic islands, including Spitsbergen) determined Pomors’ economic orientation on fur and marine hunting and fishery. Fur trade provided fast accumulating of capitals, quick settling, rising of subarctic cities, those economy combined fur hunting with crafts, trade, and stock-raising. When migration streams displaced to the south, other adaptation models, based on agriculture together with various economic fields according to ecological potential of new areas, were realized. The process of eco-cultural adaptation is presented in archaeological materials of settlements and necropolises, items of the service-utility complex. Agricultural and hunting development took Russian North and Siberia into the world-wide context and opened new prospects in development for these regions.

Keywords: Pomor’e, Siberia, eco-cultural adaptation, archaeological context, reclamation of spaces

The history of Russian reclaiming of spaces traces back to more than a thousand of years. The high point of land settlement process became the reclaiming of Siberia in the end of XVI–XVII centuries and this made the country to be the Eura- sian one according to territorial standards. Huge spaces from Belomor’e to Siberia covered various natural and climatic zones and that determined the formation of diverse eco-cultural adaptation models. The culture revealed powerful potential to existence and development on huge spaces in the most varied conditions. Both the culture and its bearers at the same time demonstrated the ability to high adaptation in a new environment, adjust-

61 New perspectives in polar research ing to it and making it suitable for them. This flexibility of culture to accepting new forms did not break its internal skeleton and the ability to absorb innovations did not reach dissipation in mixed culturally diverse environment. Flexibility and strength of culture revealed also in the ability to create adaptation models of interiorization of spaces relevant to the concrete ecological situation. Russian nation advanced guards in Far North reclaiming were the Pomors (coast-dwellers) (Bernshtam 1983). Based on ethnographic and written data, the most important conclusion about Pomors culture to be the organic part of Russian non-agricultural image culture with “sea” specifity revealed in the details of dwelling fitting out, hunting-fishery clothes, calendar and rites, got extensive confirmation in archeological materials gained in Russian, Norwegian and Polish expeditions (Okladnikov, Pinhenson 1951, Boyarskii 1990, Starkov et al. 1990, Chochorowski 1992, Boyarskii 1993, 1994, Starkov 1997, 1998, 2001, Starkov, Derzhavin 2003, Starkov et al. 2007, Chochorowski 2011, 2012, Starkov 2012). Ecological character of northern extremities of Eurasia and Arctic islands, which includes Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya conditioned the specifity of reclaiming these territories. Ice regime, the angularity of the coastline, land forms and hydrography, climatic situation, Arctic animal and vegetal life determined the marked hunting-fishery directionality of Pomors economic activity, the schedule and the peculiarities of navigation in high latitudes and the nature of settlement oriented on the seasonal but not constant living (Kalyakin 1990, Koryakin 1990). Hunting- fishery huts are similar to hunting lodges and winter huts and durable camps of Po- mors are comparable to stationary constructions in cities and stockaded towns, and villages in the mainland. And technique of construction, structural elements and architecture display principled similarity among each other. Sea beast bagging reveals the highest specialization in the means and ways of catching. As to the hunting inland animals (polar foxes, white bears and reindeers) and wildfowl it fits in with the commonly used tradition of Russian hunting culture. All in all, hunting the same way as fishing long ago and substantially became the part of Russian state economy. Say, fishing on the cusp of XII–XIII centuries turned to be the urban trade and it became the nationwide sector of economy to the beginning of the XVIth century. During the land settlement of new spaces be it Arctic zone or Siberian region these trades go on developing and adapting to ecological conditions of the frontiers. The existence as such and active development of Arctic close and far fishing and hunting trades as tradable sectors of economy was possible just thanks to their embed- dedness in Russian economy, in the system of all-Russian and, there through, international markets (Starkov 2008, 2010). Historical importance of trade Arctic reclaiming where belonged fur trapping, fishery, deep sea fishing, valuable walrus tusk and whale oil (blubber), etc. consisted in that it made the essential stage in the development of state productive forces.

62 New perspectives in polar research

Spreading of hunting-fishery trades facilitated the speed and the immensity of Siberian region settlement. Siberian settlement began with the rich in furs north not by chance and it took place as the well-acquired experience tried and tested by Novgorod land settlement still in IX–XII centuries. Fast and effective feedback from the “furs sale” gave the powerful impulse to initial pathfinder entrepreneurship and stimulated the interest of the state. Furs made the essential part of inpayments into the treasury that allowed the state help migrants, finance local administration and nation-wide events of interest, enlarge and strengthen international economic and political connections and avoid the eventual “edging” of Russia to the periphery of European civilization (Alekseyev et al. 2004). Making of the Northern Sea Route was accompanied with the bringing the traditions of Pomors culture from Kola Peninsula to Bering Strait and its further penetration into the mainland. Ecological conditions of arctic zone, the necessity of making and opening up seaways required shipbuilding development and improvement. Findings of sea vessels themselves and also their numerous details used for building because of the shortage of lumber not only confirm the existence of the various type vessels what is known from the other sources, but also allow to scientifically-based restore their design and rigging (Dubrovin et al. 2001, Kuhterin 2011). The net of cities and stockaded towns is established in extreme Far North conditions. Plentitude of valuable fur hunting resources provided fast saving of surplus product and original capital, first of all in the cities as the centers of its concentration and spreading. That promoted the development of commerce, forming of handicrafts and constantly settled population. It is conclusively be spoken by the story of “boiling up with gold” Man- gazea that was not a single oriented fur accumulating and trading station but a city with the developed economy that combined trades (hunting, fishing), manifold cattle-breeding, handicrafts (pottery, tailoring, shoemaking, bone carving, metal- and woodworking) and commerce. Mangazea had a distinctively urban look and hous- ing, every day and leisure culture, constant community of inhabitants who made children literate and were mostly literate themselves. And the other archeologically explored Russian transpolar settlements such as Alazeysky and Staduhinsky stockaded towns with the evident “fur-mobilized” (having the initial development impulse based on fur trade) directionality of economic management reveal the clear signs of multifactorial development (Belov et al. 1980, 1981, Alekseev 1996, Vizgalov, Parhimovich 2008). The importance of northern centers reduces in the course of time as migrant influxes move from polar north to the south where were realized other adaptational models based on agricultural development combined with different economic spheres in accordance to ecological possibilities of the regions. Agricultural sector, the primary and the necessary element of urban economy, had had a great value in “tilled area” towns. Agriculture stabilized the economy providing constant and quite

63 New perspectives in polar research essential influx of town funds including money resources that became a base for trading capitals and were invested into manufacturing (Chornaja 1992, Chernaya 2011). The net of 73 cities and stockaded towns was created to the end of the XVIIth century. Taken together they were the system of strong points of land settlement that connected Siberia and Russia into a single living organism. Eco-cultural adaptation process in archeological reflection is presented in the materials of settlements and the items of the service-utility complex. The architectural look of Russian presence in the region is reconstructed by the variety of archeologically studied layout of homesteads and settlements, constructions from outbuildings to defensive edifices, technical and structural building methods. Ordinary for usage set of items, interior and exterior decorative details simu- late traditional for Russians lifestyle and serves the objective implementation of the necessary facilities provision of the “own” world on the territories to be settled to. Working tools, the details of munition and specialized constructions tell about farming, hunting-fishery trading and handicrafts. It should be noted that clothing and trade complexes presented in the archeological collections from Spitsbergen, No- waya Zemlya, subpolar zone settlements and continental Siberia are similar to each other in general and in details. Leisure culture is reflected in the impedimenta of children’s and adult games. One of the brightest leisure culture impediments is chess, wooden and bony, made by the professional craftsmen and handmade (by the way, archeological collections of Far North chess are ones of the most representational) (Alekseev 1996, Parhimovich 2005). Going to the risky sailing or expeditions to the unknown lands the pathfinders took chess with them showing resilience and the ability to resist psy- chological stress during the long polar or a bit shorter Siberian winter. Archeological chess collections are material implements of interest to neither the mental entertain- ments of people who made the ways and settled the lands without leaving neither presence nor strength of mind in the most difficult and at times utterly dangerous conditions. Archeological data also document the importance of Siberia as the most essential element in developing and cementing cultural connections of Russia with the West. The objective implementation of connections was the congeries of various import presented with the token coins, trinketry (glass beads (odekui), finger-rings, etc.), metal bells, thimbles; porcelain, delft, glass, tinned ware, etc. Import items in some or other combination and range are found in all Russian significant sites of Far North and continental Siberia. A noticeable percentage of service class Lithuanian men presented by the natives of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the fewer amounts of other “foreigners” are also the reflection of these connections. The majority consisted of the Poles what is explained by historical circumstances. Many

64 New perspectives in polar research

Poles being literate and having military experience turned to be in the privileged stratum of service class people and found the second motherland in Siberia. The material evidences of Polish presence are catholic underclothes crosses, found, to be noted, in orthodox necropolises. So, archeologically documented cross placement into the hand of the deceased is the detail of the obsequies which still prevails in Polish culture (Molodin 2007, Berdnikov 2013). The expressive examples of reflecting cultural interaction with the outside world and moving and transforming western traditions are the following. In one case these are ceramic tiles from the furnace lining in Tomsk voivode’s (governor) man- sion where is the image of the crown wearing single-headed eagle holding the bow in his paws. In the other case this is Albazin’s town stamp with the same single- headed eagle with the bow and arrow. The symbolism of state power is featured on ceramic tiles and on the stamp (Fig. 1). Without going into the detailed analysis of the symbolism it should be noted that from my personal perspective, these purposely official things have the traits of western influence. It is known that Tsar Alexey Mi- khailovich implemented heraldical reform in 1672 and Russia was flooded by the artists and armorists from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. They worked on the modernization of Russian coat of arms in the spirit of western traditions. In the middle of the XVIIth century patriarch Nikon based on the organization of porcelain tile manufacturing invited the so-called “Byelorussian” tile masters who were the natives of the very same Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Porcelain tile masters and armorists brought western ideas and images along and the definite style of their implementation. It is seen in such a noticeable detail as raised wings, though before Alexey Mikhailovich eagle’s wings were depicted to be dropped. Artistic expression of the idea of state power has something in common with the single-headed eagle image on the Polish coat of arms. The perception of this image though creatively modified was easier because single-headed eagle as the symbol of supreme power of the knyazes (lords) is known in Russian tradition of XII–XV centuries up to the end of the XVth century when it was transformed into two-headed eagle (Kamenceva, Ustyugov 1974, Horoshkevich 1993). Russian culture showed its steadiness having saved its internal unity, image and powerful adaptation potential in specific and diverse environmental conditions of northern Eurasia, which includes Arctic sea coast with the islands and Siberia. Archeological context of land settlement as eco-cultural adaptation of Rus- sians on the lands to live in is important from the point of view of objective and fact- based reflections of reality. Enrichment of the source base with the archeological materials opened the new page in studying the exact historical practice of reclaiming spaces. Various models of adaptation were applied during the reclaiming and regional variants of culture formed though they had all-Russian base that advantaged

65 New perspectives in polar research to the integration of Russian North and Siberia into the united ethno-cultural and state entity. Fur hunting and fishery trades and agricultural colonizing integrated Russian North and Siberia into the worldwide context and opened the perspectives in the development of these regions.

Fig. 1. Single-headed crowned eagles, the symbols of power; a – on porcelain tile (Tomsk, XVII cent.); b – on the town stamp (Albazin, XVII cent.); c – on the Poland’s coat of arms.

66 New perspectives in polar research

Acknowledgements: The article is prepared with the support of the Russian Humanitarian Fund.

References

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Okladnikov A.P., Pinhenson D.M. (eds), 1951. Istoricheskii pamyatnik russkogo arkticheskogo moreplavaniya XVII v. (Arheologicheskie nahodki na o. Faddeya i na beregu zaliva Simsa), Glavsevmorput', Leningrad Parhimovich S.G., 2005. Mangazeiskie shahmaty. In: L.V. Tataurova (ed), Kul'tura russkih v arheologicheskih issledovaniyah, Omskii gosudarstvennyi universitet (Omsk State Univercity). Omsk, 300–314 Starkov V.F. (ed.), 1997. Barents. Spitsbergen. Arktika, Moscow Starkov V.F., 1998. Ocherki istorii osvoenie Arktiki 1: Shpicbergen, Nauchnyi mir, Moscow Starkov V.F., 2001. Ocherki istorii osvoeniya Arktiki 2: Rossiya i Severo-vostochnyi prohod. Nauchnyi mir, Moscow Starkov V.F., 2008. Udalennye severorusskie promysly v sisteme pomorskoi kul'tury XVI–XVIII vv. In: M.P. Chernaya (ed.), Vremya i kul'tura v arheologo-etnograficheskih issledovaniyah drevnih i sovremennyh obshestv Zapadnoi Sibiri i sopredel'nyh territorii: problemy interpretacii i rekonstrukcii, Tomskii gosudarstvennyi universitet (Tomsk State Univercity), Tomsk, 247–251 Starkov V.F., 2010. Severorusskaya pomorskaya kul'tura. Areal rasprostraneniya. In: M.P. Chernaya (ed.), Kul'tura kak sistema v istoricheskom kontekste: Opyt Zapadno-Sibirskih arheologo- etnograficheskih soveshanii. Materialy XV Mezhdunarodnoi Zapadno-Sibirskoi arheologo- etnograficheskoi konferencii, Agraf-Press, Tomsk, 30–32 Starkov V.F., 2012. Ocherki istorii osvoeniya Arktiki 3: Russkii Sever v kartografii XVI–XVII vv., Professional, Moscow Starkov V.F., Derzhavin V.L., 2003. Ekspediciya Villema Barenca na Novoi Zemle (1596–1597 gg.), Nauchnyi mir, Moscow Starkov V.F., Rozenfel'd R.L., Zav'yalov V.I. (eds), 1990. Ocherki istorii osvoeniya Shpicbergena, Moscow Starkov V.F., Krasil'shikov A.A., Buzin E.N., 2007. Muzei “Pomor”. Nauchnyi mir, Moscow Vizgalov G.P., Parhimovich S.G., 2008. Mangazeya: novye arheologicheskie issledovaniya (materialy 2001–2004 gg.), Magellan, Ekaterinburg, Nefteyugansk

68 New perspectives in polar research

Katarzyna Kozak1, Małgorzata Szopińska1, Aneta Pacyna1, Krystyna Kozioł2, Sara Lehmann1, Żaneta Polkowska1

1Gdansk University of Technology, The Chemical Faculty Department of Analytical Chemistry 11/12 Narutowicza st., 80-233 Gdansk, Poland [email protected], [email protected] [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2Department of Geography, University of Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom [email protected]

Anthropopressure’s intensification with reference to Arctic ecosystems

Abstract: This paper concerns issue of long range atmospheric transport of pollutants to polar areas and intensification of their toxic effect on biota in the face of climate change. Arctic which was for years seen as a pristine and not affected by antropopressure region became a sink of xenobiotics. Atmospheric circulation facilitates transport of chemicals from Eurasia to Arctic. Influence of climate change on crucial balance of polar environment and presence of xenobiotics in polar areas are discussed.

Keywords: Artic, Climate change, POP, Long range transport, Grasshopper effect

Introduction

For ages the Arctic region has been an object of researchers’ interest. The processes happening in the polar region have an influence on the environment in a significant, global way. Mutual impact between the Arctic and Europe, Asia, North America is noticeable. The constant development of industry and the human-influenced areas causes the emission of various substances into the environment – among which pollution. The major part of these components are characteristic for its persistence and resistance to degradation. In result, they can remain in the environment for a long time and can be transported on a long distances by various transport media such as 69 New perspectives in polar research atmosphere, oceans and biota. Thus they can also reach polar regions and pose a threat to Arctic’s ecosystems, rich in rare and valuable species of flora and fauna.

The significance of Arctic in the aspect of European countries economic development

The main reason why the Arctic is now an object of particular interest is its role in shaping the climate of the Northern Hemisphere. Another reason for the attention the Arctic is given are the issues connected to the natural resources exploitation (gas, crude). Taking into consideration the analysis, which indicates that the subpolar areas can hold up to 25 % of World’s crude and gas resources, no wonder Arctic has become an object of rivalry between countries. This competition in the fields of politics, economy and military concerns the adjacent countries – the so called “arctic five”, as well as other countries willing thus to participate actively in determination of the fate of the Arctic (among which the European Union). In order to ease tension and find a solution to those controversial issues between countries, in 1993 Barents Euro-Arctic Council and in 1996 Arctic Council were established. (Dośpiał-Borysiak 2011). In fact, the greatest influence on shaping the decisions concerning the Arctic’s problems (amid which territorial and economical claims) has the Arctic Council. It was set up basing on Ottawa Declaration and has an international character. It consists of eight “arctic” countries: Denmark, Finland, Island, Canada, Norway, Russia, Sweden and USA, plus countries with observer status, among which there is also Poland. The aim of the organisation is to protect the environment, conducting interdisciplinary research and giving aid to the locals. Large number of the processes happening in the Arctic’s environment influences on other areas of Earth. The sea level depends on the melt of Greenland’s continental glaciers, the temperature in Europe is influenced by the heat exchange between the Atlantic and the Arctic. The organisation of international research programmes, conducting observations and research as well as sharing the obtained knowledge, is thus essential. Thanks to global communication and pollutant spread system, we can easily infer that the whole planet is the only system in which this phenomena take place. In other words, each one of us is to some extend a user of the Artic (AMAP 2010).

Types of pollutants present at the Arctc Region

The most common pollutants in the Arctic area are radioactive isotopes (among others Cs, Pu, Tc), heavy metals (Hg, Pb) and persistent organic pollutants. According to the stipulations of Stockholm Convention concerning persistent organ-

70 New perspectives in polar research ic pollutants (POP) from 17 may 2004 r., persistent organic pollutants are the chemical substances of specific toxic properties, which – unlike other pollutants – are immune to degradation. POPs are especially detrimental to human’s health and environment. Among POPs we can distinguish components belonging to groups: PCB, PCN, BFR (among which: BDE, PBDE), PAH, TBT, pesticides (DDT , lindane, endosulfan, toxaphene etc.) and many other components, also newly introduced in industry and environment. The main sources of pollutants are: industrial activity, energetic activity (fossil fuels consumption) and farming. (Węsławski et al. 2012). Apart from pollutants transported on a long distances from industrialised areas, local sources of emission can be observed. Not without any significance is the area of Novaya Zemlya and Kola Peninsula, where stockpiles of radioactive materials are created. There is high probability of them reaching in future the Barents Sea and Kara Sea. In the region of Svalbard Archipelago there are also local sources of pollution. It consists of hard bituminous coal mines and small human settlings, as well as polar stations. They do not have, though, such an important influence on the whole arctic region (Kozak et al. 2013). Detailed information concerning the sources and the characteristics of selected POPs were included in table 1.

Long range pollutants transportation

The process of environmental pollutant transport is dependent on many factors – i.e. their physicochemical properties (partition coefficient, vapor pressure, chemical polarity) and on external environmental conditions (temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind velocity, circulation of atmosphere, water density, sea current movement etc.). In an extensive degree the transport of the substances from the lower latitudes to the polar areas takes place mainly because of the movement of masses of air and water. The pollution movement is possible i.e. because of the processes of advection, dispersion, diffusion or sorption on particulates. The moderate POP volatility results in their tendency to vapor in tropical and moderate regions of the globe, then to condensate in the colder regions. This occurrence is called “global distillation”. More volatile POP can remain in the air longer and migrate faster, farther in the direction of polar regions. In the atmosphere some organic components can move in stages into higher latitude in a series of relatively short leaps. This occurrence is called “the grasshopper effect”. Air mass trajectories in the Arctic favour the transport of pollutants from Eurasia, due to the asymmetry of the polar front (Law, Stohl 2007). An exception is perhaps Greenland, exposed to higher layers of the atmosphere due to its topography and hence capturing pollutants generated in the North America and Asia, which cannot penetrate to lower troposphere due to their humidity and warmth, and hence are not a usual pollution source in other parts of the Arctic (Law, Stohl 2007).

71 New perspectives in polar research

Table 1. Characteristics of selected persistent organic participles present the region of the Arctic (Szpyrka 2007, Czarnowski 2009, Toropovs et al. 2009, Fulara, Czaplicka 2010, Smolik 2013)

Abbreviation, name and Emission source of pollutants in Physicochemical properties of POP chemical formula of POP global scale PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls Non-flammable, lipophilic, Electrotechnical industry (mainly Low vapour compressibility, ther- the production of condensers mally stable and inert compounds, filled with saturant containing boiling temperature: PCB and dielectric liquids in 275–450 °C transformers).

PBDE The production of paints, var- polybrominated diphenyl Resistant to acid and base, hardly nishes, polimers, resin and other ethers dissolvable in water, lipophilic, materials – PBDE are used to boiling temperature: lowering the flammability of 310–425°C those materials.

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydro- In pure state – colourless, white, Partial burn of fossil fuels and carbons light-yellow or light-green crystals; biomass (of natural and anthro- hardly dissolvable in water, various pognenic origin), production of lipophilic, boiling temperature: medicine, paints, and plastic. 218–550 °C

DDT 1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4- chlorofenylo)etan Permanent compound, colourless, Used as insecticide, crystalic substance or white/ nearly manufactured in i.e. China and white powder, organochlorine, India, used in Russia and Third hardly dissolvable in water, boiling World Countries. temperature: 260 °C

γ-HCH (lindane) γ- hexachlorocyclohexane Halogenated compound, colourless Production and usage of pesti- crystal powder, nearly scentless, cide in agriculture, pharmaceuti- hardly dissolvable in water, boiling cal industry (substances treating temperature: scabies and head louse). 323–323.4 °C

TBT Colourless or fairly yellow liquids, Tributyltin compounds with low scent, low vapour com- Biocide production (in wood pressibility and very low dissol- preservatives, anti-fouling ship vance in water, they dissolve in paints , anti-mycosis substanc- polar solvents, es, in textiles), glass industry, boiling temperature: PVC production. 130–350 °C

In regional division, the best studied area of the Arctic with respect to air mass trajectories arriving there is Svalbard, followed by the Canadian Arctic and Alaska. On the contrary, the Russian Arctic, Greenland and the Arctic Ocean have received little attention to date. The dominant incoming air mass directions in Sval-

72 New perspectives in polar research bard are south, south-east and east (Park et al. 2013); the seasonal shift has been observed from Eurasia in autumn and winter to North Atlantic in the summer (Tun- ved et al. 2013). With respect to pollution transport, however, a different set of trajectories is the main culprit, and this is trajectories from north Siberia in the case of lead contamination (Paatero et al. 2010), but both North American and Eurasian for atmospheric optical depths (Rozwadowska et al. 2010). The Canadian Arctic (represented in literature by data from Alert station) receives air masses originating from within the Arctic circle, with a slight difference between winter (January) and spring (April) distribution of air trajectory directions. The winter advection took place mostly from the Arctic Archipelago and middle Siberia, while in spring the latter source is less frequently represented than the Chukchi Sea (Huang et al. 2010). The most polluted air masses (with respect to PAHs), however, arrive to Alert from Eur- asia in winter and summer, from Europe in spring, and from North America in the autumn (Wang et al. 2010). The limited record of occasional studies on air mass trajectories arriving to Alaska restricts the scope for statistical conclusions. The published trajectories show the possibility of air advection from the Arctic Ocean, Arc- tic North America and North Pacific (Halter, Harris 1983), as well as Siberia (Yasunari et al. 2007). Another transport media are sea and oceanic waters. This media refers mainly to components dissolvable in water, but less dissolvable POP can also move with the sea and oceanic currents, because they undergo the process of sorption on sus- pensions – microorganisms. Greater part of POP charge is stored in snow and water. Systematic accumulation of the components in the snow layer contributes to the creation of pollutant reservoir. Of high importance are the components degradation processes, which can be observed in the snow layer. Every moment the reemission of POP into the environment can take place, i.e. during the seasonal melts. Thus, the Arctic ecosystem is constantly exposed to its effect (Ruman et al. 2012).

Levels of pollutants in various environment’s elements

The fact, that arctic regions are located far away from urbanized areas (omit- ting single local source emission) makes an opportunity for researchers to examine more globally track pollution. Contaminations mostly from Europe, Russia, Canada and USA migrate together with the wind (Hung et al. 2010) and sea currents to higher latitude, where can be deposited in sediments or can be assimilated by simple organisms (for example plankton, zooplankton) and then accumulate in the food chain (Bidleman et al. 2010). Bioaccumulation is meaningful especially in the case of persistent organic pollutants, as far as this compounds are usually not biode- gradable and can seriously affect health and live. Many scientific research and pub-

73 New perspectives in polar research lications focus on these compounds content especially in tissues of marine organisms, sediments, sea water, air and snow. Among all of the animals used for testing very often tissue of predators like greenland shark, atlantic cod, polar bear and various species of seals are selected by researchers (Rigét et al. 2011). The main reason for this is the fact, that those species are long-lived carnivores, which are on the top of the food chain, mostly moving along large areas. In animals tissue the amounts of POP are usually measured in nanograms or micrograms. In abiotic samples amounts depends from the sampling place and type of sample itself.

Table 2. Biotic samples.

Place/ time of Type of Determination Compound Mean±SD/or Range collecting samples technique

samples references

ΣPCDD (ng TEQ/kg ww) 1.1 ± 0.6 ΣPCDF (ng TEQ/kg ww) high-resolution Dioxins and furans 1.4 ± 0.9 gas chromatog-

Barents (PCDD/Fs), ΣPCDD + PCDF (ng raphy/ high- Sea Liver of dioxin-like PCBs TEQ/kg ww) 2.5 ± 1.4 resolution mass

70° to atlantic 2013 (DL-PCBs), Σnon-ortho PCB (ng spectrometry 75°N and cod non-dioxin-like TEQ/kg ww) 10.9 ± 9.6 (HRGC/HRMS) from 16° (Gadus PCBs (NDL-PCBs, Σmono-ortho PCB (ng using a DFS- to 41°E morhua) PCB6) polybromin- TEQ/kg ww) 0.79 ± 0.71 MS, HRGC-

2009– (n=784) Julshamn ated flame retard- ΣPCDD/F + DL-PCB (ng HRMS, 2010 ants (PBDEs). TEQ/kg ww) 14.2 ± 11.2 PCB6 (lg/kg ww) 92 ± 67 GC-MSMS PBDE7 (lg/kg ww) 4.5 ± 3.5 PCDD/Fs (ng TEQWHO-2005 high-resolution Dioxins and furans kg-1 ww) 0.045± 0.026 gas chromatog-

Barents (PCDD/Fs), DL-PCBs (ng TEQWHO-2005 raphy/ high- Sea Muscle of -1 dioxin-like PCBs kg ww) 0.030 ± 0.019 resolution mass

70° to atlantic 2013 (DL-PCBs), PCDD/Fs + DL-PCBsa (ng spectrometry 75°N and cod -1 non-dioxin-like TEQ WHO-2005 kg ww) (HRGC/HRMS) from 16° (Gadus PCBs (NDL-PCBs, 0.076± 0.032 using a DFS- to 41°E morhua) -1 PCB6) polybromin- PCB6a (lg kg ww) MS, HRGC-

2009– (n=30) Julshamn ated flame retard- 0.60± 0.22 HRMS, 2010 -1 ants (PBDEs). PBDE7b (lg kg ww) 0.010± not determined GC-MSMS Polychlorinated ΣCHL 0.33–2.52

biphenyls (PCBs), ΣDDT 0.57–1.89 Plasma hydroxylated (OH−) ΣHCH 0.03–0.17

Kongs- from and methyl- 2012 ΣPCB 2.33–10.7 fjorden, black- sulphoned (MeSO−) ΣPBDE 0.04–0.17 GC–MS Svalbard legged PCB metabolites, ΣPFSA 8.03–18.5 analysis. (75.54°N, kittiwake organochlorine ΣPFCA 3.56–8.85 LC–Q-TOF–MS 12.30°E) (Rissa pesticides (OCPs), ΣPFC 11.7–26.3 2006 tridactyla) brominated flame 4-hydroxy-

(N=10) retardants (BFRs), Nost Haugdahl heptachlorostyrene. and perfluorinated 0.01–0.03 compounds (PFCs)).

74 New perspectives in polar research

Place/ time of Type of Determination Compound Mean±SD/or Range collecting samples technique

samples references

Polychlorinated ΣCHL 0.80–1.62

biphenyls (PCBs), ΣDDT 3.68–16.3 hydroxylated (OH−) Plasma ΣHCH 0.04–0.10

Kongs- and methyl- 2012 from ΣPCB 11.8–35.1 fjorden, sulphoned (MeSO−) northern ΣPBDE 0.07–0.72 GC–MS Svalbard PCB metabolites, fulmar ΣPFSA 20.3–104 analysis. (75.54°N, organochlorine (Fulmarus ΣPFCA 6.76–35.5 LC–Q-TOF–MS 12.30°E) pesticides (OCPs), glacialis) ΣPFC 27.1–139 2006 brominated flame chicks 4-hydroxy-

retardants (BFRs), Nøst Haugdahl heptachlorostyrene and perfluorinated 0.20–0.43 compounds (PFCs)). Matrix removal Kongsfjor on florisil den, columns, (Kryk- Blood of separation on an kjefjellet, black- ΣPOP 1.21 × 104 to 1.01 Agilent Technol- 2014 ΣPOP 78°54′N, legged × 105 pg·g−1 ww ogy 7890 GC 12°13′E), kittiwakes and detection Svalbard on an Agilent Blévin 2011 Technology 5975C MSD Norway, Troms

and Finn- mark Blood of CB 153 2.33–62.43

(68.46– 2013 White- POP (ng g−1 dry p,p′-DDE 2.02–50.93 70.59 °N; GC-MS tailed wt.). BDE 47 0.31–6.09 15.62– Eagle HCB 0.12–1.27

26.10 °E) Eulaers 2008, 2009 and 2010 HCB 31.5 ± 20.6 trans-Nonachlor 12.0 ± 10.3 pp’-DDE 213.3 ± 302.7 Mirex 8.0 ± 5.9 oxy-Chlordane 52.4 ± 38.7 PCB 70 1.9 ± 1.7 Kongs- PCB 95 6.9 ± 6.6 Muscle of fjorden PCB 101 5.3 ± 4.4 Northern (Svalbard, PCB 99 16.9 ± 13.0 fulmar 2014 Norway, POP (ng/g ww) PCB 110 3.9 ± 2.6 GC-ECD (Fulmarus 78°55’N, PCB 118 30.9 ± 26.4 glacialis) uzzo

11°56’E) PCB 153 66.7 ± 47.8 G (N=13) 2006/2009 PCB 138 38.4 ± 29.9 PCB 158 4.2 ± 3.7 PCB 183 8.3 ± 6.6 PCB 180 33.7 ± 22.8 PCB 170 12.6 ± 10.3 PCB 194 4.7 ± 4.1 PCB 206 2.3± 2.3 0.3± 0.1

75 New perspectives in polar research

Place/ time of Type of Determination Compound Mean±SD/or Range collecting samples technique

samples references

Liefdefjor- α-HCH 2.5±2.5 (Lod-5) den

γ-HCH below limit of (79°37 N, detection. 12°57 E), Zoo-

HCB 2.5±0.4 2011 Kongs- plankton trans-chlordane 1.3±0.1 fjorden; (Calanus POP(ng/g lipid wt) GC-MS cis-chlordane 2.5±0.2 (78°96 N, finmarchi- oxy-chlordane 1±0.2 11°94 E); cus)

trans-nonachlor 1.7±0.2 Hallanger Svalbard, cis-nonachlor 0.7±0.1 Norway p,p’-DDE 1.3±0.3 2008 HCB 3.8 ± 1.4 trans-Nonachlor 1.6 ± 0.9 pp’-DDE 26.4 ± 70.8 Mirex 1.0 ± 0.7 oxy-Chlordane 2.7 ± 2.0 PCB 70 0.6 ± 0.5 Kongs- Muscle of PCB 95 1.3 ± 0.6 fjorden Black- PCB 101 1.2 ± 0.6 (Svalbard, legged PCB 99 2.9 ± 2.7 Norway, 2014 kittiwakes POP (ng/g ww) PCB 110 1.2 ± 0.5 GC-ECD 78°55’N,1 (Rissa PCB 118 4.1 ± 3.1 1°56’E)

tridactyla) PCB 153 11.3 ± 11.0 Guzzo 2006 (N=14) PCB 138 8.5 ± 9.8 /2009 PCB 158 0.6 ± 0.8 PCB 183 1.5 ± 1.4 PCB 180 5.4 ± 5.4 PCB 170 2.0 ± 2.0 PCB 194 0.6 ± 0.5 PCB 206 0.3± 0.1 Greenland

Cumber- Sharks Atomic Ab- land (Somnio- − 1 sus mi- THg 3.54 ± 1.02 μg·g sorption Spec- Sound, 2014 trometer

Canada crocepha- McMeans lus) Fresh salmon fillet (n=6), ΣPCB 118–272 (Salmon), smoked 114–227 (SmokeS), salmon 31–103 (SmokeH), fillet (n=6), 809–1,330 (NW), 163–

smoked 672 (WB), 181–401 Nuuk, the halibut (SM) West PCB (ng/g lw), 2014 fillet (n=6), BDE-47 3–9 (Salmon), 5- coast of PBDE (ng/g lw), GC, MS commer- 11 (SmokeS), < LOQ Greenland PFAS (ng/g ww) cial whale (SmokeH), 15–23 (NW), 2010 beef 12–25 (WB),

76 New perspectives in polar research

Place/ time of Type of Determination Compound Mean±SD/or Range collecting samples technique

samples references

Muscle (sharks from Canada), liver and Cumber- Zooplankton plasma land (~5 ng/g wet wt.) (Svalbard)

Sound, Greenland halibut of Green- Canada/ (221 ± 15 ng/g) GC/MS under land

Svalbard PCBs Greenland sharks (3100 electron impact 2014 sharks 2007– ±400 ng/g in muscle, ionization (Somnio- Lu 2008/ sus mi- 5340 ±750 ng/g in liver, 2008– crocepha- 4810 ±1000 ng/g in 2009 plasma) lus), zooplankton, Greenland halibut

ΣPBDE 32.5÷60.6

East from Fat tissue ΣPCB 2854÷9246 Alaska to from polar PAH (ng/g w.lipids) ΣDDT 75.0÷187 GC-MS

Svalbard 2011 bears β-HCH 45.8÷93.6

2005– McKinney α—HCH 6.8÷10.6 2008 zooplank-

ton, fish Barents (Polar zooplankton (6.4–13.8)

Sea Cod), planktivorous fish 2010 POP (pg/kg lipid) - 77°N – and seal (2.9–5.0) 82°N (Ringed seal (below 1) seal Sobek blubber) Σ21PCBs 2560 ± 1500 ng/ plasma of g lw (mothers)

in polar Svalbard, 6070 ± 2590 ng/g lw bear Norway PCB (cubs) -

(Ursus 2012 2008 Σ6OH-PCBs 80 ± 38 ng/g

mariti- Bytingsvik ww (mothers) mus) 49 ± 21 ng/g ww (cubs) GC–ECD, gas Svalbard, The chromatograph Kongs- Greenland coupled with a fjorden, shark DDTs 900–59,707 Waters GCT- 2013 Norway (Somnio- POP (ng/g l.w.) PCBs 1344–16,106 premier time of June 2008 sus mi- chlordanes 323–5756 flight (TOF) and June crocepha- Molde mass 2009 lus) spectrometer

77 New perspectives in polar research

Table 3. Abiotic samples.

Place/ time of Kind of Final determina- Compound Mean±SD /or range picking the sample tion technique

samples references

Hornsund Polycyclic aromatic GC-MS, gas

(Fugle- hydrocarbons (PAH) chromatograph bekken Stream [ng/L], Total PAHs 8,4-603 coupled with

basin), water Polichlorinated Total PCBs 2.3-406 2011 mass Svalbard biphenyls (PCBs) spectrometer Polkowska 2009 [ng/L] Barents Sea (two polygons 2013 in the area IR spectropho- of the tometry, capillary Bottom Shtokman Hydrocarbons [ppm] HC 7.14– 84.62 gas–liquid chro- sediments gas– matograph, liquid conden- chromatography sate deposit) Nemirovskaya 2010 Byfjorden and Sjuøyane, -1 PCR–DGGE, (Spitsber- Seawater Naphtalene (mg L ) 14.4– 3.9 OxiTop , GC gen), Norway Bagi 2014 2009 Phenanthrene (ng/g) 28 ± 7

Camden benzo(a)pyrene (ng/g) Bay, 4 ±1 Total polycyclic Alaskan Sedi- Perylene (ng/g) 87 ± 21 aromatic GC-MS, GC-FID Beaufort ments total petroleum hydrocarbons Sea hydrocarbons (TPH) 2008/2009 (μg/g) 37 ±14 Trefry 2013 Total alkanes ( μg/g) 5.5 ±0.9 Baffin Soil,

Island at gravel, 61 °35’N 17–145 (valley) granular PCB (mg) GC/ECD

and 0.3–23 (beach) 2012 activated

60°40’W. Kalinovich carbon 2007 TOC 0.89± 0.39 TN 0.12± 0.05 Al (%) 5.01± 1.29 Surface Trace metals As 14.7± 6.2 Chukchi -1 sediments (mg g ), Ba 590± 62 Sea, and sedi- total organic Be 1.2± 0.3 AAS, ICPMS 2009– ment carbon(%), Cd 0.16± 0.04 2010 cores total nitrogen (%) Cr 71± 18 Trefry 2014 Cu 13± 4 Fe(%) 2.90± 0.85 Hg 0.031± 0.010

78 New perspectives in polar research

Influence of climate’s change on pollution of polar regions

The climate change, observed throughout a few last decades, is connected to the occurrence of a strong impact on functioning of particular ecosystems, among which on the particularly sensitive polar regions. It needs emphasizing that even a slight change of climate factors can bring serious repercussions, manifesting in disturbances and unsettlement of natural mechanisms of nautre’s homeostasis. The result of climate changes is not only the rise of temperatures, but also the unsettlement of series of mutual relations, without which holding the ecological balance becomes impossible (Macdonald et. al 2005). The rise of temperature, weather anomalies and connected with those heavy precipitation plus strong winds imply the spread of pollutants, among which persistent pollutants, in biotic and abiotic environment. A particularly susceptible to the negative impact of those and thus the climate changes are the polar regions. The Arctic is a particularly exposed to the climate changes. The ecosystem’s susceptibility to the influence of detrimental substances has a direct connection to its simple structure, which consists of couple essential species only. Such a small diversity of organisms results in a quicker than in other ecosystems process of biomagnification. It is worth stressing out that persistent organic pollutants show a tendency to accumulate in the fatty tissue of organisms. The process of biomagnification effects in the spread of pollutants in the whole food chain, causing that the organisms at the top of this food chain are exposed in a greater degree to the detrimental chemical compounds. Furthermore, the sensitivity of polar regions is also influenced by the limited amount of ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) and shorter growing season, which have effected in little fauna and flora diversity. In addition, low temperatures result in reduction of microbiological activity, which leads to slowing down the circulation of nutrients in nature (AMAP 2006, ACIA 2005). The result of climate changes is the change of climate factors, which directly affect the functioning of arctic ecosystems. The temperature rise can initially be seen as a positive aspect, because it comes with an increase of microbiological activity, which is connected to the nutrients amount growth. However, drastic increase of general organic carbon and nitrogen compounds has an influence on reducing the oxygen dissolved in water, which directly and negatively affects the water quality. On the other hand, the temperature rise contributes to the melt of snow and ice cover. It is worth noticing that big charges of permanent compounds are store in ice and snow, being thus a potential source of their emission to the environment. In effect, water contamination takes place and the living creatures are exposed to toxic effects of pollutants. What is more, the snow cover is a place where arctic creatures dwell (among which seals, bears) and such diminution of life space is a stress creating

79 New perspectives in polar research factor, affecting the number of organisms population. Other vital climate factors are precipitation, wind and connected long-range atmospheric transport. The effect of animated cyclonic activity and frequent movement of low pressure and connected to them areas of high cloudiness, rainfall and strong winds influences the water regimes and thus hydrological factors, which in side affect the quality of water. Along with the increase of association of pollutants, with the particles from atmospheric air, the tempo of their erasure from the atmosphere in the processes of dry and wet deposition grows. In addition to the growth of the pressure gradient, the wind velocity grows as well, while the pollutants in the air are taken to higher layers of troposphere – so they can be transported on long distances, polluting the Arctic region (Ma et al. 2011). Schematically, in figure 1 the influence of climate changes on the Arctic’s ecosystem were presented (Ma et al. 2011). Due to the climate changes, a slow process of Arctic’s environment degradation takes place, which contributes to the depletion of biodiversity. Processes of regeneration of polar nature are far from being fast, and this is why the changes caused by anthropogenic activity have a great negative influence on the quality of environment. Numerous research works have confirmed the appearance of toxic

Climate change

Precipitation Temperature Wind

Increased Increased Long - range storminess temperature transport of pollutants

Dry/saturated Dry antecedent Increased rates of Less snow, Reduced soils conditions decomposition aond snowmelt and dissolved oxygen Dry/wet nitrogen mineralisation ice cap content in water deposition of in soil pollutants

Surface hydrological pathways favoured

Increased organic Reduced Increased Increased carbon and nitrogen Smaller groundwate pollutants acid flushes inputs in rivers baseflows r rechargr

Less water to dillute pollutants

Deteriorating water quality

Reduced animals and plants populations

Fig 1. Influence of climate changes on the Arctic’s ecosystem. 80 New perspectives in polar research effects among the organisms as a result of pollutant migration in the Arctic’s environment (Brunstrom, Halldin 2000, Bustnes et al. 2005, De Wit et al. 2006, AMAP 2006, Letcher et al. 2010). A strong need to conduct further research on the spread of pollutants can be observed, as well water quality examination of top priority – in order to assess the level of pollution in the environment.

Summary

The Arctic region, situated far from the main sources of pollutant emission, is considered to be an indicator for global changes, taking place in the environment. Not very long ago the Arctic was seen as a pristine and not affected by anthropopressure area, different from other geographic regions. However, the results of the research work published throughout the last decades prove that the pollution from remote sources pose a mounting threat for this rich in rare and valuable species of flora and fauna place. Environmental conditions and the geographic location make the Arctic a reservoir of pollutants. It is a source of information enabling us to warn against dangers caused by the usage of toxic chemical substances. The examinations of pollution levels, placed in region of Arctic, remain a key element of monitoring the quality of environment in local and global scale. In addition, they enable us to take adequate measures in order to prevent their negative effects. Most contaminants are transported with air masses and sea currents from lower latitudes. Especially, transport of persistent organic pollutants is a real thread, because in the process of bioaccumulation those compounds may be included into food web, and accumulate in a fat tissue, affecting health of the individuals. Species from the top of the food chain, are usually the most exposed – as they absorb compounds from their food. Research on the arctic areas has a global meaning, because this region is a global sink for pollutants. Still many process are not clearly understand and more data will be very useful for the next study.

Acknowledgements: Author Katarzyna Kozak would like to thanks the Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, for posibility of participation in practice on Polish Polar Station in 2012. The project was funded by the National Science Centre allocated on the basis of the decision number DEC-2013/09/N/ST10/04191.

81 New perspectives in polar research

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84 New perspectives in polar research

Aneta Pacyna1, Krystyna Kozioł2, Marek Ruman3 , Żaneta Polkowska1

1 Gdansk University of Technology, The Chemical Faculty Department of Analytical Chemistry 11/12 Narutowicza st, Gdansk 80-233, Poland [email protected], [email protected] 2 University of Sheffield, Department of Geography Winter st, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom [email protected] 3 University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences Centre for Polar Studies KNOW (Leading National Research Centre) 60 Będzińska st, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected]

The occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the chosen area of Svalbard

Abstract: In the recent years, scientists have been paying more attention to the impact of compounds of anthropogenic origin on the environment. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are both groups of stable organic compounds, difficult to biodegrade, and potentially toxic. Because of their affinity to lipids, they can accumulate in fat tissue and exert influence on animal health. This paper present levels of PAHs and PCBs in abiotic samples derived from Svalbard on Arctic.

