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PART 4

Appendix: Economic geology: exploration for coal, oil and Glossary of stratigraphic names, 463 minerals, 449 References, 477 Index of place names, 455 General Index, 515

Alkahornet, a distinctive landmark on the northwest, entrance to , is formed of early Varanger carbonates. The view is from Trygghamna ('Safe Harbour') with CSE motorboats Salterella and Collenia by the shore, with good anchorage and easy access inland. Photo M. J. Hambrey, CSE (SP. 1561).

Routine journeys to the fjords of north and pass by the rocky coastline of northwest Spitsbergen. Here is a view of Smeerenburgbreen from Smeerenburgfjordenwhich affords some shelter being protected by outer islands. On one of these was , the principal base for early whaling, hence the Dutch name for 'blubber town'. Photo N. I. Cox, CSE 1989. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

The CSE motorboat Salterella in Liefdefjorden looking north towards Erikbreen with largely rocks in the background unconformably on metamorphic Proterozoic to the left. Photo P. W. Web, CSE 1989.

Access to cliffs and a glacier route (up Hannabreen) often necessitates crossing blocky talus (here Devonian in foreground) and then possibly a pleasanter route up the moraine on to hard glacier ice. Moraine generally affords a useful introduction to the rocks to be traversed along the glacial margin. The dots in the sky are geese training their young to fly in V formation for their migration back to the UK at the end of the summer. Photo W. B. Harland, CSE 1990. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

Appendix Economic Geology: Exploration for coal, oil and minerals

W. BRIAN HARLAND & ANTHONY M. SPENCER

23.1 Coal, 449 23.3 Metalliferous minerals, 453 23.2 Petroleum, 451 23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals, 454