Keywords: PAH, PCB, migration of pollutants, long range atmospheric transport, Svalbard

Introduction

The Arctic region is very sparsely urbanized in comparison to the rest of the world. Despite that, almost in every element of the environment trace amounts of pollutants were found. Most of them comes from industry, combustion of fossil fuels 85 New perspectives in polar research or agriculture. They are transferred from lower latitudes, mainly from Europe and Russia, Canada and USA with sea currents and air masses. Following that, particles can be deposited in sediments or enter the food chain, where pollutants can be accumulated in tissues of living creatures in the process of bioaccumulation. The local sources of pollutants in arctic areas are mostly coal mines, oil extraction and ship transport. Also sea ice can be the source of contaminants, if during the creation of ice crystals some particles will be integrated in the structure. This contaminated ice may be transferred with sea currents in a long distance to arctic areas, where it melts during summer (European Arctic – sea users guide 2013). Some amounts of pollutants can be absorbed by the organic matter and fine mineral particles. When they sink and fall to the bottom, they creates new layer of sediments. Despite of the fact that this process is rather slow, it helps to purify the water from toxic organic compounds, when particles are deposited on the depth. However, some events may affect the structure of sediment, and cause re- introduction of contaminants into the water. Those processes may be natural (for example caused by sea currents or activity of the bottom fauna) or caused by the human activity (bottom trawling) (European Arctic – sea users guide 2013). Volatile compounds may evaporate into the atmosphere in the warmer region of Earth and subsequently be transferred into the higher latitudes with air masses. Due to the temperature drop, they condensate and undergo the deposition on land surface (Kozak et al. 2013). The archipelago of Svalbard is located between 74–81° N, and 10–35° E, and separated from Greenland and Franz Josef Land by the wide straits. Location of the archipelago and climate factors has an impact on the particle deposition of pollutants. This process is conditioned by the location of the archipelago and climatic factors. In detail, the most important factors determining particle deposition in Sval- bard are:  a relatively short distance from continental Europe,  relatively little sea ice formation, as compared to the rest of the Arctic, which allows to increase in tourist and freight ship traffic,  a natural barrier created by the mountains that prevents the escape of air masses coming from Europe and northwestern Asia (Simões, Zagorodnov 2001),  the exchange of ocean water between the moderate and high latitudes (Nowosiel- ski 2004),  low average temperatures increase the tendency of pollutants to condense in various components of the environment (Fernández, Grimalt 2003),  low pressure and considerable wind speeds (the atmospheric activity helps spread stable pollutants in the air which can circulate and be transferred across long distances (Marsz, Styszyńska 2007),  ocean currents linking mainland Europe to Svalbard and different parts of the archipelago itself (Marsz, Styszyńska 2007).

86 New perspectives in polar research

Also changing climate may have impact on contaminants distribution. Arctic has been warming much faster than the rest of the world (approximately 2 times faster). Melting the icecaps and permafrost can increase the amount of pollution in the environment (contaminants will be released from ice). If one parts of the world warms faster than the other, than gradient in the horizontal temperature distribution also will change – and this may have influence on large scale wind patterns. There has been an ongoing debate, whether warming in the Arctic may affect circulation patterns in the mid-latitudes, and thereby possibly have influence on the intensity of extreme weather events. More extreme weather conditions too may have a significant impact – especially changes in distribution of air masses (www.realclimate.org) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls are both groups of the stable compounds, hard to biodegradate in natural environment. Re- cently, an increased concern about the presence of PAHs in the Arctic ecosystem is noted, because of the possible perspective of increased oil extraction and thus a stronger influence on the natural environment. PAHs are more stable compounds in comparison to aliphatic hydrocarbons. Their composition in the environment depends not only on the source of emission, but also on the transformation in the environment. Naphalene, one of the PAHs, is highly volatile and easily disintegrates in water into other PAHs. Its increased concentration may indicate, that the sample is contaminated by petroleum products (however there are further sources of this compound) (Nemirovskaya 2012). Lighter PAH are more water soluble and more volatile, and due to this are less persistent in the environment. Heavier PAH are more likely to reach the bottom (after sorption to organic particles, undergo deposition on the seabed) (Boitsov et al. 2009). In the past PCBs were widely used in industry, due to their multiple applications. Now in many countries (e.g. in the USA) their production is banned and PCBs can only be used in a strictly controlled fashion. But because of their stability, trace amounts of them are still determined in many different elements of the environment. Table 1. presents characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls.

Literature review

Although Arctic is located in a far distance from highly urbanized areas, many compounds related to human activity are found in biotic and abiotic samples there. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are represented, for instance, by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Both groups consist of compounds that can bioaccumulate in fat tissue, while transferred into the food chain.

87 New perspectives in polar research

Table 1. Characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls (Boitsov et al. 2009, Garmash et al. 2013, Kozak et al. 2013).

Name and chemical formula Emission source of pollutants Properties of POP of POP (in global scale) Combustion (forest fires, volca- no eruptions, wood ovens, industry, etc.), emissions from Polycyclic aromatic hydro- Various solubility, lighter PAH are shipping, flaring at offshore oil more water-soluble and volatile, installations, long-range lipophilic, persistant, transport from land areas, oil ability to bioaccumulate in fat seeps from oil reservoirs or tissue, toxic to marine organisms hydrocarbon source rocks, oil carbons spills, microbial activity in plant detritus

Polychlorinated biphenyls Environmental persistent and long-range atmospheric bioaccumulative, lipophilic, low transport, industry, predomi- absorption of energy in ultraviolet nantly were used as dielectric B (UV-B) wavelengths (inefficient fluids in electrical equipment photolysis)

From the increased use of energy and exploitation of natural resources arises the need to search for new areas of oil and gas extraction. Therefore, many countries consider exploration of new places, where the extraction of oil and gas was unprofit- able, e.g. due to the difficult access of the workload required, including the Arctic. However, the exploitation of the marine Arctic resources induces the risk of contamination by petroleum products and thus may affect the balance in the natural environment. Harsh climate, extreme weather conditions and characteristic landscape (glaciers, fjords) make accidents and oil spills more likely and harder to deal with. The presence of PAHs may be an indicator if an oil spill occured (independently of its extent). PCB derived from industry, and they used to have many applications (were used as plasticizers e.g. in paints, coolants and insulating fluids for transformers and capacitors). Because of their chemical inability to be oxidized and reduced in the natural environment those compounds are very stable and difficult to degrade. Research presented in literature provides data to compare the amounts of PAH and PCB in different elements: soil, sediments, water and air. Table 2. shows such review for Svalbard. The maximum amounts of PAH in particular kind of sample is also presented in figure 1. Figure 1. shows only the maximum amounts of PAH in particular samples found in the literature. For polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons the maximum amount was determined in sea water samples and was exceeding 14000 ng/g. For PCB the highest determined amounts were found in soil sample and it was higher than 28000 ng/g. In other samples found in the literature review, these amounts were highly differentiated and depended on kind of the sample, year of picking the sample, examined area and other factors. The highest amounts of PAH in air was 2 ng/m3, and 88 New perspectives in polar research for PCBs the maximum corresponding value was about 330 pg/m3 . Those amounts are quite small in comparison to this found in liquid and solid samples. The maximum concentration of PAH in sediment equaled to 1100 ng/g and in soil exceed 320 ng/g. For PCB the maximum amount in sediment and on the surface of water was very low (in sediment a little exceeds 35 ng/g, and in water equals 400 ng/l).

Table 2. PAH and PCB concentrations reported from a number of Arctic Svalbard studies.

Kind of sample Compound Range References soil Σ16 PAH 37–324 ng/g dw Wang et al. 2009 PAH (Nap,Ace,Acp,Fl,Phe,An,F soil lu,Pyr, 0.3–324 ng/g dw Wang et al. 2009 BaA,Chr,BbF,BkF,BaP,Db A,InP,BghiP) sediment Σ11 PAH 1–640 ng/g Rose et al. 2004 sediment 15 PAH 11–1100 ng/g dw Jiao et al. 2009 surface water Total PAH 4–600 ng/l Polkowska et al. 2011 Seawater Naphtalene 3.9–14.4 mg L–1 Bagi et al. 2014 0.6 to 2.0 air Total PAH 3 Cecinato et al. 2000 ng/ m soil PCB7 0.172–28.7 mg/kg Jartun et al. 2009 sediment PCB 0.18–13 ng/g dw Jiao et al. 2009 sediment ΣPCB 0.7–35.4 ng/g dw Scotvold, Savinov 2003 sediment Σ10 PCB 1.25–13.52 ng/g Rose et al. 2004 air Σ10 PCB n.d–330 Pg/m3 Hung et al. 2010 air 10 PCB 0.015–46.6 Pg/m3 Oehme et al. 1996 air Σ(31–206) PCB 18.36–207.02 Pg/m3 Choi et al. 2008 air ΣPCB 3.37– 96.78 pg/m3 Kallenborn et al. 2007 surface water Total PCB 2–400 ng/l Polkowska et al. 2011

Figure 1. The maximum amounts of PAH in particular sample found in the literature.

89 New perspectives in polar research

Experimental part

In the period 11th July – 16th August 2012, 23 samples of surface water were collected by from Foxfonna glacier. All analysis were done in the second quarter of 2014. Full analysis was done for 23 samples, and the results are presented below. The determination technique used in analysis was GC-MS (gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry). A figure 2. presents the map with the extent of Foxfonna glacier and table 3. and 4. contains the amount of determined compounds. Additionally figure 3 presents the results on diagram and figure 4. and 5. shows the maximum amounts of individual compounds. Graphs shows the concentration of the individual compounds and the maximum amount was detected for acenaphtene (value exceed 57,000 ng/l). The next largest value was for naphtalene, and it was quite more than 13,000 ng/l. Considera- bly less pyrene was found (approximately 12,600 ng/l). For many samples concentration was very low (below 100 ng/l or even below limit detection). Analysis does not confirm the presence of chrysene or dibenzo(a,h)anthracene in any sample. Con- centration of benzo(a)pyrene in one sample exceeds 2370 ng/l, but in the rest samples was below 280 ng/l. Extremely small concentration was determined for indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene – the maximum amount does not exceed 11 ng/l. The amount of anthracene was very low (only in one sample slightly exceeds 600 ng/l), and a detectable amount was present in 6 samples. The concentration of benzo(b)fluoranthene and benzo(k)fluoranthene was even smaller- in both cases only in one sample slightly exceed 300 ng/l, in other does not exceed 100 ng/l or was below

Figure 2. Extent of the glacier Foxfonna and other adjacent glaciers (http://stadnamn.npolar.no).

90 New perspectives in polar research limit of detection. Benzo(g,h,i)perylen was present only in one sample, but the concentration was very low (less than 150 ng/l). The maximum amount of compounds from the group of polychlorinated biphenyls was lower, the highest for PCB118 and it was approximately 30 ng/l. The maximum level of PCB28 slightly exceeds 6 ng/l, and for PCB153 was below 3.2 ng/l. For PCB28 small concentrations was detected in 12 samples, but only in three exceeds 4 ng/l. For PCB 153 small amounts was determined in 2 samples, and for PCB118 in three, but in two of them amounts of pollutants does not exceed 5 ng/l. The concentration of determined PCB was very small in comparison to the concentration of PAH.

Conclusion

For a long time Arctic areas was thought to be unpolluted. Due to harsh climate, variable weather and specific landform it has never been colonized to the extent Europe or America were. The biggest island of Svalbard, Spitzbergen was one of the first bases for polar expeditions. Most of the residents (both permanent and tourists) lives at the designated area towns. Main local sources of pollutants are

Table 3. Amounts of examined polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).

Minimum Maximum Standard devia- Compound [ng/l] Average [ng/l] Median [ng/l] [ng/l] tion

Naphtalene 176 13200 1747 463.5 2705 Acenaphthylene 57.3 7643 2535 2358.5 1944 Acenaphthene 406 57483 17041 14717 14051 Fluorene 8.30 1633 321 152 369 Phenanthrene 49,6 10490 2311 1137.5 2592 Anthracene 1.60 614 302 399 172 Fluoranthene 0.70 373 85 56.65 89 Pyrene 189 12646 5104 5207 3120 Benzo[a]anthracene 2.30 326 53 11,9 81 Chrysene n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Benzo[b]fluoranthene 31.2 317 98 47.8 61 Benzo[k]fluoranthene 31.2 317 98 47.8 61 Benzo[a]pyrene 5.64 2372 682 174.75 449 Indeno[1,2,3-cd] pyrene 1.56 10.8 6 6.18 2 Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Benzo[g,h,i]perylene 138 138 138 138 26 n.d.– not detected

91 New perspectives in polar research

92 New perspectives in polar research

Figure 3. The amounts of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in water, snow and ice samples (all values are in ng/l).

mines, oil drilling and transport (pollution derived from cruises and ships). But in general, big influence on the Arctic ecosystem has the long-range transport of pollutants from Europe and Asia. Especially in winter and early spring, when air masses moves from lower latitudes, migration of particles is facilitated. Toxic compounds may easily cross the national borders and with air masses and water currents travel long distances. Additionally, those particles may be retained in the atmosphere, and create toxic aerosols (phenomenon being called the Arctic Haze). 93 New perspectives in polar research

Figure 4. The percentage of examined PAH (only the maximum amounts).

Table 4. shows the concentration of selected polychlorinated biphenyls in water, snow and ice samples. Figure 5. shows only the maximum amount of individual compounds (all values are in ng/l).

Table 4. Amount of determined polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in samples

Standard Compound [ng/l] Minimum Maximum Average Median deviation PCB 28 0.60 6.13 2,89 3.195 1.84 PCB 101 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. PCB 118 2.43 30.1 12.4 4.66 5.72 PCB 138 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. PCB 153 2.45 3.14 2.80 2.795 0.74 PCB 180 n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n. d. n.d.– not detected

Figure 5. The percentage of determined polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in samples (the maximum amount).

94 New perspectives in polar research

Recently, attention on persistent organic pollutants transferred into the Arc- tic has increased. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls belongs to this group. Those compounds may pose a real threat for arctic fauna, due to their specific properties. High stability makes them very hard to degrade. Both are lipofilic and can accumulate in fat tissue. PCB production is currently banned in many countries, but traces amounts of these compounds are still determined in abiotic samples. Based on literature sources, the highest amounts of PAH were found in seawater and PCB in the soil. Trace amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were also determined in sediment, soil and air (but the concentration was much smaller). Small amounts of PCB was determined in water, sediment and air too. In tested samples from Foxfonna, Svalbard, traces amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were detected in water. The highest concentration for individual compound was determined for acenaphtene (value exceed 57,000 ng/l). The highest concentration of naphtalene, pyrene and phenanthrene exceeds 10,000 ng/l. The amount of benzo(a)pyrene in one sample exceed 2370 ng/l, but in the rest was below 300 ng/l. Chrysene and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene were not detected in any sample. Polychlorinated biphenyls were present in smaller concentration. The highest concentration for individual compound was found for PCB118 (value slightly exceed 30 ng/l). In some samples two other PCB were found, but in very low concentration (the highest for PCB28 was 6 ng/l and for PCB153 only 3 ng/l). Final determination technique was gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometer, and all the analysis were done in 2014.

Acknowledgements. The publication has been financed from the funds of the Lead- ing National Research Centre (KNOW) received by the Centre for Polar Studies for the period 2014–2018. Thanks the National Science Centre for research funding grant no. 2012/05/N/ST10/02848. The authors would like to thank Katarzyna Kozak for her assistance with this work and also the head of Department of Analytical Chemistry of Gdańsk University of Technology, professor Jacek Namieśnik for his support in the laboratory.

References

Bagi A., Pampanin D.M., Lanze´n A., Bilstad T., Kommedal R., 2014. Naphthalene biodegradation in temperate and arctic marine microcosms, Biodegradation 25, 111–125 Cecinato A., Mabilia R., Marino F., 2000. Relevant organic components in ambient particulate matter collected at Svalbard Islands (Norway). Atmos Environ 34, 5061–5066 Choi S.D., Baek S.Y., Chang Y.S., Wania F., Ikonomou M.G., Yoon Y.J., Park B.K., Hong S., 2008. Pas- sive Air Sampling of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticides at the Korean Arctic and Antarctic Research Stations: Implications for Long-Range Transport and Local Pollu- tion Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, 7125 95 New perspectives in polar research

European Arctic – sea users guide, 2013. Institute of Oceanology Polish Academy of Science, Sopot Fernández P., Grimalt J.O., 2003. On the global distribution of persistent organic pollutants, Environ. Analisis. 57, 514 Hung H., Kallenborn R., Breivik K., Su Y., Brorström-Lundén E., Olafsdottir K., Thorlacius J. M., Leppänen S., Bossi R., Skov H., Manø S., Patton G.W., Stern G., Sverko E., Fellin P., 2010. Atmospheric monitoring of organic pollutants in the Arctic under the Arctic Monitoring and As- sessment Programme (AMAP): 1993–2006. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 2854 Jartun M., Tore Ottesen R., Volden T., Lundkvist Q., 2009. Local Sources of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) in Russian and Norwegian Settlements on Spitsbergen Island, Norway. J Toxicol Env Heal A, Current Issues, 72, 284 Jiao L., Zheng G.J., Minh T.B., Richardson B., Chen L., Zhang Y., Yeung L.W., Lam J.C.W., Yang X., Lam P.K.S., Wong M.H., 2011. Persistent toxic substances in remote lake and coastal sediments from Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic: Levels, sources and fluxes. Environ. Pollut. 157, 1342 Kallenborn R., Christensen G., Evenset A., Schlabach M., Stohl A., 2007. Atmospheric transport of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) to Bjřrnřya (Bear island), J. Environ. Monitor. 9, 1082 Kozak K., Polkowska Ż., Ruman M., Kozioł K., Namieśnik J., 2013. Analytical studies on the environmental state of the Svalbard Archipelago provide a critical source of information about anthropogenic global impact. Trends Anal. Chem. 50, 107–126 Marsz A.A., Styszyńska A. (eds), 2007. Klimat rejonu Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie. Wydawnic- two Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni, Gdynia Nemirovskaya I.A., 2012. Distribution and Composition of Hydrocarbons in Bottom Sediments of the Shtokman Deposit (Barents Sea). Doklady Earth Sciences 452, Part 1 Nowosielski L., 2004. Gazeta Obserwatora IMGW, 2 14, (access: http://www.imgw.pl/wl/internet/zz/dziala/obserwator/_obserwator2004/artykul8_041105002.pdf) Oehme M., Haugen J-E., Schlabach M., 1996. Seasonal Changes and Relations between Levels of Organochlorines in Arctic Ambient Air: First Results of an All-Year-Round Monitoring Program at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, Norway Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 2294 Polkowska Ż., Cichała-Kamrowska K., Ruman M., Kozioł K., Krawczyk W.E., Namieśnik J., 2011. Organic Pollution in Surface Waters from the Fuglebekken Basin in Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic. Sen- sors 11, 8910 Rose N.L., Rose C.L., Boyle J.F.,. Appleby P.G, 2004. Lake-sediment evidence for local and remote sources of atmospherically deposited pollutants on Svalbard, J. Paleolimnol. 31, 499 Skotvold T., Savinov V., 2003. Regional distribution of PCBs and presence of technical PCB mixtures in sediments from Norwegian and Russian Arctic Lakes, Sci. Total Environ. 306, 85 Simões J.C., Zagorodnov V.S., 2001. The record of anthropogenic pollution in snow and ice in Svalbard, Norway. Atmos. Environ. 35, 403 Wang Z., Ma X., Na G., Lin Z., Ding Q., Yao Z., 2009. Correlations between physicochemical properties of PAHs and their distribution in soil, moss and reindeer dung at Ny-Ĺlesund of the Arctic. Envi- ronmental Pollution 157, 3132 Internet sources: http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Foxfonna?ident=4027&lang=en http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/category/climate-science/arctic-and-antarctic/

96 New perspectives in polar research

Klaudia Kosek1, Sara Lehmann1, Grzegorz Gajek2, Waldemar Kociuba2, Łukasz Franczak2, Żaneta Polkowska1

1Gdansk University of Technology The Chemical Faculty, Department of Analytical Chemistry 11/12 Narutowicza st., Gdańsk 80-233, Poland, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management 2CD Kraśnicka Avenue, 20-718 Lublin, Poland [email protected], [email protected] [email protected]

Morphometric parameters of the Renardbreen as important factors determining the spatial distribution of chemical compounds on the glacier surface (Bellsund, Svalbard)

Abstract: This paper concern influence of the morphometric parameters (height, length and slope of the glacier) on the spatial distribution of the physicochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity, total organic carbon) determined in the ice and snow samples collected from the surface of Renardbreen during summer season of 2012. Obtained results allow to assume also a significant changes in a spatial distribution of other chemical substances deposited on a glacier surface.

Keywords: ice, glacier storage, chemistry, Spitsbergen, Arctic

Introduction

The Arctic has undergone dramatic changes during the past decade. The long-distance transport of organic chemicals (including transport of POPs, metals, radioactive isotopes and black carbon) to the Arctic has received increasing attention. Contaminants are deposited in all elements of polar environment, also on the surface of glaciers what leads to dynamic changes in their mass balance and finally 97 New perspectives in polar research to the release of pollutants (Vorkamp, Rigét 2014, Macdonald et al. 2005). Glaciers are formed when geographic and topographic conditions allow snow to remain in the same area over several years and gradually transform into ice. Each year, new layers of snow bury and compress the previous layers and also accumulate pollutants. Glaciers and other cryosphere components gain mass when accumulation process (snowfall) dominates the ablation processes (loss of snow and ice). For most glaciers, this process takes more than a hundred of years. Currently 10% of land area of the Earth is covered with glacial ice (ACIA 2005, Jansson et al. 2003, Vaughan et al. 2013). The Svalbard Archipelago is located at the NW limit of the European continental shelf between 76.50–80.80°N and 10–34°E (Błaszczyk et al. 2009) . It is one of ten the most glaciated areas in the Arctic. The total area of Svalbard is 62 800 km2 and glaciers cover 36 600 km2 (about 60%). From all types of glaciers which are present in Svalbard the most common are valley and cirque glaciers. Large continuous ice masses observed in the area are divided into individual ice streams by mountain ridges and nunataks. Small cirque glaciers are also numerous, especially in the alpine regions of western Spitsbergen. Several large ice caps are located in the relatively flat areas of eastern Svalbard (Hagen et al. 2003. Błaszczyk et al. 2009). Most of Svalbard's glaciers are subpolar or polythermal with temperature at or close to the pressure melting point and parts have temperature below 0°C (Hagen et al. 2003).

Climate changes and the carbon cycle in the Arctic

The arctic carbon cycle is an important factor in the global climate system due to the accumulation of carbon and methane in polar regions. If released to the atmosphere, they could increase greenhouse gas concentrations and lead to climate change (AMAP 2009). The global climatic changes have significantly affected the cryosphere in many regions of the world, also on Svalbard Archipelago (Wang et al. 2013). Glaci- ers are considered key indicators of climate changes due to their rapid reaction to even small climatic changes because of their proximity to melt conditions. As air temperature is a major index for ice and snow melt processes, the observed rise in global mean air temperature cause overall significant losses of ice masses worldwide. Among all of the geo-components, glaciers respond the fastest and the strongest to the climate changes and they are a major regulator of water circulation in Arc- tic (Paul et al. 2013, ACIA, 2005, Salzmann et al. 2014). Global model simulations indicate that climatic warming is more pro- nounced at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere and suggest that the carbon cycle in Arctic regions might be extremely sensitive to climate change (Anisimov et

98 New perspectives in polar research al. 2007, Yoshitake et al. 2011). Various studies for the terrestrial Arctic show that land areas are a sink for approximately 300–600 million tonnes of carbon per year. 40–84 million tonnes of carbon is released to the atmosphere from lakes and rivers each year and seawater appears to be a sink for 24–100 million tonnes (C) yr–1. Car- bon is also carried from land to rivers and from rivers to oceans and then it can be emitted to the atmosphere or captured in sediments (McGuire et al. 2009, AMAP 2009).

Pollutants present in the Svalbard glacial catchments

Chemical substances of anthropogenic origin that appear in polar regions are often considered as persistent organic pollutants – POPs (e.g. PAH, PCB, DDT), metals, phenols, formaldehyde and radioactive isotopes and their deposition is determined by climatic factors and geographic location of the Svalbard Archipelago. Persistent organic pollutants are resistant to environmental degradation and may have a negative impact on the functioning of ecosystems, animal and human health (Kozak et al. 2013). Transport of these contaminants over long distances includes transport in air, transport in surface waters and global distribution of pollutants in difference components of the environment. In table 1 are contained presents literature data regarding the results of studies of environmental samples collected in the glacial catchment area of the Svalbard Archipelago.

Experiment

Study Area. The study area covered the NW part of the Wedel Jarlsberg Land (SW part of the Svalbard Archipelago). The primary study object was the surface of the Renard Glacier in the vicinity of the seasonal Research Station of the Maria Curie- Skłodowska University in Lublin – Calypsobyen (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. The map of Svalbard taking into account location of the Renardbreen.

99 New perspectives in polar research

Table 1. Literature data on the results of studies of inanimate material samples collected in the glacial catchments of the Svalbard Archipelago.

Type of Determined inanimate compound/compounds Identified content/scope References samples group/parameters Stutter and Billet (2003) Caritat et al. (2005) [-] pH Larose et al. (2010) 4-6.82 Hodson et al. (2002) Hodgkins and Tranter (1998) Electrical [µS/cm] Caritat et al. (2005) conductivity 6.1-80.4 [µmol/L] [mg/L] [µEq/L] Stutter and Billet (2003) Caritat et al. (2005) Kwok et al. (2013) - Wynn et al. (2007) Cl 0.9–553 0.2–20.7

- [mg/L] N-NO3 0.01–0.02 Stutter and Billet (2003) + N-NH4 0.06–0.77 [µmol/L] [mg/L] [µEq/L] Stutter and Billet (2003) Caritat et al. (2005)

Snow Snow (snowfall,surface snow,snowpack) + Tye and Heaton (2007) Na 0.8–486 0.12–9.76 2–2000 Larose et al. (2010) Hodson et al. (2002) Hodgkins and Tranter (1998) Kwok et al. (2013) + Wynn et al. (2007) NH 0.4–5.4

Caritat et al. (2005) Kwok et al. (2013) + Tye and Heaton (2007) K 0.03–11.5

Cations Larose et al. (2010) Hodson et al. (2002) Hodgkins and Tranter (1998) Stutter and Billet (2003) Caritat et al. (2005) Kwok et al. (2013) 2+

Kwok et al. (2013) Tye and Heaton (2007) Larose et al. (2010) Hodson et al. (2002) Hodgkins and Tranter (1998) [mg/L] Si-Si(OH)4 0.03–0.13 Stutter and Billet (2003)

SiO2 0.0 Hodson et al. (2002) Si

Altotal 3.78-117 [µg/L] Stutter and Billet (2003) [ng/L] Larose et al. (2010) Hgtotal

Metals Hgreactive 2.2-45.3 Ferraria et al. (2008) MMHg 3-43 [pg/L] Larose et al. (2010) S 0.17-0.88 [mg/L] Caritat et al. (2005) MSA(methyl-sulfonic [µmol/L] acid)

– [µmol/L] [mg/L] Cl 328

Anions 3 2 SO4 19.8

Na 199

+ NH4 0.4

Fe 2552.50 <10-100 Drbal et al. (1992) Chmiel et al. (2009)

Metals Ni 7.25 - Cr 19.25 - Pb 16.75 <1-10 Ice (glacierIce surface), ice cores (glacier, cap)ice Cd 4.50 <1 Co 1.50 <1 [pg/L] PFOA 13.5–45.9 Kwok et al. (2013) PFOS

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[pg/L] [pg/cm2/yr] Aldrin 69 000 30 000 Dieldrin 7500 54.7 Endosulfan (α, β) 10 700–19 700 2.8–6.8 Endrin – 16.3 Endrin-aldehyde 13600 – Endrin-ketone – 13.6 Heptachlor 6 500 470 Heptachlor epox- 32 800 1 580 ide HCH (α, γ) 1 100–7 700 295–369 Methoxychlor 4 700 19.6 Chlorpyrifos 16 200 809 Dacthal 300 12.7 Diazinon 20 500 1 410 Dimethoate 87 000 598 Disulfoton 6 500 447 Hermanson et al. (2005) Ruggirello et al. (2010) Imidan 44 100 3 030 Pesticides Methylparathion 7 400 357 Terbufos 11 100 530 Alachlor 1 200 57 Desethyl-atrazine 2 100 144 Metolachlor 9 300 450 Pendimethalin 18 600 890 Chlordane (α, γ) – 13.39–18.3 DDD(o.pʹ) – 11.5 DDE (p.pʹ) – 1.14 DDT (L) (p.pʹ) – 2.93 Endosulfan sul- – 2.81 phate Metribuzin – 1.05 Nonachlor – 2.28–5.03 (trans, cis) Trifluralin – 2.32

The Renardbreen is the biggest glacier in the central part of NW Wedel Jarlsberg Land. Its alimentation basin is opened to the NE and surrounded from other directions by mountain ridges: from the SE by Becketoppane, from S, W and NW by series of peaks (over 700 m a.s.l.) including Storgubben massif (831 m a.s.l.) (Rodzik et al. 2013). It is 8 km long and 3.5 km wide, slightly more at the front which is bulging and only over the bay waters, there is a several meters high ice cliff. It is an example of the glacier that has undergone continuous recession since the Little Ice Age. Its area in 2006 was a little over 31 km2. The largest size of the Renardbreen was reached at the end of XIX century when it filled the whole area of the Josephbukta Bay and its area was about 38 km2. Recession of the Renardbreen has been characterised by diverse speed and two periods of acceleration. First in 1936–1960, second since 1990s till now and two periods of slow down in 1960–

102 New perspectives in polar research

–1990 and 2000–2005. Such types of changes were the result from the glacier reaction to XX century climate changes (Reder 1996, Zagórski et al. 2008).

Sampling. Surface water samples (4 ice samples and 4 metamorphosed wet-snow samples) were collected once on 18th August of 2012. Ice/snow samples were collected to string bags from the longitudinal (REN_1, 4, 7, 8) and cross-profile (REN_6, 5, 1, 2, 3) of the Renardbreen which is located in the area of the Bellsund Fiord (Fig. 2). After collecting ice samples were left for melting and then in order to avoid the losses of analytes to headspace, samplers were filled without bubble of air. Re- nardbreen is four hours away from the seasonal Research Station of the Maria Curie- Skłodowska University in Lublin (Calypsobyen).

Fig. 2. The map of the sampling sites on Renardbreen longitudinal and cross-profile (Zagórski 2005).

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Analytical Methods. The samples were transported to the laboratory of the Depart- ment of Analytical Chemistry (Gdansk University of Technology) in tightly closed bottles and stored at a temperature of 4°C until chemical analysis. The analytical techniques and measurement equipment used to determine total organic carbon, pH and electrical conductivity were TOC-VCSH/CSN SHIMADZU Analyzer (method of catalytic combustion with the application of the NDIR detector), pH/conductometer Elmetron CPC-411 (pH electrode EPS-1, conductivity sensor EC 60 Elmetron) respectively. The limit of detection (LOD – 0.030) and the limit of quantitation (LOQ – 0.100) were calculated based on the standard deviation of the response (s) and the slope of the calibration curve (b), according to the formulas: LOD=3.3(s/b), LOQ=10(s/b).

Results and discussion

Total organic carbon (TOC) is the amount of carbon bound in an organic compound and it is the sum of dissolved and suspended organic carbon (DOC+SOC). This constitutes a huge range of compounds with a variety of properties. TOC is released to environment from both natural and anthropogenic sources. All aquatic organisms release TOC through their normal metabolism, excretion and eventual decomposition. Anthropogenic sources include sewage treatment plants, farm slurry and silage runoff. Glacier and alpine lake ecosystems represent two extremely sensitive environments to anthropogenic impacts such as inputs of dust, organic matter and atmospheric pollutants which can be transported over significant distances (Hood et al. 2009, Spencer et al. 2014). The concentration ranges of TOC, electrical conductivity and pH determined in surface water samples collected from the Renardbreen are present in table 2. The hydrochemical studies of glacierised areas were carried out over many years in the surroundings of Calypsobyen, also in the catchment of Renardbreen and demonstrated high hydrochemical variability. In the upper sections of the glacier, supraglacial waters coming from the melting of the snow cover and ice were characterised by slightly acidic pH (Chmiel et al. 2013).

Table 2. Concentration ranges of selected parameters determined in surface water samples of the Renard Glacier.

Determined parameters Type of sample TOC [mg/L] EC [µS/cm] pH Ice

104 New perspectives in polar research

In this study physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity and total organic carbon (TOC) determined in the surface snow and ice samples collected in the Renardbreen cross-profile line were in ranges 6.22–6.58, 4.48–7.76 µS/cm,

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of total organic carbon (TOC), electrical conductivity and pH in surface water samples collected in the cross-profile line of the Renardbreen.

105 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of total organic carbon (TOC), electrical conductivity and pH in surface water samples collected in the longitudinal profile line of the Renardbreen.

Low levels of electrical conductivity (EC) and TOC are noted in the upper part of the glacier (REN_1, REN_4). This is related to the average slope of the glacier and transport of impurities to its lower part due to the migration of chemical compounds with precipitation or melting waters. The highest concentration of TOC and EC were determined in ice samples (REN_7, REN_8) located in the lower part of the glacier. In this areas all chemical compounds flushed by precipitation or melting waters accumulates. Both TOC and EC increase with the decrease of glacier height. The relation between electrical conductivity and TOC was observed in both cases: higher conductivity reflects higher sample pollution. However higher level of EC may suggest the presence of other chemical compounds in analysed sample which do not contain organic carbon.

Conclusions

Although the Svalbard Archipelago is situated in high altitudes, far away from potential sources of pollutants emission, a wide range of chemicals reach this polar area. Xenobiotics emitted in the industrialized and urbanized areas of lower altitudes are transported on a long distances by air masses and accumulates in the various elements of polar environment due to the wet and dry deposition. The results of analyses of surface ice and snow samples from the Renard Glacier show a significant relation between total organic carbon concentration and electrical conductivity 106 New perspectives in polar research measurement. Generally, TOC and EC values in analysed samples were low but in polar regions even low levels of these parameters may suggest contamination of the studied area. The highest concentrations of determined parameters were observed in the samples collected in the lower part of the glacier and in the southernmost part of the upper part of Renardbreen. Based on the results we may assume that both types of samples (snow or ice) as well as glacier slope and heights of the sampling points has influence on determined physicochemical parameters. Most of the impurities deposited on the surface of the upper part of the Renardbreen were flushed away to the lower part of the glacier with the precipitation or melting waters. Furthermore, these contaminants may also be present in surface waters and sediments of the glacial catchment. In the results their occurrence in the glacial runoff may lead to toxic effects on organisms and finally to changes in ecological balance. Glacial runoff affects also on the hydrology of the rivers and changing seas and fjords stratification conditions. This is strongly connected with climatic conditions that control glacier's mass gain and loss and its flow velocity. In conclusion, glaciers are considered indicators of climate changes because of their sensitivity to even small climatic variations. However all pollutants, also carbon compounds trapped in ice and snow samples, if released to the atmosphere, could increase greenhouse gas concentration and lead to further climate warming.

Acknowledgments. Authors would like to thank the head of Department of Analyti- cal Chemistry of Gdansk University of Technology, professor Jacek Namieśnik for his support in the laboratory research. The study was conducted in the scope of the 24th Polar Expedition of the Marie Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin to Spits- bergen, implementing grant of the National Science Centre “Mechanisms of fluvial transport and delivery of sediment to the Arctic river channels with different hydrological regime (SW Spitsbergen )” No. 2011/01/B/ST10/06996.

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Paul F., Bolch T., Kääb A., Nagler T., Nuth C., Scharrer K., Shepherd A., Strozzi T., Ticconi F., Bhambri R., Berthier E., Bevan S., Gourmelen N., Heid T., Jeong S., Kunz M., Lauknes T.R., Luckman A., Boncori J.P.M., Moholdt G., Muir A., Neelmeijer J., Rankl M., VanLooy J., Van Niel T., 2013. The glaciers climate change initiative: Methods for creating glacier area, elevation change and velocity products. Remote Sensing of Environment Reder J., 1996. Evolution of marginal zone during continued glacial retreat in northwestern Wedel Jarls- berg Land, Spitsbergen. Polish Polar Research 17 1–2, 61–84 Rodzik J., Gajek G., Reder J., Zagórski P., 2013. Glacial geomorphology. In: P. Zagórski, M. Harasimiuk, J. Rodzik (eds), Geographical environment of NW part of Wedel Jarlsberg Land (Spitsbergen, Svalbard), UMCS Ruggirello R.M., Hermanson M.H., Isaksson E., Teixeira C., Forsström S., Muir D.C.G., Pohjola V., van de Wal R., Meijer H.A.J., 2010. Current use and legacy pesticide deposition to ice caps on Svalbard, Norway. Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 115 D18 Ruman M., Kozak K., Lehmann S., Kozioł K., Polkowska Ż., 2013. Pollutants present in different components of the Svalbard archipelago environment. Ecological Chemistry and Engineering S 19, 571–584 Salzmann N., Huggel C., Rohrer M., Stoffel M., 2014. Data and knowledge gaps in glacier, snow and related runoff research – A climate change adaptation perspective. Journal of Hydrology 518 B, 225–234 Spencer R.G.M., Guo W., Raymond P.A., Dittmar T., Hood E., Fellman J., Stubbins A., 2014. Source and biolability of ancient dissolved organic matter in glacier and lake ecosystems on the Tibetan Plateau. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 142, 64–74 Stutter M.I., Billett M.F., 2003. Biogeochemical controls on streamwater and soil solution chemistry in a High Arctic environment. Geoderma 113, 127–146 Tye A.M., Heaton T.H.E., 2007. Chemical and isotopic characteristics of weathering and nitrogen release in non-glacial drainage waters on Arctic tundra. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71, 4188–4205 Vorkamp K., Rigét F.F., 2014. A review of new and current-use contaminants in the Arctic environment: Evidence of long-range transport and indications of bioaccumulation. Chemosphere 111, 379–395 Walsh, J. E., Anisimov, O., Hagen, J. O. M., Jakobsson, T., Oerlemans, J., Prowse, T. D., Solomon, S., 2005. Cryosphere and hydrology. ACIA, Arctic climate impact assessment, 183–242 Wang X., Siegert F., Zhou A., Franke J., 2013. Glacier and glacial lake changes and their relationship in the context of climate change, Central Tibetan Plateau 1972–2010. Global and Planetary Change 111, 246–257 Wynn P.M., Hodson A.J., Heaton T.H.E., Chenery S.R., 2007. Nitrate production beneath a High Arctic glacier, Svalbard. Chemical Geology 244, 88–102 Yasunari T.J., Tan Q., Lau K.-M., Bonasoni P., Marinoni A., Laj P., Ménégoz M., Takemura T., Chin M., 2013. Estimated range of black carbon dry deposition and the related snow albedo reduction over Himalayan glaciers during dry pre-monsoon periods. Atmospheric Environment 78, 259–267 Yoshitake S., Uchida M., Ohtsuka T., Kanda H., Koizumi H., Nakatsubo T., 2011. Vegetation development and carbon storage on a glacier foreland in the High Arctic, Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard. Polar Science 5, 391–397 Zagórski P., Siwek K., Gluza A., 2008. Change of extent of front and geometry of the Renard Glacier (Spitsbergen) in the background of climatic fluctuation in 20th century. Probl. Klim. Pol. 18, Gdy- nia Zagórski P., 2005. NW part of Wedel Jarlsberg Land (Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway), Orthophotomap, scale 1:25000. In: K. Pękala, H. Faste Aas, Zakład Geomorfologii, Instytut Nauk o Ziemi, Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej, Norsk Polarinstitutt, Tromsø, Lublin

109

New perspectives in polar research

Sara Lehmann1, Waldemar Kociuba2, Grzegorz Gajek2, Łukasz Franczak2, Żaneta Polkowska1

1Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Chemistry Department of Analytical Chemistry 11/12 Narutowicza st., Gdansk 80-233, Poland, [email protected], [email protected] 2Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management 2cd Kraśnicka Avenue, 20-718 Lublin, Poland [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Dynamics of changes in the concentration levels of organic pollutants in the proglacial waters of the Scott River (Spitsbergen, SW Svalbard)

Abstract: The study area covered the NW part of the Wedel Jarlsberg Land. The present study concerns participation of organic pollutants inflow from glacier and seaside plane of Calypsostranda to proglacial waters of the Scott River due to occurrence of precipitation. Concentration ranges for phenols and formaldehyde in water samples are respectively:

Keywords: phenols, formaldehyde, surface water, long range atmospheric transport (LRTAP), Arctic

Introduction

A wide range of chemicals considered organic pollutants, such as phenols or formaldehyde, originate from lower latitudes, particularly from the urbanised and industrialised areas of Europe, Asia, and North America. Phenol is an aromatic hydrocarbon. It may occur in the environment as a result of natural processes (e.g. decomposition of organic matter originating from animal waste), but may also be

111 New perspectives in polar research present in substances such as tea and wine. Its anthropogenic sources include combustion of fossil fuels and tobacco. It is widely used in pharmaceutical products due to its anaesthetic effect, as well as in paper, paints, or textile industry as phenolic resins or plastic. Phenol may occur in the air as a product of benzene photooxidation (Busca et al. 2008, McCall et al. 2009). Although phenol present in water is toxic, even in low concentrations, it is classified by the Environmental Protection Agency to Group D (not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity). According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2014a), animals exposed to phenol by the oral route are prone to problems such as reduced fetal body, growth retardation, or even abnormal development in the offspring. Due to the solubility of phenols in water (9.3 g phenol/100 ml H2O) and their lipophilic properties

(KOW = 1.46), marine animals of the Arctic are more exposed to its toxic effects than land animals (Busca et al. 2008, McCall et al. 2009, USEPA 2014a). Formaldehyde (HCHO) is a pesticide widely used in agriculture as a disinfectant or microbicide. Its presence in the atmosphere is particularly a result of emission from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and vehicular exhaust, but also from glue, textile, and furniture industry (primary sources). Other identified sources of formaldehyde include photochemical reaction (secondary source), but it may also develop as a result of natural processes of plant vegetation or decomposition of plant residues in the soil, and forest fire. The HCHO is transported through the atmosphere, where it undergoes chemical and physical transformations. Formal- dehyde gas is readily soluble in water, and reacts substantially and reversibly with water in which it exists as formaldehyde monohydrate (H2C(OH)2) (Anderson et al. 1996, Friedfeld et al. 2002, USEPA 2014b,c). The Svalbard Archipelago plays a particular role in the Arctic ecosystem. Due to limited human impact and low emission of local origin, the observed adverse environmental changes primarily result from the deposition of atmospheric pollutants transmitted from areas of increased emissions. The environmental conditions and geographical location of the Svalbard Archipelago are conducive for the deposition of pollutants in its area. Therefore, Svalbard is considered as a reservoir of anthropogenic pollutants. Atmosphere is the most effective medium in which pollutants are transported over long distances (Ruman et al. 2012, Kozak et al. 2013). Air circulation in the northern hemisphere involves movement of air masses from Eura- sia and North America to the Arctic. Exchange of pollutants between the atmosphere and the earth's surface involves dry deposition of particles, gas exchange, and puri- fying rains (Macdonald et al. 2000). The most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment (IPCC 2013) emphasized the role of glaciers as a very sensitive climate indicator. Due to the processes of wet and dry deposition, glaciers, like other elements of the cryosphere (e.g. ice caps, ice sheets), are receivers of vast amounts of a wide range

112 New perspectives in polar research of chemical compounds considered as pollutants (e.g. persistent organic pollutants, phenols, formaldehyde, metals) (Vaughan et al. 2013). The Svalbard Archipelago is among ten most glaciated areas of the Arctic. Approximately 60% of the Svalbard Archipelago (approx. 36,6 km2) is covered with ice. It includes 1 615 glaciers, only 17 of which are under permanent (e.g. Hans- breen) or periodic (e.g. Scottbreen) mass balance studies (Sobota 2004, Hagen et al. 2005). Glaciers are the most visible component of the Svalbard environment. Due to this, they can also be considered a major geomorphological factor of the entire archipelago (Hagen et al. 2003, ACIA 2005, Vaughan et al. 2013). For the Arctic environment, which homeostasis is based on a crucial balance, the regional role of glaciers is of key importance. Among all of the geo- components, glaciers respond the fastest and the strongest to the climate changes, and are major regulator of water circulation in the Arctic (Głowacki 1997, ACIA 2005, Vaughan et al. 2013). Glacier runoff in the Svalbard Archipelago may affect on: – hydrology of the rivers; – water circulation in the surroundings seas and fjords; – sea ice conditions of the archipelago (Hagen 2003). Hagen (2003) emphasize that even deepwater production close to the shelf of Svalbard may be influenced by a rapid load of freshwaters from glaciers. This and changes in sea ice conditions may have an impact on the local climate and biota (Hagen 2003). The vulnerability of the Arctic ecosystem to the impacts of harmful substances is directly related to its simple structure, composed of only several key species (Koivurova 2005). The introduction of pollutants degrading the environment contributes to the violation of the homeostasis mechanism of the ecosystems vulner- able to their effects. This can lead to toxic effects on organisms, and consequently to the collapse of the ecological balance. The observed dynamic changes in the mass balance of glaciers, constituting the main component and regulator of water circulation, determine the rate of release and redeposition of sediments and contaminants deposited on their surface throughout the years (Głowacki 2007). A vast number of publications (Hodson et al. 2002, Wynn et al. 2006, Wad- ham et al. 2007, Wynn et al. 2007, Dragon, Marciniak 2010, Rutter et al. 2011, Tell- ing et al. 2011, Kwok et al. 2013, Szynkiewicz et al. 2013) present research focused on water originating from glaciers (cryoconite water, subglacial, supraglacial, and proglacial water). Some attention is also paid to streams constituting tributaries of glacial rivers (Dragon, Marciniak 2010, Rutter et al. 2011), and other streams and groundwaters functioning in glacier basins (Wynn et al. 2006, Tye, Heaton 2007, Dragon, Marciniak 2010, Chmiel et al. 2012, Kristiansen et al. 2013, Szynkiewicz et al. 2013). The works particularly focus on results of analyses of basic ions (e.g. K+, 2+ 2+ - - - - Na , Mg , F , Cl , NO3 , NO2 ), radioactive isotopes (Kies et al. 2011) or selected

113 New perspectives in polar research pollutants such as heavy metals (Chmiel et al. 2009) or persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Kwok et al. 2013). The objective of this study was to verify the contamination of the proglacial waters of the Scott River with organic pollutants such as phenols and formaldehyde, as well as to examine their fluctuations over time during the summer season. The authors also attempted to determine the causes of changes in the concentration levels of the analysed pollutants.

Study area

The study on the presence of xenobiotics in the flowing waters of the Arctic climate zone was conducted in NW Wedel Jarlsberg Land (SW Svalbard). The primary study object was the Scott River catchment (of glacial hydrological regime), occupying an area of approx. 10 km2 (Bartoszewski 1998). 40% of the catchment is occupied by the valley Scott Glacier (Kociuba, Janicki 2013) in the phase of strong retreat (Bartoszewski et al. 2007, Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Kociuba et al. 2014). The Scott River valley is generally directed from SW to NE with slight turn in the non- glacier covered part to W–E direction (Fig. 1). From the East, the Scott Glacier is confined by the Bohlinryggen massif, and from the West by the Wijkanderberget massif. Its southern part is combined with the Blomli Glacier. Its length along the axis is approx. 3.5 km. It has a width of 1 km at the bottom and 1.5 km in the central area. The Scott Glacier accumulation zone has a firn field common with the Blomli Glacier (Bellsund, NW Spitsbergen) (Kociuba 2014). In this type of catchments (partially glaciated), glacier ablation may constitute up to 70–80% of the total outflow (Bartoszewski et al. 2006). Pollutants resulting from anthropopressure in Eurasia reach the Arctic in the process of global migration of pollutants (vaporisation of chemical compounds at lower latitudes, and their condensation at higher latitudes) (Vallack et al. 1998, Macdonald et al. 2000). As a result of wet and dry deposition, xenobiotics reach the Scott River, fed by glacial waters in 90% (nival and precipitation waters account for 4% of its water supply each, and permafrost – 2%) (Bartoszewski 1998, Bar- toszewski et al. 2009). In its lower course, the Scott River is supplied with waters from the Reindeer Stream (non-glacier covered part of Scott River catchement) , fed by surface runoff from the seaside plane of Calypsostranda. Meteorological observations at Calypsobyen were made only during the expedition periods, July–September. For multiyear (1986–2011) Mędrek (2014) gives the following meteorological parameters: mean air temperature (5.0°C), mean sum of precipitation (32.4 mm), the mean wind speed (4.3 m/s). For comparison, the values of these parameters in the Calyspobyen in summer of 2012 were as follows: mean air temperature (4.6°C), total rainfall (26.4 mm), mean wind speed (3.6 m/s).

114 New perspectives in polar research

Portable weather station and rain gauge were placed approx. 200 m from seashore on the height of 23 m a.s.l. Since July 13rd till 25th eastern winds dominated, later (26th July – 24th August) began to dominate the northern-west wind.

Samples collection

Precipitation and surface water samples were collected during the summer season 2012. Samples of precipitation were collected to sampler placed in the Hell- mann rain gauge (200 cm2– surface of the inlet ring) from July 12th to August 24th. Rain gauge was placed on the height of 1 m from the ground. Surface water samples were collected manually to the samplers in the gorge section of the Scott River from July 13rd to August 23rd. In order to avoid the loss of analytes to headspace, samplers were ﬁlled without a bubble of air. Sampling points are presented on figure 1.

Fig. 1. Location of the Scott River catchment: 1– valley glaciers, 2– glacial accumulation zones, 3– rivers and water bodies, 4– location of river gauge, 5– location of rain gauge, 6– border of catchment.

Analytical methods

The samples were transported to the laboratory of the Department of Analyt- ical Chemistry (Gdansk University of Technology), and stored at a temperature of 4°C prior to analysis. In order to minimize the storage time, the analyses were performed immediately after the delivery of the samples to the laboratory. Before analysis samples were filtered through 0.45 µm filters. The analytical techniques used to

115 New perspectives in polar research determine electrolytic conductivity, total phenols, aldehydes, and the TOC parameter, together with their metrological characteristics are present in Tab.1.

Table 1. Validation parameters, technical specifications used in the analytical procedures.

Parameters LOD3 LOQ3 Measurement equipment and method

Electrolytic pH/conductometer Elmetron CPC-411 (conductivity sensor EC 60 1 – – conductivity Elmetron) Total Organic Carbon Analyzer TOC-VCSH/CSN, SHIMADZU (method TOC2 0.030 0.100 of catalytic combustion (oxidation) with the application of the NDIR detector) Phenols2 0.001 0.003 Absorbance measured at 495 nm Photometry (Spectropho- 2 tometer – Spectroquant Aldehydes 0.005 0.015 Absorbance measured at 585 nm Pharo 100) 1[µS/cm], 2[mg/L], 3Both the limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) were calculated based on the standard deviation of the response (s) and the slope of the calibration curve (b), according to the formulas: LOD = 3.3(s/b), LOQ = 10(s/b). During the analyses, demineralized water Mili-Q type, obtained from apparatus Mili-Q ® Ultrapure Water Purifica- tion Systems, Millipore® production was used.

Results and discussion

Xenobiotics reaching polar regions particularly originate from areas of increased emissions subject to anthropopressure in North America, Europe, or Asia (Wania, Mackay 1995, Macdonald et al. 2000, Hallanger et al. 2011). Dynamic changes in the mass balance of glaciers determine the rate of release of pollutants deposited on their surface throughout the years (Jania et al. 2004, Polkowska et al. 2011). Studies of ice cores show that the deposition of atmospheric pollutants on glaciers has been a long-lasting phenomenon, and still constitutes a valid problem for the Arctic environment (Ruggirello et al. 2010). The concentration ranges of parameters and chemical compounds determined in proglacial waters of Scott River are present in Tab. 2. Total organic carbon (TOC) is the sum of carbon bound in organic compounds of both natural and anthropogenic origin. TOC consists of dissolved and suspended organic carbon (DOC+SOC). In the rivers of the Arctic climate, the mean DOC amounts to 2 mgC/L, and SOC constitutes 10% of DOC (Dojlido et al. 1994).

Tab. 2. Concentration ranges of selected parameters and chemical compounds determined in proglacial water samples collected in the Scott River catchment (Spitsbergen).

Determined parameters/Chemical compounds Samples EC [µS/cm] TOC [mg/L] Total phenols [mg/L] Aldehydes [mg/L] Scott river (gorge) 70.0–160.0

TOC determined in the water samples amounted to Sveagruva, Barentsburg, Ny- Ålesund) and cruise ships, which activity is concentrated also in the close vicinity of the Bellsund. However it is emphasized that LRATP is considered as the main source of pollution in Svalbard (Ruman et al. 2012). The lowest levels of electrolytic conductivity and higher levels of TOC were recorded in early and mid July. This may be related to a significant contribution of weakly mineralised but highly contaminated glacial waters. In the second half of July, electrolytic conductivity increased rapidly, and oscillated constantly between 100 and 150 µS/cm. This could be a consequence of the commencement of the full functioning of the Scott Glacier water drainage system and glacial river’s tributary (Reindeer Stream, fed by surface runoff from the seaside plane of Calypsostranda), and the occurrence of precipitation. A moderate correlation (r=0.58) was observed between electrolytic conductivity and TOC levels (Fig. 2). The observed high levels of total organic carbon and organic pollutants do not always correspond exactly with the time of occurrence of precipitation. A rapid increase in total carbon concentrations, however, was recorded during precipitation events and on the following day (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Comparison of electrolytic conductivity (EC) and levels of total organic carbon (TOC) determined in proglacial waters during summer season of 2012.

117 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. Participation of precipitation in dynamics of changes in concentration levels of total organic carbon and occurrence of organic pollutants.

Very dynamic changes in total organic carbon concentrations were observed in the proglacial waters of the Scott River over the summer season 2012. In certain cases, increases of peaks were observed directly with occurrence of precipitation (e.g. SCP_10, 22, 23, 42). In other cases, they were recorded on the day following a given precipitation event (e.g. SCP_6, 11, 19, 27, 29, 41). Such observations suggest that precipitation may constitute a direct source of pollutants due to their wet deposition. Moreover, it may act as a factor of contamination release from the glacier surface or tundra areas. A precipitation event (SCP_27) was accompanied by the presence of formaldehyde (0.04 mg/L) in proglacial waters. This suggests wet deposition of this pollutant. Phenols were recorded in the waters of the glacial river in early July (0.038 mg/L), when no precipitation occurred (SCP_3) and wind from east dominates. The recorded phenols may have originated from the weakly mineralised glacial waters of Scottbreen, containing pollutants accumulated on the glacier in an earlier period or may results from local sources located on the Spitsbergen island. The recorded level of phenols had a low contribution in total organic carbon determined at the time (0.199 mg/L). Phenols determined in early August (SCP_30), however, occurred directly after precipitation. This suggests that its presence in the proglacial waters may result from the release of pollutants from the glacier or seaside plane of Calypsostranda.

Conclusions

The results of analyses of water samples from the Scott River show the presence and dynamic changes in the concentration of total organic carbon and anthropogenic pollutants, such as phenols and formaldehyde. Their occurrence in polar

118 New perspectives in polar research areas, considered as a region free from contamination, is a consequence of anthropopressure at lower altitudes (Europe, Asia, and North America), and long range transport of atmospheric pollutants (LRTAP). The study shows the concentration of TOC lower than the mean TOC value assumed for the rivers of the Arctic climate. Most importantly, however, the results are not a guarantee of the Arctic waters being free from contamination. The presence of formaldehyde related to the occurrence of precipitation evidences the contribution of wet deposition to the supply of atmospheric pollutants to different compartments of the polar environment with precipitation. The determination of phenols in proglacial waters suggests the role of glaciers as the primary receivers of pollutants. They may redistribute accumulated pollutants during summer seasons. This also may suggests the important role of precipitation as a factor of pollutants release from glaciers or the seaside plane of Calypsostranda to the Scott River. Depending on the air masses direction flow, they can carry a pollution from local sources or pollutants transported over long distances. Due to this, the directions of winds dominating during period of measurements may be also very important factor influencing on the presence of pollutants in the river waters.

Acknowledgments. Authors would like to thank the head of Department of Analyti- cal Chemistry of Gdansk University of Technology, professor Jacek Namieśnik for his support in the laboratory research. The study was conducted in the scope of the 24th Polar Expedition of the Marie Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin to Spits- bergen, implementing grant of the National Science Centre “Mechanisms of fluvial transport and delivery of sediment to the Arctic river channels with different hydrologic regime (SW Spitsbergen)” No. 2011/01/B/ST10/06996.

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121

New perspectives in polar research

Magdalena Komorowicz1, Hanna Wróblewska1, Andrzej Fojutowski1, Aleksandra Kropacz 1, Andrzej Noskowiak1, Grzegorz Gajek2, Łukasz Franczak2, Leszek Łęczyński3

1Wood Technology Institute 1 Winiarska st, 60-654 Poznań, Poland [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Maria Curie Sklodowska University in Lublin, 2cd Kraśnicka Avenue, 20-718 Lublin, Poland [email protected], [email protected] 3University of Gdańsk, Institute of Oceanography 46 Piłsudskiego st, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland [email protected]

Properties of driftwood from Bellsund coast (Svalbard): preliminary results

Abstract: All types of wood fragments drifting with the currents of rivers and seas and finally deposited on the coast far away from the place of origin are referred to as driftwood. Significant amounts of wood logs appear on the shores of the treeless areas, also on coasts of the fiords of Svalbard. In order to recognize some of the selected physical, mechanical and chemical properties of driftwood, ten samples were taken from Bellsund coast (Svalbard) during the Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin polar expedition in 2012. Anatomical studies have led to the identification of three species of wood within the sampled driftwood: spruce (Picea sp.), larch (Larix sp.) and Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.). Pine was represented by seven discs from three different logs and thus it was subjected to further research. Preliminary studies of selected physical and mechanical properties of Scots pine wood included: density, the strength of compression along the grain and equilibrium moisture content. Main chemical components of wood, such as cellulose, lignin, water and ethanol soluble substances, mineral substances (ash) and pH value were tested. The study also included heat of combustion and calorific value analyses. The biological properties of driftwood were tested in terms of its susceptibility to decay caused by Basidiomycetes fungi. The results of the research on driftwood were com- 123 New perspectives in polar research pared with data obtained from the analysis of recent Scots pine wood samples. The study showed the differences between the physical, chemical and biological properties of analyzed Scots pine driftwood and the same properties of the pine control wood.

Keywords: driftwood, Svalbard, chemical compounds of wood, physical properties, durability

Introduction

Since ages wood accompanied human from the beginning to the end of his life. Ever since man mastered the ability of woodworking, it is a valuable raw material for the production of, among others, furniture, construction of buildings, tools, means of transport, as well as musical instruments. Wood from different tree species is widely used in all latitudes and longitudes around the globe. Indigenous people of treeless areas of Arctic instead of timber from forests use wood logs thrown out by the sea – driftwood (Alix 2005). Significant quantities of wood logs are found on the northern coasts of Canada, Alaska, Norway, on Greenland and along the fjords of Spitsbergen (Svalbard). The source of origin of driftwood on the above-mentioned coastal marine are boreal forests of the northern hemisphere (Dyke et al. 1997, Alix 2005, Hellmann et al. 2013), and more specifically the huge river systems running in those woods. River flows, causes the erosion of wooded shores, grab the whole trees with roots or carry logs lost during the float. Carried by the river, wooden assort- ments reach the arctic waters, and further drift with sea currents for several years until they are deposited. Many publications are devoted to knowledge about the origin of driftwood and its identified species. The study of driftwood taking into account the above features was carried out in Alaska (Alix 2005), Canada (Dyke, Savella 2000), in northern Norway (Johansen 1999a, b), on Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Greenland (Eg- gertsson 1994a, b; Funder et al. 2011, Hellmann et al. 2013). The main wood species found on the coasts of Svalbard and Greenland are among the conifers: spruce (Picea), larch (Larix), pine (Pinus), fir (Abies), and among deciduous birch (Betula), willow (Salix), aspen (Populus) (Häggblom 1982, Funder et al. 2011, Hellmann et al. 2013). The observations of the migration of driftwood from boreal forests of the northern hemisphere became the basis for determining changes in the distribution of sea currents due to global warming, as well as changes in shape of the coastlines of the Arctic areas. Changes in the time of the shoreline are now followed by setting the dating of selected materials by isotope 14°C. Besides driftwood other materials are applied such as shells of mussels, pieces of bones or plants (Funder et al. 2011).

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A useful parameter to estimate the chronological course of the shoreline is determining the dendrochronological data for samples of driftwood. So far numerous works devoted to this subject (Eggertsson 1994a, b, Funder et al. 2011, Hell- mann et al. 2013). Hellman et al. (2013) in their study also undertook an anatomical diagnosis of microbial decomposition. The carried out study helped determine the presence of soft-rot fungi, which caused various degrees of damage. However, properties of driftwood deposed in polar conditions and after several years of wandering in the Arctic waters may highly differ from properties of freshly harvested wood. The purpose of these studies was to recognize some of the selected physical, mechanical and chemical properties of driftwood samples from Spitsbergen. The samples were taken during the polar expedition of Maria Curie Sklodowska Univer- sity in Lublin in 2012. The results of the research were compared with properties of contemporary, natural, wood of the same species as tested driftwood. The scope of work included the study of such wood characteristics as species, density, the strength of compression along the grain, equilibrium moisture content, heat of combustion – calorific value; content of chemical components: cellulose, lignin, water and ethanol soluble substances, mineral substances (ash); pH value; susceptibility to decay caused by Basidiomycetes fungi.

Place of driftwood sampling

Study area The Svalbard archipelago is located in the Arctic Ocean, halfway between the Scandinavian Peninsula and the North Pole. Spitsbergen, the largest island of the archipelago, is located between 76° and 81° north latitude and 10° and 35° east lon- gitude. The area of the island is estimated at about 39 000 km2 (Liestøl 1993). The study area is located in the north-western part of Wedel Jarlsberg Land of southern Spitsbergen (Fig. 1).

Climate The specific location of Spitsbergen in the middle part of the Atlantic sector of the Arctic is the reason why this place is characterised by temperatures significantly higher than the theoretical for these latitudes (Kamiński 1989). Sea circulation and atmospheric circulation, which are mutually interdependent, are decisive for the climate of Spitsbergen. Local factors such as orography, distance from the sea, and the features of the landscape also play an important role in climate development (Migała et al. 2008, Przybylak, Araźny 2006, Araźny et al. 2010). Average annual air temperature at sea level is approximately –6ºC, and in the mountains –15ºC. Average temperatures range from –14ºC in winter to 6ºC in summer. Precipitation

125 New perspectives in polar research

Fig.1. Location of the study area – Spitsbergen, coast of the Bellsund fjord near the Polar Station in Calypsobyen (Author of the graphic: Grzegorz Gajek, photo from visibleearth.nasa.gov).

is low, for usually the Arctic air masses contain small amounts of water vapour. Average annual precipitation equals 180–400 mm. The lowest precipitation is observed from April to June, whilst the highest from January to March. In the region of Svalbard the air masses mainly come from the eastern sector. In the annual scale they most often come from the east and north-east.

Sea currents The archipelago of Svalbard is strongly influenced by sea currents. The west and north sea-coast of Spitsbergen is influenced by the warm West Spitsbergen Cur- rent (WSC), which is an arm of the Norwegian Current. The east coast of the archipelago is encircled by the cold East Spitsbergen Current (ESC), which after travel- ling around the Sørkapp cape flows towards north between the west coast and the waters of the warm West Spitsbergen Current (WSC) (Aagaard et al. 1987, Piechura et al. 2001, Walczowski 2009, Styszyńska 2011).

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Landscape The area of the north-west part of the Wedel Jarlsberg Land demonstrates features characteristic of the structural features of the landscape. Direction of the main forms of the land refers to the direction of general tectonic zones and rock outcrops. It is hard to distinguish one dominating morphological direction in the layout of valleys and dividing ridges separating the valleys. Valleys were created in the zones of tectonic looseness and cracks. The highest parts of the land reach less than 800 m a.s.l. and form narrow structural ridges. A significant area is occupied by the Scott and Renard Glaciers, which are in the recession phase. In morphology one can distinguish three levels of structural flatness: two at a height of 400–500 and 250–350 m a.s.l., which are mostly covered by ice fields, and the third, lower, at a height of 100–150 m a.s.l., which is within the compass of the lower sections of the valleys. The elements of structural features of the north-west part of the Wedel Jarls- berg Land are composed of formations shaped by the glacial and periglacial processes, which have continued from the Pleistocene, and by simultaneous changes of sea level. A characteristic element of the features of the landscape are elevated marine terraces found in the height bracket from 0–120 m a.s.l.. Seven marine terraces were distinguished on the area of the north-west part of the Wedel Jarlsberg Land (Landvik et al. 1998). These are the Late Pleistocene and Holocene levels of abrasive platforms, inclined towards sea coast, with variable width ranging from few metres even to 3 km. The levels of the elevated marine terraces are covered with Quaternary formations of various origins. These are usually alternately occurring boulder clay and sand and gravel formations (Pękala, Repelewska-Pękalowa 1990). Locally the surface of terraces is diversified by the outcrops of bedrocks representing dead cliffs and single rocks of paleoskerries nature, referring to the outcrops of resistant to weathering diamictites. In many places the zone of terraces is cut by canyon, deep, even to 20 metres, erosive notches, whose course refers to the zones of secondary tectonic dislocations.

Morphology of the sampling ground Samples of driftwood were taken in the middle part of the accumulation coast located between Calypsobyen settlement and the estuary of the Scott river (approx. 400 m to NW from Calypsobyen). On this area formed a full-profile beach with the domination of gravel and sand material or sand and gravel material. The width of the beach zone in the area of Calypsobyen is 100 m and narrows down to approx. 60 m at the place of sampling, and then widens to approx. 150 m in the area of the Scott river estuary. Neither abrasive processes are observed here nor there is a proof of more intensive accumulation processes. Only the broadening of the storm embankments and of the whole beach zone in the area of the Scott river estuary indicates the occurrence of a positive debris balance.

127 New perspectives in polar research

On the back-end of the beach there is a dead 15–20 m cliff significantly converted by solifluction processes and made of genetically diverse Quaternary sediment. Locally the cliff is made of resistant to destructive processes Paleocene sandstones (Harasimiuk 1987, Harasimiuk, Jezierski 1988).

Materials and Methods

Wood material Samples were taken in July 2012 from the storage section of the coast plains of Calypso. The sandy and stone beach (length up to 370 m) is accompanied by a dead 15–20 meter cliff built from genetically diverse Quaternary sediments and locally Paleocene sandstones (Harasimiuk, Jezierski 1988) (Fig. 2). Samples were obtained from logs from 3 to 5 meters length. The outer layers of logs were damaged. Bark and partly sapwood was missing. For this reason, it was impossible to specify an age of trees which were the source of the logs. Preliminary estimates suggest that the trees were over 200 years old. Ten wood discs of 2–5 cm thick (Fig. 3) were cut out from whole cross-section of selected five logs. All disc of driftwood were the subject of identification of wood species using anatomical investigation. The chemical, physical and biological studies were performed only on pine represented by seven discs. The annual rings width of driftwood Scots pine ranged from

Fig. 2. Location of the sampling point on the Calypso Beach (Photo: Leszek Łęczyński).

128 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. The wood discs of driftwood for examinations (Photo: Hanna Wróblewska).

129 New perspectives in polar research

0.10 mm (outer zones) to about 3 mm (inner part – near the pith). Before proceeding to the chemical, physical and biological study, the specimens were cut separately from sapwood (outer part of wood) and heartwood (inner part of wood – around the pith). For the preliminary studies contemporary Scots pine (provenance sosna taborska – pine Taborska) originating from the northern region of Poland, Forest Dis- trict Miłomłyn was used as reference material (comparative). Control wood was characterized by very narrow annual rings, like the wood of pine driftwood. Control samples were cut from 159 year old Scots pine log. The annual rings width of control pine ranged from 0.2 mm (outer zones) to about 3 mm (inner part – near the pith).

Methods For anatomic investigation some microscopic specimens were cut with microtome. Observation of the microstructure of wood was performed using an optical microscope with transmitted light at 80- and 320-fold magnification. Microscopic observations were made on the three anatomical sections (cross, radial and tangen- tial). Wood species were identified based on the literature (Grosser 1974, Wagenführ, Scheiber 1985, Schweingruber 1990) as well as collection of standard samples and standard microscopic preparations of wood. Specimens with the dimensions adequate to the requirements of standards used for testing were cut from the discs i.e. specimens about 15×10×10 mm for compression strength, density and equilibrium moisture content and 22×17×12 mm for screening test with Coniophora puteana fungus. Physical and mechanical properties were tested as follows: a) wood density (PN-77/D-04 101) and the equilibrium moisture content in the wood under standard climate conditions 20°C/65% (determined by oven-dry method (PN-EN 13 183-1) b) parallel to grain compression strength (PN-77/D-04 102) Wood resistance to rot fungi was tested using a pure culture of Coniophora puteana (Cp)(Schum. ex Fries) Karst. (BAM Ebw. 15) fungus and the screening method with miniaturized wood specimens, which principles based on EN Standard [EN 113] were described by Ważny and Krajewski (1994). For determination of chemical composition of wood, the air-dry samples were comminuted by passage through a cutting mill, with subsequent screening of sawdust. The wood grains fraction of 0.5–1.0 mm was used for chemical analysis, fraction of 0.25–0.5 mm was used for pH, calorific value and chlorine content determination, and fraction < 0.25 mm grain sizes was used for elementary composition determination. Contents of chemical wood components were determined with methods according to Prosiński (1984). The moisture content was determined by the oven-

130 New perspectives in polar research weight method at 103±2°C. To determine the extraction substances a Soxhlet apparatus was used with 95% ethanol as a solvent. The content of the substances soluble in cold and hot water and the content of the substances soluble in a 1% water solution of NaOH were tested according to Tappi. The cellulose content was analysed by the Seifert method and the content of Klason lignin – by the Tappi method. Determination of pentosans content was made by the Tollens method using phloroglucinol. The content of ash was examined at a temperature of 575±25°C. The value of pH was determined by the Gray method: 1.00 g of wood sawdust (0.25–0.5 mm) was thoroughly mixed with 5 ml of distilled water and measured after 20 minutes using a pH meter with a combined electrode (Gray 1958). In samples of < 0.25 mm grain sizes, the elementary composition was determined (content of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen) according to the standard PN-EN 15104:2011 using the elementary analyzer Flash EA1112 (Thermo Electron Corpo- ration). The determination was carried out in three replications, the weight of each sample was 3–4 mg. The determination of calorific value was made on the basis of the PN-EN- 14918: 2010, the chlorine was determined in accordance with PN-EN 15289:2011 and DIN 38405 Part 1.

Results

On the basis of organoleptic examination of ten tested discs, it was found that they were all stripped of bark and sapwood fragments. (Fig. 3). On seven discs were seen clear differences in sapwood and heartwood color (Fig. 3). Sapwood was gray and heartwood was the golden-orange color. All discs have very narrow annual growth (more than one growth – ring at 1 mm). Anatomical studies have shown three species of wood (Table 1): spruce (Picea sp.) – disc 1, larch (Larix sp.) – discs 2 and 3 and Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.) (Grosser 1974, Wagenführ and Scheiber 1985, Schweingruber 1990). Pine was represented by seven discs from three different logs (discs 4, 5 and 6 were from Driftwood Log 1, discs 7, 8 and 9 from Drift- wood Log 2 and disc 10 from Driftwood Log 3). According to Hellmann et al. (2013) these three coniferous species are often found on the shores of Greenland and Svalbard. So far, it was found that Scots pine comes from the boreal forest in Siberia. The chemical composition of the tested driftwood was different from the chemical composition of contemporary wood. In the driftwood was found higher ash content (approximately 5 times), lower content of polyoses in the sapwood and higher in the heartwood, a higher content of water-soluble substances (in the heartwood) and lower content of substances soluble in ethanol (in sapwood and in heartwood) than in contemporary wood (Table 2). The content of the main components of

131 New perspectives in polar research the wood – cellulose, lignin, and pentosans for Driftwood Log 1 was different from the composition of contemporary wood and Driftwood Log 2. It may reflect different origins of driftwood pine logs collected from the Bellsund coast. The contents of these components in a Driftwood Log 2 was at the same level as in contemporary wood (Table 2). The pH value of the sapwood zone of drift pine was higher by 0.5 pH units than for sapwood zone of contemporary pine. For the heartwood of drift pine, pH value was lower by 0.3 pH units compare to the heartwood of control pine. The long-term presence of driftwood in seawater, evidenced by the high chlorine content – an average of 20 higher more than in contemporary pine (Table 3) and by high mineral substances content (Table 2). Elementary composition (N, C, H) of pine driftwood, and contemporary pine wood, was typical for organic matter (N ~ 0.2%, ~ 51% of C, H ~ 6.1%). The heat of combustion, and calorific value of driftwood were lower than those of contemporary pine wood (Table 3). The equilibrium moisture content of drift Scots pine sapwood and heartwood was approximately 1.5% greater than this of comparative wood. It may be result of a little smaller density of driftwood but it is possible also a little greater hygroscopicity of driftwood as well as effect of moisture hysteresis of driftwood (Table 4). The density of driftwood was lower than of tested control wood, particularly for sapwood (Table 4). The susceptibility of sapwood of Scots pine driftwood to brown rot caused by Coniophora puteana fungus turn out similar or greater to that of comparative and control sapwood of Scots pine, however the susceptibility of heartwood of one of tested log of Scots pine was distinctly greater than stated for comparative wood (Table 5).

Table 1. The samples of driftwood – marking of logs and discs, designation of the wood species, selection for physical, chemical and biological examinations.

Log Disc Wood species Examined features marking number A Spruce (Picea sp.) 1 2 Designation of the species B Larch (Larix sp.) 3 4 Designation of the species, physical and biological Scots Pine (Pinus 1 5 Designationproperties of the species, wood chemical composition silvestris L.) 6 Designation of the species, physical and biological 7 Designationproperties of the species, wood chemical composition Scots Pine (Pinus 2 8 Designation of the species, physical and biological silvestris L.) 9 Designationproperties of the species, physical and biological Scots Pine properties 3 10 Designation of the species, biological properties (Pinus silvestris L.)

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Table 2. Chemical components of Scots pine – driftwood and contemporary wood (control).

Substances soluble in: n- u-

Wood samples pH

Moisture co Moisture tent ethanol cold water hot water 1% NaOH content Ash cell Seifert’s content lose lignin Klason content co Pentosans tent

% of oven-dry wood Drift Log 1 Sapwood 7.2 2.15 1.20 3.06 14.31 1.54 41.61 30.98 13.15 5.84 Scots pine Heartwood 6.8 4.02 2.46 4.25 15.03 0.65 43.97 28.89 12.17 4.71 Drift Log 2 Sapwood 7.9 1.23 0.39 1.53 10.95 0.89 49.10 26.02 9.55 5.76 Scots pine Heartwood 6.5 5.40 2.33 3.97 15.25 1.05 48.71 26.89 8.63 4.68 Contemporary Sapwood 5.8 3.41 0.81 2.73 18.95 0.20 47.83 26.12 8.44 5.32 Scots pine Heartwood 5.1 8.96 1.28 3.37 13.06 0.17 49.39 26.37 7.95 5.02

Table 3. Heat of combustion, calorific value and chlorine content in Scots pine – driftwood and contemporary wood (control).

Heat Calorific Nitrogen Carbon Hydrogen Chlorine Wood value value samples –1 % dry mass MJ∙kg Drift Log 1 Sapwood 0.26 50.20 5.96 0.20 19.70 16.90 Scots pine Heartwood 0.13 51.42 6.06 0.15 20.54 17.75 Drift Log 2 Sapwood 0.13 49.46 5.99 0.25 19.25 16.33 Scots pine Heartwood 0.12 51.14 6.11 0.43 20.41 17.68 Contemporary Sapwood 0.15 50.81 6.22 0.01 20.50 17.89 Scots pine Heartwood 0.16 52.67 6.32 – 21.54 19.01

Table 4. The density and equilibrium moisture content of tested Scots pine driftwood at 20°C/65% RH.

Equilibrium moisture content Density Wood zone Tested wood . [%] [kg m–3] Comparative 11.3 518 Heartwood Drift Log 1 12.5 414 Drift Log 2 12.8 498 Comparative 11.2 586 Sapwood Drift Log 1 12.5 324 Drift Log 2 12.8 432

The compression strength along the grain of drift Scots pine heartwood ranged from about 70 to 90% the comparative strength of contemporary wood. The differences for the compression strength of drift Scots pine sapwood were even greater in comparison to control wood and was 28 to 60%. The observed differences may be due to a low density of driftwood (Fig. 4, Table 4).

133 New perspectives in polar research

Table 5. The resistance of tested Scots pine driftwood to Coniophora puteana fungus – 6 weeks screening test.

Drift or comparative wood Control sapwood Samples Wood Moisture Moisture dimensions Tested wood Mass loss Mass loss zone content content [mm] [%] Comparative 0.0 37.0 21.7 59.2 Heartwood Drift Log 1 20.2 48.9 28.6 53.7 Drift Log 2 3.8 71.7 30.6 55.8 22x17x124 Comparative 26.9 56.4 26.2 57.6 Sapwood Drift Log 2 30.7 70.9 21.2 55.3 Drift Log 3 35.2 54.7 25.5 47.7

Figure 4. Compression strength along the grain of Scots pine driftwood.

Conclusion

The tested logs of driftwood (Pinus silvestris L.) differed from each other and from contemporary wood. Physico-chemical studies and organoleptic observations indicated the different origin of the logs. There were clear differences in the

4 Two comparative (contemporary, narrow ringed) or driftwood samples and one control sapwood samples (properties according to EN 113, among others: 2.5-8 annual rings/10mm) between them in one Kolle flask. Results of virulence control sapwood: - three 22×17×12mm samples in one Kolle flask: mass loss 23.1%, moisture content 58.6%, - two 50×25×15mm samples in one Kolle flask: mass loss 15.1%, moisture content 50.1%. 134 New perspectives in polar research appearance of the wood samples, as well as in contents of the main components of wood (lignin and cellulose), wood density and compressive strength. The driftwood of Scots pine from Spitsbergen in comparison to the contemporary Scots pine wood with a very narrow annual rings was characterized by:  increased equilibrium moisture content,  reduced compressive strength along the grain,  lower content of extractives (ethanol),  higher content of water-soluble substances and pentosans,  similar content of polyoses,  higher acidity in the heartwood zone of wood,  less calorific value,  greater susceptibility to brown-rot degradation caused by the fungus Coniophora puteana. The stated changes of properties of tested driftwood of Scots pine obtained from the Bellsund coast indicated the need for further extended investigations on driftwood.

Acknowledgments. Authors are very grateful for the assistance of Zofia Owcza- rzak, Małgorzata Walkowiak and Jacek Pawłowski of Wood Technology Institute in measurement of chlorine content, heat combustion value, determination of species. Part of the study reported here is founded from the financial resources granted by Ministry of Science and Higher Education within the framework of the project No. ST-3-BOŚ/BOD/2013. The sampling procedure was conducted in the scope of the 24th Polar Expeditions of the Marie Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin to Spitsbergen, involving the implementation of the grant of the National Science Centre, entitled: Mechanisms of fluvial transport and delivery of sediment to the Arctic river channels with different hydrologic regime (SW Spitsbergen), No. 2011/01/B/ST10/06996.

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Wagenführ R., Scheiber C., 1985. Holzatlas. Fachbuchverlag Walczowski W., 2009. Woda Atlantycka w Morzach Nordyckich – właściwości, zmienność, znaczenie klimatyczne. Instytut Oceanologii PAN, Rozprawy i monografie 22 Ważny J., Krajewski K.J., 1994. New conception for shortening the duration of fungitoxic test of wood preservatives. Part 2: Computer – assisted miniaturization of wood specimens. International Research Group on Wood Preservation. Doc. No. IRG/WP/94 – 20052 Standards: DIN 38405 Part 1 Anions – Determination of chloride anions (Oznaczanie jonów chlorkowych) PN-77/D-04101 Drewno – Oznaczanie gęstości (Wood – Determination of the density) PN-79/D-04102 Drewno – Oznaczanie wytrzymałości na ściskanie wzdłuż włókien (Wood – Determina- tion of ultimate stress compression parallel to the grain) PN-EN 113: 2000/A1:2004 Wood preservatives – Test method for determining the protective effectiveness against wood-destroying basidiomycetes – Determination of the toxic values PN-EN 13183-1:2004 Wilgotność sztuki tarcicy – Część 1: Oznaczanie wilgotności metodą suszarkowo- wagową (Moisture content of a piece of sawn timber – Part 1: Determination by oven-dry method) PN-EN-14918:2010 Biopaliwa stałe – Oznaczanie wartości opałowej (Solid biofuels – Determination of calorific value) PN-EN 15104:2011 Biopaliwa stałe – Oznaczanie zawartości węgla, wodoru i azotu – Metody instrumen- talne (Solid biofuels – Determination of total content of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen – Instrumental methods) PN-EN 15289:2011 Biopaliwa stałe – Oznaczanie całkowitej zawartości siarki całkowitej i chloru (Solid biofuels – Determination of total content of sulfur and chlorine)

137

New perspectives in polar research

Dorota Richter, Mirosława Pietryka, Jan Matuła

Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences Department of Botany and Plant Ecology pl. Grunwaldzki 24a, 50-363 Wrocław, Poland [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

The diversity of cyanobacteria and green algae on ecological different types of vegetation in Hornsund area (West Spitsbergen, Svalbard)

Abstract: The paper presents diversity of cyanobacteria and green algae from various types of habitats with their physicochemical characteristic of the Hornsund area of West Spitsbergen (Svalbard). Flora cyanobacteria and green algae in the studied area is rich and diversified. Species diversity of the phycoflora indicates numerous ecological riches where individual species find optimal growth conditions. The paper describes the dependencies between the studied habitats and cyanobacteria and green algae communities. In high eutrophic habitats green algae Prasiola crispa dominated creating wide-spread thalli of various shapes, depending on the moisture. In mesotrophic habitats cyanobacteria Phormidium autumnale had the dominant role, forming filamentous, brown mats on mosses, rocks and soil. In oligotrophic habitats there were cyanobacteria shaped as crusts and mats with high share of heterocytous and coccoid species. On polygonal tundra soils, the initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra and snowbed tundra the dominating role in the habitat was taken by cyanobacteria crusts, dominated by aerophitic forme Schizothrix lacustrris and numerous Scytonema crustaceum and Gloeocapsa spp. In the humid oligotrophic habitats of the Saxifraga community there were thalli formed by, among others, subarerophytic forme Schizothrix lacustris, Microcoleus vaginatus, Dichothrix gypsophila. Among them appeared Nostoc commune in form of macroscopic mats or small, olive-black round colony. In habitats with Paludella squarosa under sea spray Lyngbya aestuarii dominated. The taxonomic composition of cyanobacteria and green algae identified in the studied tundra types was used to categorize the tundras. Selected tundra groups show similarity in floristic composition, trophy and moisture of the habitats.

Keywords: biodiversity, cyanobacteria, green algae, Arctic, Svalbard

139 New perspectives in polar research

Introduction

The type of vegetation in arctic regions is influenced by multiple environmental factors, such as the temperature of air and soil, access to nutrients, humidity or periods of snow cover (Cannone 2004). Difficult conditions along with short vegetation season are the main factors limiting the growth of mosses and vascular plants in arctic regions. In such conditions cyanobacteria and algae are a significant, sometimes dominating, element of the arctic ecosystems flora, in the sense of quantity as well as biomass (Elster, Benson 2004, Thomas et al. 2008). Because of its ease to obtain N2 i CO2 from the atmosphere, cyanobacteria have a particular role in periglacial ecosystems, where they are a basic source of organic biomass. Being at the beginning of the nutrient and energy accumulation chain they are the first colonizers of the areas uncovered by the glacier and they prepare the ground for more demanding plants (Hu et al. 2012). In soil habitats and in environmentally stressful conditions they form big crusts. A wide spectrum of ecological tolerance of cyanobacteria allows them to exist in diversified habitats and to form unique communities. Often they are strictly connected with mosses and vascular plants. Hitherto research in the Svalbard region confirms high diversity of cyanobacteria and algae in the area (Matuła et al. 2007, Richter et al. 2009, Kaštovská et al. 2005, Elster et. al. 2008, Kim et al. 2008, Komárek et al. 2012, Pushkareva, El- ster 2013). Despite its significant role in shaping polar environments as opposed to vascular plants, they are still relatively unknown. The aim of the research was to determine the biological diversity of cyanobacteria and green algae, and to describe it in context of ecologically diversified type of vegetations.

Materials and Methods

Study area The study was conducted on Fuglebergsletta marine terrace and Fuglebek- ken outwash plain situated in the north of Hornsund fjord (West Spitsbergen, Archi- pelago Svalbard) near the Polish Polar Station, Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Science. The research was conducted on a flat area at the bottom of the Ariekammen (512 m) and Fugleberget (568 m) mountains, reaching to the bay and the sea, and on the slopes of the Ariekammen. The studies were conducted on cyanobacteria and green algae in 13 types of tundras, differing in moisture, trophy and existing communities of mosses and vascular plants (Fig. 1, Table 1). In each group there is a representative sample collection area (52 sites).

140 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 1. Location of the Hornsund fjord (A), Fuglebekken catchment and Fuglebergsletta marine terrace (B); 1-52 sampling points (detailed description in the Table 1).

141 New perspectives in polar research

Table 1. The descriptions of sites in study area, * according to Szymański et al. 2013.

Type of tundras Sites Species Moisture Type of soil* Lat. Long.

Prasiola crispa Prasiola crispa, Plagiomnium – Leptic community under ellipticum, Sanionia uncinata, 1–3 Dry Regosols strong influence of Tetraplodon mnioides, Di- (Ornithic)

Alle alle cranum sp. 015º31'7" 015º31'2" 77º00'36.3"

Ornitocoprophilous Chrysosplenium tetrandrum, Chrys- Cochlearia groenlandica Poa tundra with , osplenium tetran- alpina var. vivipara, Cerastium drum-Cochlearia arcticum, Salix polaris, Pla- Leptic groenlandica 4–5 giomnium ellipticum, Sanionia Dry Regosols communities uncinata, Tetraplodon mnioi- (Ornithic) 77º00'35.9" under strong des, Dicranum sp., Brachy- 015º31'28.3" influence of Alle thecium turgidum, Prasiola alle crispa

Straminergon stramineum , – Sanionia uncinata Warn-

High eutrophic wet , .5" Hyperskeletic moss tundra under storfia exannulata, Au- 6–17 Wet Cryosols strong influence of lacomnium palustre, Bryum (Reductaquic) Alle alle pseudotriquetrum, Tetraplo- 015º32'30" 77º00'33.5" don mnioides 77º00'32 Sanionia uncinata, Polytri-

–

chum sp., Warnstorfia sar- – Mesotrophic wet mentosa, Straminergon stra- Hyperskeletic moss tundra under 18–25, mineum, Tetraplodon mnioi- Wet Cryosols moderate influ- 37–39 des, Ptilidium ciliare, Cetrariel- (Reductaquic) ence of Alle alle 015º32'5" 015º31'9" 77º00'33.5"

la sp., Saxifraga oppositifolia, 77º00'32.0" S. rivularis

Cyanobacteria crasts with Inicial stage of Hyperskeletic Anthelia juratzkana, Sanionia cyanobacteria– 26–28 Wet Cryosols uncinata, Saxifraga cespitosa, moss tundra (Reductaquic) S. oppositifolia 015º33'50" 77º00'33.0"

Cyanobacteria crusts with

Anthelia juratzkana, Sanionia uncinata, Bryum sp., Politry- Moderately Turbic Polygonal tundra 29–32 chum sp. and Saxifraga oppo- wet Cryosols sitifolia, S. cespitosa, Juncus 015º32'90" biglumis, Equisetum arcticum, 77º00'30.5" Sagina nivalis

Cyanobacteria crusts with Sanionia uncinata, Saxifraga Snowbed cyano- oppositifolia, S. cespitosa, Haplic bacteria-moss 33–34 Damp Anthelia juratzkana, Ochro- Cryosols tundra lechia frigida, Cetrariella 77º00'13.0" delisei 015º32'38.7"

Sanionia uncinata, Oligotrophic flow Straminergon stramineum, Haplic 35–36 Wet water moss tundra Warnstorfia exanulatus, Cryosols Barbula sp. 015º32'10" 77º00'13.5"

142 New perspectives in polar research

Type of tundras Sites Species Moisture Type of soil* Lat. Long.

Cyanobacterial mats, Sanionia Periodically Cyanobacterial Haplic 40–43 uncinata, Saxifraga oppositifo- supply of mats tundra Cryosols lia, S. cespitosa water 77º00'13.0" 015º32'38.7"

Wet cyanobacteria tundra (outflow of underground water Cyanobacteria mats and Haplic 44–45 Wet among of coarse Sanionia uncinata Cryosols rock fragments 77º00'11.0" and stones) 015º32'43.5

Oligotrophic flow Cyanobacteria mats among Haplic water moss tundra 46 Paludella squarrosa, Sanionia Wet Cryosols under sea spray uncinata 76º59'50" 015º31'60"

cyanobacteria mats with Wet oligotrophic Saxifraga oppositifolia, S. Permanent Haplic cyanobacterial 47–50 cespitosa, Salix polaris, San- supply of Cryosols mats tundra ionia uncinata, Ochrolechia water 015º30'30" frigida 77º00'13.0"

Flow water cyano- Permanent Paludella squarrosa, Sanionia Haplic bacterial mats 51–52 supply of uncinata Cryosols tundra water 015º28'65" 77º00'12.0"

Sample collection Samples were collected during the Arctic summer in July and August in 2005, 2007–2009, 2011 and 2013. Species observation was conducted with a digital microscope Nikon Eclipse TE2000-S light, equipped with a Nikon DS-Fi1 camera. The taxon was digitally archived using the NIS image analysis program, which enables saving the images with a proper scale of objects. The identification was performed live and also on material preserved with “etaform” preserver (3:1 alcohol, formalin).

Water and soil physicochemical analysis Physicochemical analyses were conducted in waters flowing through the tundras (sites 6–25, 35–52) and in soil solutions (sites 1–5, 26–34). Water samples for nitrogen analyses were preserved with chloroform. Water was filtered with Whatman filters. Nitrate and ammonium were determinated using an ion chromato- – + graph HPLC Compact IC 761 Methrom. Nitrogen in the soil (NO3 and NH4 ) were extracted with a 1 M KCl, extracts were filtered with Whatman filters and analyzed

143 New perspectives in polar research with a ion chromatograph. Water pH was measured potentiometrically. Ca, Mg and K were analyzed from the extracts with 1 N ammonium acetate.

Statistic analysis For evaluation variability of the communities of cyanobacteria and green algae used ordination analyses (CANOCO packet ver. 4.5). The length of the gradient was determined and DCA was conducted when data structure was asserted. PCA ordination technique for linear structure data was used based on the length of the first canonical axis (gradient length). For the purpose of the analysis we chose those species, whose percent participation in cyanobacteria and green algae communities was above 10%. The analysis allowed us to determine the species influencing the habitats and, consequently, to group habitats similar in the structure of cyanobacteria and green algae species.

Results and discussion

Ecological parameters The recorded values of physical and chemical parameters are summarized in Table 2. Physicochemical analyses included reaction, conductivity and the content of nitrogen forms and micro-elements. Ornitocoprophilous tundra, initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra, polygonal tundra and snowbed cyanobacteria-moss tundra were characterized by acid pH (4.0–5.5). Meanwhile other tundras had a neutral reaction (6.9–7.6), apart from oligotrophic water moss tundra under sea spray where the reaction was alkaline (8.9). These pH values probably depend on the concentration of salts related to the sublimation of water by the influence of marine spray (Cavacini 2001). Tundras, where the physicochemical studies were conducted on soil solu- – + tions, the highest concentration of NO3 and NH4 content was found in habitats located in ornitocoprophilous tundra (1–5). They also had a high concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+. In the initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra, polygonal tundra, and snowbed cyanobacteria-moss tundra (26–34) the study revealed nitrates concentrations ten times lower. Within habitats where we analyzed water flowing through the tundras, a par- + – – ticularly high concentration of nitrogen in forms of NO4 NO3 and NO2 was found in high eutrophic wet moss tundra and slightly less in mesotrophic wet moss tundra. In other tundras (sites 35–36, 40–52) nitrogen concentration was typical of oligotrophic habitats.

The diversity of cyanobacteria and green algae in research habitats Flora cyanobacteria and green algae in Hornsund fjord habitats is rich and diversified. The habitats characteristics were based on cyanobacteria, whereas Chlo- rophyta are included only as filamentous species because of their dominant role in 144 New perspectives in polar research

the habitat or their distinguishing character. Phycological studies identified 94 taxa of cyanobacteria and green algae (Fig. 2, Table 3), among which 86 species were Cyanobacteria (54 filamentous species, including 15 heterocytous species, 39 non heterocytous species and 32 coccoid species), and 8 were Chlorophyta.

Table 2. Physicochemical characters from soil extracts and water of Fuglebekken catchment and Fuglebergsletta marine terrace.

– – + 2+ – 2– + + 2+ 2+ Types of tundra Sites Conductivity pH NO2 NO3 NH4 F Cl SO4 Na K Ca Mg

Soils µS cm–1 (mg/l) Prasiola crispa 1 –3 – 4.3 – 1.44 1.298 – – – 0.35 8.00 240.16 13.01 community Ornitocoprophilous tundra with Chrys- osplenium tetrandrum-Cochlearia 4 – 5 – 4.0 – 1.35 1.838 – – – 0.56 7.26 187.07 12.65 groenlandica communities Inicial stage of cyanobacteria- 26– 28 – 5.1 – 0.107 0.019 – – – 1.60 1.60 39.83 5.12 moss tundra Polygonal tundra 29– 32 – 5.4 – 0.102 0.025 – – – 0.21 1.77 47.62 6.30 Snowbed cyanobacteria-moss 33 –34 – 5.5 – 0.290 0.080 – – – 0.20 1.55 15.09 4.93 tundra Waters µS cm–1 (mg/kg) High eutrophic wet 6 –17 166.0 7.2 0.077 18.282 0.110 0.04 9.77 6.78 5.88 1.02 23.50 1.25 moss tundra Mesotrophic wet 18–25, 148.1 7.6 0.036 1.841 0.031 0.01 7.05 5.18 3.93 0.50 25.54 0.95 moss tundra 37– 39 Oligotrophic flow 35– 36 137.0 7.5 0.087 1.192 0.000 0.09 6.92 4.52 5.55 0.84 17.22 1.52 water moss tundra Cyanobacterial mats tundra with Sanionia uncinata 40–43 139.3 7.2 0.005 0.686 0.000 0.02 4.71 1.55 5.71 2.30 34.04 2.51 and Saxifraga oppositifolia Wet cyanobacterial 44–45 118.4 7.0 0.000 1.174 0.000 0.01 4.13 1.21 1.21 0.56 3.26 1.36 tundra Oligotrophic water moss tundra under sea spray with 46 115.9 8.9 0.003 0.896 0.000 0.09 7.53 4.66 4.42 0.46 19.54 1.01 Paludella squarrosa Wet oligotrophic cyanobacterial mats tundra with 47–50 66.6 6.9 0.000 0.060 0.000 0.01 3.78 0.37 3.80 2.30 8.64 2.40 S. oppositifolia community Flow water cyanobacterial mats tundra with P. 51–52 117.9 7.3 0.000 0.342 0.000 0.07 7.15 3.88 3.70 0.62 19.02 0.98 squarrosa and S. uncinata

145 New perspectives in polar research

Table. 3. List of cyanobacteria and green algae found in the studied habitats; + <10% in cyanobacteria and green algae communities, ++ 10–50%, +++ >50%.

Sites

3 5 28 32 34 36 43 45 50 52

Species 23 25 39 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 46 – 1 4 18 24 37 6 26 29 33 35 40 44 47 51

sym- Cyanobacteria bols Aphanocapsa sp. 1/densely + + distributed cells Aphanocapsa sp. 2 /loosely + distributed cells Aphanocapsa sp. 3/round + + + cells Aphanothece caldariorum + + + Richter Aphanothece clathrata W. et + + G. S. West Aphanothece microscopica + Nägeli Aphanothece sp. ++ Aphanothece cf. saxicola + Nägeli Aphanothece stagnina (Sprengel) Braun in + + + + Rabenhorst Calorhrix sp. 1 + Calothrix sp. 2 + + + + + Calothrix cf. parietana (Näg.) Cal.p ++ Thur. ar Chamaesiphon rostafinski + (Rost.) Hansgirg Chlorogloea purpurea Geitler + Chroococcus helveticus + + + Nägeli Chroococcus minor (Kützing) + Nägeli Chroococcus minutus (Kütz.) + + + + + Nägeli Chroococcus sp. + + + Chroococcus turgidus (Kütz.) Chr.t + + + + ++ + Nägeli ur Chroococcus varius A. + Braun in Raben. Dichothrix gypsophila (Kütz.) D.gy Bornet & Flah./sacconema p.s ++ stage Dichothrix gypsophila (Kütz.) Dic.g + ++ + +++ Bornet & Flah. sensu lato yp Dichothrix orsiniana + + (Kützing) Bornet et Flahault Dichothrix sp. + Geitlerinema acutissimum + + + + + (Kuff.) Anag. Gloeocapsa alpina (Nägeli) + + Brand Gloeocapsa biformis Erce- Glo.b + + + + + ++ + gović if Gloeocapsa compacta + + + + Kützing Gloeocapsa kuetzingiana Glo.k + + + ++ + + Nägeli ue

146 New perspectives in polar research

Sites

3 5 28 32 34 36 43 45 50 52

Species 23 25 39 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 46 – 1 4 18 24 37 6 26 29 33 35 40 44 47 51

Glo.p Gloeocapsa punctata Nägeli un + ++ ++ + ++ ++ ++ + Gloeocapsa sanguinea + (Agardh) Kütz. Gloeocapsa tornensis Skuja + + + Gloeocapsa sp. ++ ++ Gloeocapsopsis cf. pleurocapsoides (Nováček) + Komárek et Anagnostidis Gloeothece cf. palea (Kütz.) + Raben. Gloeothece sp. + Komvophoron minutum + + + + + + + (Skuja) Anag. et Kom. Leiblenia epiphytica (Hiero- + nymus) Compère Leptolyngbya foveolarum (Raben. ex Gomont) Anag. + + + + + + et Kom. Leptolyngbya sieminskae + + + + + + + Richter & Matuła Leptolyngbya sp. 1/cells with + grains Lep.s Leptolyngbya sp. 2/thin walls p2 ++ + Leptolyngbya tenuis (Gom.) + + Anag. et Kom. Leptolyngbya valderiana Lep.v (Voron.) Anag. et Kom./short a1 ++ ++ ++ + cells Leptolyngbya valderiana Lep.v (Voron.) Anag. et Kom./long a2 + cells Lyngbya aestuarii Lieb. ex Lyn.a ++ Ganont es Lyn.s Lyngbya sp. 1 p1 ++ Lyngbya sp. 2 + Merismopedia cf. marssonii + Lemm. Merismopedia sp. + + Microcoleus vaginatus Mic.v + ++ ++ ++ + Gomont ex Gomont ag Nostoc cf. paludosum Küt- Nos. ++ ++ ++ + zing pal Nostoc cf. punctiforme + (Kütz.) Hariot Nostoc commune Nos.c ++ ++ ++ +++ + +++ Vaucher/sensu lato o1 Nos.c Nostoc commune o2 ++ ++ Vaucher/long cells Nostoc commune Vou- + cher/subaerophytic Oscillatoria cf. ornata Kütz. Osc. +++ et Gom. orn Osc.f Oscillatoria fracta Carlson ra ++ Oscillatoria sancta Kütz. ex + Gomont

147 New perspectives in polar research

Sites

3 5 28 32 34 36 43 45 50 52

Species 23 25 39 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 46 – 1 4 18 24 37 6 26 29 33 35 40 44 47 51

Oscillatoria subbrevis + Schmidle Oscillatoria sp. 1 + + Oscillatoria sp. 2 + Oscillatoria sp. 3 + + Oscillatoria sp. 4 + Oscillatoria tenuis Agardh ex + Gom. Phormidium amoenum + Kützing ex Anag. et Kom. Phormidium autumnale Pho. (Agardh) Trevisan ex aut ++ ++ ++ +++ Gamout Phormidium sp. + + + Pleurocapsa sp. + Pseudanabaena catenata + + + Lauterb. Pseudanabaena cf. minima + (G. S. An) Anag. Pseudanabaena frigida + + + + (Fritsch) Anag. Schizothrix cf. calcicola Sch.c ++ Gomont/aerophytic a1 Schizothrix cf. calcicola Sch.c +++ Gomont/ thin cells a2 Schizothrix lacustris cf. A. Sch.l Braun ex Go- a1 +++ +++ mont/subaerophytic Sch.l Schizothrix cf. lacustris A. a2 +++ ++ +++ +++ Braun ex Gomont/aerophytic Schizothrix cf. lacustris A. Sch.l +++ Braun ex Gomont/freshwater a3 Schizotrix facilis (Skuja) Sch.f ++ Anagnost. ac Scytonema crustaceum Scy.c + ++ ++ ++ + Agardh ru Sti.m Stigonema cf. mamillosum am ++ (Lyngbya) Agardh Sym. Symplocastrum sp. 1 sp1 ++ ++ Symplocastrum sp. 2 + Tol.s Tolypothrix sp. p +++ Tol.te Tolypothrix tenuis Kützing n ++ + + ++ ++ Woronchinia sp. + + Woronichinia compacta + + (Lemm.) Kom. et Hindák Chlorophyta Klebsormidium sp. + Microspora pachyderma + + (Wille) Legerheim Microspora tumidula Hazen + Prasiola crispa (Lightf.) Pra.c +++ ++ ++ + Menegh. ri Ulothrix cf. oscillarina Küt- + zing 148 New perspectives in polar research

Sites

3 5 28 32 34 36 43 45 50 52

Species 23 25 39 17 – – – – – – – – – – – – – 46 – 1 4 18 24 37 6 26 29 33 35 40 44 47 51

Ulo.s Ulothrix subtilis Kützing ub ++ + Ulotrix sp. + Zygnema sp. + Sum 4 10 19 31 16 15 12 18 21 23 7 28 17 Sum of all 94

Thirteen tundras were recognized in the studied area based on the moss and vascular plant communities but also based on cyanobacteria and green algae communities (Wojtuń, Matuła unpublished data). Particular tundra types differed in the structure of the community and the dominating or identifying species of cyanobacteria and green algae. On Ariekammen slope, in a bird nesting area (Little Auk, Alle Alle), within the Prasiola crispa community (Table 1: 1–3, Fig. 3) we noted a small number of species. In the studied habitat 3 taxa of cyanobacteria and 1 species of filamentous green algae were identified (Fig. 2). The small diversity of phycoflora is probably caused by excrement from nesting birds (Akiyama et al. 1986, Smykla et al. 2007). This highly nitrophilous habitat is dominated by Prasiola crispa, a species bound to

Fig. 2. Number of species found in the studied tundras. Points 1–52 explained in Table 1.

149 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. Study area: a Prasiola cispa communities (sites 1–3), influence of Alle alle (b).

highly fertile habitats (Richter et al. 2009, Kosugi et al. 2010, Broady et al. 2012, Pažoutová et al. 2012). The thalli of P. crispa covered the ground in 80% to 100%, and occurred as monostromatic, bright green, lamellar cracked macroscopic thallus, strongly adjoined to the soil surface and dead mosses (Fig. 3a). Along Ariekammen slope within the ornitocophrophilous tundra (Table 1: 4–5, Fig. 4), not far from birds nests, among P. crispa thalli (whose share decreased to 60–70%) the study revealed the presence of Klebsormidium sp., which formed green coating on bare ground. The Klebsormidium genus has a limited ecological amplitude when it comes to the ground and adopts well to conditions with variable humidity and dryness (Elster et al. 2008). Among the filamentous cyanobacteria a higher quantity was reached by Phormidium autumnale forming brown mats, which was accompanied by less numerous Leptolyngbya valderiana, Leptolyngbya foveolarum, Komvophoron minutum, Oscillatoria subbrevis and coccoid species Chroococcus sp., Gloeocapsa sp., Merismopedia sp. At the foot of the Ariekammen slope in a habitat covering high eutrophic wet moss tundra (Table 1: 6–17, Fig. 5) and being under the influence of water flowing from under bird colonies we observed increased species diversity of phycoflora. The study identified 15 species of cyanobacteria and 4 species of filamentous green alga (Fig. 2). Directly under the slope and along the streams P. crispa thalli dominated and were in a leafy form (Fig. 5a, b). In the whole area, on rocks, mosses or

150 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. Study area: a Ornitocoprophilous tundra with Chrysosplenium tetrandum-Cochlearia groenlandica communities (sites 4–5), b Chrysosplenium tetrandum c details of Prasiola crisp thalli and cyanobacterial crusts.

Fig. 5. Study area: a High eutrophic wet moss tundra (sites 6–17), b macroscopic view of Prasiola crispa thallus, c-e microscopic view of P. crispa thallus. 151 New perspectives in polar research wet ground there were individual, decomposing brown filaments of the Phormidium autumnale mats. The described habitat also had many Leptolyngbya species in shape of gray and green, strong, elastic thalli growing on moss stems and leafs. The study recorded short cells forme Leptolyngbya valderiana, long cells forme L. valderiana, L. tenuis, L. foveolarum, Leptolyngbya sp. 1. Of filamentous cyanobacteria in the streams crossing the wet moss tundra the study also noted Pseudanabaena catenata, Pseudanabaena frigida, Geitlerinema acutissimum, Komvophoron minutum. Of coccoid types cyanobacteria there were small amounts of Aphanocapsa sp. 1, Aphanocapsa sp. 3, Chroococcus sp. and Merismopedia cf. marssonii. Within the streams there was a dominance of filamentous green algae Microspora pachyderma, Microspora tumidula and Ulothrix subtilis. Mesotrophic wet moss tundra (Table 1: 18–25, 37–39, Fig. 6) crossed by overflowing streams, carrying a smaller load of nutrients from the slope with birds. In the phycoflora of the studied tundra there is predominated still by filamentous, nitrophilous Phormidium autumnale, forming brown, flat, soft and wide-spread mats (Fig 6d–e) attached to mosses, rocks and ground, sometimes representing as much as 80% of cyanobacteria and green algae (Fig. 6d, e). The biodiversity of the habitat is rich, as over 26 species of cyanobacteria and 5 species of filamentous green algae were identified (Fig. 2). Most probably, the increase in habitats humidity led to the increase in the number of species. Similarly as in the previous habitat, a particularly large number of species belonged to filamentous cyanobacteria (17 species). The habitat revealed, apart from P. autumnale, numerous Leptolyngbya sp. 2, short cells form of Leptolyngbya valderiana, Lyngbya sp. 1, Oscillatoria fracta and Schizothrix facilis forming mats on soil uncovered by mosses and aerophytic forme Schizotrix cf. calcicola, in shape of mucilaginous yellowish gray thalli attached to moss stems and leafs. Among coccoid types of cyanobacteria we found Aphanothece stagnina, Chroococcus minutus, Ch. helvetius, Gloeocapsa tornensis, G. punctata, G. kuetzingiana. In streams there were filamentous green algae: Ulothrix subtilis, Ulothrix sp., Microspora pachyderma. Isolated from the ground, on raised steams of mosses there were also individual, microscopic colonies of subaerophytic form of Nostoc commune. In polar regions cyanobacteria communities form special crusts and mats on soils (Wharton et al. 1983, Vincent et al. 1993, Komárek, Komárek 2010). Such form probably enables them to survive unfavorable conditions such as: sudden temperature changes, freezing and thawing, drying or high UV radiation. A large amount of mucus in crusts and mats secures the cells from these conditions. The study revealed special crusts and mats in oligotrophic habitats on uncovered ground. In the initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra (Table 1: 26–28, Fig. 7) located near lateral moraine Hansbreen the study identified 15 species of cyanobacteria. The cyanobacteria formed dark gray crusts on the surface of the ground

152 New perspectives in polar research

(Fig. 7b). The biggest share in the community was taken by filamentous non heterocytous species, and further by filamentous heterocytous species. The dominating species in crusts was aerophitic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris, who was accompanied by numerous heterocytous species of Nostoc commune (sensu lato), Nostoc cf. paludosum, Nostoc cf. punctiforme, Tolypothrix tenuis and Scytonema crustaceum. The other species low in quantity. Habitats so poor in nutrients has a great share of heterocytous species. Such species, because of their ability to absorb atmospheric

Fig. 6. Study area: a–c Mesotrophic wet moss tundra, 18–23 sites (a), 24–25 sites (b), 37–39 sites (c), d–e thalli of Phormidium autumnale, f microscopic view of P. autumnale. 153 New perspectives in polar research nitrogen, are the first to reach barren soils and then create conditions proper for more demanding organisms (Hu et al. 2012). On moderately wet sites on polygonal tundra (Table 1: 29–32, Fig. 8) 16 species of cyanobacteria were identified, 6 of which were filamentous heterocytous species (Fig. 2). The central part of Turbic Cryosols was covered with dark gray elastic thalli of aerophytic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris, accompanied by heterocytous species such as Scytonema crustaceum, Nostoc commune and N. cf. puncti forme, Tolypothrix tenuis, sacconema stage of Dichothrix gypsophila and coccal species Gloeocapsa spp. The outer parts of Turbic Cryosols and the areas between

Fig. 7. Study area: a – Initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra (sites 26–28), b – details of cyanobacterial crusts, c – Nostoc paludosum, d – Gloeocapsa tornensis, e–f – Nostoc commune.

154 New perspectives in polar research rocks had lichens and Saxifraga oppositifolia, S. cespitosa, Juncus biglumis, Equise- tum arcticum, Sagina nivalis. On the wet surfaces of snowbed (Table 1: 33–34, Fig. 9), among clumps of the mosses and vascular plants, there were visible dark gray, elastic, thick cyanobacterial crusts (Fig. 9a, b). They were formed by the dominating aerophitic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris and Gloeocapsa punctata. Among them we observed small round thalli of Nostoc commune (sensu lato), (Fig. 9b), N. cf. paludosum, Scytonema crustaceum and, sporadically occurring, Tolypothrix tenuis, Calothrix cf. parietana. The habitat, poor in nitrogen compounds, has a large share of heterocytous cyanobacteria, probably as a result of their ability to assimilate nitrogen from the atmosphere. There were also coccoid Chroococcus turgidus, Gloeocapsa biformis, G. kuetzingiana in the habitat. Oligotrophic flow water moss tundra has slowly flowing shallow streams (Table 1: 35–36, Fig. 10) with Barbula sp. characterized by dirty greenish, hard thalli covering mosses and cyanobacteria mats covering the ground. Those thalli are

Fig. 8. Study area: a – Polygonal tundra (sites 29–32), b – details of cyanobacterial crusts, c–e – sacconema stage of Dichothrix gypsophila, f – Gloeocapsa kuetzingiana.

155 New perspectives in polar research formed of Schizothrix cf. lacustris filaments freshwater forme and filamentous heterocytous types of cyanobacteria: Tolypothrix tenuis, long cells forme Noctoc commune, Calothrix cf. parietana, Dichothrix gypsophila and filamentous types without heterocytous cyanobacteria: Microcoleus vaginatus, Symplocastrum sp.1. Among them, in the thalli, there are visible groups of coccoid types of cyanobacteria Gloe- ocapsa spp. and Aphanothece spp. On cyanobacterial mats tundra (Table 1: 40–43, Fig. 11) among clumps of Sanionia uncinata and Saxifraga oppositifolia communities on low slope, periodically supplied by clear streams water, there was a domination of elastic, hard, dirty- brown mats of subaerophytic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris and Gloeocapsa punctata, which were accompanied by numerous dark brown clusters of Scytonema crustaceum filaments. The habitat also had large quantities of Tolypothrix tenuis, Calo-

Fig. 9. Study area: a – Snowbed cyanobacteria-moss tundra (sites 33–34), b – cyanobacteria crusts and Nostoc commune, c – Gloeocapsa punctata, d – Scytonema crustaceum, e – Leptolyngbya sieminskae.

156 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 10. Study area: a–b – Oligotrophic flow water moss tundra (sites 35–36), c – Aphanothece caldariorum, d–f – Microcoleus vaginatus.

Fig. 11. Study area: a – Cyanobacterial mats tundra with Sanionia uncinata and Saxifraga oppositifolia (sites 40–43), b – Saxifraga oppositifolia, c – Nostoc commune thalus, d – microscopic view of Nostoc commune, e – Gloeocapsa compacta, f – Chrococcus minor, g–i – Pseudanabaena frigida, j–k – Komvophpron minutum, l–m – Calothrix parietana. 157 New perspectives in polar research thrix cf. parietana, Dichothrix gypsophila (sensu lato). The habitat was distinguished a great diversity of coccoid cyanobacteria Gloeocapsa spp. and Chroococ- cus spp. Among the crusts Nostoc commune (sensu lato) dominated, forming broadly sheets of olive-brown thallus (Fig. 11c). On wet cyanobacteria tundra (outflow of underground water among coarse rock fragments and stones), (Table 1: 44–45) 23 species cyanobacteria and green algae were identified, among which a large group were coccoid species (8 species). Mats in that habitat were formed by subaerophytic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris, which took shape of hard, dirty-brown, strong thalli and grew on moss steams. It was numerously accompanied by coccoid species, Gloeocapsa punctata, G. biformis and filamentous species such as: Symplocastrum sp. 1, Microcoleus vaginatus or heterocytous species – long cells form of Nostoc commune. In oligotrophic flow water moss tundra with Paludella squarrosa near the sea shore (Table 1: 46, Fig. 12) and in streams watering the habitat, the phycoflora was poor, the study recorded only 7 taxa with dominating Lyngbya aestuarii, forming wide-spread thalli at the bottom of the streams. L. aestuarii is a halophitic species (Komárek, Anagnostidis 2005), which could explain its occurrence in the coastal zone, sprayed by the sea. It was accompanied by species such as short cells form of Leptolyngbya valderiana, Geitlerinema acutissimum, Phormidium sp. and coccoid species, Aphanothece stagnina, Woronichinia sp. In bare areas on the

Fig. 12. Study area: a–b – Oligotrophic flow water moss tundra under sea spray with Paludella squarrosa (site 46), c–e – Lyngbya aestuarii. 158 New perspectives in polar research ground the study also recorded the presence of Nostoc commune (sensu lato) thalli. The small diversity of species in the habitat may result from the poor conditions. Wet oligotrophic cyanobacterial mats tundra with Saxifraga oppositifolia community (Table 1: 47–50, Fig. 13), surfaces were periodically supplied by snow melting water and had a great diversity with 28 species of cyanobacteria identified, 15 of which belonged to coccoid types (Fig. 2). The crusts on soil were mainly formed by aerophytic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris with Oscillatoria cf. ornate Microcoleus vaginatus, Tolypothrix tenuis and Gloeocapsa punctata. They formed elastic grey-green thalli on the ground and attached to moss steams. Within coccoid species the study revealed mainly Chroococcus and Gloeocapsa species. They occurred as clusters and colonies between the thalli of dominating species. On bare ground there were numerous laminar Nostoc commune (sensu lato) thalli.

Fig. 13. Study area: a–b – Wet oligotrophic cyanobacterial mats tundra with Saxifraga oppositifolia community (sites 47–50), c – Chroococcus turgidus, d – Gloeocapsa alpina, e – Dichothrix orsiniana, f – – Chroococcus minutus, g – Gloeocapsa compacta, h – Oscillatoria cf. ornata, i – Gloeocapsa sanguine.

159 New perspectives in polar research

In streams going through flow water cyanobacterial mats tundra with Palu- della squarrosa and Sanionia uncinata (Table 1: 51–52, Fig. 14) at the bottom of the streams there was a dominance of elastic, whitish, green from the bottom thalli formed of thin cells form of Schizothrix cf. calcicola, with visible filaments of Toly- pothrix sp. (Fig 14f–g) and equally numerous nodular yellow-orange-brown clusters of Dichothrix gypsophila (sensu lato), (Fig 14e and h). Among the filaments of Sch. calcicola we recorded coccoid species Aphanothece sp. and Gloeocapsa compacta,

Fig. 14. Study area: a – Flow water cyanobacterial mats tundra with Paludella squarrosa and Sanionia uncinata (sites 51–52), b–c – Nostoc commune (sensu lato) d – Gloeocapsopsis pleurocapsoides, e – Tolypothrix sp. and Dichothrix gypsophila thalli, f–g – Tolypothrix sp., h – Dichothrix gypsophila.

160 New perspectives in polar research

G. punctata, Gloeocapsopsis pleurocapsoides and Chroococcus turgidus, Ch. minutus. At the bottom of the streams and among the mats there were numerous lobe thalli of N. commune (sensu lato), (Fig. 14c).

The similarity of studied habitats in cyanobacteria and green algae species In order to determine the similarities and to group the studied habitats on the criteria of cyanobacteria and green algae, PCA indirect ordination method was used. The data used in the ordination explain the 68.9% overall variability of cyanobacteria and green algae. The percent of the variability is given as an accumulated value for each axis, for the first one it is 33.4%, 14.9% for the second one, 12.4% for the third. As to the gradient of the first axis, the biggest correlation between biological variables (species) and the location of the points in the studied tundra types occurs for the following species: Gloeocapsa punctata, aerophytic form of Schizothrix cf. lacustris, Phormidium autumnale, Nostoc commune (sensu lato), N. paludosum, Scytonema crustaceum, which constitute factor one. In the second axis the biggest correlation occurs in Prasiola crispa (factor two). The biggest influence on the grouping of the studied tundras in the ordination space (and, at the same time on the variability of each habitat) is caused by factors one and two. Principal Components Analysis distinguished five (A–E) tundra groups (Fig. 15) characterized by particular phycoflora. Group A comprises communities of Prasiola crispa located on Ariekammen slopes in ornitocoprophilous tundra. Group B comprises habitats located higher in high eutrophic wet moss tundra. In that group the most important is P. crispa, Phormidium autumnale and short cells form of Lep- tolyngbya valderiana, long cells forme L. valderiana. Group C comprises habitats located within high eutrophic wet moss tundra and mesotrophic wet moss tundra. The biggest influence on the shaping of phycoflora belongs to Phormidium autumnale and thin walls form of Leptolyngbya sp. 2, aerophytic form of Schizothrix calcicola, short cells form of Leptolyngbya valderiana, Schizothrix facilis. Group D comprises habitats located in mesotrophic wet moss tundra, oligotrophic flow water moss tundra, cyanobacterial mats tundra, wet cyanobacteria tundra and flow water cyanobacterial mats tundra. Most points from tundras in that group the main components of the communities are subaerophytic form of Schizothrix lacustris and Gloe- ocapsa punctata and the accompanying heterocytous species such as: long cells form of Nostoc commune, Dichothrix gypsophila. That group is the least homogene- ous and its shape is not a result of any species influencing the location of other points on the ordination space. The final group (E) comprises habitats located within polygonal tundra, snow bed cyanobacteria-moss tundra, wet oligotrophic cyanobacterial mats tundra and initial stage of cyanobacteria-moss tundra. The main mass of the communities there are crusts form of aerophytic form of Schizothrix lacustris

161 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 15. The results of PCA analysis in the ordination space of the first and second PCA axis, describing the cyanobacteria and green algae species and their relation to the location of studied tundras (52 sites), the dots show the sites of analyzed tundras. The species variables are shown as vectors. Circles show selected groups (A–E). 162 New perspectives in polar research and Gloeocapsa punctata. Within these tundras we also recorded a large share of heterocytous species such as Nostoc commune (sensu lato), Nostoc cf. paludosum, Scytonema crustaceum and sacconema stage of Dichothrix gypsophila. Summing up, cyanobacteria and green algae communities are influenced by mosses, vascular plants growing in particular tundras, living conditions and trophy. Particular tundra types are characterized by individual phycoflora with dominating and distinguishing species. Because of the significant influence of cyanobacteria and green algae on shaping the tundras they should be included in the characteristics of those ecosystems.

References

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Richter D., Matuła J., Pietryka M., 2009. Cyanobacteria and algae of selected habitats in tundra around Hornsund fiord (West Spitsbergen). Oceanological and Hydrobiological Studies 38, 1–6 Smykla J., Wolek J., Barcilowski A., 2007. Zonation of vegetation related to penguin rookeries on King George Island, Maritime Antarctica. Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Reserch 39, 143–151 Szymański W., Skiba S., Wojtuń B., 2013. Distribution, genesis, and properties of Arctic soils: a case study from the Fuglebekken catchment, Spitsbergen. Polish Polar Research 34 (3), 289–304 Thomas D.N., Fogg G.E., Konvey P., Fritsen C.H., Gili J.M., Gradinger R., Laybourn-Pary J., Reid K., Walton D.W.H., (eds) 2008. Thy Biology of Polar Regions, second ed. Oxford University Press, UK, 394 pp. Vincent W.F., Howard-Williams C., Broady P., 1993. Microbial communities and processes in Antarctic flowing waters. In: E.I. Friedman (ed.), Antarctic Microbiology. New York, 543–569 Whorton R.A. Jr., Parker B.C., Simmons G.M. Jr., 1983. Distrribution, species composition and morphology of algal mats in Antarctic dry valley lakes. Phycologia 22, 355–365

164 New perspectives in polar research

Edwin Sieredziński

University of Warsaw Institute of Zoology, Faculty of Biology 1 Miecznikowa st, 02-096 Warszawa, Poland [email protected]

Possibilities of detecting non-biting midges (Chironomidae) in Antarctica

Abstract: Non-biting midges were detected in some extreme environments, for example Diamesinae, part of Orthocladinae and Tanyrasini are known as element of snow entomofauna. Part of species can develop in salt water. It is case of many taxa from various subfamilies (Chironominae, Telmatogetoninae, Orthocladinae). Sub- sequently, one may ask about possibilities of new Chironomidae species detection in Antarctica. Otherwise, the biggest Antarctic terrestrial animal is apterous chironomid midge, Belgica antarctica. These midges exhibit a number of adaptation predestinating to dwell such extreme habitats. Some chironomids have terrestrial larvae developing in decaying organic material (e.g. Camptocladius stercorarius or mentioned Belgica antarctica). Another species are halophilic and/or cryophilic. Moreover, many taxa are sparsely recognized, therefore presence of them is not excluded. It appertains to remind some common genera were described relatively late (case of Bryophaenocladius), so mentioned lack of data does not consist argument ad ignorantiam. Ad-ditional adaptation in Antarctic environment could have been wing atrophy. In this family it emerges either radical specialization (case of Pontomyia) or life in low temperature (cases of some Diamesa and Belgica). Last above-mentioned phenomenon leads that brachypterous or apterous species should be discovered. Ecological variety of larvae and imagines is hallmark of non-biting midges, therefore one can infer a posteriori about a appreciable possibilities of non-biting detection even in Antarctic environment.

Keywords: Chironomidae, Diptera, Antarctic insects, systematic entomology, zoogeography

165 New perspectives in polar research

Introduction

Non-biting midges are large family of nematocerans close relative to Cera- topogonidae (biting midges, once included in Chironomidae) and Simulidae (black flies). Over 10,000 species have been described in whole continents hitherto (Armitage et al. 1995). Total number of non-biting midges species is probably higher in view of ecological diversity of imagines and larvae. It is also linked with penetration even most extreme habitats as periodic lakes and rivers on deserts, salt waters (including seas) and snow surface. Some species are parasites of fishes (case of Ich- thyocladius) (Fittkau 1974) and mayflies (Symbiocladius rhitrogenae) (Soldan 1978), another dwell sponges as genera Xenochironomus (Roque, Trivinho-Strixino 2005), Oukuriella (Fusari et al. 2014), Demeijerea (Sæther 2011). Part of chironomids is able to survive desiccation – as Polypedilum vanderplanki (Armitage et al. 1995). Large plasticity allowed to dwell the whole world from tropical areas to subpolar and polar environments. Therefore many taxa of Chironomidae are sparsely recognized. Some common genera were described relatively late – this is case of Bryophaenocladius detected by Thienemann in 1934 (Andersen, Schnell 2000, Makarchenko, Makarchenko 2011). Previous facts unambiguously indicates that non-biting midges can occur in polar ecosystems as Antarctica. Insects are rare and often disregarded researched objects in this area. Although, some non-biting midges are known from Antarctica. One of them is Belgica antarctica, apterous midge from subfamily Orthocladinae. This insect exhibits a number of physiological adaptation to live in cold climate as significant dehydration possibilities and trehalose production (Michaud et al. 2008). Mentioned non-biting midge was object of many physiological research, which had to explain such a resistance on extreme environmental factors. Whole development of Belgica antarctica takes place on the lend; this chironomid is largest strictly terrestrial animal in Antarctica (Usher, Edwards 1984). Another species is Eretmoptera murphyi, cold-resistant non-biting midge reproducing by parthenogenesis (Convey 1992). This way of procreation has allowed to dwell large areas of Antarctica for last 40 years. Eretmoptera murphyi is also full terrestrial. This chironomid was object of physiological investigation for example cold resistance (Worland 2010). An- other Antarctic non-biting midges is Parochlus steineni. Unlike Belgica and Er- etmoptera, specimens of this species have wings. Parochlus steineni belongs to subfamily Podonominae (Allegrucci et al. 2006). Development of this chironomid is linked to sea coast in Antarctic Peninsula. Insects were never popular research object in Antarctica. It assumes that these animals, as poikiloterms, have small chances to survive in polar environment. Featuring above-mentioned date, it should rethink such a statements and endeavor to detect new species of non-biting midges in Far South. It can take into consideration just one fact. Closely-relative families – another Chironomoidea, for example biting

166 New perspectives in polar research midges – have not such wide range. They are not met on cold seasons of the year but some non-biting midges were described as elements of supranivean entomofauna. Therefore chironomids also exhibit large plasticity and diversity as systematic group.

Possibilities

Geographical framework of Antarctica is not allowed to wide distribution of terrestrial invertebrates – they can live only on ice surface and areas, which are not covered by glaciers (Schwartz et al. 1993). Availability of fresh water is strongly limited. Thus insects, which are developmentally connected with its sources, were not able to expand on Antarctic areas. Because of this fact, stoneflies were not described in this continent. Some of them – Capnidae and Taeniopterygidae – are also found beside rivers and streams during winter (Thorp, Covich 2010). It should be considered one factor either. Antarctica is separated from nearest continental land areas by few thousands kilometers of ocean. If some insects had to arrive there, there would have to go there on wood pieces sweeping by ocean or as aeroplankton. Part of insects could arrive through wing forces because of swarm occurrence. Swarming behavior is typical for non-biting midges and linked to reproduction (Giłka 2011). Small size of these midges and high Reynolds number could be causes of transport via wind on large distances. Chances of describing new non-biting midges in Ant- arctica rise, according to these criteria. Chironomidae participation in supranivean entomofauna was mentioned in introduction. Part of non-biting midges was detected in snow surface beside streams. This is case of genera Diamesa (Hannsen, Cook 1977), Arctodiamesa (Makarchenko 2005), Micropsectra (Giłka 2001) and Orthocladius (Bouchard 2007). Individual polymorphism was described in Diamesa starmachi. This phenomenon consists sequent of winged and apterous generations connected with temperature factors (Giłka et al. 2013). Individuals able to fly are dispersion generation to dwell other streams. Such a generation appears during temperature rise and thaws. Some species of Diamesa develop in fresh water originated from glaciers melt, e.g. Diamesa steinboecki in Alps (Ward, Uehlinger 2003, Kownacki 1980). Herein some problem is occurring – Diamesa was described only from Northern Hemisphere and Arctodi- amesa – in Russian Far East (Makarchenko 2005). Similar species have not been detected in Africa, Australia and Southern America yet. Supranivean non-biting midges did not research in mountain regions of south areas of Earth. In this issue whole data are from Northern Hemisphere, mainly from Europe and Northern Amer- ica. Therefore, is not it argument ad ignorantiam? If some non-biting midges could evolve there, it should have been problems with convergence and/or vicarism on Southern Hemisphere. This problem has not been investigated yet. Lack of data does

167 New perspectives in polar research not consist argument for possibility of discovering convergent species but originated from another subfamilies or tribes. Reconsidering contemporary state of knowledge, it should receive that Diamesinae are linked with Holarctic regions. However it may assume, another taxa (as Orthocladinae and Tanytarsini) could have developed species similar to them. Species of Orthocladinae and Tanytarsini (e.g. Micropsectra) were found in nival material (Elgmork, Sæther 1965). Therefore legitimated conclusion is statement that relative unknown species can occur in Antarctica. Multiple evolution of similar adaptation may not be excluded in view of similarity of selection factors. It also regards tarsus morphology. Insects were observed on ice surface (e.g. rove beetle Stenus glacialis on glaciers in Alps) (Mani 1968) but enumerated forms are element of supranivean fauna. Snow consists more different ambient than ice so tarsus ought to have optimal proportions to move on ice surface. Morphology and biomechanics of nival Chironomidae tarsi is not expected, so it is not known, whether they are able to motion on ice. Such behavior of these non-biting midges has not be observed and subsequently inquired yet. It also regards to motion way in so different substrates as ice and snow surfaces. Part of non-biting midges develops in saline water. Well-known example is boreal species Tanytarsus gracilentus (Giłka 2011) which was noted in oligotrophic lakes in north (for example, Lake Myvatn in Iceland) either (Armitage et al. 1995). Species from genus Thalassomya were also described from islands on South Atlan- tic, develops in sea water (De Oliviera et al. 2013). Some bloodworms (Chironomus salinarius) were noted in saline water (Han-Il, Jin-Whoa 2006, Cartier et al. 2011). Pontomyia, radical specialized genus from tribe Tanytarsini (Cheng, Collins 1980), was described on Brazilian coast. Its dispersion is probably connected with Eretmo- chelys imbricata migrations (Henriques-Oliveira et al. 2009). Occurrence of halophilic species provides the valid argument for possibilities of detection related forms in Antarctica, considering lack of fresh water. Moreover halophilic insects are generally rare and often highly specialized. Sea skater Halobates (Andersen, Cheng 2004) and non-biting midge Pontomyia may be typical cases. Reasons of small number of sea dwelling insects are probably linked to physiological and bioenergetic issues – it was explained on glassworm (Chaoborus) example (Maddrell 1998). This phenomenon allows to exclude Tanypodinae with predaceous larvae (Baker, Mc Lachlan 1979) from investigation in marine environment. Although insects with terrestrial or halophilic larvae have the biggest chances to appear in Antarctic ecosystem. Lack of fresh water is main cause in this case. Many Antarctic flies are wingless or brachypterous. Wind force and low temperature consist reason of this phenomenon. Strong winds are significant selection factor either. It can be explain in evolutionary ecology terms (life strategy in cold environment). Byers (1969) proposed such a solution for crane fly Chionea. Insects, which develop in cold habitats and snow surface, often have reduced wing. Good examples are supranivean apterous form of Diamesa starmachi and snow

168 New perspectives in polar research scorpionflies (Boreus). Because of this fact, non-biting midges without wings should be detected on Antarctica. Moreover, such species have known as Belgica antarctica and Eretmoptera murphyi. It consist subsequent argue for chironomid investigation in Antarctic environment. It should bargain for such species with reduced wings – brachypterous or apterous. Moreover, it cannot forget that winglessness may be linked with radical specialization – cases of Pontomyia and Clunio takahashi (Engelman 1970). Last enumerated species exhibits life cycle on sea coastline. Lack of wings is linked to reproduce strategy. Halophilic character of possible new species of Chironomidae was considered above. Zoogeographical view should be valid issue but it is not this case of simple generalization. Orthocladinae, Tanytarsini and Podonominae are worldwide distributed taxa. It is not known how non-biting midges arrived to Antarctica, transport via wind forces or rafts is probably. It cannot excluded large role of accidence during settlement of Antarctic environments. Summing up, investigation should be concentrated on three aspects – species linked with snow, halophilic non-biting midges and wingless forms. Applying these criteria, potentially new Chironomidae cannot be excluded. To a certain extent, it consists resultant of life strategies.

Conclusions: arguments ad ignorantiam or real possibilities?

Entomologists were hardly never interested in polar environments. It can point few reasons of such view. Insects seldom penetrate to cold habitats. Hence a number of species is small, so these problems do not attract attention. Biology of supranivean insects is also weakly recognized, thus it is observed lack of comparative scale which can do not possible extrapolations. Part of consideration can be easily treated as argumentation ad ignorantiam. However it should take into consideration large diversity and plasticity of chironomids. Convergence and/or vicarism is not be excluded. Otherwise, there is lack of zoogeographical generalization, which would set down such a cases in this Nematocera family. Formulations for tribes (with dispersion analysis in continental scale) are affordable (Giłka 2011) but problem remains unresolved. It is not known how morphological adaptations and life strategies duplicate in a distant part of world. Views on Antarctica dwelling by non-biting midges appeared (Allegrucci et al. 2006). Authors assumed ancient character of dwelling harsh Antarctic ecosystems, combining it with geotectonic history of region, for example microplate movements. However this model does not include extinctions during glaciations episodes. If some species really have ancient origin, they would have to survive in glacial refugia. Perhaps such conclusions are premature for the sake of insufficient

169 New perspectives in polar research data about Chironomidae. Model of random settlement from peri-Antarctic areas may be more probably than ancient origin of these species. Non-biting midges have large ecological variety. Thank of this fact Chiron- omidae are noted in whole world from tropical regions to polar environments. Many of species have not described yet. Discovery of whole subfamily (case of Usam- boromyia) sometimes occurred (Andersen, Sæther 1994). It may suspect that list of Antarctic non-biting midges is not closed to Belgica, Eretmoptera and Parochlus.

References

Allegrucci G., Carchini G., Todisco V., Convey P., Sbordoni V., 2006. A molecular phylogeny of Antarctic Chironomidae and its implications for biogeographical history. Polar biology 29, 320–326 Andersen N.M., Cheng L., 2004. The marine insect Halobates (Heteroptera: Gerridae): Biology, adaptations, distribution, and phylogeny. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review 42, 119–180 Andersen T., Sæther O.A., 1994. Usambaromyia nigrala gen. n., sp. n., and Usambaromyiinae, a new subfamily among the Chironomidae (Diptera). Aquatic Insects 16 (1), 21–29 Andersen T, Schnell A., 2000. New species of Bryophaenocladius Thienemann, 1934 from Tanzania, with bare squama (Diptera, Chironomidae). Aquatic Insects 22, 48–57 Armitage P.D., Cranston P.S., Pinder L.C.V., 1995. The Chironomidae: biology and ecology of non-biting midges. London: Chapman & Hall Baker A.S., McLachlan A.J., 1979. Food preferences of Tanypodinae larvae. Hydrobiologia 62 (3), 283–288 Bouchard R.W., 2007. Phenology and taxonomic composition of lotic Chironomidae in contrasting thermal regimes. PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota Byers G.W., 1969. Evolution of wing reduction in crane flies (Diptera: Tipulidae). Evolution 23, 346–354 Cartier V., Claret C., Garnier R., Franquet E., 2011. How salinity affects life cycle of a brackish water species, Chironomus salinarius KIEFFER (Diptera:Chironomidae). Journal of Experimental Ma- rine Biology and Ecology 405 (1), 93–98 Cheng L., Collins J. D., 1980. Observations on behavior, emergence and reproduction of the marine midges Pontomyia (Diptera: Chironomidae). Marine Biology 58, 1–5 Convey P., 1992. Aspects of the biology of the midge, Eretmoptera murphyi Schaeffer (Diptera: Chirono- midae), introduced to Signy Island, maritime Antarctic. Polar biology 12, 653–657 De Oliviera C.S.N., Da Silva F.L., Trivinho-Strixino S., 2013. Thalassomya gutae sp. n., a new marine chironomid (Diptera: Chironomidae: Telmatogetoninae) from the Brazilian coast. Zootaxa 3701 (5), 589–595 Elgmork K., Sæther O.A., 1965. Distribution of invertebrates in a high mountain brook in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Contribution nr 48, Limnology Laboratory, University of Colorado Engelman F., 1970. Physiology of insect reproduction. International series of monographs in pure and applied biology vol. 44. Pergamon Press Inc. Fittkau J.E., 1974. Ichthyocladius n. gen., eine neotropische Gattung der Orthocladiinae (Chironomidae, Diptera) deren Larven epizoisch auf Welsen (Astroblepidae und Loricariidae) leben. Ent. Tidskr. Suppl. 95, 91–106 Fusari L.M., Bellodi C.F, Lamas C.J., 2014. A new species of sponge–dwelling Oukuriella from Brazil. Zootaxa 3764 (4), 418–426 Giłka W., 2001. A description of Micropsectra rilensis sp. nov. with a review of Bulgarian Tanytarsini. Polish Journal of Entomology 70, 65–72 Giłka W., 2011. Analiza różnorodności faunistycznej ochotkowatych z plemienia Tanytarsini w Europie (Diptera: Chironomidae). Dipteron, Bulletin of the Dipterological Section of Polish Entomological Society 27, 11–31 Giłka W., Soszyńska Maj A., Paasivarta L., 2013. The peculiar winter-active midge Diamesa starmachi (Diptera: Chironomidae). Polish Journal of Entomology 82, 201–211 170 New perspectives in polar research

Han-Il R., Jin-Whoa Y., 2006. Redescription of Chironomus salinarius (Diptera: Chironomidae), nuisance midges that emerged in brackish water of Jinhae-man (Bay), Kyongsangnam-do, Korea. Kore- an Journal of Parasitology 44 (1), 63–66 Hansen D.C., Cook E.F., 1977. The systematics and morphology of the nearctic species of Diamesa Meigen, 1835 (Diptera: Chironomidae). Memoirs of the American Entomological Society 30, 1–203 Henriques-Oliveira A.L., Silva L.A., Nessimian J.L., (2009). First recorded of Pontomyia Edwards, 1926 (Diptera: Chironomidae: Tanytarsini) in Brazil. Biota Neotropica 9 (1) Kownacki A., 1980. Ecology and biogeography of the Diamesa steinboecki group. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Biologica 19781–2, 95–102 Maddrell S.H.P., 1998. Why are there no insects in the open sea?. Journal of Experimental Biology 201, 2461–2464 Mani M.S., 1968. Ecology and biogeography of high attitude insects. Springer Science & Business Media Makarchenko E.A., 2005. A new species of Arctodiamesa Makarchenko (Diptera: Chironomidae: Diamesinae) from the Russian Far East, with a key to known species of the genus. Zootaxa 1084, 59–64 Makarchenko E.A, Makarchenko M.A. 2006. Chironomids of the genus Bryophaenocladius Thienemann, 1934 (Diptera: Chironomidae: Orthocladiinae) from the Russian Far East. Far Eastern Ento- mologist 158, 1–24 Robert Michaud M., Benoit J.B., Lopez-Martinez G., Elnitsky M.A., Lee R.E., Denlinger D.L., 2008. Metabolomics reveals unique and shared metabolic changes in response to heat shock, freezing and desiccation in the Antarctic midge, Belgica antarctica. Journal of Insect Physiology 54 (4), 645–655 Roque F.O., Trivinho-Strixino S., 2005. Xenochironomus ceciliae (Diptera: Chironomidae), a new chironomid species inhabiting freshwater sponges in Brazil. Hydrobiologia 534, 231–238 Sæther O.A., 2011. Glyptotendipes Kieffer and Demeijerea Kruseman from Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, with the description of four new species (Diptera: Chironomidae). Zootaxa 2760, 39–52 Soldan T., 1978. Host specificity and distribution of Symbiocladius rhitrogenae (Diptera, Chironomidae) in Czechoslovakia. Acta entomologica Bohemoslovaca 5 (3), 194–200 Schwarz A.M.J., Green J.D., Green T.G.A., Seppelt R.D., 1993. Invertebrates associated with moss communities at Canada Glacier, southern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Polar Biology 13 (3), 157–162 Thorp J.H., Covich A.P., 2010. Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates. Academic Press Usher M.B., Edwards M., 1984. A dipteran from south of the Antarctic Circle: Belgica antarctica (Chiron- omidae) with a description of its larva. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 23 (1), 19–31 Ward J.V., Uehlinger U., 2003. Ecology of Glacial Flood Plain. Kluwer Academic Publisher 157 Worland M.R., 2010. Eretmoptera murphyi: pre-adapted to survive a colder climate. Physiological entomology 35, 140–147

171

New perspectives in polar research

Agnieszka Wasiłowska1, Andrzej Tatur1, Marek Rzepecki2, Andrzej Borkowski1

1 University of Warsaw, Faculty of Geology 93 Żwirki i Wigury Avenue, 02-089 Warsaw, Poland [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] 2 Polish Academy of Sciences, Nencki Institute 3 Ludwika Pasteura st, 03-093 Warsaw, Poland [email protected]

Current and historical environmental changes constrained by climate. Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica (Polish oceanographic projects initiated during International Polar Year)

Abstract: Oceanographic investigations in recent fjord ecosystem of the maritime Antarctic have been carried out as part of projects initiated during International Po- lar Year and continued until now. The melting of long-lasting winter fast ice during early summer 2009/2010 increased primary production in the bay. This climatic event is uncommon recently, although it might have been more frequent during the Little Ice Age. Bearing this in mind we decided to trace climatic and ecological changes over the last millennium in sediment cores of shallow fjords using geochemical, biochemical and biological markers of higher productivity in colder periods. Preliminary results are promising. Important signals coming from enhanced photosynthetic pigments content have already been recorded, suggesting very high primary production with predominance of diatoms at some periods during the Little Ice Age, as well as the occurrence in the sediments index foraminifer species Cribroelphidium webbi, marking the activity of a glacier front in the area.

Keywords: Antarctica, fast-ice, bloom, sediment cores, biogeochemical proxies

173 New perspectives in polar research

Introduction

The Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) has recently been considered a “hot spot” of global climate warming. The measured air temperatures in the region have been clearly increasing and there has been major recession of glaciers observed over the last 50 yrs, accelerating during the last 30 yrs. In particular, the coastline and islands of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) represent key areas which are immediately and apparently affected by climate warming, with mean monthly winter temperatures rising more rapidly than summer temperatures. Significant inter-annual climate variability in sea ice extension and ocean surface temperatures along the WAP has been associated with the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) and the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) (Meredith et al. 2008, Schloss et al. 2012). Ecosystem responses to the regional warming include local declines in sea ice-dependent population of Adelie penguins, but a relative increase in the populations of gentoo and chinstrap penguins, better adapted to ice-free waters, changes in krill recruitment, abundance and availability to predators, alterations in the composition of zooplankton and phytoplankton communities (Ducklow 2007). Phytoplankton is at the base of the food web so the changes in primary production affect organisms at the higher trophic levels. Recent warming in the WAP area is well documented and seems to be commonly accepted. However, climate fluctuations in the upper Holocene were for many years the subject of controversial opinions. It is only in recent years that there have been papers published suggesting the occurrence in the Antarctic climate of phases similar to those in other parts of the Earth, including LIA and Mediaeval Warm Period MWP. Evidence has been collected from ice cores and sea sediments (mainly geochemistry and granulometry). Our research area is the proximal glacial environment inside Admiralty Bay fjord on King George Island. Oceanographic surveys were conducted over several years (2006–2010) to provide the scientific background to the subsequent paleoecological studies on marine bottom sediments. Besides a classic geochemical and micropaleontological investigation we also applied in our sedimentological project some specific biogeochemical markers inferred from oceanographic research previously conducted in the same area.

Study area

Admiralty Bay (AB) is the largest bay of the South Shetlands Islands, covering an area of 122 km2. It is a narrow fjord deeply incised into the volcanic basement (Fig. 1). The central part of AB reaches a depth of 530 m; but in the marginal part it branches into three more shallow inlets between 50 and 200 m deep.

174 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 1. Study area. White dots mark the study stations in the ClicOpen and IMCOAST projects. White lines mark the transects of sediment cores collected in the BALIA project. Ice front retreats between 1956–1995 are indicated by white areas. The delineation of glacier drainage areas (black line) was taken from Simões et al. (1999).

Exchange of water between Admiralty Bay and the open ocean depends on tides and wind, and is one of the most important factors affecting the hydrography in this fjord. Surface water movements, persisting down to a depth of 10–12 m, are mostly determined by the strength and direction of strong katabatic winds. These winds cause an outflow of surface layers towards Bransfield Strait. When the wind speed is low, the movement of both surface and deeper layers are dependent on tides (Pruszak 1980, Robakiewicz, Suszczewski 1999). Chlorophyll a content in the euphotic zone (approximately 40 m deep) in Admiralty Bay during summer is usually low (0.5 μg L–1) and generally lower than in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) flowing through Bransfield Strait (Do- manov, Lipski 1990), however it is distinguished by high nutrient levels. The strong south-westerly katabatic winds induce deep vertical mixing of the water column in 175 New perspectives in polar research the fjord throughout the summer season, enriching the upper layer with nutrients. In addition, resuspension of sediments in shallow areas of the bay supplies the surface layer with nutrients. Phytoplankton flourish only in the time frame between the melting of sea ice and subsequent enhanced water turbidity. Admiralty Bay is periodically covered by fast ice during winter but most of the time it has open water with drifting ice pack and icebergs. However, from time to time the fast ice remains inside the fjord for a longer time, sometimes even throughout winter time. General- ly, the low extent and short duration of fast ice during winter, deep mixing and light attenuation combined with high water turbidity during summer alter the phytoplankton species composition, favouring phytoflagellates over larger diatom species. Almost half the shoreline in Admiralty Bay is occupied by tidewater glaciers and floating glaciers that have been significantly retreating during the last five decades (Braun, Gossmann 2002, Pudełko 2008) (Fig.1). The glaciers surrounding Ad- miralty Bay are characterized by an equilibrium line elevated to 150 m above sea level (Domack, Ishman 1993). The thickness of the bottom sediment is 70 m in the mouth of the bay (Griffith, Anderson 1989). Sedimentation is affected by meltwater processes, and an abundance of volcanoclastics, which are dispersed by estuarine circulation, and, periodically, strong bottom water currents (Domack, Ishman 1993). In some areas, gravity flows may be a common phenomenon (Straten 1996).

ClicOPEN and IMOCOAST oceanographic projects

The influence of recent climate changes on the Antarctic marine ecosystem was the main subject of two international projects with the participation of Polish scientists. 1) 2006–2009 Project of International Polar Year, IPY ClicOPEN (DWM/268/IPY/2006): Impact of climate induced glacial melting on marine and terrestric coastal communities on a gradient along the Western Antarctic Peninsula (international coordinator: Doris Abele, AWI). A Polish group carried out the subproject “Impact of climate warming on terrestrial and marine ecosystems in maritime Antarctic” (coordinator: Andrzej Tatur). 2) 2010–2013 Project of European Science Foundation, ESF-IMCOAST (Polar- CLIMATE-PP-001): Impact of climate induced glacial melting on marine coastal systems in the Western Antarctic Peninsula region (international coordinator: Doris Abele, AWI). Polish groups are working on the subproject “Climatic constraints of productivity and trophic structure in an Antarctic fjord ecosystem” (Admiralty Bay, King George Island) (coordinators: Agnieszka Wasiłowska and Andrzej Tatur).

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The scientific basis of the projects Previous investigations of phytoplankton were carried out in Admiralty Bay in different field seasons between 1996 and 2007 and summarized by Kopczyńska (2008). Results have revealed a year–round numerical dominance of nano-size cells, mainly of nanoflagellates, over micro-size cells such as diatoms. A decrease was observed in the contribution of diatoms to the total cell number (from 44% diatoms in the period 1996–98 to 10% diatoms in 2003–2007). Chlorophyll a concentrations in Admiralty Bay have not exceeded 2.0 µg L–1 (Lipski 1987). Randomly performed primary productivity measurements in Admiralty Bay showed low values, e.g. total annual productivity in surface waters in the centre of the bay was estimated at 66 µg C L–1 (Domanov, Lipski 1990). The sea water of this region is considered a high-nutrient-low chlorophyll (HNLC) area, and the supply of iron may gain primary production (Serebrennikova et al. 2008, Vernet et al. 2008), usually limited by the availability of light during bloom. However, it seems likely that iron, common in mineral dust and suspension discharge, was in excess and does not limit the production in the region of WAP (Brandini 1993, Smith et al. 2008, Ardelan 2010). The availability of light has to be a limiting factor for productivity, and this conclusion also results from empiric data (Holm-Hansen 1997). The bloom event developed in the WAP region at the edge of melting landfast-ice. That zone is fertilized due to the liberation of nutrients, micronutrients (including Fe rich dust) and biota cumulated in brine inclusions of winter ice (Ligowski et al. 1992, Alderkamp et al. 2012). The sea ice plays a crucial role in the quantitative and qualitative distribution and species composition of phytoplankton. In the fast ice formation process, vast numbers of algal cells and nutrients are incorporated into the ice, creating a potential inoculum for the algal bloom of the following summer (Garrison et al. 1983, 1989, Wilson et al. 1986). The fast-ice base supports a highly productive algal mat composed largely of diatoms. As the fast ice melts in the Antarctic summer, these multiplying cells are released into a temporarily strati- fied water column, stabilized by the fresher water from the melting sea ice. The Antarctic ecosystem dynamics are thus dominated by the seasonal and inter-annual variation in sea ice extent (Duklow 2007).

Field activity and laboratory methods As part of the ClicOPEN and IMCOAST projects we conducted field cam- paigns (2006–2007, 2009–2010) studying phytoplankton distribution and diversity in Admiralty Bay (King George Island, South Shetland) in connection with the physical and chemical properties of the water column and with climatic/ /meteorological factors. Complete profiles of water column were sampled from Admiralty Bay at six stations during summer seasons 2006/2007 and 2009/2010 (Fig. 1). The stations

177 New perspectives in polar research were located along a transect from the front of the glaciers in the inner part of Ezcur- ra Inlet up to the mouth of Admiralty Bay and finally in Bransfield Strait. The investigation included CTD casts. The following parameters were determined at all the stations: water column properties (turbidity, temperature, salinity, light regimes), nutrient concentrations (NO3, NO2, PO4, SiO2), phytoplankton biomass distribution (measured as a concentration of chlorophyll a and carbon biomass), concentration of algal pigments (using high performance liquid chromatography – HPLC), taxonomic composition of phytoplankton assemblages (calculated from concentration of diag- nostic pigments using the CHEMTAX program and complemented by details of microscopic analysis of nanoplankton). Meteorological data (air temperature, wind speed and direction, cloud cover) were taken daily at Arctowski Station using an automatic Davis Vantage pro 2 meteorological station. The statistical analyses of collected data revealed the relationship between environmental factors defining climatic scenarios, the chemical and physical properties of the water column, and phytoplankton biomass/composition.

Results Our study of phytoplankton in the summer season 2006/2007 shows rather low biomass and composition, similar to that during previous investigations in this area. Diatoms comprised only 0.5–10% of the cell numbers and provided a maximum of 11.5 µg L–1 cell carbon (23.4%), whereas prymnesiophytes constituted 37.6 µg C L–1. A small bloom was observed in the central Admiralty Bay in January with chlorophyl values of ~ 1.0 µg L–1. Diatoms included nano- and micro-size species, mainly Thalassiosira spp. and Pseudo-nitzschia spp. (mainly P. lineola). The research during summer 2009–10 revealed a completely unexpected extremely high bloom event. The January 2010 values of chlorophyll a (maxima; 8–24 µg L–1) (Fig 2) and cell carbon (150 µg C L–1) were the highest ever recorded in Admiralty Bay. The bloom appeared along with a rise in temperatures, about two weeks after the break-up of land-fast ice cover into pack ice in the Ezcurra Inlet. The highest concentrations of phytoplankton forming the bloom were noted just below an extremely thin upper mixed layer of water, or even from the surface, whereas during other terms the highest concentration of phytoplankton occurred in a deeper subsurface layer, usually below 20 m. The algal populations were usually dominated by nanoflagellates, mainly Prymnesiothytes (December and February), but during a high bloom (between Janu- ary 20 and the end of January) diatoms provided almost 100% of the phytoplankton biomass (Fig. 2). The diatom assemblage was composed mainly of two micro-sized, chain-forming species of Thalassiosira ritscheri and T. antarctica. The species were apparently in a very good physiological state and in a phase of good logarithmic growth. The diatom bloom in the late phase was restricted to Ezcurra Inlet.

178 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 2. Data for water profile in four terms for station B: chlorophyll content, calculated taxonomic groups of phytoplankton and phosphates.

At the beginning of March, the diatoms bloom entirely disappeared and subsurface lenses of water dominated by cryptophytes and prymnesiophytes were recognized in the fjord. The concentration of chlorophyll returned to regular values for this area, ranging from 0.3 to 1.5 mg/m3 (Fig. 2). The intense diatom bloom in season 2009/2010 is still not completely ex- plainable (Schloss 2014). Several environmental factors may have been involved, such as weather conditions, ice cover duration and water column properties operating in concert. In 2009 the duration of winter ice cover was untypically long (all winter) and at the beginning of summer a large part of Admiralty Bay was still ice covered. Fast ice covered Ezcurra Inlet until the end of the year. At the beginning of January, ice melted and highly productive waters expanded from Ezcurra Inlet to central Admiralty Fjord, while the pack ice derived from disintegrated fast ice was still abundant in Ezcurra Inlet. The melting pack ice was maintained in Ezcurra Inlet due to the prevailing weak west winds and because of the narrow shape of the inlet that was in the shade of the fjord’s high steep slopes, protecting the waters against west winds. The close and stable hydrographic system was therefore temporarily maintained by limited mixing. The melting fast ice increased water turbidity and lowered surface salinity (<34 PSU), supporting the formation of a shallow upper mixed layer at 1.5 m, and thus increased water column stability, which is a prerequi- site for the development of a sustained diatom bloom. On the other hand, a shallow euphotic zone, low transparency and high turbidity are suggested as the major factors finally hindering (at the end of the bloom event) growth of diatoms and promot-

179 New perspectives in polar research ing nanoflagellates better adapted to dim light conditions. Moreover, the nutrient profiles may suggest that during the high bloom (2009/2010) an unusually low level of phosphates for this area consumed by intense primary production (<0.2 µmol/dm3) could also be considered as a factor limiting primary production centered around the area of melting pack ice (originating from fast ice) (Fig. 2).

BALIA paleoecological project based on marine sediment cores

The extent of sea ice (especially coastal fast ice) is particularly sensitive to climate fluctuation. These assumptions inspired us to undertake a study of reconstruction of climate fluctuations over the past millennium along the WAP region on the basis of fast ice dependent markers recorded in sediment cores extracted from Admiralty Bay as part of the current (2013–2016) project – “Response of fjord ecosystem in the South Shetlands on decadal to millennial environmental changes: record from marine sediment cores”, financed by the National Science Centre (NSC -2012/05/B/ST10/01130), coordinator: Prof. Andrzej Tatur. The acronym BALIA refers to the Bay Admiralty Little Ice Age. The aim of the project is to examine the climate history in West Antarctica with special attention to confirmation (or not) of the occurrence of the Little Ice Age cold period, and recent warming in that region. There is also the fundamental scientific question of whether this environmental and climatic history is recorded in the biochemical proxies selected by us and sought out along sediment cores. A positive answer to this question will allow us to properly understand the functioning of this fjord ecosystem in maritime Antarctica.

The scientific basis of projects The examination of 50 globally distributed Holocene paleoclimate records from ice cores revealed six climate cycles – polar cooling corresponding to tropical aridity is usually intercalated with the opposite scenario (Mayewski et al. 2004). The historical climate variability covers the Medieval Warm Period following the Little Ice Age, and finally the increase in global temperature since the mid-19th century. This climatic scenario covering historical time was recently concluded for Antarcti- ca from a detailed study of ice core data (Bertler et al. 2011). The glacial systems in the WAP and on the nearby islands demonstrate direct responses to the most recent climatic warming, including an increasingly rapid retreat of glacier frontal positions (Rau et al. 2004, Cook et al. 2005), break-up and disintegration of ice shelves and speed-up of inland ice masses (Vaughan, Doake 1996, Scambos et al. 2003, Angelis, Skvarca 2004, Rignot et al. 2004, Pritchard, Vaughan 2007, Humbert, Braun 2008, Braun, Humbert 2009), as well as increased melt water production that contributes to the rising global sea level (Vaughan 2005, 2006). Higher air temperatures on the northern Antarctic Peninsula have resulted in 180 New perspectives in polar research longer summer melt periods, higher melt rates and larger areas affected by melting (e.g. Vaughan 2006, Cook et al. 2005, Rau, Braun 2002). Furthermore, the annual variation in surface sea temperatures is now over 3–5ºC (Barnes et al. 2006, Stam- merjohn et al. 2008) in the WAP region and major changes in the pelagic systems are already becoming apparent (Dierssen et al. 2002, Ducklow et al. 2007). Changes in the taxonomic composition of the phytoplankton community cause changes in the quality and quantity of food supplies for zooplankton, as well as for benthic filter and detritus feeders. The reduction in sea ice, observed in several places since the 1970s (Parkinson 2002), correlates with a loss of krill stock density, likely to entail severe changes within coastal Antarctic food webs (Loeb et al. 1997, Quetin et al. 2001, Atkinson et al. 2002, Schofield 2010), because krill forms the critical trophic link between phytoplankton and predators. Significant ecosystem changes caused by the most recent climate warming should be reflected in the sediments (Yoon et al. 2000, Khim, Yoon 2003). The fjords of the South Shetland Islands have received considerable attention over the past decades, since it was believed that they may provide some of the most complete and detailed sedimentary records of the paleoclimate. The KGI fjords carry a clear fingerprint of meltwater-induced fine-grained sediment. The supply of this sediment is largely governed by tidewater glaciers. The dynamic behavior of the tidewater glaciers is climate controlled which thus allows reconstruction of the climate development in this area via the sedimentary record. The course of environmental change in this region may also be inferred from the vertical distribution of the foraminifer Cribroelphidium webbi (Majewski, Tatur 2009) in sediment. This foraminifer could be considered a facies marker associated with the retreating glacier fronts documented for Admiralty Bay by Braun and Gossmann (2002). The assumption presented should help to reconstruct the timing of glacier retreat in the proximal glacial environments during the upper Holocene. The change from stony diamicton and subglacial sedimentation to glaciomarine mud is paralleled in most of the cores by an up- ward increase in pigments and biogenic silica concentrations, fining of grain size, and increase in biotic elements, which usually occur in sediments accumulated on deglaciated marine areas (Gingele et al. 1997, Zajączkowski 2008). Significantly less information is available on the occurrence of the Little Ice Age (LIA) and the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) in Antarctica (Bartler et al. 2011, Abele 2013). Until recently, it was thought that the LIA did not affect this part of the world. Comprehensive studies of sediment cores covering a time span up to 1000 years back may give a clear picture of past climate changes and their influence on the coastal fjord ecosystem, which may enable anticipation of future ecological changes caused by climate fluctuations.

181 New perspectives in polar research

Field research and laboratory methods During Austral summer 2010/2011, bottom sediment cores along two transects were taken in Admiralty Bay using a Danish gravity corer. The transects from both Martel Inlet and Ezcurra Inlet were from the front of retreating glaciers in inlets facing the open bay (Fig. 3A, B). The age of the cores selected will be determined by 210Pb and 137Cs stratification. Radiocarbon dating will also be used eventually, although this method is not very useful in the environment of the maritime Antarctic (old ocean water effect, poverty of organic matter, dating of carbonates). Age estimation might be supported by the traces of annual lamination preserved in some cores. Geochemical and micropaleontological analysis along sediment cores should provide several proxies related to the intensity of deglaciation (grain size, rate of sedimentation, stable isotopes, indices of weathering intensity, mineral composition of clay fraction), productivity and composition of phytoplankton in the sea (chlorophyll a, BSi, OM, stable isotopes) fluctuation of ecosystem structure (HPLC groups of photosynthetic pigments, diatoms, foraminifers, ostracods), density of ice pack (IP 25 – isoprenoid alkene determined by the gas chromatography method produced

Fig. 3. Transect, sampling sites and sediment cores extracted from the bottom of Ezcurra Inlet (A) and Martel Inlet (B).

182 New perspectives in polar research by sea ice algae, foraminifers, diatoms). All listed geochemical and biological markers of environmental change are directly or indirectly related to past climate changes, but a reconstruction of climate fluctuations is the main goal of the project.

Preliminary results The cores collected are homogenous, mainly muddy diamictite, occasionally with horizons enriched with organic detritus or amorphous organic matter and pebbles (dropstones) that stop downloading of several cores. Morphology of the sediment showed often parallel structures, sometimes even regular negligible lamination visible in places. This observation suggests an undisturbed stratigraphic order in the sediment cores. An initial approximate estimation of age was performed by counting the possibly annual lamination and using partially published 210Pb and 14C data. The results of this operation suggest that at their base the longest sediment cores (>1m) may even reach the sediments of the Medieval Warm Period. Distribution of HPLC pigments along the cores shows a repeating pattern with surprisingly high peaks against a uniform low background. This might possibly be a record (Fig. 4) of particularly cold periods during the LIA with permanent fast ice during winter time followed by intense blooming in the early summer. Moreover, chl-a peaks are syn- chronized with relatively enhanced fucoxanthin content. The foraminifers are abundant in sediments and some horizons contain the foraminifer Cribroelphidium webbi (Majewski, Tatur 2009, Demianiuk 2014) marking possible glacier front movement. The results of extractable organic matter obtained using gas chromatography indicated variation in the total concentration of alkanes along the core, as well as variable distribution of components of nonpolar fraction, such as isoprenoids and other branched hydrocarbons. Some ratios among the organic compounds investigated seem to change regularly with depth, therefore we will test these as a possible tool for extrapolating age, a particularly important estimation for ages older than the range of 210Pb. The rest of the results are expected in the second year of the project.

Conclusions

The melting of long lasting winter fast ice in Ezcurra Inlet at the beginning of summer 2009/2010 triggered a diatom bloom dominated by phytoplankton during the summer season in the Admiralty fjord. The course of the summer succession in this year was substantially different than during usual seasons free of fast ice with lower primary production, and evenly disturbed over the summer multi species composition. The high abundance of phytoplankton assemblages at the edge of melting winter fast ice has rarely been observed on King George Island recently, although it is common in the colder southernmost areas along the west side of the Ant- arctic Peninsula (for example Marguerite Bay, Paradise Cove).

183 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. Concentration of chlorophyll a and fucoxanthin (pigment characteristic for diatoms) in sediment cores no 36 and 40 in Martel Inlet. LIA – Little Ice Age. Sediment core no. 40. The upper limit of the Little Ice Age was determined on the basis of 210Pb, the lower limit was estimated by extrapolating down the rate of sedimentation in the lowest part of 210Pb dated section (that date is also supported by the annual (?) lamination of sediment). Sediment core no. 36 has not yet been dated.

Less frequent summer ice-edge blooms may be expected with climate warming and may be responsible for a decreasing trend in primary production in the coastal area of Southern Oceans during the recent warmer century, as suggested in the paper by Boyce (2010). The data provided helps better understand the changes in the composition of phytoplankton communities suggested by Montes-Hugo et al. (2009). This model case study (summer 2009/2010) described the oceanographic scenario occurring more frequently in the time preceding rapid global warming. Accelerated warming has been documented during recent decades on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula (Abram et al. 2013, Steig et al. 2013). Seasons with diatom blooms at the beginning of summer should be more frequent after colder winters, which should have been more frequent during the Little Ice Age. Preliminary results of chlorophyll a and fucoxanthin concentrations along the sediment cores strongly suggest the occurrence of several periods with enhanced

184 New perspectives in polar research phytoplankton productivity dominated by diatoms during the Little Ice Age. By analogy with recently observed rules of diatom-rich bloom formation at the edge of fast ice, we may suppose that the frequency of years with long-lasting fast ice in winter was higher during the LIA than before and after, and that climatic mode could be typical for cooling during the LIA in Antarctica. The occurrence of the LIA has not been well documented in Antarctica yet. It was commonly believed that it probably did not affect that region. Only recently have papers appeared giving a different opinion. Preliminary results confirmed the assumption that sedimentary pigments may be used as a climatic marker of that climatic event in that particular polar scenery. For better proof supporting the occurrence of the LIA in Antarctica we should wait for the rest of the geochemical and micropaleontological data.

Acknowledgments. Field studies were carried out during the 32rd and 34th Antarctic Expeditions of the Polish Academy of Sciences to Arctowski Station organized by the Department of Antarctic Biology as part of the IPY-ClicOPEN and EU- IMCOAST projects, and continued afterwards at the Department of Geology, War- saw University, where they were additionally supported by an NCN BALIA grant. We are very grateful to the personnel of the Arctowski Station for their great support in the field, especially to Tadeusz Cieśluk operator of “Sea Elephant” boat workable flawlessly throughout the job. Comments by the reviewer improved the manuscript and are gratefully acknowledged.

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188 New perspectives in polar research

Maria Drewniak1, Mateusz Czesław Strzelecki2, Witold Szczuciński 3

1 Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan Institute of Geoecology and Geoinformation 27 Dzięgielowa st, 61-680 Poznań, Poland [email protected] 2 University of Wroclaw, Institute of Geography and Regional Development Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wroclaw, Poland [email protected] 3 Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan, Institute of Geology 16 Maków Polnych st, 61-606 Poznań, Poland [email protected]

Factors controlling beach development in Vaigat Strait, West Greenland – insights from automated grain size analysis

Abstract: Development of polar beach systems is quite different from the lower latitudes coastlines, since due to the presence of shore ice, the wave action is usually limited only to short summer season. It often results in poorly developed coarse grained beaches. However, the controlling factors and the rate of beach development are poorly understood. Here we present a case study on development of a new beach along the Vaigat Strait coast (West Greenland), which was affected by major landslide and tsunami in November 2000 AD. The geomorphological observations during the field survey were accompanied by a novel in situ automated grain size analysis applying digital photography and Sedimetrics software. Moreover control samples for standard sieving grain size analyses were collected. The beach formed during the last 13 years were characterised by poorly sorted sediments composed mostly of coarse and very coarse sand and gravels. The beach were from 20 m to more than 100 m wide and were characterised by various cross-beach sediment variability trends. One of the most prominent alongshore trends was related to steady improvement of beach sediment sorting with distance from the cliffs cut in the recent landslide deposits. The study revealed that under given similar oceanographic and climatic conditions the local sediment supply and sediment accommodation space are the most important controlling factors for the 189 New perspectives in polar research beach development. Comparison of the grain size analyses techniques revealed that the application of Sedimetrics automated grain size analyses is very useful and efficient way to analyse coarse grain sediments of polar coastal zone. The major limitation of the method is the restriction of the sampling to the surface sediments only.

Keywords: Greenland, beach, sediments, grain size, coastal evolution

Introduction

Beach systems have been previously studied in many parts of the Arctic region (e.g. Rex 1964, King, Buckley 1968, McCann, Owens 1969, Rosen 1978, Tay- lor, McCann 1978, Reinson, Rosen 1982, Reimnitz et al. 1990, Campeau, Héquette 1995, St-Hilaire-Gravel et al. 2010). Generally, it has been found that the Arctic beaches are narrow and consist of coarse sand, gravel and cobbles delivered mainly from local sources by meltwater streams, slope processes, as well as from more distant sources due to sediment transport by sea ice and icebergs. According to Barn- hart et al. (2014) the polygenetic shore ice cover plays a crucial role as a link between Arctic coastal and nearshore zones (Rodzik, Zagórski 2009). The typical Arc- tic beach is a rather poorly developed beach system controlled by ice and frost processes and consisting of a mosaic of poorly sorted sediments of various origins (glacial, periglacial and marine sources). Prolonged sea-ice cover, binding of sediments by permafrost, constraining topography of many fjords and embayments often re- strict the influence of large storm waves on coastal morphodynamics. The Arctic beaches are usually developed during few months of summer period when they are affected by a direct wave action. Beach landforms (e.g. cusps, berms, ridges, spits, dunes) and acting processes (erosion, transport and deposition by waves, tides and currents) are similar to those from lower latitudes but their effects on beach morphodynamics are modified by permafrost, frost action, various types of ice, snow cover and glacial history (sediment supply and topography). Recent decrease in sea-ice presence and extent in the Arctic caused significant acceleration coastal processes (both erosional and depositional) often affecting human activities. Despite the rate and dramatic character of changes observed over the last two decades, in many terms the Arctic coastlines belong to the least studied coasts worldwide (Overduin et al. 2014). The beach systems of western Greenland are not exceptional in this case. The previous studies of the Greenland coastal systems focused mostly on their development in terms of postglacial sea level changes (e.g. Rasch, Nielsen 1994, 1995, Rasch et al. 1997, Long et al. 2003, 2011, 2012), climatic and sea-ice record (e.g. Bennike 2004, Mason 2010, Funder et al. 2011), development of Arctic delta systems (e.g. Nielsen 1994, Kroon et al. 2011), or impact of high waves formed by calving tidewater cliffs (Nielsen 1992). However,

190 New perspectives in polar research very little attention was paid to factors controlling beach development and beach sediment characteristics. One of the practical reasons for limited number of studies of Arctic beach sediments is their coarse-grained nature. Standard analyses of coarse-grained sediments require large samples and are often difficult to be conducted during expeditions due to logistic constrains. Many polar areas are also protected by law and often large volume sampling techniques are discouraged. Thus, application of new technique of grain size data collection based on taking standardised digital photographs in situ seem to be promising time-efficient and non-invasive approach for grain size analyses of coarse grained polar beaches. In this paper we describe young beaches developed along Vaigat Strait in Western Greenland after landslide-generated tsunami in November 2000 (Dahl- Jensen et al. 2004). The various parts of this coast are affected by periodic (summer meltwater streams) and event-driven supply (due to debris flows and landslides). However, the single major sediment source is provided by wave erosion of large Paatuut landslide which reached the coast and generated the tsunami eroding the pre-existing beaches. This provides a unique opportunity to assess beach and beach sediments development during the last c. 13 years. The major objectives of the present paper are twofold: – to document sediments and assess driving factors for the development of young beach system in Vaigat Strait, Greenland; – to test applicability of new technique of automated grain size analysis with SEDIMETRICS software as a potential tool in analyses of coarse grain sediments in polar regions.

Study area

The study area includes portion of the northern coast of Vaigat (Sullorsuaq) Strait, east from Pattuut landslide site (Fig. 1). The Vaigat Strait separates Nuussuaq Peninsula (part of Greenland island) in the northeast from Qeqertarsuaq Island in the southwest and connects inner Disko Bay with Baffin Bay. The strait is on average 25 km and 300 m deep (Andersen 1981). The bedrock geology of Nuussuaq Peninsula is dominated by Cretaceous rocks including intercalated mudstones, sandstones and coal seams, covered by Pal- aeogene basalt formations providing high relief with peaks of above 1800 m a.s.l. located app. 5 km from the shoreline (Henriksen et al. 2000). The steep slopes and intercalation of mudstones within the rock sequence made this area to be affected by relatively frequent landslides, debris flows and rock avalanches (Pedersen et al. 2002). The largest recent large rock avalanche and landslide of approximately 90

191 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 1. Study area and examples of the studied beach profiles. a) location of the study area within Green- land; b) Vaigat Strait with marked parts of the coast – the insets show location of the studied transects; the images are based on Google Earth; c) example of the beach transect No. A, close to the cliff in the Pattuut landslide; d) beach transect No. J located several meter westward from a meltwater river mouth, in the foreground is shown the frame used for scale for the images which were taken for automated grain size analysis ; e) beach transect No. L near the edge of the sediments of alluvial fan.

192 New perspectives in polar research million m3 of rock took place at Paatuut (Fig. 1) on 21st November 2000 and triggered a tsunami with maximum local run-up height of 50 m (Dahl-Jensen et al. 2004). The resulting tsunami largely eroded the beaches in the study area (Szczuciński et al. 2012). Thus the studied coastal system is considered to be young as it has reestablished during the last decade. The recovery has been partly due to large sediment supply provided to the coastal zone by the landslide. The area is located in arctic maritime climate zone with annual air temperature (for Qeqertarsuaq) being –4.4°C (Nielsen et al. 2001) and average annual precipitation 436 mm (Hansen et al. 2006). The area is in the permafrost zone and the maximum thickness of the active layer observed in sandy coastal sediments being up to 180 cm (Humlum 1998). The seasonal sea-ice cover in the Vaigat strait is between January and May (Mosbech et al. 2000). Tidal amplitude is about 1.8 m during spring tide. The dominating waves affecting the studied coast are swell waves coming from Baffin Bay along the strait and generating longshore sediment drift in south east direction, as evidenced from coastal landforms, e.g. close to the transect D (Fig. 1). The waves from other directions are relatively small due to restricted fetch length and in case of waves from the east and south east the wave energy dissipation is enhanced by interactions with numerous large icebergs.

Methods

Sampling The field study was carried out in July 2013. The sampling was preceded by a geodetic survey with differential GPS of 1 to 3 cm accuracy and analyses of available satellite images to document the morphology of the investigated coast. The sediment sampling for grain size analyses was conducted in two ways along 17 cross beach profiles. The first way of sampling was through digital recording of beach surface sediments on an area of 0.5 m2. These data were analysed later on in Sedi- metrics Digital Gravelometer. On average 5 to 9 samples were taken in regular spac- ings along a single profile, and 96 in total. In case of profiles with higher sediment variability the sampling frequency was increased. The samples were taken from all subaerial parts of the beach, from low tide limit to the storm beach ridge. Addition- ally from 30 of the investigated sites samples of about 200 g were collected for standard grain size analysis by sieving.

Grain size analysis – Sedimetrics Beach surfaces were photographed using Panasonic DMC-TZ30 digital camera (focal length 5 mm). All images have been taken from 1.5 m and focused on a beach surface delimited by 0.5 m x 0.5 m Forestry Suppliers drawing square. Lat- er, all the images have been transferred to Sedimetrics Digital Gravelometer (DG) software (www.sedimetrics.com). It enables accurate estimation of the composition 193 New perspectives in polar research of unconsolidated sediments directly from digital photographs, and the construction of a grain-size distribution for a sample. Each image is first converted to grayscale, then corrected for radial lens distortion and for the camera axis not being perpendicular to the surface. In the following steps are identified and measured individual grains. Full details of the image-processing methods are in Graham et al. (2005a, 2005b).

Grain size analysis – sieving The samples were dried and sieved on a set of 16 sieves with mesh size from 63 to 16000 microns. Five samples containing mud fraction were additionally weighted and washed on 63 microns sieve prior to dry sieving analysis. The data are presented as weight %.

Grain size data analyses All of the results are represented using a phi scale. The conversion of the metric scale into phi values is based on an equation:

Φ = −log2 D , where D equals the size in mm. The grain size statistics (mean, sorting, skewness and kurtosis) were calculated using the logarithmic method of moments with Gradi- stat software (Blott, Pye 2001).

Results

All together 17 beach profiles were studied along the Vaigat Strait from NW to SE. Profiles A to E were located next to the Pattuut landslide (Fig. 1), while the remaining profiles were adjacent to alluvial fans, lagoon barrier and small river- mouths. Beach profiles nearby the landslide and alluvial fans were shorter (up to 20 m) and more steep. The studied beaches are composed of mainly of coarse sand and gravels, however, near the landslide there are basaltic boulders as well (Fig. 1c). Below follows a short description of all the studied profiles. All the grain size statistics data are shown on Fig. 2, while profile-averaged grain size statistics are presented on Fig. 3. The most western profile (A) was located next to a cliff eroded in landslide diamicton sediments. The beach was relatively narrow (app. 20 m) and steep. Along the transect were studied 5 sites for automated grain size analyses. The results revealed that the sediments mean grain size was in range of coarse and very coarse sand (0.14 to –0.42 phi) and sand contributed between 65 to 85%. All the sediments were poorly sorted. The grain size data revealed that the samples from lower portion of the profile were slightly finer, better sorted and characterised by more symmet- rical distributions. Two samples analysed were sieved and revealed similar grain

194 New perspectives in polar research size range, however the sorting was poorer and the analyses were partly biased due to contribution of some bigger pebbles. The profile B was located app. 400 m eastward, where the cliff at the landward limit of the beach became less steep. The beach was of similar size to that studied in the profile A. The 5 sites analysed for automated grain size analyses revealed mean grain size in very coarse sand fraction (from –0.06 to –0.46 phi). The coarsest sediments were found at the landward limit of the profile close to the cliff. The grain size analyses was also made by sieving for the two samples from the profile and revealed very similar distributions to these obtained from automated analyses (Fig. 2c). The profile-averaged sediment sorting for profiles A and B were the poorest among all the studied profiles (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Comparison of the grain size analyses applying sieving and automated grain size analysis with Sedimetrics. a) co-variate plot of mean grain size and sorting; b) co-variate plot of mean skewness and kurtosis; c) comparison of grain size distributions in sample B1 using standard sievieng method and Sedimetrics; d) comparison of grain size distributions in sample H1 using standard sieving method and Sedimetrics. The grain size statistics (a) and (b)are presented in [phi] scale and the grain size distributions in microns (c) and (d). Note the logarithmic horizontal scale in (c) and (d). Vertical scale in (c) and (d) is expressed in % (weight) for sieving results and % (area) for Sedimetrics.

195 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. Alongshore changes in beach sediments properties. a) Google Earth image of the studied coast; b) variations in mean grain size averaged for the transects; c) variations in grain size sorting averaged for the transects. Each transect includes 5 to 9 samples. Transect A is located next to Paatuut landslide from November 2000. Longshore sediment transport direction is from NW (left side of the image) towards SE (right side).

The next profile (C) was located almost 1 km eastward from the profile A. It was on a beach formed between two cliffs in landslide deposits. The beach was slightly wider (app. 30 m) and more gentle in comparison to the previous profiles.

196 New perspectives in polar research

Along the profile 5 sites were studied with automated grain size analysis and 2 using sieving analysis. The mean grain size ranged between –0.05 and –0.39 phi (very coarse sand) and revealed slight landward fining. The sediments were poorly sorted. The profile D was located app. 650 m further eastward. The beach was about 20 m narrow. Along the profile 5 sites were measured with automated grain size analyses and two samples were analysed by sieving. The mean grain size ranged between –0.11 and –0.47 phi and the contribution of sand fraction varied between 70 and 77%. The finest samples were at the seaward and landward ends of the profile. All the sediments were poorly sorted. The averaged mean grain size from profile A to D revealed slight coarsening trend (Fig. 3). The next profile (E) was located app. 400 m eastward near an edge of the minor landslide. The beach was about 20 m wide and was the mean grain size measured in 5 sites revealed slight coarsening and decrease in sorting in landward direction. The mean grain size ranged between 0.37 and –0.33 phi and sediments were classified as poorly sorted. The profile F was located about next 400 m eastward between the landslide and an alluvial fan. The beach width was significantly bigger than in case of the previously described profiles and reached app. 80 m. Along the profile 7 sites were analysed using automated grain size analyses and 6 were sampled for sieving. The mean grain size was in range of –0.06 to –0.43 phi in automated grain size analysis and from 1 to –0.25 phi in sieving analyses. The grain size distributions were with single mode in case of automated grain size analysis and bimodal in case of sieving analysis. The mean grain size along the profile varied with the finest sediments found in the middle of the profile. All of sediments were poorly sorted and revealed slight decrease in sorting in landward direction. The following profile G was about 750 m eastward and was followed by closely spaced (every 300 m) profiles H and I. This part of the coast was characterised by relatively wide beach (app. 80 m) adjacent to alluvial fan and meltwater river mouth (between profiles H and I). These three profiles revealed similar grain size characteristics with the finest profile-averaged mean grain size among the all the studied profiles. Along the profiles 4 to 6 samples were analysed using the automated grain size analysis and 2 to 4 samples using sieving technique. The major differences between the grain size distribution using both techniques included the common bimodality of the distributions obtained using sieving technique and the grain size class of the principle mode being in coarser grain size class in the automated grain size analyses (Fig. 2d). The mean grain size range in the three profiles was similar and ranged between 0.64 and –0.39 phi; all the samples belonged poorly sorted class. The grain size variability along the profiles was relatively small and irregular. The finest sediments were found at the landward end of the profiles and in all the profiles a slight decrease in sorting in landward direction was observed.

197 New perspectives in polar research

The next two transects (J and K) were located more than 1.6 km eastward along to an alluvial fan edge and were app. 300 m apart from each other. The beach was relatively wide, app. 80 m. The 8 and 6 sites were analysed applying automated grain size analyses along the profile J and K, respectively. The sediments in these transects were very similar, with the common range of mean grain size between 0.69 and –0.58 phi. These sediments contained up to 40% of gravel fraction and in comparison with the remaining studied beach profiles were among the coarsest and poorer sorted sediments (Fig. 3). In the both profiles the coarsest sediments were found in the middle parts of the profiles. The next three profiles (L, M and N) were closely spaced, app. 300 m from each other (Fig. 3). This part of the coast was characterised by the widest beach, reaching the width of 100 m and forming a part of barrier separating periodically flooded shallow lagoon. Along each of the profiles were studied 6 sites for automated grain size analysis. The profile-averaged mean grain sizes were very similar (Fig. 3) and the mean grain size for particular samples ranged between 0.19 and –0.55 phi. Across-beach grain size trends were irregular, however, in all the profiles the finest sediments were found at their the landward end. The most eastern beach profiles (O, P and R) were located app. 6 km away from the previous sites and were separated by costal cliffs formed in old landslide deposits. The beach width was on average about 60 m and sediment supply was provided mainly by a river reaching the coast between profiles O and P. Along the profiles O, P and R were studied 7, 5 and 6 sites for automated grain size analyses, respectively. Moreover 6 samples were taken for sieving in profiles O and P. The profile-averaged values of mean grain size and sorting were very similar for the transects and placed the profiles in a group of profiles with the coarsest grain size and the poorest sorting (Fig. 3). The range of mean grain size values for the automated grain size analysis was from 0.01 to –0.75 phi and for sieving analysis from 1.2 to –1.4 phi. The grain size distributions from the autuomated grain size analyses were unimodal. The grain size distributions from sieving were similar to them or characterised by bimodal distribution with the first and the second mode in grain size fractions respectively finer and coarser than the mode from automated grain size analysis. The profiles revealed relatively clear trend in landward fining of the sediments. All of the sediments were poorly sorted.

Discussion

Comparison of grain size analysis using standard sievieng and Sedimetrics methods The applied methods of grain size analysis using the sieving and Sedimetrics provided results in comparable ranges (Fig. 2), however some major discrepancies

198 New perspectives in polar research are observed. The latter are caused by a number of reasons (Graham et al. 2005a, 2005b). They include differences in the measured properties (weight vs volume), sample size and sample depth range. First of all, the sieving techniques provides information about the weight of particular grain size classes and the analysis in Sedimetrics gives information about volume of particular grain size fractions. Thus the results should not be expected to be identical. The volumetric results could be recalculated into weight % but it requires assumption of certain grain density. In case of polymineral (composed of grains of various densities) sediment this kind of calculations may generate additional source of uncertainties, thus should be avoided. Sample size seems to be critical factor for coarse grain size fraction analyses. The sediment samples used for sieving grain size analysis were relatively small (app. 200 g), smaller than recommended by the standards. It caused that the results were usually bimodal with secondary mode in coarse (gravel) fractions (Figures. 2c and d). This is explained by a contribution of even few gravels and pebbles which due to their significant weight may significantly bias the results. On the other hand, the results obtained by Sedimetrics provided grain size distributions close to normal distribution (Fig. 2) suggesting that applied sample size (0.5 m2) was satisfactory from statistical point of view. Bimodal distribution of most of the samples analysed by sieving resulted also in much bigger scattering of grain size statistic values (Fig. 2). The third factor is related to sampling depth range. Digital pictures analysed in Sedimetrics can only measure the grains on the surface. The subsurface sediment size distribution is unlikely to be the same as the surface distribution (Bunte, Abt 2001). The surface sediments are commonly enriched in large fractions forming a kind of residual pavement and causing a sheltering effect for smaller grains located between or under them. Sampling for sievieng is unlikely to include only the real surface grains, without a shallow subsurface components, thus it is not surprising that the grain size distribution of sievieng results have the primary mode in slightly finer fraction than the analyses of the surface sediments by Sedimetrics (see Figs. 2 c and d). The differences observed in grain size statistics of samples analysed by the both methods (Figures 2a and b) are the consequences of the stated above reasons. In particular the small sample sizes for sievieng technique seems to be critical, as it caused significant bias due to contribution of small amount of heavy coarse grains. The application of the Sedimetrics seems to be very promising for the analyses of grain size distributions of coarse sediments in such environments as beach. It allows to reduce costs, provides a relatively easy and fast overview of grain size changeability. The results obtained by Sedimetrics seems to be more representative for the real surface sediments and are statistically valid. Consequently the automated grain size analyses with Sedimetrics is found to be a very useful tool, which for cer-

199 New perspectives in polar research tain scientific goals may be more useful than previously used techniques. It cannot be used in case of analyses focused on subsurface sediments as well as for the surface sediment grain size analyses in areas of significant small-scale grain size variability.

Factors controlling beach development evident from grain size analyses The studied coast developed over the previous 13 years, after the large Paatuut landslide and tsunami, mainly due to seasonal activity of waves coming mainly from north west and generating longshore sediment transport in south east direction. The variations in development of beach morphology and their sediment composition come from several factors. Among them here are considered the following as the most important: sediment sources, nearshore bathymetry and shore orientation. The wave climate and sea-ice activity are considered to be more or less constant along the studied portion of the coast. As have been proved by several earlier studies, the sediment grain size distribution is an effect of multiple factors. Among them the sediment source, direction and duration of sediment transport, processes transporting and depositing the sediments, as well as post-depositional modifications have been long considered as the primary factors (e.g. Folk, Ward 1957, Friedman 1961, McLaren, Bowles 1985, McManus 1988). In case of beach environment the sediment sources may be variable including terrestrial and marine sources. The alongshore transport and sediment sorting includes not only sorting of the grains according to size and density along the transport path but also removal of finest and coarsest fraction in offshore (below wave base) and onshore (forming beach ridge) direction. Along the studied transects the grain size properties varied in various ways. In case of transects with active cliff at the landward side of the beach it was common to find the coarsest sediments under the cliff and at the water line (e.g., transects A and B). In case of relatively flat, aggrading coast close to rivers mouth (e.g., transect I) it was the most common to find a gentle fining trend with the increasing distance from water line. In several cases, however, the cross beach trends were not regular. It is partly an effect of mixing factors including tidal effect, most recent wave activity, contribution of coarser grains left from sea-ice and growlers of iceberg origin. To compare the beach sediments along the coast the transect-averaged grain size statistics have been compared (Fig. 3). The south eastern sediment transport direction have been found to be reflected in the averaged grain size statistics (Fig. 3). Particularly well it is seen in degree of sorting. The major source of sediments are cliffs cut in mass of Paatuut landslide sediments located north west from transect A. The beach sediments reveal a clear increase in sorting with distance alongshore (Fig. 3c) and to some extent also in grain size coarsening (Fig. 3b). The sorting improves along app. 6 km alongshore and reminds more or less stable further along the studied coast. The mean grain size is controlled also by additional sediment sources,

200 New perspectives in polar research namely meltwater streams and local coastal erosion, as well as preferential removal of finer or coarser fractions to deeper offshore. The influence of river supply is well visible in case of transects G, H and I, which are affected by local supply of finer sediments from nearby river (Fig. 3). These finer sediment fractions are not present in transects further to south-east likely due to their removal from the beach zone into deeper nearshore. Since the nearshore zone is relatively steep (water depths in order of several meters already about 10 m away from the beach) the sediments moved out of the beach zone are literally lost for the beach system on account of deeper fjord slopes. Thus, apart from the sediment sources and wave action, the nearshore bathymetry and related shore orientation seem to belong to the key factors shaping the beach zone. The latter factors are considered to be responsible in particular for the size of the beach as they control the accomodation space available for sediment accumulation.

Conclusions

The presented results lead to the following conclusions:  the application of Sedimetrics automated grain size analyses appears to be useful and efficient way to analyse coarse grain sediments of polar coastal zone,  the major limitations of this automated method are related to the limitation of the anlysis to the surface sediments only, thus often the sheltering effect provided by larger grains, pebbles may result in coarsening of the grain size distribution,  after 13 years from the landslide-generated tsunami years the beach along Vaigat Strait recovered and reached the width of even more than 100 m in priviliged places,  the geomorphological observations and grain size analyses point to the major role of local sediment supply (eroded landslide edge, meltwater streams) sources and available accomodation space for the character of the beach system under the given similar external oceanographic and climatic conditions.

Acknowledgements. The study was funded by Polish National Science Centre grant No. 2011/01/B/ST10/01553. Fieldwork help of the participants of Greenland 2013 summer expedition, namely Jessica Benjamin, Stuart Dunning, Emma Norton and Nick Rosser is kindly appreciated. Marta Mitręga is thanked for help in laboratory analyses. Matt Strzelecki is supported by National Science Centre Postdoctoral Fel- lowship FUGA (Project: Model of the interaction of paraglacial and periglacial processes in the coastal zone and their influence on the development of Arctic littoral relief’ award no. 2013/08/S/ST10/00585), the Ministry of Science and Higher Education Outstanding Young Scientists Scholarship and Foundation for Polish Science HOMING PLUS (grant no. 2013-8/12) and START grants.

201 New perspectives in polar research

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203

New perspectives in polar research

Piotr Zagórski1, Mateusz Czesław Strzelecki2, Jan Rodzik1

1 Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management 2cd Kraśnicka Avenue, 20-718 Lublin, Poland [email protected], [email protected] 2 University of Wroclaw, Institute of Geography and Regional Development Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wroclaw, Poland [email protected]

Processes controlling the past and recent evolution of coastal environments in the southern Bellsund, Svalbard

Abstract: Southern Bellsund is characterised by one of the most diverse coastal geomorphology in the entire Svalbard. Coastal environments range from vast tidal flats, wide gravel-dominated beaches, lagoons, migrating spits and both rocky and ice cliffs. In this paper we summarise the geomorphological investigations carried out along selected coastal sections over last two decades and focusing on the inter- play of geological, geomorphological and climatic process controlling the coastal morphodynamics in a millennial, decadal and annual timescales.

Keywords: coastal morphodynamics, glacial processes, paraglacial processes, sea ice and shore ice, High Arctic, Svalbard

Introduction

Coastal geomorphology studies have been conducted in the the southern Bellsund since the late 1980s (see: Zagórski et al. 2013, for a recent review). The first Maria Curie-Sklodowska University (UMCS) Polar Expedition to Spitsbergen in 1986 and the subsequent expeditions focused on the geomorphological mapping and classification of coastal landforms along the southern rim of the Bellsund (Fig. 1) as well as problems associated with their dynamics (Harasimiuk 1987, Hara- simiuk, Jezierski 1991, Harasimiuk, Król 1992, 1993, Jezierski 1992, 1993). One of the interesting case studies undertaken in the mid-1990’s was an assessment of the morphological effects of the autumn storms and dynamics of the coastal zone in such extreme conditions (Zagórski 1996, 2004). Another study fo- 205 New perspectives in polar research cused on mapping of remnants of several archaeological sites located along the coast (Jasinski, Zagórski 1996). Their observations emphasised the significance of archaeological sites in the assessment of coastal zone changes in historic times. Fur- ther studies conducted in the summer seasons of 1998, 1999 and 2000 focused on measuring the aggradation and degradation rate and coastal zone dynamics, and have been repeated in 2002. In this chapter we summarise the main results of our studies on the coastal environments of the southern coast of the Bellsund carried out since 1995. Main goals of our research were: (1) the identification of the tendencies of coastal change and the impact of geomorphic factors that often overlap and thus strengthen or weaken each other; (2) the identification of the dynamics of geomorphic process with a particular focus on marine and glacial processes within the coastal zone in the context of climate changes after the Little Ice Age (LIA); (3) the reconstruction of the coastal development in the late Weichselian and early

Fig. 1. Study area – coastal systems of the southern Bellsund (revised after Zagórski et al. 2013). Legend: 1– active cliffs, 2– abrasive-accumulative coasts developed in Proterozoic metamorphic rocks, 3– rocky skerries, 4– abrasion platforms, 5– abrasive-accumulative coasts developed in Quaternary deposits, 6– accumulative coast, 7– tidal flats and deltas, 8– mountain ridges, 9– rivers, 10– moraines, 11– glaciers, 12– extent Renardbreen and Recherchebreen fronts in 2011.

206 New perspectives in polar research

Holocene (14–8 ka BP) by identifying the stages in the coastal zone formation, taking into account glacio-isostasy as well as elements of the morphotectonics and lithological characteristics of the coastal zone.

Relict and modern coasts of the southern Bellsund

Coastal landscape of the southern Bellsund is very diverse in comparison with the other parts of Spitsbergen and encompasses wide range of coastal environments from uplifted and well-preserved palaeocoastal landforms to actively transformed modern coasts (Zagórski et al. 2013).

Relict coasts The relict coastal zone is dominated by sequences of uplifted marine terraces (beaches and rocky shore platforms) which often form extensive, slightly slanted surfaces with old storm ridges, lagoons and paleoskerries (Zagórski 2002, Stankow- ski et al. 2013). They form a system of Pleistocene and Holocene abrasive- accumulative levels, sometimes covered by a thick sediment series of varied origin and usually separated with steep palaeo-cliffs (Fig. 2). The width of this zone varies from a few kilometres in the axial parts of the valleys to several dozen metres at the extension of mountain ridges that almost reach the sea (Zagórski et al. 2013). The following levels of marine terraces have been distinguished: (1) terrace I – 2 to 8 m a.s.l., the so-called beach level A (Landvik et al. 1998); (2) terrace II – 10 to 20 m a.s.l. (locally 7 to 12 m); (3) terrace III – 22 to 30 m a.s.l. (locally 17 to 25 m); (4) terrace IV – 30 to 40 m a.s.l. (locally 27 to 35 m); (5) terrace V – 40 to 50 m a.s.l. (locally 37 to 50 m), the so-called beach level B (Landvik et al. 1998); (6) terrace VI – 50 to 65 m a.s.l. (locally 55 to 65 m); (7) terrace VII – 70 to 85 m a.s.l. (locally up to 95 m); (8) terrace VIII – 105 to 120 m a.s.l. (Fig. 2).

Modern coasts The modern coastal zone consists of sublittoral abrasion platforms, several dozen to several hundred metres wide, with characteristic skerries and rock cliffs, mixed abrasive-accumulative coasts and accumulative coasts (e.g. Harasiumuk, Jezierski 1991, Zagórski 2002). The coast is predominantly abrasive with a few accumulative sections. Their distribution and development depend primarily on the bedrock lithology, tectonics and exposure to wave action. Based on lithological and morphological variation, the coasts have been divided as follows: 1. group of abrasive coasts, including: active cliffs in metamorphic rocks of the pre- Devonian Hecla Hoek Formation, active cliffs in the sedimentary Palaeozoic/Meso- zoic rocks, active cliffs in Palaeogene sandstones, active cliffs in Pleistocene and

207 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 2. Compilation of altitudes of raised marine terraces formed along coast of the southern Bellsund (Zagórski et al. 2006, 2013; modified): Tectonic units (after Birkenmajer 2004): DM – Dunderdalen Mono- cline, RB – Renardbreen Block, CG/RB – Calypsostranda Graben/Renardbreen Block, ChB – Chamber- lindalen Block, MB – Martinfjella Block, RnB – Reinodden Block, DO – Dunderfjellet Overthrust, CF – Calypsostranda Fault, JF – Josephbukta Fault, RF – Recherchebreen Fault, MTF – Maria-Theresiatoppen Fault.

208 New perspectives in polar research

Holocene gravel deposits, active cliffs in Pleistocene and Holocene moraines, and ice cliffs; 2. group of flat abrasive-accumulative coasts, including those developed in Protero- zoic metamorphic rocks and Quaternary deposits; 3. group of accumulative coasts. 70% of coastal systems in the southern Bellsund were classified as abrasive or mixed accumulative-abrasive types (Fig. 1). The accumulative coasts basically occur in areas with a positive balance of sediments transported along the shore, i.e. in areas of intensive supply of sediments at the mouths of proglacial rivers and in zones of longshore drift convergence (Harasimiuk 1987, Zagórski 2004, 2011). A classic example is the coast of Calypsostranda where the accumulation zone, several dozen metres wide and developed in the form of several storm ridges, adjoins a dead cliff (Fig. 3). Beaches with well-developed profiles occur inside the Recher- chebreen. The longshore drift and the deposition of sediments is accompanied by characteristic landforms such as spits, sandbars, tombolos and lagoons (Josephbukta, Tomtodden, Rubypynten). In few areas, deltas are developing as a result of accumulation of materials transported by proglacial and pronival rivers. Intensive sediment accumulation occurs and leads to the development of an extensive tidal flat in the form of watts only in the inner part of the Recherchefjorden not exposed to the direct impact of the waves, e.g. at the mouth of the Chamberlindalen (Zagórski et al. 2013).

Morphodynamical sections of the southern Bellsund coast Within the entire coast of the southern Bellsund, one can distinguish four characteristic sections that vary genetically and lithologically as well as in terms of dynamics of wave action, longshore drift and delivery of sediments (Harasimiuk, Jezierski 1991, Zagórski 2002). Section I encompasses the coast from Dunderbukta to Tomtvika (Fig. 4). The coastal zone is shaped by long oceanic waves due to the western exposure of this section to the open Greenland Sea. However, the coast is sheltered by a belt of skerries, more than 1 km wide, which limits the impact of waves on the shore to the storms occurring during spring tides. The skerries are intensively sculpted by the sea ice from the Barents Sea. Major part of this section is an even and flat abrasive- accumulative coast with a broad beach belt, maximum 70 m wide. The highest storm ridge encroaches a vast surface of a 5 m terrace. Only a 2 km section of the northern coast of Dunderbukta is cliffed. Section II, extending from Tomtvika to Skilvika, is formed in mainly the Precam- brian tillites and quartzites (Kapp Lyel Formation), overlain by series of marine gravels ca. 2 m thick (Birkenmajer 2004). This section is perpendicular to the main tectonic structures (Fig. 2). The predominantly cliffed coast, up to dozen meters

209 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. Coast of the southern Bellsund (Photo P.Zagórski): a – active cliffs in Palaeozoic/Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (Reinodden), b – active cliffs in Palaeogene sandstones superstructures quaternary sediments (Skilvika), c – active cliffs in Pleistocene and Holocene gravel deposits (Lognedalsflya), d – ice cliff (Recherchebreen), e – abrasive-accumulative coasts developed in Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (Lognedalsflya), f – abrasive-accumulative coasts developed in Quaternary deposits (Fagerbukta), g – accumulative coast (Calypsostranda), h – abrasive-accumulative coasts developed in Quaternary deposits with spits (western Recherchefjorden).

210 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. Coasts of the southern Bellsund (Photo P.Zagórski): a – Dunderdalen, b – Lognedalsflya, c – Lyelstranda, d – Calypsostranda, e – Chamberlindalen, f – eartern coast of Recherchefjorden.

high, has a discordant shape determined by the varying resistance of rocks exposed to abrasion (Fig. 4c). Bays are usually surrounded by gravel-dominated beaches of varying widthand cliffs abraded only by the strongest storms. The rocky headlands separating the bays are extended in the form of skerries jutting out into the sea, usually several dozen meters, and constituting an obstacle to longshore drift (Harasimi- uk, Jezierski 1991). Section III extending from Skilvika and Pocockodden. Intensive abrasion occurs at both ends of this section (Fig. 1). In the NW part, along the eastern shores of Skilvi- ka, the cliffed coasts, 20 to 25 m high and composed of Paleogene sandstones with

211 New perspectives in polar research coal insertions and covered with glacial, fluvioglacial and marine deposits, are eroded (Pękala, Repelewska-Pękalowa 1990, Landvik et al. 1992, Birkenmajer, Gmur 2010) (Fig. 4d). The middle part of this section is constituted by a 3 km long accumulative coast consisting of an several dozen meters wide beach, developed in the form of several storm ridges and by a dead cliff eroded by pronival creeks and modelled by solifluction (Superson, Zagórski 2008, Repelewska-Pękalowa et al. 2013). The dead cliff and the 20 m high Calypsostranda terrace are dissected by Scottelva and Tyvjobeken valleys. A significant role in the coastal zone development was also played by the delivery of sediments by the proglacial rivers of the Scottbreen and Renardbreen (Zagórski 2011). Section IV is formed by the shores of the Recherchefjorden which are exposed to wind waves (short waves) and, sporadically, to diffracted oceanic waves (Fig. 1). This implies an increasing role of the tides as well as the counter-clockwise longshore drift, relatively weak but constant. These shores can be regarded as low- energetic coastal system. Major part of this coastal section is composed of unconsolidated glacial sediments that are dynamically transformed by fluvial, fluvioglacial (Chamberlindalen), ice and glacial processes (Fagerbukta) (Harasimiuk 1987, Hara- simiuk, Jezierski 1991, Zagórski et al. 2012) (Fig. 4e, f).

Processes controlling coastal geomorphology in the southern Bellsund

The present-day state of the southern Bellsund coastal system is a result of the interaction between the following geomorphic processes and environmental conditions: (1) local geology (tectonic-lithological determinants), (2) glacial processes, (3) fluvial processes, (4) sea-ice and shore-ice processes, (5) marine processes.

Local geology The southern part of Bellsund is located within the limits of two major tectonic formations: Caledonian and post-Caledonian, divided by zones of discontinuity and faults associated with tectionic activity in the Tertiary (Dallmann et al. 1990). Major part of the study area is covered by Precambrian and Paleozoic series described as a Hecla Hoek (Birkenmajer 2004). Hecla Hoek series are fragmented by several fault systems which differentiate the analysed area into the following tectonic units: (1) Renardbreen Block (RB), (2) Chamberlindalen Block (CHB), (3) Martinfjella Block (MB), (4) Reinodden Block (RnB), (5) tectonic Calypsostranda Graben (CG) (Dallmann et al. 1990, Birkenmajer 2004, 2006, 2010) (Fig. 5). Fault system divided the main of geological structures of the southern Bellsund into several blocks what also resulted in spatial variation in glacio-isostatic movements during the last glaciation and deglaciation. Generally, in Bellsund region the land rebound was higher in the inner part of the fjord than over its outer section (Salvigsen 212 New perspectives in polar research et al. 1991). However, locally in the southern Bellsund, the changes in glacial- isostatic rebound were much more variable (Fig. 2). Taking into account the general relief characteristics of the former elements of coastal landscape as well as the lithological-structural conditions in the study area, the following zones of glacio-isostatic activity in the late Pleistocene and Holocene have been distinguished (Fig. 2):

Fig. 6. Selected tectonic/structural elements of the southern Bellsund. Based on reinterpretation of geological map 1:100,000, sheet Van Keulenfjorden (Dallmann et al. 1990, supplemented by Birkenmajer 2004). 1 – Tertiary dipslip faults, 2 – Tertiary strike-slip faults, 3 – minor Caledonian overthrusts, 4 – major Caledonian overthrusts, 5 – Tertiary deposits (Calypsostranda Graben), 6 – Reinodden Block (Carbonif- erous-Mesozoic platform cover), 7 – Martinfjella Block (Late Proterozoic-Early Ordovician rocks), 8 – Gåshamna Fm. (phyllites and chlorite schists), 9 – selected stratabound mafic rocks (and ?Mesozoic dolerites) within the Gåshamna Fm., 10 – intercalations within the Gåshamna Fm. (quartzite, limestone, dolostone), 11 – Höferpynten Fm., 12 – Slyngfjellet Fm., 13 – Bergskardet Fm. (Deilegga Gp., Middle Proterozoic), 14 – rocks of the Thiisfjellet anticlinorium (Middle Proterozoic), 15 – Kapp Lyell diamictite – upper: green, 16 – Kapp Lyell diamictite – lower: yellow, 17 – Bergskardet Fm. (Deilegga Gp., Middle Proterozoic), 18 – glaciers. Major tectonic elements: ChB – Chamberlindalen Block (mainly Late Protero- zoic rocks), CG – Calypsostranda Graben (Tertiary coal – bearing deposits), DM – Dunderdalen Mono- cline (Late Proterozoic metasediments), MB – Martinfjella Block (Late Proterozoic-Early Ordovician metasediments), RB – Renardbreen Block (Middle-Late Proterozoic metasediments), RnB – Reinodden Block (Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic deposits). Overthrusts (Caledonian) and faults (mainly Tertiary): DO – Dunderfjellet Overthrust, LO – Lyellstranda Overthrust, LRO – Lognedalen-Renardbreen Over- thrust, CF – Calypsostranda Fault, CrF – Crammerbreane Fault, MTF – Maria-Theresiatoppen Faults, RF – Recherchebreen Fault.

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1. north-western part of the Dunderdalen, under direct influence of open sea, with an estuary developing at its mouth (Fig. 4a); 2. Lognedalen and the Lognedalsflya coastal plains encompassing a developed system of low marine terraces and contemporary shores, mainly abrasive in character (cliffs, skerries) (Fig. 4b); 3. the area between Klokkeodden and Rochesterpynten, with an NNW exposure: it encompasses a relatively narrow, several hundred meters-long zone of raised marine terraces – currently separated from the sea by a cliff, up to 20 m high and intensively shaped by abrasion processes as well as the streams draining Dyrstaddalen, Tjørn- dalen and Blomlidalen (Fig. 4c); accumulative terraces are preserved at the foot of the eastern side of the Dyrstaddalen; 4. Calypsostranda and the Renardbreen proglacial zone – they form a plain of varied origin, with a large share of glacial and fluvioglacial processes (Fig. 4d); 5. the area encompassing the shores of Vestervågen, the lower and middle reaches of the Chamberlindalen and the marginal zone of the Recherchebreen; it is located further up the Recherchefjorden, beyond the immediate impact of the ocean wave action (Fig. 4e); 6. eastern Recherchefjorden shores (Reinsletta) from the marginal zone of Recher- chebreen in the south to Malbukta in the north; it has developed as a system of raised marine terraces transformed by fluvial and solifluction processes and situated at slightly different elevations from the previously mentioned areas (Fig. 4f).

Glacial processes Glaciers are among the most important factors shaping the coasts of the southern Bellsund. They can influence the development of the sea shores in two ways, namely: 1) direct impact: destruction and transformation of the existing landforms during the advancement of the glaciers as well as the accumulation of moraine covers, e.g. ice-moraine ridges; 2) indirect impact, accompanied by other factors, i.e. tectonic, fluvial and fluvioglacial (Zagórski 2007b, d, Zagórski et al. 2012). The deglaciation from the Last Glacial Maximum was also a crucial phase of transformation of the southern Bellsund coastal zone (Troitsky 1979, Mangerud, Landvik 2007). Sections of the coast formed during the glaciation were transformed by the operation of periglacial and paraglacial processes and covered by new coastal landforms. Deglaciation was followed by rapid glacio-isostatic land rebound and associated changes in a sea-level. After phase of rapid rebound the glacio-isostatic uplift slowed down – what led to the formation of marine terrace V (40–50 a.s.l). The wide storm ridge formed on terrace V is one of the best preserved palaeo-storm- ridges in the region (Fig. 6). The storm-ridge stretches along the entire coast of Ca- lypsostranda reaching Logendalen and Dunderdalen (beach level B – Landvik et al. 1998). The relative sea-level curve designed for Lognedalen by Salvigsen et al. (1991) shows that after a rapid fall of sea-level during the early Holocene the sea-

214 New perspectives in polar research level was slowly rising between 8–6 ka BP and reached close to present around 2 ka BP (Fig. 6b). In the Holocene, the most severe effects of subglacial erosion were linked with glacial episodes that occurred primarily in the forefields of large glaciers termi- nating in the sea like Renardbreen and Recherchebreen (Reder 1996). Their fronts encroached the level of terrace I probably on several occasions (Pękala, Repelew- ska-Pękalowa 1990, Zagórski et al. 2007). The best preserved evidence of subglacial erosion is linked with the last cooling episode, correlated with the LIA. In this period the sediments and fossil flora were redeposited on the forefield of the Renard- breen (Dzierżek et al. 1990a, b). The glaciotectonic relocation of the remnants of the 17th century human settlement also occurred in that area: Renardbreen 1 site (Jasin- ski, Starkov 1993). The recession of the Late Weichselian glaciers put an end to direct large- scale glacial accumulation. During the Holocene glacial episodes, only the Recher- chebreen and Renardbreen could deposit moraine sediments directly within the

Fig. 6. a) Coasts of the southern Bellsund at the beginning to the Holocene. 1 – local sea level, 2 – glaciers, 3 – approx. postion of glacier fronts, 4 – modern shoreline, 5 – preserved storm ridge on terrace V – beach level B (after: Landvik et al. 1998); Rch- Recherchebreen, Crm – Cramerbreane, Dl – Dölterbreen; Rn – Renardbreen, Sc – Scottbreen, Bl – Blomlibreen, Tj – Tjørndalsbreen, Rng – Ringarenbreane, Lg – austre Lognedalsbre and vestre Lognedalsbre; b) shoreline displacement curve for Lognedalen (after: Salvigsen et al. 1991).

215 New perspectives in polar research coastal zone. The accumulation of push moraines was most probably linked with glacial surges; it was particularly intensive in the LIA (Reder 1996, Zagórski 2007d, Zagórski et al. 2008b, c, 2012, Rodzik et al. 2013). Three generations of push moraines were distinguished in the Renardbreen forefield (Pękala, Repelewska- -Pękalowa 1990). The Early and Middle Holocene moraine sediments and exaration sediments redeposited along with fossil flora, and were covered by a new moraine in the LIA. Terrace I was also aggradated with moraine sediments that overlie the marine deposits in the form of a fossil storm ridge, TL dated at 6100 ± 900 and 6200 ± 900 years BP (Pękala, Repelewska-Pękalowa 1990, Pękala et al. 2013). In the first half of the 20th century, the Renardbreen covered nearly the entire Josephbukta and its front formed a receding ice cliff which disappeared in the early 1990s and, as a result, the front of the glacier became completely disconnected from the bay waters (Reder, Zagórski 2007a). Similar but considerably greater changes – in proportion to the glacier’s size – occurred in the forefield of Recherchebreen. In the LIA, during the advance, probably a surge, the glacier filled the large Fagerbukta almost completely and its cliff front had an oblique SW–NE orientation, from Rubypynten almost as a far as Lægerneset (Fig. 1). A surge episode was probably captured in 1838 by Auguste Mayer in one of his paintings created during the expedition of La Rechreche vessel (Bertrand 1852). The presence of the glacier in this part of the fjord is evidenced by morainic deposits. The Rubypynten is an abraded left-bank lateral moraine that has an underwater extension in this area. The lateral moraine sediments were deposited on terrace I along a 3 km section of the eastern Recherchefjorden shores (Fig. 4f). New, unique data were provided by bathymetric measurements carried out with a multibeam echosounder installed on the M/S Horyzont II vessel. The measurements confirmed the occurrence of an extensive arch-shaped moraine ridge with traces of sediment- pushing typical of a glacial surge. As a result of a recession, during the last 30 years, the Recherchebreen front was separated from the fjord waters (Fagerbukta) by a belt of land formed by outwash plains. At the same time, the size of the inner lagoon increased by several times. At present, only a fragment of the Recherchebreen, in the form of a cliff 3 km long and 15 to 20 m high, terminates in the lagoon (Zagórski et al. 2012). Within the cliff, intensive ice-calving occurs but only brash glacier ice and small growlers reach the open waters of the fjord due to the narrow inlet to the lagoon. A new coastal zone, ca. 20 km long, including 3 km of ice cliffs, developed along the forefields Renardbreen and Recherchebreen, due to the intensified retreat of glaciers in the 20th century.

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Fluvioglacial and fluvial processes The impact of the fluvioglacial factor and fluvial factor is primarily linked with the supply of sediments to the coastal zone (Mercier, Laffly 2005, Zagórski et al. 2012, Strzelecki et al. 2015). Since the last century the development of coastal zone formed in front of Renardbreen and Recherchebreen and at the mouths of the proglacial river of the Scottbreen (Scottelva, Calypsostranda) and the Crammer- breane (Chamberlindalen) have been influenced by the fluvioglacial factor (Fig. 1). Fluvioglacial and fluvial factors play an important role mainly in the transformation of the eastern side of the coast under study, east of Renardodden (Fig. 1). Although the mouths of a few rivers and large streams are located in the western part too, their impact on the coastal zone is only local. Since they drain catchments glaciated only to a small extent, they do not transport a lot of material. Besides, larger rivers have a relatively small gradient (Bartoszewski 1998, Bartoszewski et al. 2013). The downstream sections of the Blomlibekken, Tjørnbekken and Dyrstadelva form can- yons dissecting the cliffs and raised marine terraces. The contemporary role of the fluvial factor in coastal zone processes is limited to the spring-melt breaching the ridge formed during the autumn and winter storms. Since most of the catchments of the eastern section of the coast are highly glaciated, long sections of the coast are supplied by outwash plain sediments exposed, to a varying degree, to the action of waves, currents and tides. Towards the end of the Little Ice Age, such a process occurred in the Pocockodden area where an extramarginal outwash plain of the Renardbreen developed (Harasimiuk 1987, Zagórski 2004, Reder, Zagórski 2007a, Zagórski et al. 2012). Quite recently, towards the end of the 20th century, outwash plain accumulation occurred on the southern shores of Fagerbukta, in the forefield of the Recherchebreen (Reder 1996). At present, outwash plain and outwash plain/delta accumulation, along with the tides, is shaping the shores of Josephbukta (Fig. 1). In Vestervågen, a complex delta is being formed by the Chamberlinelva and proglacial streams of the Crammer- breane (Fig. 4e). Owing to the absence of marine currents in this elongated bay shielded by Reinholmen island the underwater part of the delta has the character of an extensive tidal flat. A different situation occurs north of Calypsobyen (Fig. 4d). The Scottelva carrying the proglacial waters of retreating Scottbreen transports mainly suspended material to the coastal zone (Bartoszewski et al. 2007, 2009, Zagórski et al. 2008a, c, Chmiel et al. 2013). According to Kociuba and Janicki (2013) bed-load transport in Scottelva is generally low (up to 100 kg per day during summer season). The Scot- telva mouth is partly blocked by a storm ridge which causes the formation of a still water pool and, subsequently, a crevasse channel discharging into the bay (Hara- simiuk, Król 1992, Superson, Zagórski 2007). On the distal side of the ridge, the material is accumulated at the mouth of the channel in the form of an ephemeral delta (only in the case of quiet sea conditions), then reworked by the waves and var-

217 New perspectives in polar research iable longshore drift and distributed along the shores. From 1986 to 2005, the mean multi-annual discharge was 0.89 m3s–1 which corresponds to an annual discharge of 873 mm (Bartoszewski et al. 2013). Waters linked with glacial ablation constitute a considerable proportion of the discharge, e.g. more than 63% in 2005 and more than 71% in 2006. The volume of the transported material (carrying capacity of the river) grows logarithmically as the discharge increases. The more often high water stages occur, the more material can be carried but only in the case of a large share of glacier-fed waters (Bartoszewski et al. 2013). However, the amount of material reaching the coastal zone depends on the length of the transit zone. From the end of the LIA to 2006, the front of the Scottbreen was in constant retreat, 4 to 5 m per year on average (14.3 m per year from 1990 to 2006), and its area decreased by about 23%. In consequence, the length of the discharge route of proglacial waters increased from 1.4 km in 1936 to 2.1 km in 1990 and more than 3 km in 2012. However, the monitoring conducted from 1995 indicated that episodes of an extreme nature occurred and considerably influenced the discharge and carrying capacity of the Scottelva. The summer season of 2002 was exceptional in this respect. The maximum discharges occurred in August, with two peak discharges: 2.8 and 3.8 m3s–1. The total volume of water discharged by Scottelva during the recorded period was 7.92 Mm3, i.e. 22% more than the mean for the years 1986 to 2011 (6.46 Mm3) (Krawczyk, Bartoszewski 2008). This resulted in considerable changes in the centre of the Scottbreen forefield (Reder, Zagórski 2007). The large amounts of sediments carried by proglacial waters were transported out of the catchment into the coastal zone (Zagórski 2011) (Fig. 7).

Sea ice and shore ice processes These processes shape various ice forms occurring in the coastal zone, both immobile landfast ice and floating ice. These forms include: polygenetic shore ice, fast ice (ice cover) and ice foot, pack ice and ice of glacial origin. Ice can be a direct relief-forming factor, it can strengthen marine factors or act as a protective barrier against them (Rodzik, Wiktorowicz 1996, Rodzik, Zagórski 2009, Zagórski 2011). Due to the relatively high temperature of the West Spitsbergen Current and open-sea waves, no sea-ice cover forms at the western, open shores of Spitsbergen. In periods of severe and windless weather, nearshore waters can freeze over but the thin layer of ice is soon destroyed by the waves and wind. The ice cover can persist up to a few weeks in the relatively shallow Dunderbukta that is partially sheltered by the skerries. Due to the wide opening of the Bellsund, the migration of open-sea waves does not allow the formation of a stable sea-ice cover along its southern shores either. Although the Recherchefjorden freezes over (as do the Van Keu- lenfjorden and Van Mijenfjorden), the sea-ice cover lasts throughout the winter

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Fig. 7. The factors and processes influencing the shoreline changes along Calypsostranda between 1960 and 2011 (after: Zagórski 2011, modified). The background based on DEM (Zagórski 2002): 1 – glacier, 2 – frontal moraine, 3 – old outwash plaine, 4 – outwash plaine, 5 – ocean swell: a – weak influence, b – strong influence, 6 – wind wave: a – weak influence, b – strong influence, 7 – longshore drift: a – weak influence, b – strong influence, 8 – source of supply sediments, 9 – significant shoreline change: a – erosion, b – aggradation.

219 New perspectives in polar research

(usually from December until June) only in its inner bays: Josephbukta, Vestervågen and Fagerbukta. In the wintertime, polygenetic shore ice frequently occurs on the shores of Bellsund. The shore ice mainly consists of shore naledi which initially takes the form of garland terraces that evolve from the onshore freezing up of waves mixed with fragments of grease ice and shuga washed onto the shore (Rodzik, Zagórski 2009). In the following stage, ice cascades develop by the freezing up of the water splashes. The shore ice is fed by atmospheric precipitation and sediments as well as gravel material ejected from the offshore; glacial ice occurs very rarely due to the limited contact of glacial cliffs with the open waters of the fjords (Jezierski 1992, Zagórski 1996). Shore ice covers the shore with a ridge or ledge, several or more metres wide, delimited with an ice cliff whose height usually ranges from 1 to 3 m. The shore ice protects the shore against abrasion. However, the surf beating obliquely against the ice cliff facilitates the erosion and migration of deposits from the offshore zone. Shore ice begins to form in November or late and usually persists until June. The uneven melting of shore ice leads to the formation of a “pitted beach” (Jahn 1977, Ruszkowska 1985, Rodzik, Zagórski 2009, Zagórski 2011). Shore ice reaches its greatest thickness and extent in April, which is followed by its gradual degradation. At the end of winter (April/May), insolation begins to play an important role in the ablation of shore ice but thermal abrasion remains the main factor, even in the area exposed to low wave action. In the spring (May/June) advection ablation predominates while at the beginning of the summer (June/July), the degradation of shore ice is considerably influenced by rainfall. The ablation is complete usually within a few weeks depending on the weather, extent of ice development and mineral material content that forms an insulating cover as it thaws. In favourable conditions (late spring, lack of storms and rainfall, considerable amount of mineral material), shore ice patches can sometimes last until July (Giżejewski, Rudowski 1994) and their remnants, covered by mineral material can even last until the beginning of August, as was the case in 1982, 1991 and 2005 (Rodzik, Zagórski 2009, Zagórski 2011). Drifting pack ice carried by the marine currents from the Barents Sea can occur in Bellsund during several weeks in each time of year (e.g. in the summer of 2011). The pack ice can be driven by the tidal currents to the farthest reaches of the Bellsund. Its impact on the shore, particularly the skerry offshore, can play a significant role only in the open-sea zone or in the coastal zone opposite the mouth of the Bellsund, in exceptional conditions during the westerly wind. The presence of pack ice dampens wave action, including the swell (Zagórski 2011, Zagórski et al. 2013).

Marine processes Regardless of other factors modelling the shores, as described above, marine factors have a decisive role in the final stage of coastal zone development. Wave

220 New perspectives in polar research action is the most important factor modelling the shoreline (Leontjew et al. 1982). Three kinds of waves action are distinguished on Spitsbergen: wind waves, swell and long-period waves (Marsz 1996, Zagórski 2004, 2011). The most significant role is usually played by wind-generated waves whose size depends on the speed and duration of the wind and the length of wave fetch. Despite its thin sea-ice cover, the western Spitsbergen shores are exposed to direct storm waves relatively rarely. Air masses from the eastern sector usually move to the southern Spitsbergen; cyclonic circulation prevails, which results from the frequent movement of low pressure areas originating over Iceland between Scandinavia and Spitsbergen, particularly in the winter months (Niedźwiedź 2007). This, in turn is the reason for the predominance of easterly winds; particularly strong winds are almost exclusively easterly. Winds from the western sector have a large share in the summer, but in the low-gradient pressure field these winds are rather weak (Styszyńska 2007) When the route of the winter cyclones moves between Greenland and Spitsbergen, short periods of winds from the south, west and north may occur (Niedźwiedź 2007). Open sea waves have a direct impact on the section of the coast exposed to the Greenland Sea, usually as far as Straumneset or, exceptionally, as far as Kapp Lyell when the waves travel from the NW. Storms on the Greenland Sea may result in the formation of swell (Styszyńska 2007). Due to the configuration of Bellsund in relation to the Greenland Sea, open sea waves are diffracted and loose energy as they travel through the sound past the consecutive capes as far as Pocockodden. In consequence, the impact of these waves is almost negligible in the Recherchefjorden. The Bellsund fjord system, 25 km long and 20 km wide, connects with three fjords with extensions in the form of vast valleys, glaciated to a different extent: Van Mijenfjorden from the ENE, Van Keulenfjorden from the ESE and Recherchefjor- den from the SSE. Their configuration enhances the atmospheric circulation and leads to the prevalence of the winds from the eastern sector over Bellsund even during the summer, often strengthened by the foehn effect (Gluza 1988, Brăzdil et al. 1991, Kejna et al. 2000). However, the waves moving from this sector are relatively short because the eastern fjords are sheltered by the group of rocky islands and the wave fetch is limited to 10–20 km. Calypsostranda is the only section of the coast directly exposed to waves from the eastern sector – with the wind blowing from Van Keulenfjorden. Beyond Renardodden, however, the wave is already diffracted. Waves from the NE (with winds blowing from Van Mijenfjorden) crash obliquely against the southern shores of Bellsund west of Renardodden. Southerly winds are accompanied by violent katabatic winds from Recherchebreen and, to a lesser extent, Renardbreen; they are particularly strong in the autumn but have a limited range as they blow from inland and thus trigger short low waves (Zagórski 2011, Zagórski et al. 2013). The formation of longshore drifts is strongly linked with wave action. The oblique approach of the ocean waves to the western section of the coast leads to the

221 New perspectives in polar research formation of local longitudinal currents. The longshore drift forms to the east of Tomtvika and at first flows from the SW to the NE; then, after passing Rochester- pynten, its direction shifts to W–E and, after passing Renardodden, it shifts to the NE–SW. The complex system of the currents develops under the influence of winds from the eastern sector; their directions are modified by the configuration of the fjords. Relatively short waves from the NE (from Van Mijenfjorden), effectively undercut the cliffed coast of Skilvika where the currents converge. The stronger current, generally consistent with the wind direction, flows westwards and then south-westwards along the shores of Lyellstranda, Dyrstadflya and Lognesflya. The second current, a counter current, flows eastwards along the eastern shores of Skilvika towards Renardodden where it clashes with a strong SE–NW current flowing along Calypsostranda triggered by the short and relatively high waves generated by an easterly wind from Van Keulenfjorden. This configuration results in the systematic aggradation of Renardodden from the east (Zagórski 2007c, 2011, Zagórski et al. 2012) (Fig. 8). Archaeological data and geomorphological research conducted in this area indicated an intensive development of Renardodden, starting from the 16th century (Jasinski, Zagórski 2013). The Renardodden 1 site, a remnant of a Rus- sian walrus hunting station from the first half of the 19th century, is the closest site to the present-day coastal zone (Jasinski et al. 1993, Jasinski, Zagórski 1996, Zagórski 2007c). Originally, the hunting station building was probably situated beyond the reach of the storm waves but, due to the increased intensity of abrasion processes, the old storm ridge was destroyed while the brick pieces and organic remains were scattered by the waves across the tidal zone. Such a situation continued until the early 1960s when the fast retreat of Scottbreen began (Reder 1996, Zagórski 2007a, 2011). Until 1990, the intensification of material delivery had led to the aggradation of Renardodden by nearly 20 m. However, recent years have seen progressing changes in the geometry of the cape due to the decreasing delivery of material from the Scottbreen marginal zone to the coastal zone and the increasing role of marine processes (waves, longshore drift). The part of the cape from the side of Skilvika is subject to strong erosion while the section towards the mouth of the Scottelva is aggraded (Fig. 8). The second divergence zone occurs at the SE end of Calyp- sostranda, at Pocockodden, where the waves crash against outwash plain sediments and the Renardbreen moraine. The debris transported towards the south causes the aggradation of the spit that partially cuts off Josephbukta (Harasimiuk, Jezierski 1991, Zagórski 2004, 2011). However, as indicated by the yearly data recorded for the last decade, the configuration and directions of the longshore drifts varied, which mainly resulted from factors linked with atmospheric circulation creating specific anemometric conditions (Fig. 8).

222 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 8. Shoreline changes between Skilvika and Josephbukta from 1936 to 2011 (after: Zagórski 2011, modified).

223 New perspectives in polar research

A comparison of the location of the Calypsostranda shoreline in various years, prepared based on archive cartographic materials, aerial photographs and GPS measurements, made it possible to identify the tendencies in coastal changes (in the zones and subzones distinguished) in the following periods: 1936–1960, 1960–1990, 1990–2000, 2000–2005, 2005–2006, 2006–2007, supplemented with the period 2005–2011. There were three periods with a negative balance of area changes (1936–1960, 1990–2000, 2005–2011) and two periods with a positive balance of area changes (1960–1990, 2000–2005) (Table 1). A significant role in the development of the shoreline was played by marine processes, particularly wind waves and swell that have been very intensive since the 1990s. In 1994, the strong wind- generated waves associated with the autumn storms led to a considerable reduction of the area of terrace I, by 6.55 m on average and by a maximum of 12 m (Zagórski 1996, 2011) (Fig. 7, Table 1). The other type of wave action, i.e. swell, led to changes in shoreline geometry in the period from 2000 to 2005, particularly in the Calyp- sobyen area; the overall balance of area change was positive (2060 m2). Sup- plemented in relation to the published data, the 2005–2011 period was characterised by the prevalence of waves from the western, north-western and southern sector. The proportion of waves from the eastern sector was much smaller. These wave patterns led to significant changes in the directions of the prevalent longshore drifts (Fig. 7). The variable winds, particularly in the case of wave interference, resulted in the development of a complex unstable configuration of variable local longshore drifts along the southern shores of the Bellsund. At present, abrasion processes generally outweigh accumulation processes in the coast section between Skilvika and Josephbukta. This trend is also reflected by the data collected for the period 1936 to 2011 – eroded area: –125 270 m2; abraded area: 73 750 m2, total balance: – 51 520 m2; which corresponds to the recession of the shoreline by 9.08 m (–0.12 m a–1) (Table 1). A different situation occurs inside Recherchefjorden with a rather stable, counter-clockwise configuration of longshore drift induced by small diffraction

Table 1. Balance of area and value of shoreline changes of Calypsostranda in selected periods (after: Zagórski 2011; modified).

Mean shoreline change [m] Decrease Increase Balance Period 2 2 2 m m m m m a-1 1936-1960 65 190 44 740 -20 450 -3.59 -0.15 1960-1990 12 150 31 570 19 420 3.41 0.11 1990-2000 40 970 3 650 -37 320 -6.55 -0.65 2000-2005 12 150 14 210 2 060 0.36 0.07 2005-2011 19 790 6 700 -13 090 -2.32 -0.39 1936-2011 125 270 73 750 -51 520 -9.08 -0.12

224 New perspectives in polar research waves or triggered by katabatic winds. In such conditions the role of tides becomes prominent: they reach an amplitude of more than 1.8 m and are a major factor modelling the surface of the tidal flat in the Chamberlindalen mouth (Harasimiuk, Jezier- ski 1991).

Summary

The present-day state of the southern Bellsund coastal zone is a result of the influence of various local and regional processes such as shifts in climate conditions and associated changes in wave regime, relative sea level and sediment supply. The morphological result of this set of factors are the raised marine terraces, varying in height, extent and geological structure. The analysis of coastal landforms developed in the Late Weichselian and Early Holocene led to important conclusions concerning the model of the consecutive events. This sequence of events is closely linked with the model of glacio- isostatic uplift for the Late Weichselian, prepared for the entire Spitsbergen by Landvik et al. (1998). The advance of ice-sheet associated with the glacial- interglacial climate cycle first caused the transformation of the area by subglacial erosion, which was followed by a period of glacial till accumulation. The glaciation also resulted in the global eustatic lowering of the sea level and, slightly delayed, glacio-isostatic lowering of the land. On the other hand, the fast-paced frontal recession in the Late Weichselian enabled marine transgression. At the same time, delta accumulation and formation of tidal flats occurred at the mouths of glacial rivers. In the subsequent stage, glacio-isostatic land rebound occurred; it was delayed in relation to eustasy or, in a later period, it could be concurrent with eustasy. Due to structural and geological determinants, the post-glacial land rebound in the southern Bellsund was uneven. The result of these movements was the formation of raised marine terraces whose heights are indicative of their different trends. The impact of glacial systems on the coastal zone is a direct reflection of the changes progressing in the present-day Arctic environment. The greatest changes occurred in proglacial zones. The direct impact of glacial systems and proglacial rivers contributed to the intensive development of the coastal zone where glacial, fluvioglacial and marine processes interacted. Additionally, the intensity of the coastal development was reinforced by glacial surges (Renardbreen and Recherche- breen). At the same time, glacier retreat contributed to changes in the character of certain coastal areas – from proglacial into paraglacial: the extramarginal outwash plains of the Renardbreen, the outwash plains of the Recherchebreen. Sediments were delivered, with varying intensity, to sections of the coasts developing at the mouths of Scottelva and Chamberilnelva throughout the Holocene. However, the coastal zone in the particular areas developed in different ways. The

225 New perspectives in polar research decisive factor was the growth and spatial distribution of glaciers in the Late Holo- cene (especially during the Little Ice Age). An important role was also played by the location of the river mouths in relation to the zones of direct impact of waves, their arrangement and size. In the case of the Scottbreen catchment, despite its recession and longer discharge route of proglacial waters, the increased delivery of material in the post-LIA period counteracted the erosion of this part of the coastal zone. As result of intensified sediment delivery most of the storm ridge have broaden and formed a wide barrier along the edge of the outwash plain. In the case of the Cham- berlindalen mouth, aggradation takes place mainly at high tide when the waters of the streams and rivers slow down and lose their carrying capacity. At low tide, particularly neap tide, the material is carried out of the catchment into the fjord through several large channels developed within the tidal flat. Within the coasts described, an important role is played by sea ice and shore ice. The shore ice generally protects the shore against the storm waves. However, in some cases the formation of shore ice often leads to the entrainment of swash zone sediments and its transport to the storm ridge and inner beach system. Once the spring-melt and summer-melt season begins the ice floes buried in beach sediments thaw forming various, mostly ephemeral beach microforms. Shore ice can also block the outlets of pronival streams (Zagórski 1996, 2004). The marine factors play a central role in the development of the high-energy coastal systems of the southern Bellsund. Diffracted oceanic waves impact the southern Bellsund coasts due to the 20 km wide opening of the Bellsund mouth to the Greenland Sea. Only the Recherchefjorden coasts, not impacted by open sea waves, can be classified as low-energetic coastlines, mostly of accumulative character, which is also influenced by glacial and fluvioglacial processes. The shores of this fjord developed under the influence of rapidly retreating glacier; they can thus be regarded as a paraglacial coasts (sensu Forbes, Syvitski 1994). Significant coastal changes, particularly in beach systems, were also triggered by extreme events. This refers both to the exceptionally severe storms and associated delivery of swash zone sediments (e.g. autumn of 1994 or beginning of August 2002) and extensive shore ice cover (spring/summer of 1993, 2005). In this case, the role of marine processes consists of adapting the shoreline to “optimum conditions”, i.e. distributing surplus material along the shore and compensating for the losses. In many cases, the effects of such extreme events can control the development of coastal zone for decades (Zagórski 1996). Gradual increase of cyclonic circulation, temperature of the West Spitsber- gen Current and air temperature observed over the last 30 years resulted in more frequent occurrence of storms during the open-water seasons. The fact that ice does not protect the shores leads to the increased dynamics of shore processes, particularly the erosion of accumulative shores. The shorter persistence of fast ice and floating ice can lead to a change of certain coasts, from the low-energy to the high-energy

226 New perspectives in polar research type. In this context, it can be concluded that the dynamics of coastal processes has increased considerably over the last century.

Acknowledgements. This paper is the contribution to the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland research grant: N N 306 703840: MORCOAST – Mor- phogenetic and morphodynamic controls of Late Weichselian and Holocene coastal evolution in NW part of Wedel Jarlsberg Land (Spitsbergen). Fieldwork was also supported by the UMCS Vice-Rector for Scientific Research and International Co- operation fund No. BW-01-1100-15-09. Matt Strzelecki is supported by the National Science Centre Postdoctoral FUGA Fellowship Project: Model of the interaction of paraglacial and periglacial processes in the coastal zone and their influence on the development of Arctic littoral relief' award no. 2013/08/S/ST10/00585 and Foundation for Polish Science HOMING PLUS (grant no. 2013-8/12) and START grants.

References

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230 New perspectives in polar research

Waldemar Kociuba

Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management 2CD Kraśnicka Avenue, 20-718 Lublin, Poland [email protected]

Bedload transport in a High Arctic gravel-bed river (Scott River, Svalbard SW)

Abstract: The article presents the results of the application of the River Bedload Trap (RBT) for direct continuous bedload measurements performed in two profiles, located at a distance of 200 m one from another, within an upstream and downstream of the alluvial fan in the mouth section of the proglacial gravel-bed Scott River. Over 39 days, a total of 289 samples were collected (1 271 kg of material). Over the period, the river discharged 5.8 t and 4.6 t of bedload through the respec- tive measurement profiles. The mean daily bedload flux amounted to 242 kg day–1 and 119 kg day–1, respectively. The disproportions recorded in the analogical periods suggest the activity of aggradation processes within the alluvial fan.

Keywords: bedload flux, bedload transport rate, bedload sampling, River Bedload Trap, gravel-bed Arctic river

Introduction

The present paper analyses the variability of bedload transported by the gravel-bed Scott River (Svalbard) with a catchment area of 10 km2. Bedload is an important indicator for the assessment of transformations of river systems. The analysis of bedload volume, constituting a resultant of the geomorphological processes occurring in the catchment (Beylich, Warburton 2007), is one of the basic elements of identification of the mechanisms of fluvial transport in gravel-bed rivers (Reid et al. 1980, Ergenzinger, Schmidt 1994, Powell et al. 1998, Bogen, Møen 2003, Bogen et al. 2003, Laronne et al. 2003, Hassan et al. 2005, Rickenmann, McArdell 2007, Vatne et al. 2008, Raven et al. 2010, Turowski et al. 2010, 2011, Rickenmann et al. 2012, Beylich, Laute 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Kociuba et al. 2014). It is used for the determination of the volume of bedload discharge, and treated as an im-

231 New perspectives in polar research portant indicator of the origin, routes of distribution, and conditions of bedload transport and deposition (Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Beylich, Laute 2014). Bedload flux, showing high temporal and spatial variability (Kociuba et al. 2010, 2014, Beylich, Laute 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014), is primarily determined by climate- cryosphere relation factors, i.e. rate of ablation (of a glacier, permafrost), dependent on the temperature (Kociuba, Janicki 2014), and precipitation rate (Østrem et al. 1967, Ashworth, Ferguson 1986, Gurnell, Clark 1987, Warburton 1990, Ashworth et al. 1992, Kociuba, Janicki 2014). The basic feature distinguishing bedload flux in the Arctic morphoclimatic zone is the local character of bedload supply to fluvial waters (Hammer, Smith 1983), and predominance (70–90%) of loads transported during flood flows (Orwin et al. 2010). The determination of the volume of transported bedload, its velocity, sources of sediment supply, and routes of its distribution, and the assessment of conditions of its transport and deposition are necessary for the accurate assessment of the modern mechanisms of adaptation of the channel system to the changing environmental conditions (Kociuba et al. 2010, 2014, Kociu- ba, Janicki 2014). Although bedload usually constitutes an inconsiderable part of the total load (up to 37% of sediment flux) of sediments transported in the waters of Arctic rivers (Orwin et al. 2010), it plays the dominant role in determining the channel morphology (Comiti, Mao 2012). The related literature provides information on an extensive selection of qualitative studies describing effects of transport processes, e.g. evolution of landforms or directions of changes in land relief at various spatial scales (e.g. Ashworth, Ferguson 1986, Gurnell, Clark 1987, Warburton 1990). The quantitative aspect of the determination of bedload transport mechanisms is represented to a considerably lower degree. Due to methodological difficulties related to severe climate and difficult terrain conditions (Carson, Griffiths 1987, Bogen, Møen 2003, Bunte et al. 2004, 2007, Beylich 2007, Beylich, Warburton 2007, Zwoliński 2007, Bogen et al. 2003, Kociuba et al. 2010, 2012, 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Beylich, Laute 2013, 2014), the number of studies and publications of direct measurement results is relatively low. The volume of transported bedload is usually estimated based on approximate methods e.g., Maddock's Table (Turowski et al. 2010). The scarce published works based on direct measurements focus on the quantitative assessment of bedload flux in diverse hydrodynamic conditions (Bogen, Møen 2003, Kociuba et al. 2010, 2012, Kociuba, Janicki 2014). Direct continuous measurements of bedload transport were performed in the mouth section of the Scott River, located in the NW part of the Wedel-Jarlsberg Land, in the Bellsund region (Spitsbergen SW). The Scott River catchment, occupied by a glacier with a length of 3.1 km in 40%, has an area of 10.1 km2 (Fig. 1). The non-glacier covered part of the valley, with a length of 3.3 km and orientation from WSW to ENE, located below the glacial terminus (92.5 m a.s.l.)

232 New perspectives in polar research

A B

Fig. 1. Location of the study site: 1 – valley glaciers, 2 – glacial accumulation zones, 3 – rivers and water bodies, 4 – bedload monitoring stations (cross-profiles); 5 – catchment border [A]. Downstream view of the braided river system with a variable channel pattern in the central part of the Scott River catchment [B].

(Kociuba 2014), is drained by a river system fed by small tributaries with a variable channel configuration. The Scott River is a typical of the Svalbard region gravel-bed river with a glacial-nival regime, with proglacial waters as the dominant source of alimentation (90%) (Bartoszewski 1998). The presented mechanisms of bedload transport can therefore be considered representative of a number of small rivers of the Arctic. The objective of the paper is the determination of the complex character of bedload transport processes in the context of methodological difficulties in the effective estimation of bedload transport rate, as well as the identification of the accompanying channel processes and changes in the morphology of the mouth section of a proglacial gravel-bed river channel.

Methods

The accurate determination of the conditions and volume of transported bedload is of key importance for broadly defined research on the mechanism of fluvial transport, as well as for hydrotechnical works (e.g. Rickenmann, McArdell 2007, Raven et al. 2010, Turowski et al. 2011, Morche, Schmidt 2012, Rickenmann et al. 2012, Beylich, Laute 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Kociuba et al. 2014). This particularly concerns montane and Arctic regions, distinguished by considerable volumes of bedload transported by rivers. The occurring severe climate and land relief conditions determine the applied measurement methodology (e.g. Helley, Smith 1971, Emmet 1980, Reid et al. 1980, Ergenzinger, Schmidt 1994, Powell et al. 2001, Bogen, Møen 2003, Froehlich 2003, Bogen et al. 2003, Laronne et al. 2003, Hassan et al. 2005, Rickenmann, McArdell 2007, Vatne et al. 2008, Raven et al. 2010, 233 New perspectives in polar research

Turowski et al. 2010, 2011, Kociuba et al. 2010, Morche, Schmidt 2012, Ricken- mann et al. 2012, Beylich, Laute 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014, Kociuba et al. 2014). Anchoring a continuously device collecting bedload material in the channel bed (e.g. Milhous 1973, Hayward, Sutherland 1974, Tacconi, Billi 1987, Reid et al. 1980, 2002, Zwoliński 1989, 1993, Lewis 1991, Powell et al. 1998, Garcia et al. 2000, Sear et al. 2000) is considered as the most effective among direct methods, described as techniques of “mobile particles collection” (Rickenmann et al. 2012). The conditions of low thickness of the active permafrost layer of Arctic gravel-bed rivers, however, usually do not permit digging and permanent anchorage of this type of devices. Direct samplers include a set of anchored River Bedload Traps (RBT) (Fig. 2), applied in the measurements in the Scott River catchment.

Fig. 2. The single module of a River Bedload Trap [RBT].

234 New perspectives in polar research

Results obtained by means of samplers (Bunte, Abt 2009) of a similar type (e.g. CSU/FS bedload traps) show high measurement efficiency, and accurately describe the relations between the hydrological conditions of the stream and bedload flux. A set of RBTs is composed of proportionately distributed in the channel cross- profile, anchored bedload traps (Fig. 3). It combines the advantages of portable H-S samplers (i.e. easy one-man operation, immediate result, low cost), CSU/FS bedload traps (anchorage in the channel bed, permanent measurement sites), and continuous measurement systems (high efficiency, continuity), with simultaneous lack of restrictions during the measurement series (Kociuba, Janicki 2014). In the first of the cross-profiles (c-p I), established in the lower section of the gorge through elevated marine terraces (approximately 2.5 km below the outflow from the glacier, and approximately 350 m from the river’s mouth to the Bellsund fjord), the monitoring of bedload flux was started in 2009 (Kociuba et al. 2014). The location of the measurement profile in the valley’s narrow gorge section was selected due to the concentrated outflow of the Scott River waters within one stream (at average and low water levels), its location directly above the alluvial fan at the river’s mouth, and its reference to previous hydrological monitoring, conducted at the site by the MCSU team since 1986 (Bartoszewski 1998, Bartoszewski et al. 2009). The second measurement profile (c-p II) was established in 2010 in the middle section of the wide channel concentrating waters running off the alluvial fan at the river’s mouth. This profile, selected due to the effect of flows approximately 150 m above the crevasse channel dissecting the levee, was determined as a cross-section closing the Scott River catchment at the river mouth to the fjord (Fig. 4; Kociuba, Janicki 2014).

A B

Fig. 3. A set of River Bedload Traps in the cross-profile of the Scott River [A]. Bedload material collected over twenty four hours at one of the measurement sites [B].

235 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. Downstream view of the bedload monitoring stations in the lower part of the Scott River; location of bedload samplers (RBT) in the cross-profiles.

At both of the monitoring sites, the employed measurement strategy regarding the bedload transport volume and rate involved the application of the RBT (Fig. 2), according to the author’s own programme initiated in 2009 (Kociuba et al. 2010).

236 New perspectives in polar research

The even distribution of RBTs (every 1.5–2 m) in the channel cross-profiles permit- ted the determination of both the temporal and spatial variability of bedload transport. Bedload collected by each of the traps was drained and weighted for the purpose of calculating bedload transport rate and flux. The measurement period covered the first half of the melt season 2011 in late June and throughout July. Both the time of commencement of measurements and the length of the measurement series depended on the possibility of permanent and stable anchorage of the measurement devices (particularly on the rate of permafrost retreat from the channel bed). RBTs are stable at a thickness of the active layer of at least 0.2 m (optimum 0.3–0.4 m). The commencement of measurements also largely depended on the nival conditions and ice cover in the catchment. A delay in the commencement of measurements in c-p I of 16 days in relation to c-p II resulted from the persistence of snow overhangs on the slopes of the valley’s gorge section (Fig.5).

Fig. 5. Snow and ice overhangs on the right (N aspect) slope of the gorge section of the valley bed.

Slumping snow and ice overhangs falling into the river and drifting with the current posed a threat of collision, damage, or even destruction of RBTs mounted perpendicularly to the direction of the current. The measurement was performed in a daily cycle (every 24 h) at constant −1 −1 hours (10–12 UTC). Bedload transport rate (qb [in kg m d ]) in the measurement profiles was calculated based on the weight of the collected bedload (Gs [in kg]).

237 New perspectives in polar research

Gs is sample weight [in kg] Gs −1 −1 Bedload transport rate (q ) qb  [kg m d ] S is sampler width [in m] b TS w w T is total sampling time [in 24 h]

Total bedload flux (Qb) was calculated as the quotient of the mean cross-section transport rate qa and channel width (wc [in m]).

Results

The variability of the transported bedload in the first half of the ablation season 2011 was analysed in two cross-profiles located in the lower course of a gravel- bed proglacial river (Table 1). The measurements commenced at the moment of disappearance of the ice cover, on June 21 in cross-profile II (c-p II), and on July 6 in cross-profile I (c-p I). Over 39 measurement days, 193 samples were collected in c-p II, and 96 samples were collected over 24 days in c-p I. A total of 289 samples was collected, i.e. 1 271.0 kg of bedload material.

Table 1. The characteristics of the Scott River measurement sites and cross-profiles bedload transport parameters.

CROSS-PROFILE I (c-p I) measurement period: Jul 06 – Jul 29

no. of samples min mean max total % *

bedload transport rate q = kg m-1 day-1

MS g1 24 0.03 19.43 146.0 466.4 31

MS g2 24 0.39 37.09 133.8 890.2 15

MS g3 24 0.06 13.42 120.6 322.0 37

MS g4 24 0.09 12.53 102.1 300.7 34 mean bedload transport rate -1 -1 0.23 20.62 120.9 494.8 24 [qa=kg m day ] 96 -1 bedload flux [Qb= kg day ] 2.44 242.27 1517.9 5814.4 26 CROSS-PROFILE II (c-p II) measurement period: Jun 21 – Jul 29

no. of samples min mean max total % *

bedload transport rate q = kg m-1 day-1

MS m1 39 0.00 21.14 101.8 824.3 12

MS m2 39 0.08 25.89 121.8 1009.7 12

MS m3 39 0.01 5.26 150.3 205.3 73

MS m4 39 0.03 5.46 20.0 212.9 9

MS m5 37 0.00 0.12 0.9 4.7 19 mean bedload transport rate -1 -1 193 0.04 11.57 72.0 451.4 16 [qa=kg m day ] -1 bedload flux [Qb= kg day ] 193 0.37 118.86 784.2 4635.7 17 % * – contribution of the maximum daily value of bedload transport rate/flux in the total flux at individual measurement sites/cross-profiles

238 New perspectives in polar research

The obtained results suggest high variability of bedload transport rate. Its value in individual cross-sections varied from 0.03 to 146.0 kg m–1day –1 in c-p I, and from 0.0 to 150.3 kg m–1day –1 in c-p II (mean: 20.6 and 11.6 kg m–1day –1, respectively). The daily bedload flux ranged from 2.44 to 1 517.9 kg day–1 (mean: 242.3 kg day–1) in c-p I, and from 0.4 to 784.2 kg day–1 (mean: 118.9 kg day–1) in c-p II. The volume of bedload discharged over 24 measurement days through profile c-p I was estimated at 5 814.4 kg. In spite of a measurement period longer by 16 days, the volume of bedload discharged by the Scott River to the Bellsund fjord over 39 days through c-p II was lower by 20%, and amounted to 4 635.7 kg. The contribution of the maximum values in the total mass of the discharged material in particular profiles varied from 15% to 37% in c-p I and from 9 to 73% in c-p II (Table 1). The analysis of the distribution of daily values of bedload transport rate also suggests high variability of bedload transport in the analysed channel cross-profiles (Fig. 6). In c-p I, one period of intensified bedload transport was recorded (July 11). During that period, mass transport throughout the channel cross-section was observed, and several smaller ones dominated by transport in particular sections. Due to the earlier start of measurements in c-p II, two periods of mass bedload transport were recorded in the profile (June 23 and July 11). No significant secondary events corresponding to those in c-p I were recorded (Fig. 6). Both of the profiles are dominated by loads transported in the central and right-bank portions of the channel cross-section (MSg1,–MSg2 and MSm1–MSm3). In c-p I, the highest daily values of bedload transport rate were proportionately distributed in the talweg zone (MSg1– MSg3), and in c-p II, in the central part (MSm3) (Fig. 7A). The high temporal and

Fig. 6. Spatial and temporal variability of bedload transport rate. Daily bedload transport rate in analysed cross-profiles.

239 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 7. Spatial and temporal variability of bedload transport rate. Changes in bed channel morphology: 1. Location of the RBT modules, 2. channel geometry.

spatial variability of bedload transport rate observed in the analysed measurement profiles resulted in substantial changes in the shape of the channel cross-section in both of the cases (Fig. 7B).

240 New perspectives in polar research

Discussion

The currently scarce published studies on bedload transport in High Arctic gravel-bed rivers are distinguished by short measurement series, usually conducted during single season expeditions, frequently inadequate for longer time scales. Moreover, due to the diversity of the employed measurement methodologies and equipment (no standardisation), and lack of a uniform strategy for the selection of study objects, it is difficult to obtain an insight into fluvial transport processes and movement of material “from source to sink” (Beylich 2007, Beylich, Kneisel 2009, Orwin et al. 2010, Rickenmann et al. 2012, Beylich, Laute 2013, 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014). Depending on the importance and size of a catchment, high Arctic proglacial rivers discharge from 600 to >40 000 t yr–1 of sediment from their catchments (Orwin et al. 2010). Such a wide range of the results suggests an irregular and unstable character of fluvial transport. The primary factors determining sediment yield are considered to include the intensity of ablation processes, and the occurrence of violent discharge (including jökulhlaup) and precipitation flood flows (Østrem et al. 1967, Church, Gilbert 1975, Hasholt 1976, Kjeldsen, Østrem 1980, Gilbert, Church 1983, Pearce et al. 2003, Rachlewicz 2007). The contribution of bedload is also largely varied, reaching up to 37% of the sediment yield of proglacial rivers. Its temporal and spatial variability depends on flood flows during which up to 90% of bedload is discharged from river catchments (Orwin et. al 2010). The research conducted in the profile closing the Scott River catchment in the ablation season 2011 documents a low mean value of bedload transport rate (118 kg day–1) in spite of its high daily and seasonal variability. The highest amounts of bedload were transported during flood flows. The highest daily bedload yields, recorded simultaneously in both of the measurement profiles during the flood flow culmination (July 11), constituted from 9 to 73% of the total mass of the discharged bedload in particular cross-sections. This confirms the typical “episodic” character of bedload transport, also observed in the Scott River during the research conducted in 2009 (Kociuba et al. 2010, 2012, 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014). Low bedload transport volumes, predominant in the measurement period, result from the considerable rate of retreat of the Scott glacier, recorded over the last decade (up to 20 m yr–1), and increased rate of permafrost degradation (Bartoszewski et al. 2009, Pękala, Repelewska-Pękalowa 2007, Marsz et al. 2011). This results in an increase in the area of the non glacier covered part of the catchment, and an increase in the volume of the retention part of the valley. As a consequence, the morphological effects of flood waves and irregular character of flows typical of the Scott River are reduced (Kociuba, Janicki 2014). The study results show high temporal and spatial variability of fluvial processes determined by bedload transport. At the beginning of the measurement period

241 New perspectives in polar research

(Jun/July), both intensified deep erosion and lateral and vertical aggradation of sediments were recorded. In the second half of July, after the occurrence of the culmination flood wave, the bottom and channel landforms stabilised, with a slight predominance of aggradation. The disproportion in the volume of bedload recorded in the analogical periods in the measurement profile located above the alluvial fan at the river’s mouth (c-p I) and the one closing the catchment (c-p II) suggests the activity of aggradation processes within the fan, particularly during short slight flood episodes. The literature emphasises the effect of the measurement methodology (selection of study objects and sampling sites, measurement frequency and duration) on the representativeness of the obtained results (Hammer, Smith 1983, Brandt 1990, Warburton 1990, Bunte et al. 2003, Downing et al. 2003, Orwin et al. 2010). This study emphasised the need for applying new research strategies and standardisation of measurement techniques (Beylich, Warburton 2007, Beylich et al. 2012). The employed continuous measurement method with the application of RBTs (River Bedload Traps) anchored in the channel bed largely permits solving the issues described above, typical for research on fluvial transport in the conditions of cold climate (Kociuba et al. 2010, 2012, 2014, Kociuba, Janicki 2014).

Conclusions

• The research conducted in the first half of the melt season shows high temporal and spatial variability of the volume of transported bedload. The sediment yield in cross-section portions varied from approximately 0 to 150 kg day–1. In cross- sections, it exceeded 1 500 kg day–1. • The “episodic” character of bedload transport determined by flood flows was confirmed. The highest daily values recorded in consecutive seasons constituted from 9 to 73% of total bedload flux. • Bedload flux in both of the analysed measurement cross-profiles was distinguished by high temporal variability, manifested in both the variability of the unitary transport rate values over a single day, and variable dynamics in cross- section portions of the analysed channel cross-profiles. • Spatial variability of fluvial processes was evidenced, manifested in the disproportion of bedload flux in the analysed cross-profiles and in particular cross- section portions. Lower bedload yields recorded in the analogical measurement periods in the measurement profile closing the catchment below the alluvial fan show the predominance of aggradation tendencies. The uneven distribution and variability of transport rate in cross-section portions suggests the migration of transport routes, which at variable volumes of fluvial bedload, resulted in changes in the channel geometry.

242 New perspectives in polar research

• The study confirmed the high effectiveness of the implemented technique and strategy of quantitative bedload measurement. It evidenced that the application of River Bedload Traps (RBT) for continuous monitoring of bedload flux in the conditions of High Arctic gravel-bed rivers allows to obtain good results.

Acknowledgements. The study was supported by the grant of the National Science Centre No. 2011/01/B/ST10/06996 and the project POIG.01.03.02-00-082/10, EU in the scope of the Operational Programme Innovative Economy, 2007–2013, Priority 1. Research and development of modern technologies. I am particularly grateful to all of my colleagues (especially to Dr. Cyprian Seul) participating in the team of the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University Polar Expedition for their collaboration in the field and other stages of the research, and particularly for their support in the compilation of the metadata set.

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Arkadiusz Marek Tomczyk

Adam Mickiewicz University, Institute of Physical Geography and Environmental Planning, Department of Climatology 27 Dzięgielowa st, 61–680 Poznań, Poland [email protected]

Frost waves in north-western Spitsbergen

Abstract: The thesis analysed weather conditions causing occurrence of frost waves in north-western Spitsbergen exemplified by Ny-Ålesund station. The study used daily values of the maximum, minimum, and mean daily air temperatures for Ny- Ålesund between 1980 and 2010. The source material was obtained from the Nor- wegian Meteorological Institute datasets, available at e-klima portal (eklima.met.no). A extremely frosty day was defined as a day with the maximum temperature below 5 annual percentile, which was <–16.8oC in Ny-Ålesund, and a sequence of at least 5 days of the aforementioned category was considered a frost wave. In the analyzed multi-annual period, there were 538 extremely frosty days, including 25 frost waves, which total duration was 187 days. The research showed a statistically significant decrease in the number of extremely frosty days, which was 6.7 days/10 years. The occurrence of frost waves was more often connected with cyclonic circulation (57.4%), than with anticyclonic one (39.4%). On the analysed days, the inflow of air masses from the northern and eastern sector was dominating, which was confirmed both by the drawn-up maps of SLP, and by determining circulation types.

Keywords: Spitsbergen, air temperature, frost waves, atmospheric circulation

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC Report 2007) as- sesses that; in the near future, according to the observed trends, the greatest warming will occur over terrestrial areas and in high latitudes, while the smallest warming is expected in the region of the Southern Ocean and some areas of the North Atlantic. The previous research on air temperature changes in the Arctic showed an increasing trend (Nordli et al. 2003, Turner 2006, Przybylak 2007a, Marsz, Styszyńska 2009, Bednorz 2011, Bednorz, Kolendowicz 2013); still, the reasons for 247 New perspectives in polar research those changes have not been recognized yet. Among the mentioned reasons for the increasing air temperature, there are both natural factors as: an increase in heat delivery to the Arctic through the oceanic circulation (Polyakov et al. 2004, Marsz, Styszyńska 2009) and the increased activity of the sun (Fröhlich, Lean 1998, Soon

2005), as well as, anthropogenic factors, among which there is an increase of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere mentioned (Johannessen et al. 2004). As Przybylak (2007b) emphasises, considerable warming of the Arctic began with an approximately 20 year delay in relation to the global warming which showed itself in the second half of the 70s of the 20th century. Some scientists indicate that the occurring climate changes in the Arctic are brought about mainly by the natural factors; however, the influence of human activity cannot be ruled out entirely (Polyakov et al. 2003, Soon 2005, Marsz, Styszyńska 2009). Identification of mechanisms of the observed changes is crucial as the polar areas are considered a very important indicator of global climate changes (Przybylak, Wyszyński 2009). Atmospheric circulation has a decisive influence on the air temperature and the occurrence of thermal extremes; especially, in high latitudes; particularly, during polar night when heat is transferred by atmospheric and oceanic circulation with no solar radiation inflow (Alekseev et al. 1991 cited in Przybylak 2000, Niedźwiedź 1993, Bednorz, Kolendowicz 2013). As it has been already mentioned, atmospheric circulation is one of the basic mechanisms transferring heat in the atmosphere, and its changes, regardless of reasons for these changes, considerably influence short- term – inter-annual and inter-decadal – air temperature variability (Marsz 2013a). The influence of atmospheric circulation on the thermal conditions and the occurrence of thermal extremes in the Arctic have been the subjects of great interest for many years now (Polyakov et al. 2003, Zhang et al. 2004, Shabbar 2006, Marsz 2010, Gluza, Siwek 2012, Niedźwiedź et al. 2012). The thesis aims at defining synoptic situations determining the occurrence of extremely frosty days and frost waves in north-western Spitsbergen exemplified by the station in Ny-Ålesund .

Data and methods

Spitsbergen is the largest island of the Svalbard archipelago and a part of the Euro-Atlantic sector of the Arctic. The island is surrounded on its north side by the Arctic Sea, the Barents Sea borders it to the southeast, and the Greenland Sea borders it to the southwest (Bednorz, Kolendowicz 2013). Ny-Ålesund station (ϕ = 78°56’ N and λ = 11°57’ E) is located in the north-western part of Spitsbergen, on the north-eastern coast of Brøgger Peninsula, at the height of 11 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 1) (Budzik 2004).

248 New perspectives in polar research

The basis for the study were daily values of the maximum, minimum, and mean daily air temperatures for Ny-Ålesund station between 1980 and 2010. The source material was obtained from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute datasets available to the general public (eklima.met.no). A extremely frosty day was defined as a day with the maximum daily temperature below 5 annual percentile, which was <–16.8oC in the investigated station, while a sequence of at least 5 extremely frosty days was considered a frost wave. An extreme weather phenomenon is defined as a phenomenon so rare in a particular area and in a particular season that it fits in the range between the 10th and the 90th percentile of the observed probability density function or less frequently (IPCC Re- port 2007). On the basis of the source data, the basic climatologic characteristics were determined; namely, average air temperature, and days with the maximum temperature <–16.8oC were distinguished. Subsequently, from among extremely frosty days, sequences of at least 5 days of the aforementioned category were distinguished. In order to determine barometric situations occurring during extremely frosty days and frost waves, the values of daily sea level pressure (SLP) and the height of isobaric surface 500 hPa (z500 hPa) were used. These data were derived from the records of National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Reanalysis (Kalnay et al. 1996) and they are accessible in the sources of Climate Research Unit. The thesis used values for the area of 60–90oN, 60W–80oE. On the basis of the above-mentioned data, the maps of mean SLP and z500 hPa were drawn up for the winter season and all ex-

Fig. 1. Location of Ny-Ålesund in Spitsbergen.

249 New perspectives in polar research tremely frosty days. Similar maps have been drawn for the designated frost waves. o Additionally, for days with Tmax < –16.8 C, the types of circulation were distinguished according to the calendar of circulation types for Spitsbergen by Niedźwiedź (2013).

Results

In Ny-Ålesund, the mean annual temperature in the analysed period was –5.1oC and it oscillated between –8.5oC in 1988 and –2.7oC in 2006 (Fig. 2A). A standard deviation for the above mentioned multiannual period was 1.2oC. Be- tween 1981 and 2010 a statistically significant (p<0.05) increase in the mean annual air temperature occurred, which was 0.8oC per 10 years. In the annual course, the increase in air temperature occurred together with the beginning of a polar day and it reached maximum in July (5.3oC), while a rapid decrease was observed from September; thus, after the beginning of polar night, and it reached minimum in February (–12.7oC) (Fig. 2B). The mean air temperature in the winter season (No- vember-April) was –11.0oC and it varied from –15.5oC (1980/1981) to –6.0oC (2005/2006). The increase in the mean air temperature in the winter season was statistically significant (p<0.05) and it was 1.4oC per 10 years. In the analysed period, the number of extremely frosty days; that is, days with the maximum daily temperature <–16.8oC, occurred on 18 days in the winter season (November–April) on average. In the particular seasons, that number varied from 2 (1998/1999, 2006/2007, 2007/2008) to 46 days (1987/1988) (Fig. 3A). The research showed a statistically significant decrease in the number of extremely frosty days, and the value of changes was 6.7 days per 10 years. Extremely frosty days occurred from November to April, although the highest number of those was recorded in January, February and March (in total, there were, respectively, 145, 131

Fig. 2. A. The mean annual air temperature and the mean air temperature in the winter season; B. mean monthly air temperature.

250 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. A. Multiannual course of seasonal number of extremely frosty days; B. Monthly course of number of extremely frosty days.

and 132 days) (Fig. 3B). The most considerable changes in the number of extremely frosty days in the analysed period occurred in March (–1.9 days/10 years) and Feb- ruary (–1.8 days/10 years). On average, in Ny-Ålesund in the winter season in the analysed multiannual period, the most frequent were circulation types Ec (14.4%) and NEc (10.6%) (Fig. 4A). On the other hand, the least frequent were types NWa (0.5%) and Wa (0.6%). In the aforementioned multiannual period, a cyclonic circulation (67.5%) was dominant over an anticyclonic one (31.1%). Extremely frosty days the most often occurred with circulation types NEc (19.7%), NEa (15.8%) and Ec (15.1%) (Fig. 4B). The discussed days were more frequent with cyclonic circulation (50.6%) than with anticyclonic one (46.7%). Extremely frosty days mainly occurred with the inflow of air masses from the eastern sector (NEa, Ea, SEa, NEc, Ec, SEc) and; to a small extent, from the western sector (NWa, Wa, SWa, NWc, Wc, SWc), and their share was; respectively, 59.3% and 3.3%.

Fig. 4. Frequency of the occurrence of circulation types: A. for the winter season (November–April) between 1980/81 and 2009/2010; B. for all extremely frosty days and for all days making up frost waves.

251 New perspectives in polar research

The pressure field in the analysed multiannual period in the winter season (November-April) in the Euro-Atlantic sector of the Arctic was characterised by the occurrence of high pressure centre above Greenland (> 1020 hPa) and the extensive Icelandic Low (in the centre <998 hPa) (Fig. 5A). Between the mentioned centres, there was a strong horizontal pressure gradient. SLP over the analysed area was approximately 1008 hPa in the winter season. Isobaric surface 500 hPa sloped northward, and it was lying at the varying heights of >5280 to <5105 m. o During days with Tmax <–16.6 C in the Euro-Atlantic sector of the Northern Hemisphere, the sea level pressure reached the highest values over Greenland (>1022 hPa), while the lowest values were recorded over the Barents Sea (<998 hPa) (Fig. 5B). The analysed area remained within the reach of positive anomalies of SLP, which value was approximately 2 hPa. In the centre of low pressure, the anomalies were <–10 hPa. Over the major part of the area, there were negative anomalies z500 hPa (in the centre <–175 m). Over north-western Spitsbergen this lay by approximately 150 m lower than on the average in the winter season. The aforementioned pressure system caused advections of cold air masses from the northern sector. In Ny-Ålesund, between 1980/81 and 2009/10, 25 frost waves were distinguished, which in total lasted 187 days. The most frequent were 5 and 6-day waves, which constituted 36% and 24% of all frost waves respectively. The average length of frost wave was 7 days; however, the longest one lasted as long as 17 days and it was recorded in 1998 (from 14 to 30 January). In the analysed 30-year period, frost

Fig. 5. The mean sea level pressure and the height of isobaric surface 500 hPa: A. in the winter season in the analysed multiannual period; B. during all extremely frosty days and anomalies (right map).

252 New perspectives in polar research waves occurred only up till 2000. In the analysed station, frost waves occurred from December to April, with the maximum in February (32%) and March (28%). The average maximum air temperature of frost waves was –21.4oC, and the average minimum temperature was –28.2oC. The lowest average maximum air temperature was observed during the wave in 1986 (7–11 February; –25.1oC), and the highest one in 1994 (25–29 January; –17.6oC). Extremely frosty days forming frost waves occurred the most frequently with a cyclonic circulation (57.4%). The highest number of days were recorded in type NEc (25.5%) and Ec (17.6%). In the Euro-Atlantic sector of the Arctic, the average sea level pressure for all frost waves oscillated between <994 hPa (over the Barents Sea) and >1026 hPa (over Greenland) (Fig. 6). Over the analysed area, SLP was approximately 1006 hPa and it was lower than on average in the winter season by approximately 1 hPa. During the analysed phenomenon, isobaric surface 500 lay lower than on average, and in the centre, anomalies were <–175 m.

Fig. 6. The mean sea level pressure and the height of isobaric surface 500 hPa (left), and the map of anomalies (right) for all frost waves in Ny-Ålesund.

Discussion and conclusions

Multiannual changes of the mean annual air temperature in the winter season in Ny-Ålesund in the analysed multiannual period were; respectively, 0.8oC and 1.4oC per 10 years. The obtained results are coincident with the previous research conducted in the region of Spitsbergen. Bednorz (2011) showed the increase of the mean temperature in the winter season in Svalbard Lufthavn of 1.65oC/10 years, while in summer time, the changes of air temperature were 0.5oC/10 years (Bednorz, Kolendowicz 2013). While in Hornsund, the increase in the mean annual air temperature fluctuated around 0.96oC/10 years (Marsz 2013b). The strongest warming in the Atlantic Arctic was recorded in autumn (Sep–Nov) and in winter (Dec–Feb) (Marsz, Styszyńska 2011). The forecast warming in Svalbard between 1961 and 2050 indicates an increase of temperature of 1.0oC/10 years in winter and 0.3oC/10 years in summer (Hanssen-Bauer 2002). A sign of climate warming of the Arctic is changing duration of thermal seasons; that is, shortening of winter season with sim- 253 New perspectives in polar research ultaneous extending of summer time (Kwaśniewska, Pereyma 2004, Tomczyk 2013). The study showed reduction of a number of extremely frosty days, and the rate of change was 6.7 days per 10 years. On the other hand, frost waves in the analysed period occurred only up till 2000. The occurrence of extremely frosty days was mainly connected with advection of air masses from north-east and east, with higher frequency with a cyclonic circulation. A similar direction of advection of air masses occurred during frost waves. What is more, the research conducted in o Hornsund confirmed the reduction of a number of frosty days (Tmax<0 C), and the rate of change was 11.4 days per 10 years. The above-mentioned days occurred the most often during an air inflow from N, NE, E, NW directions with a high-pressure situation (Niedźwiedź et al. 2012). Similarly, the occurrence of extremely cold months in the subarctic climate zone of the Atlantic-European area was supported by advection of cold air masses from the north ant the north-east (Twardosz, Kos- sowska-Cezak 2013). In the winter season, Arctic cyclones are deeper and shorter than in summer time; and the cyclones from temperate latitudes are stronger than cyclones occurring in the region of the Arctic (Zhang et al. 2004). While analysing the features of atmospheric circulation over Spitsbergen, Niedźwiedź (2006) showed that in the second half of the 20th century and at the beginning of the 21st century there was an increase in the western circulation index; especially, in summer and winter, and an increase in the southern circulation index in winter and summer, as well as, an increase in the activity of cyclones in every season and; especially, in winter. A sign of climate changes in the region of the Arctic is; among others, reducing of area and thickness of sea ice cover (ACIA 2005) and the increase of temperature of permafrost, which is visible in the increase in thickness of active layer. Consequently, morphological processes are being activated (Humlum et al. 2003, Osterkamp, Jorgenson 2006, Etzelmüller et al. 2011). The variability of the Arctic environment under the influence of common climate changes makes increased activities aimed at protection of both geodiversity and biodiversity of this area of great scenic beauty necessary (Kostrzewski et al. 2007).

References

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256 New perspectives in polar research

Piotr Owczarek1 Magdalena Opała2, Krzysztof Migała1

1 University of Wroclaw Institute of Geography and Regional Development pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wroclaw, Poland [email protected], [email protected] 2 University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences Department of Climatology 60 Będzinska st, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected]

Climatic signals in growth rings of the High Arctic dwarf shrub Salix polaris (Wahlenb.): a case study from SW Spitsbergen, Svalbard

Abstract: Tundra plants are strongly affected by climatic factors. The climate changes and increase of temperature and precipitation in the High-Arctic area are evident and influence on shrub expansion and growth-ring variations. The main goal of our study is to analyze climatic factors, which influence growth ring variations of Salix polaris (Wahlenb.) from SW Spitsbergen. A potential of polar willow as a proxy for climate changes was demonstrated. The radial growth of the polar willow from the investigated site is highly dependent on August precipitation and air humidity in March. There were no significant relationships between mean temperature during the growing season and ring width. However, there is a strong influence of absolute extreme temperatures (July).

Keywords: High-Arctic, dendrochronology, climate, growth rings, polar willow

Introduction

The dendrochronological research north of the tree line is difficult due to the absence of trees and is limited to only few shrub and dwarf shrub species. However, increase of interest in these plants has been observed over the last decade. It is due to their large potential in dendroecological research in the Arctic, which is very sensitive to the contemporary climate change (Woodcock, Bradley 1994, Rayback, Henry 2005, Zalatan, Gajewski 2006, Owczarek 2009, Forbes et al. 2010, Owczarek 257 New perspectives in polar research et al. 2013, Schweingruber et al. 2013). In comparison with trees, dwarf shrubs pro- duce extremely narrow and discontinuous growth rings and missing rings are a common feature (Schweingruber, Dietz 2001, Schweingruber, Poschlod 2005, Bär et al. 2006, Owczarek 2010, Buchwal et al. 2013). Earlier dwarf shrub researches from the Arctic were mainly connected with the age estimation and the analysis of wood anatomy (Warren-Wilson 1964). Most dendroclimatic studies emphasise the temperature signal recorded by the growth ring of dwarf shrub but the new data showed the possibility to reconstruct moisture stress in the growing season (Blok et al. 2011, Rayback et al. 2012). Further analyses in the Arctic are necessary due to sparse and short meteorological station records. Increase of temperature and changes of other climatic variables over the last hundred years are evident in this area. Den- drochronological research in different parts of the Arctic may be helpful for better understanding the direction of these changes. The aims of this study were: (1) to construct the Salix polaris growth chronology for the High Arctic site on Spitsber- gen, (2) to examine the climatic signals which can influence on Salix polaris growth ring variability.

Study area

The study area is located in the south-western part of Spitsbergen (Svalbard Archipelago) on the north-western shore of the Hornsund fjord (Fig. 1, 2). A large part of this High Arctic island is covered with glaciers, many of which have high calving snouts. Mountain massifs (max 1410 m a.s.l.) separated from one another by glaciers is the predominant feature of the research area. Present-day glacier forefields with ice-cored frontal and lateral moraines are rapidly transformed by paraglacial processes connected with fast glacier retreat (Hagen et al. 2003, Owczarek et al. 2014). Typical landforms of the non-glaciated areas are coastal plains with several marine terrace levels of various ages (Lindner et al. 1991) and extensive talus cones with debris flow tracks (Owczarek 2010, Owczarek et al. 2013). The surfaces of the raised marine terraces situated at the elevation of 2–230 m a.s.l. are covered with loose deposits of marine sediments and weathered rock. The morphology of these marine terraces is poorly diversified with patterned ground features as well as solifluction and gelifluction lobes (Fig. 2). Spitsbergen has a periglacial climate often referred to as the “High Arctic climate” (Przybylak 2003). Over the last 30 years the mean annual air temperature in the Hornsund area varied from –1.5oC (2006) to –7.4oC (1988) with an average of –4.2oC (Marsz, Styszyńska 2013, Hornsund GLACIO-TOPOCLIM Database 2014). Inter-annual fluctuations of temperature are typical of this area but a distinct warming trend is evident. Nordli (2010) has calculated a long term trend of air temperature in Svalbard, which is +0.24oC per decade. The annual total precipitation in this

258 New perspectives in polar research area is 434 mm/year (1979–2012). The vegetation period in this part of Spitsbergen is restricted to 3 months and usually begins in the first half of June when the ground temperature exceeds 0°C (Fig. 3). Different tundra plant communities occur on the non-glaciated parts of Spitsbergen. Four plant zones are distinguished depending on the dominant species (Rønning 1996): Cassiope tetragona, Dryas octopetala, Papa- ver dahlianum and Salix polaris.

Fig. 1. Location map showing the sampling sites in the SW Spitsbergen on the shore of Hornsund fjord.

Fig. 2. General view on the north-western shore of Hornsund fjord in the vicinity of Polish Polar Station; flat raised marine terraces, where the Salix polaris samples were collected, are visible in the foreground.

259 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 3. Summary of climate at the meteorological station in the Polish Polar Station, Hornsund (77°00’ N,15°33’ E) (source: Marsz, Styszyńska 2013).

Material and methods

Salix polaris – general information Salix polaris (Wahlenb.), commonly known as polar willow, is a deciduous, prostrate, creeping shrub, usually less than 8 cm tall (Påhlsson 1985). It grows in different locations, especially in flat gravel areas (Rønning 1996) (Fig. 4a). The di- ameter of the branches does not exceed 1.2 cm (Fig. 4b). The width of rings distinguished in the collected individuals ranges from relatively wide 0.8 mm, to extremely narrow of less than 0.01 mm. Partially or completely missing growth rings are very common in the analysed specimens (Fig. 5a, b). This feature can be linked to the climatic conditions (frost year, physiological drought), mechanical stress connected with periglacial processes, or partial limitation of growth space of the root and branch systems.

Sampling and preparation Complete individuals of Salix polaris, including their root and branch systems, were collected during the short Arctic summer seasons in 2007, 2008 and 2011. The total of 45 samples of polar willow from 10 sites was collected from the flat raised marine terraces at the elevation of 12–28 m a.s.l. in the vicinity of the Polish Polar Station in Hornsund. Each individual was documented in a digital pho- tograph and sectioned with GSL 1 sledge microtome. 15–20 µm cross-sections have been taken along each individual from 4 to 7 different locations (depending on the length of the root and wooden branches). The ring widths were measured along two or three radii using the OSM 3.65 and PAST4 software. Standard dendrochronological methods were used for Salix polaris chronology development and dendroclimatic analysis (e.g. Bär et al. 2006, Speer 2010, Blok et al. 2011, Rayback et al. 2012).

260 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 4. A. Small colony of Salix polaris (Wahlenb.) on the edge of raised marine terrace; B. Individual of collected S. polaris with highly branching stands, cross-sections were taken from different locations within branches and root system.

Fig. 5. A. Cross-section of a 59-year-old Salix polaris wooden shoot, discontinuous growth-rings and high variability of growth-ring width distinctly visible. B. well-defined growth rings of Salix polaris with boundaries delimited by one or more rows of cells.

The meteorological data from the Hornsund station (ca.10 km from the sampling sites), covering the period 1980–2011, were obtained from the Hornsund GLACIOTOPOCLIM Database (2014). The climate variables investigated in this study included the monthly data: mean air temperature [°C], mean maximum diurnal air temperature [°C], mean minimum diurnal air temperature [°C], monthly absolute maxima of air temperature [°C], monthly absolute minima of air temperature [°C], sunshine duration (hours), total monthly precipitation [mm] and mean values of relative air humidity [%].

261 New perspectives in polar research

Results

Finally, 21 out of the 45 samples were included in the chronology and were the basis for further analyses. The remaining sequences were removed due to a large number of missing rings, eccentricity, presence of scars and clearly visible reaction wood. The oldest individuals of S. polaris which were used in the chronology construction were 62 years old, while the mean plant age was 38 years. After truncation up to min. 3 series, the constructed chronology covers the years 1951–2011 (Table 1, Fig. 6). The annual increments are in general very low and vary between 18 µm/yr to 564 µm/yr, with the mean approx. 137 µm/yr.

Table 1. Statistics for standardized and non-standardized chronologies.

Parameter

Time period (>3series) 1951–2011 Chronology length (>3series) 60 Number of series 21 Mean series length 38 Mean growth-ring width (Standard deviation) [mm] 0.14 (0.08) Mean index (Standard deviation) 0.96 (0.58) Mean series correlation with master 0.44 Mean inter-series correlation (Rbar) 0.32 Expressed population signal (EPS) 0.82 Mean sensitivity 0.56 Autocorrelation 1storder, unfiltered / filtered 0.27 / –0.01

Fig. 6. Growth-ring chronology of Salix polaris and its sample replication (marked grey).

262 New perspectives in polar research

The radial growth of the polar willow from the investigated site is highly dependent on August precipitation (r = 0.47) and air humidity in March (r = 0.37) (Fig. 7). There were no significant relationships between mean temperature during the growing season and ring width. However, there is a strong influence of absolute extreme temperatures. Absolute monthly maximum in July is positively correlated with the radial growth (r = 0.37), while absolute monthly maximum in the current February (r = –0.44), April (r = –0.38) and September (r = –0.37) are negatively correlated with the growth ring width (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. Pearson’s correlation coefficients showing the relationship between the Salix polaris residual chronology and the monthly atmospheric precipitation totals (dark grey bars) and monthly mean values of relative air humidity (light grey bars) measured at the Hornsund meteorological station. Asterisk indicate value significant at p <0.05.

Fig. 8. Pearson’s correlation coefficients showing the relationship between the Salix polaris residual chronology and the monthly mean (black bars), absolute monthly maximum (dark grey bars) and absolute monthly minimum (light grey bars) temperature measured at the Hornsund meteorological station. Asterisk indicate value significant at p <0.05.

263 New perspectives in polar research

The comparison of the normalised August precipitation with the dendrochronological data shows a high agreement in the course of these parameters (Fig. 9). The declines of the curve are associated with the precipitation below the average (period 1981–1990) and wide rings are the result of the above average precipitation (for example the years 1991, 1996–1997 and 2004). The radial growth of the polar willow in the investigated site is correlated with many climate variables, among which August precipitation totals and absolute maximum temperature in July are most strongly correlated with the Tree Ring Index (TRI). Therefore, an attempt was undertaken to reconstruct both parameters using the Salix polaris chronology (Fig. 10, 11). A linear regression model was used to describe the relationship between the tree ring chronology and climatic variables. The models were designed as follows:

P8 = 4.5 + 48.9 · TRIsapo (1)

Tmax7 = 8.5 + 2.1 · TRIsapo (2)

where P8 is August precipitation totals, Tmax7 is July absolute maximum temperature and TRI sapo is the ring width index of the Salix polaris chronology. However, during the calibration period, the reconstructed maximum temperature from May to October tracks the observation very well (especially in the years 1988, 1997, 2011 and 2004), the statistical characteristics of calibration and verification show a greater potential for the pluvial reconstruction. In both models the results of the RE and CE verification show some predictive skills. This statistic greater than zero indicates that the model performs better than the calibration period mean (Cook et al. 1994). The precipitation model showed better agreement with the

Fig. 9. Standardized annual growth increments of S. polaris and August precipitation anomalies (columns) in Hornsund. 264 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 10. Comparison of observed August precipitation totals and estimated model values (1981–2011) (n = 31; r = 0.43) and the reconstructed time series of precipitation (1951–1980). The horizontal line indicates the 1981–2010 normal (50 mm).

Fig. 11. Comparison of observed July absolute maximum temperature and estimated model values (1982–2011) (n = 30; r = 0.35) and the reconstructed time series of temperature (1951–1981). The horizontal line indicates the 1982–2011 normal (10.5°C).

instrumental records (r = 0.43, p < 0.01) than temperature model (r = 0.35, p < 0.01). The results of the sign test (21 agreements/10 disagreements, p < 0.05) indicated that the precipitation model tracks the inter-annual or high-frequency variability in the instrumental record better than the temperature model (Table 2).

Discussion

Despite the short length of the chronology prior to the instrumental record, a high potential of Salix polaris as a proxy for climate changes was demonstrated.

265 New perspectives in polar research

Table 2. Results from linear regression analysis of the chronology-climate relationship. Calibration and verification were carried out using the period 1980–2011, common to chronology and climate data.

Calibration Verification Dependent climate variable 2 2 R R adjR SEE DW R Rα RE CE ST August precipitation 0.43 0.19 0.18 1.65 1.60 0.43 0.35 0.17 0.16 21/10 totals July absolute maxi- 0.35 0.13 0.10 1.49 1.44 0.35 0.35 0.14 0.13 17/9 mum temperature Explanations for the table: R – correlation coefficient R2 – determination coefficient adjR2 – adjusted determination coefficient SEE – standard error of estimate DW – Durbin–Watson statistics Rα – critical value for R (0.05 significant level), RE – average reduction of error CE – average coefficient of efficiency ST – sign test

What was received is a 61-year-long chronology, which is similar to the results from the other parts of the Arctic (Woodcock, Bradley 1994, Zalatan, Gajewski 2006, Buchwal et al. 2013, Schweingruber et al. 2013). It was shown that the main climate drivers for Salix polaris growth in the southern part of Spitsbergen are mainly summer precipitation and not that much temperature. Similar results were presented by Blok et al. (2011) for Salix pulchra and Betula nana shrubs from North-eastern Siberian tundra. The reconstruction of these variables was provided in this paper. If further research results in collecting older individuals, precipitation and temperature reconstructions spanning over the last century or longer can be obtained. The seasonal temperature fluctuation, type of soil and type of tundra community determine the depth of thaw of active layer, the upper part of which is pene- trated by dwarf shrub roots. These factors decide about the water drainage, nutrient migration and water absorption (Migała et al. 2014). Callaghan et al. (1993) reported that Salix polaris tolerates very short growing seasons and long periods of winter snow cover, and the development of these plant is strongly related to water availability and temperatures. This research confirms the above observations. The soil water resources from the snowpack are available for the plant only at the begging of the growing season, so the high amount of precipitation at the end of the growing season significantly affects cambium activity and can be considered as an important factor modulating the width of the ring of the polar willow. The instrumental data of the August precipitation, in comparison with the dendrochronological data, show high agreement in the course of these parameters. The negative influence of the absolute maximum temperature values during winter months can be linked to the melting snow cover and the development of a thin ice cover, which can damage the previous year dwarf shrub branches. 266 New perspectives in polar research

Conclusions

 Tundra vegetation is very sensitive for contemporary climate change in the High- Artic area. Shrub expansion and changes of growth-ring variability of dwarf shrubs during last three decades are observed. Polar willow (Salix polaris) produces very narrow annual growth-rings which can be used in climate reconstruction. The potential of dwarf shrubs growth- rings as a climate proxy is especially high in the Arctic, where meteorological observations are short and limited.  The radial growth of the polar willow from the investigated High-Artic site is highly dependent on August precipitation and air humidity in March. Strong influence of absolute extreme temperatures (July) is observed too, however, there is no evidence of statistically significant relationships between mean temperature during the growing season and ring width.  The continuous measurements of meteorological parameters in Southern Spits- bergen (Hornsund Polish Polar Station) are recorded since 1979. Previous years can be supplemented by dendroclimatic reconstruction with the use of common in this area polar willow dwarf shrub. High correlation between tree-ring index and August precipitation and July maximum temperature can provide quite reliable data.

Acknowledgements. This research was supported by the grant no. N N306 601440 “Dendrochronological record of modern climate change and activity of periglacial processes in the south-western Spitsbergen” from the Ministry of Science and High- er Education in Poland.

References

Bär A., Bräuning A., Löffler J., 2006. Dendroecology of dwarf shrubs in the high mountains of Norway – A methodological approach. Dendrochronologia 24, 17–27 Blok D., Sass-Klaassen U., Schaepman-Strub G., Heijmans M.M.P.D., Sauren P., Berendse F., 2011. What are the main climate drivers for shrub growth in Northeastern Siberian tundra?. Biogeo- sciences 8, 1169–1179 Buchwal A., Rachlewicz G., Fonti P., Cherubini P., Gärtner H., 2013. Temperature modulates intra-plant growth of Salix polaris from a high Artic site (Svalbard). Polar Biology 36, 1305–1318 Cook E.R., Briffa K.R., Jones P.D., 1994. Spatial regression methods in dendroclimatology: a review and comparison of two techniques. International Journal of Climatology 14, 379–402 Callaghan T.V., Sømme L., Sonesson M., 1993. Impacts of climate change at high latitudes on terrestrial plants and invertebrates. Research report for the Directorate for Nature Management Nr. 1993 – 1, Trondheim Forbes B.C., Fauria M.M., Zetterberg P., 2010. Russian Arctic warming and “greening” are closely tracked by tundra shrub willows. Global Change Biology 16, 1542–1554 Hagen J.O., Kohler M., Winther J.G., 2003. Glaciers in Svalbard: mass balance, runoff and freshwater flux. Polar Research 22, 145–159 267 New perspectives in polar research

Hornsund GLACIO-TOPOCLIM Database, 2014. http://www.glacio-topoclim.org/, access: 01.2014 Lindner L., Marks L., Roszczynko W., Semil J., 1991. Age of raised marine beaches of northern Hornsund Region, South Spitsbergen. Polish Polar Research 12, 161–182 Marsz A.A., Styszyńska A., (eds) 2013. Climate and Climate Change at Hornsund, Svalbard. The publishing house of Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia Migała K., Wojtuń B., Szymański W., Muskała P., 2014. Soil moisture and temperature variation under different types of tundra vegetation during the growing season: A case study from the Fugle- bekken catchment, SW Spitsbergen. Catena 116, 10–18 Nordli Ø., 2010. The Svalbard Airport temperature series. Bulletin of Geography – physical geography series No 3/2010, 5–25 Owczarek P., 2009. Dendrogeomorphological potential of Salicaceae from SW Spitsbergen (Norway). In: R. Kaczka , I. Malik, P. Owczarek, H. Gärtner, G. Helle, I. Heinrich (eds), TRACE – Tree Rings in Archaeology, Climatology and Ecology Vol. 7. Scientific Technical Report STR 09/03, Potsdam, 181–186 Owczarek P., 2010. Talus cone activity recorded by tree-rings of Arctic dwarf shrubs: a study case from SW Spitsbergen, Norway. Geologija 52, 34–39 Owczarek P., Latocha A., Wistuba M., Malik I., 2013. Reconstruction of modern debris flow activity in the arctic environment with the use of dwarf shrubs – (south-western Spitsbergen) a new dendrochronological approach. Zeitschrift fűr Geomorphologie Supp 57 (3), 75–95 Owczarek P., Nawrot A., Migała K., Malik I., Korabiewski B., 2014. Flood-plain responses to contemporary climate change in small High-Arctic basins (Svalbard, Norway). Boreas 43 (2), 384–402 Påhlsson L., 1985. List of vegetation types and land forms in the Nordic countries with the plant species of the vegetation types in Latin, the Nordic languages and English. Nordic Council of Ministers, Oslo Przybylak R., 2003. The Climate of the Arctic. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Rayback S.A., Henry H.R., 2005. Dendrochronological potential of the arctic dwarf shrub Cassiope tetragona. Tree-Ring Research 61, 43–53 Rayback S.A., Lini A., Berg D.L., 2012. The dendroclimatological potential of an alpine shrub, Cassiope mertensiana, from Mount Rainier, WA, USA. Geografiska Annaler A 94, 413–427 Rønning O.I. 1996. The Flora of Svalbard. Norwegian Polar Institute, Oslo Schweingruber F.H., Dietz H., 2001. Annual rings in the xylem of dwarf shrubs and perennial dicotyle- donous herbs. Dendrochronologia 19,115–126 Schweingruber F.H., Hellmann L., Tegel W., Braun S., Nievergelt D., Büntgen U., 2013. Evaluating the wood anatomical and dendroecological potential of arctic dwarf shrub communities. IAWA Journal 34 (4), 485–497 Schweingruber F.H., Poschold P., 2005. Growth rings in herbs and shrubs: life span, age determination and stem anatomy. Forest Snow and Landscape Research 79 Speer J., 2010. Fundamentals of Tree Ring Research. University of Arizona Press, Arizona Warren-Wilson J., 1964. Annual growth of Salix arctica in the high-Arctic. Annales of Botany 28, 71–78 Woodcock H., Bradley R.S., 1994. Salix arctica (Pall.): its potential for dendroclimatological studies in the High Arctic. Dendrochronologia 12, 11–22 Zalatan R., Gajewski K., 2006. Dendrochronological potential of Salix alaxensis from the Kuujjua River area, western Canadian Arctic. Tree-Ring Research 62, 75–82

268 New perspectives in polar research

Magdalena Opała1, Krzysztof Migała2, Piotr Owczarek2

1 University of Silesia, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Department of Climatology 60 Będzinska st, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland [email protected] 2 University of Wroclaw, Institute of Geography and Regional Development Pl. Uniwersytecki 1, 50-137 Wroclaw, Poland [email protected], [email protected]

Tree rings of downy birch (Betula pubescens) from island of Tromsøya (Norway) as proxies for past temperature changes in the Low Arctic

Abstract: This paper presents the results of dendrochronological and dendroclimatological studies of Betula pubescens from two research sites on Tromsøya, northern Norway. A 193-year chronology was developed. Response functions confirm that June, July and August temperature is positively correlated with tree-ring width. This climate/growth relationship is stable throughout the 1925–2000 period. On the basis of summer temperature reconstruction (back to AD 1820) colder (circa 1835–1850 and 1890–1920) and warmer (circa 1825–1835 and 1920–1940) periods were distinguished.

Keywords: tree rings, birch, dendroclimatology, temperature reconstruction, Low Arctic

Introduction

The Arctic is very sensitive to contemporary climate changes. Shrubs expansion and changes of the northern tree line are clearly visible in this area (e.g. Sturm et al. 2001, Tape et al. 2006, Forbes et al. 2010, Hill, Henry 2011, Tremblay et al. 2012). Recently, many studies on the climate response of tree and shrub species, from polar and subpolar regions, have been carried out (e.g. Woodcock, Brad- ley 1994, Rayback, Henry 2006, Bär et al. 2007, Rozema et al. 2009, Weijers et al. 2010, Blok et al. 2011, Buchwal et al. 2013). Analyses of tree rings also provide means to reconstruct the record of climate back in time (Fritts 1976). This is especially important for the Arctic where instrumental data is both temporally and spa- 269 New perspectives in polar research tially limited. First dendroclimatological studies north of the Polar Circle were conducted by Erlandsson (1936) and Hustich (1945). Nowadays majority of studies concern living and subfossil Scots pine used to complete continuous multi- millennial chronologies at the northern timberline in Fennoscandia (e.g. Bartholin, Karlén 1983, Schweingruber et al. 1988, Briffa et al. 1990, Lindholm 1996, Zetter- berg et al. 1996, Briffa et al. 1998, Kirchhefer 2001). The Scots pine material consists of living trees, snags preserved on land and subfossil wood preserved in lakes and lake sediments enabled for construction the world’s longest continuous tree-ring width chronologies, with records from Torneträsk (BC 5407–AD 1997 (Grudd et al. 2002)) and Finnish Lapland (BC 5634 – AD 1992 (Helama et al. 2002)). Another several chronologies of Scots pine between coastal Norway and the interior of Fin- land extend back several centuries (Linderholm et al. 2010). However little attention has been paid to the dendroclimatic potential of other species. Some studies have been carried out on the climate response of Norway spruce, which prove to be a useful proxy for growing season temperatures (e.g. Andreassen et al. 2006). Multi- century oak chronologies developed for Southern Sweden showed good correlation with growing season precipitation (Bartholin 1975). Dendroclimatological potential of downy birch have been investigated at few Arctic sites so far: in northern Norway (Kirchhefer 1996), northern Sweden (Eckstein et al. 1991, Karlsson et al. 2004), and Iceland (Levanič, Eggertsson 2008). The aims of this study were: (1) to determine the dendrochronological potential of Betula pubescens concerning different topographic conditions and (2) to identify the main climatic factors influencing its growth at a subarctic sites.

Study area and climate

The study area is located in northern Scandinavian Peninsula on the island of Tromsøya in Troms Region. Two research sites were selected for detailed research (Fig. 1). Tromsø Region has well developed coastline facing the Norwegian Sea with large and mountainous islands. Steep mountains near the sea with broad plateaus and narrow flat lowland areas along seacoast (Strandflaten) are very characteristics for this region. Discontinuous permafrost is broken up into separate areas and occurs in the mountains and plateaus, mainly in the mainland on the east of Tromsøya. The research area is built of Neoarchaean and Palaeoproterozoic rocks: granites, gneisses and quartz-diorites (Bergh et al. 2012). The tree line in the research area is located at ca. 400 m a.s.l. The vegetation cover is mostly formed by mountain birch, a subspecies of downy birch. The alpine zone is dominated by mountain meadows with dwarf shrub patches (Moen 1999).

270 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 1. Location of the study area: 1 – Tromsøya University research site, 2 – Tromsøya Prestvannet research site.

The island of Tromsøya, located between the mainland and Kvaløya island is surrounded by narrow canals Sandnes-sundet and Tromsøy-sundet within large Balsfjorden. Northern and central part of the island, where is located Tromsøya Uni- versity research site, has hilly relief with narrow longitudinal ridges (max. elevation 135 m a.s.l.). Southern part with wide depressions is flatter. The second research site is located in the vicinity of artificial Prestvannet lake. Tromsø has a subarctic climate but this area is warmer than the other places located at the same altitude, which is effected by influence of the Norwegian Coastal Current. The climate is moderate oceanic, with mild snowy winters. Mean annual air temperature is +2.9oC (σ = 0.7) but varies strongly from year to year (Fig. 2). The coldest is February with monthly mean –3.9oC (σ = 2.1), the warmest is July with mean air temperature +12.8oC (σ = 1.8) (Fig. 2). Annual precipitation reaches the sum of 1010.9 mm (σ = 178), with maximum in October (124.6 mm, σ = 59) and with minimum in May (54.8mm, σ = 28) (Fig. 3). Maximum annual snow depth vary from 55 cm to 240 cm with duration of permanent snow cover fluctuate between 120 and 230 days (Vikhamar-Schuler et al. 2010). The last day of snow season, which is important for plant growth happens in 271 New perspectives in polar research the mid of April as well in the start of July, but is observed generally a decreased tendency with the end of snow cover in the end of April and/or in the start of May. From 20 May to 22 July, with the midnight sun, short wave solar radiation with visible light and PAR (photosynthetically active radiation) operate 24 hours daily. Mountain ridges in the vicinity of Tromsø are elevated to 1200–1800 m a.s.l. Assuming mean lapse rate of 0.6oC/100 m one can conclude that annual mean air temperature below zero appears already at the height of 600 m a.s.l.

Fig. 2. Course of annual mean of air temperature and trend of sixth-degree polynomial order in Tromsø during the period 1926 – 2010 (Based on data from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute).

Fig. 3. Long term monthly mean of air temperature and sum of precipitation in Tromsø in the years 1926–2010 (Based on data from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute).

272 New perspectives in polar research

Materials and methods

Sampling and chronology development Two sites located on the island of Tromsøya were chosen for detailed research (Fig. 1, Table 1). We collected 40 samples in different topoclimatic conditions: narrow ridge and plateau. At each site, 20 trees were chosen for analysis and one core per tree was extracted at about 1.3 m from ground level using an increment borer. In the laboratory, all cores were mounted and polished in order to obtain clear cross-sections and perform measurements of ring widths (under a precision of 0.01 mm). The measurements and crossdating were made using the LINTAB 6 device with a microscope and the TSAPWin software (Rinn 2010). The quality control were made with the program COFECHA (Holmes 1983). The program ARSTAN (Cook 1985) was used to calculate ring-width chronologies of Betula pubescens. The age-related growth trend was removed by fitting negative exponential functions. All site chronologies were computed applying bi-weight robust means to further remove the random signals related to local disturbances (Cook, Kairiukstis 1990). For analysis of climate-growth response residual chronologies were constructed, after removing autocorrelation from the individual series in order to maximize the climatic signal. The chronologies were evaluated by: the mean correlation strength between each individual and the mean chronology (r); the mean sensitivity (MS), which is the percentage change from each ring to the next (Fritts 1976); and the expressed population signal (EPS), which is the relationship between an investigated chronology with a hypothetical chronology with infinite replication (Wigley et al. 1984).

Table 1. Characteristics of the two Betula pubescens chronologies.

Site Tromsøya University Tromsøya Prestvannet Altitude 120 m a.s.l. 100 m a.s.l. Location narrow ridge plateau Number of samples (analyzed/cored) 11/20 13/20 Chronology length 1834–2013 1820–2013 Number of years 179 193 Mean ring width (mm) 0.78 0.97 Standard deviation 0.51 0.65 Mean sensitivity (MS) 0.52 0.53 Mean correlation with master (r) 0.59 0.59 Express population signal (EPS) 0.90 0.85

Climate data and dendroclimatological analysis The closest meteorological station to our study area is Tromsø (69°39′ N, 18°56’ E, 115 m a.s.l.), located approximately in the distance 1– 4 km to the dendro- 273 New perspectives in polar research chronological sites. Monthly temperature and monthly precipitation data from 1925 to present were obtained from the Norwegian Meteorological Institute (eKlima 2014). No corrections were undertaken. Correlation analysis of the relationship between indexed chronologies and instrumental climate data was performed to deduce the composition and significance of climate signal. Response function analysis was used for calibration and verification the response of TRW to climate. Estimation of transfer function was applied for the reconstruction of past climate – the tree-ring series were used as the predictor and the climate variables as predictand (Fritts 1976, Cook, Kairiukstis 1990).

Results and Discussion

Chronology characteristics and extreme years Summary statistics of two constructed chronologies are listed in Table 1. Chronologies and their replications are presented in Fig. 4. The life span of collected samples range from 179 to 193 years. The mean ring width decreased from 0.97 mm

Fig. 4. Birch tree-ring chronologies from Tromsøya University (A) and Tromsøya Prestvannet (B) and its sample replication (marked grey).

274 New perspectives in polar research to 0.78 mm. All chronologies have a relatively high value of mean sensitivity (ranging from 0.40 to 0.53), which indicate that Betula pubescens may be useful for dendroclimatological purposes. The constructed local chronologies are characterized by high intercorrelation (0.52–0.53) and EPS (0.85–0.90) values, providing a reliable estimation of the population size. The longest chronology were constructed for Tromsøya Prestvannet site, covering the period 1820–2013. Good agreement can be observed between two chronologies from the Tromsøya Island (r=0.84, P<0.05). In the common for both chronologies period 1834–2013 eight negative extreme years have been found: 1900, 1945, 1955, 1965, 1975, 1986, 2004. This negative extreme years can be connected with unfavorable climatic conditions or insects outbreaks. The exception is year 1900 for which data are not available. Common for all sites, negative years 1955 and 1975 might be associated with cool summer periods, with temperature much below long term average (σ1955 = –1.9, σ1975 = –2.7). However some differences between sites were observed in terms of insect gra- dations. Radial growth at ridge site is characterized by more outbreaks events then at plateau site. In general the identified years: 1945, 1955, 1965, 1986 and 2004 are in accordance with the insect outbreak years described for Iceland and northern Swe- den by Bylund (1995) and Babst et al. (2010). Also Levanič and Eggertsson (2008) stated that insect attacks significantly affect birch wood formation in Iceland.

TRW chronology-climate relationships The most significant growth-limiting factor is June temperature and mean summer temperature (Fig. 5). At Tromsøya Prestvannet site the sensitive period is longer (June–July–August) than at the other site, also the value of the correlation coefficient is highest (rJJA = 0.50). At Tromsøya University only temperature in June influences growth considerably (P<0.05). No precipitation effects on tree growth can be observed at any site. The results of studies on birch from Tromsøya are similar to those conducted in northern Sweden and Iceland, where mountain birch chronologies are sensitive to June and July temperature of the current year (Levanič, Eggertsson 2008, Young et al. 2011). However, Scots pine chronologies from northern Sweden are positively related only to July temperatures. Precipitation is not correlated with ring width at these sites (Young et al. 2011). Scots pine from the coast of northern Norway reflect July–August temperatures (Kirchhefer 2001). The general pattern of regional climate signals reflected in tree ring of investigated birch trees is modified by topographic conditions, that differ from site to site. The best correlated with climate, 164-years tree-ring width chronology from plateau site, has been chosen for further dendroclimatological analysis. The observed climate-growth responses are not time stable, weakening of the correlation values in recent decades is observed (Fig. 6). In the last two decades despite the increase in temperature, there was no increase in growth-ring widths.

275 New perspectives in polar research

Fig. 5. Correlation function results. Coef- ficients were computed between the two residual chronologies (A – Tromsøya University research site, B – Tromsøya Prestvannet research site) and the monthly mean temperature variables. Statistically significant correlation coefficient values were marked as black bars (p<0.05).

Fig. 6. Relationship between index chronology of downy birch and June temperature (dashed line) and summer temperature (solid line) changing in time.

This so-called “divergence phenomenon” between tree-ring data and temperature records is often found in large scale and local northern hemispheric dendroclimatology studies and has been connected with warming-induced drought stress that has forced a shift in tree growth response to climate (D’Arrigo et al. 2008).

Temperature reconstruction

Comparison of the tree-ring series (TRI Betula pubescens) and the monthly Trom- sø temperatures over the period 1925–2000 shows strong positive correlations

276 New perspectives in polar research

(r = 0.5) with current year summer temperature. Therefore data for 1925–2000 period was used for calibration / verification, while data for 2001–2012 period were excluded from the further dendroclimatic analysis (Fig. 7). Based on the results from the correlation analysis a transfer model for estimating mean June–August temperature was developed. Calibration over the 1925–2000 period gave the following regression equation (r=0.450, r2=0.25, SEE=1.10 /standard error of the estimate/, p < 0.001):

TempJJA = 9.034 + 1.858 · TRI Betula pubescens

The final model and obtained dendrochronological data enabled to extend the temperature record to 1820 (Fig. 8). In the tree-ring based reconstruction two major cold periods can be identified: centered on 1840s. and at the turn of 19th and 20th centuries (1890–1920), followed by recent cold decades in 1960s. and 1980s. In our record there are few warm periods: 1825–1835, 1920–1940, 1970s. and contemporary warm interval: 2001–2006.

Fig. 7. Downy birch ring-width chronology (black curve) compared with normalized June–July–August temperature (grey bars).

Fig. 8. Tree-ring-based reconstruction of summer temperature for Tromsøya (grey solid line) and its 11-yr average (black solid line) compared with average temperature for investigated period (doted white line) and instrumental measurments (dashed grey line).

277 New perspectives in polar research

Conclusions

Developed 193-year-long birch chronology proved to be a reliable source of climatic information for the June–August period in northern Norway. This is similar to the findings from the studies from other sites north of the Arctic Circle. Obtained record is one of the longest for this species and enable for the reconstruction of summer temperature from 1820. The presented studies highlighted the importance of site selection in dendroclimatological studies. Local relief can influence climate- growth relationships, however detailed investigation in more sites is needed to confirm this hypothesis. Dendrochronological record from Tromsø, well correlated between series, sites and climate variables, is an important element for broader reconstruction of preinstrumental climate variation in the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean and may be a valuable reference material for comparisons with shrubs and dwarf shrubs chronologies from the High Arctic.

Acknowledgements. This work was supported by the statutory research programs from University of Wroclaw and University of Silesia.

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