The incentive for most geological exploration has been related to The Calypsostranda Basin, which is about 4 km along the coast, the possibility of mineral wealth. Some has been undertaken by extends about 700m from the shore. The Skilvika Formation industry, other as a result of national interest. A great deal of (Livshits 1967; Thiedig et al. 1979), 115.5m of mainly silts and academic research, particularly since 1960, has been financed by shales with plant remains, contains many thin coal horizons which industry. It is impossible with financial pressures so strong to were the basis of short lived exploitation at Calypsobyen. Seams are disentangle the presentation of research as between 'fundamental' mostly only a few cm, but three attained 0.28, 0.46 and 0.65m and 'applied'. This section, summarizes the explicit search for thickness. hydrocarbons (coal and petroleum) and metalliferous and other The Central Basin is a N-S brachy-syncline of the Van minerals which in various ways has been alluded to in the preceding Mijenfjorden Group with six units CB6 to CB1, top to bottom, chapters. It is not intended as a comprehensive survey. as described in Chapter 4.2 and ranging from mid-Eocene back to Paleocene. Of the six formations coal has been recorded in CB6, CB3 and CB1, and of these CB1 is by far the most important 23.1 Coal (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937; Major & Nagy 1972; Manum 1956; Pavlov & Panov 1980). Coal seams crop out extensively in and, being conspic- The Aspelintoppen Formation (CB6), occurring at the tops of uous in cliffs and talus, have been exploited in surface workings for mountains in the middle of the Central Basin, contains thin seams fuel by whalers and hunters from the earliest days. near the base, and below sediments formed in a mobile environ- The potential for mining and export and the political ment with slumping related to the uplifting West Spitsbergen implications was increasingly realised from the later years of the Orogen. No seams thicker than 30 cm have been recorded. Nineteenth Century. Until the status of Spitsbergen and Bjornoya The Grumantbyen (Sarkofagen) Formation (CB3) contains a was settled, coal was a political consideration and when the Treaty seam of a few cm and was recorded by Croxton & Pickton (1976) in protected international commercial rights, economic facts slowly the Berzeliusdalen area; Livshits (1965) noted a 1 m seam in the displaced political manoeuvring until the present situation where region. The opportunity at Grumantbyen was purely commercial considerations hardly make mining coal for exploited (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937b; Shkola et al. 1980). Exploration export competitive. Coal occurrences may also have a potential for of (Pavlov & Panov 1980) and Nordenski61d Land natural gas, possibly with similar competitive limitations with the (Croxton & Pickton 1976) has not led to exploitation. present perception of offshore resources. The Paleocene Firkanten Formation (CB1) is the principal Coal, being the only mineral effectively exploited, has focused source of coal in Svalbard, being mined at , research on coal-bearing strata. This review treats coal in situ from Barentsburg and . Major & Nagy (1972) named five a stratigraphic-regional viewpoint beginning with the youngest seams (from the top) Askeladden, Svarteper, Longyear, Todalen seams. Further discussion in a stratigraphic context can be found in and Svea. They pointed out that the Todalen is typically less than the regional and historical chapters. Hitherto coal has been 60 cm and the Askeladden seam though well developed has a high relatively easy to exploit above sea-level (for bunkers and export) sulphur content (Major et al. 1992). and, within the permafrost zone of mountains, freezing tempera- From Longyearbyen mines have successively exploited the seams often tures avoided problems with water. Deep mining would need high in the mountains, in successive blocks between the valleys with substantial resources and has been considered seriously perhaps in numbered mines, old numbers 1 and 2 occur on the mountain sides at the only one locality, Gipsdalen (Helovnori 1983). opening of Longyeardalen. New numbered mines 1 (and '1') on both sides of half way up the valley; No. 3 (the latest to be reworked) due Pavlov & Yevdokimova (1996) noted extensive analysis of Svalbard's south of Longyear/Svalbard Lufthavn at Hotellneset; No. 4 near the head of coals. Perhaps the principal impression is of the burial and local tectonic Longyeardalen; No. 5 on the south flank of Endalen to the southeast; No. 6 history. The Early coals of and Bjornoya gave due east at the nose of Karlundhfjellet between Todalen and Bolterdalen ash rich in A1203. Reserves were estimated at 836 x 106t with 96% and the presently working No. 7 east of Bolterdalen 11 km ESE of represented by gas or coking coals. Of the above 208 x 10 6 t, 138 x 10 6 t and Longyearbyen. The later mines up Adventdalen and No. 3 were served by 490 x 106 t of coal reserves are respectively. Early Carboniferous, Barremian road after the cable system was discontinued. In each case the coal was and Paleogene. Similarly Yevdokimova (1996, p. 99) noted that Carbonifer- stored through the winter at Hotellneset and shipped out in the summer. ous (Mississippian) coals derived from lycopsids, selaginellas and pteridos- These mines have been practically exhausted and the only viable coal mine is permaphytes whereas Paleogene coals depended on plane, yew, cypress, pine at Sveagruva, also in the Firkanten Formation, where a 5 m seam presents etc. All were classified as humid (see also Yevdokimova 1980; Yevdoki- opposite problems in mining (Pewe et al. 1981; Myrvang & Utsi 1989). With mova, Vorokhovskaya & Birukov 1986). so well serviced a settlement at the capital Longyearbyen and with shipping difficult at Sveagruva, the project for a road between the two settlements Paleogene coal. Oligocene or latest Eocene coals occur in graben was under consideration; miners fly each 10 days. Coal mining even with sequences on the west coast of Spitsbergen. present-day efficiency, is hardly self-supporting in Svalbard. The Forlandsundet Basin on the east side, especially at Sarsoyra, Similarly the mine at Barentsburg (Kotlukov 1936) has exhausted the exposes the Balanuspynten Formation whose Sarsbukta member original concession and a further concession has been leased to the south. contains coal and plant fragments defining thin seams of up to The economic case without political support may be difficult to maintain. 15cm. Thin seams of coal were also recorded in the west by The mine at Grumantbyen also in the Firkanten Formation was Atkinson (1962) at McVitiepynten. Although there is no prospect abandoned after the Second World War when most mines were destroyed to of mining coal the several km of such facies may generate significant prevent their use by the other side. (For the history of this mine see gas as has been confirmed by the Norsk Polar Navigasjon A/S well Samoilivich 1913, 1920; Samoilivich et al. 1927; and a more recent at Sarstangen (Petroleum Economist 1975). exploration borehole - Shkola et al. 1980.) Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

450 APPENDIX

The Ny-Alesund coalfield. This had been worked from the surface Trassic coal. Thin coals have been reported from the Late since whaling days with early exploration claims. Systematic mining (?Carnian) De Geerdalen Formation, of sandy deltaic facies developed between about 1917 to 1962 when the mine was finally (Klubov, Aleksejeva & Drosdova 1967). Klubov (1964, 1965) had abandoned after the worst of a series of accidents, even though mapped coal in this unit at Wilhelmoya, Barentsoya and Edgeoya, significant extensions of the mine had been planned. and Pchelina & Panov (1966) noted coals around Wichebukta and The Ny-Alesund coalfield is shown in Fig. 9.3 where the Ny- upper Sassendalen. It appears that one seam from 0.10 to 0.40 m is Alesund Subgroup comprises two formations. The upper (Brogger- widespread and, with allochthonous plant material, now has a high breen) formation with the Bayelva Member has four mined seams, carbon content. No exploitation has been attempted (Harland, and below it the Leirhaugen Member has the Agnes Otelie seam at the Pickton & Wright 1976). base. The lower (Kongsfjorden) formation divides into two barren sandstones and conglomerate members above an unconformity. Below this is the Kolhaugen Member with a number of seams. Early Carboniferous (Mississippian) coal. Coal measure 'Kulm' or The Ny-Alesund Subgroup certainly correlates with the Paleo- 'Culm' facies are typical of the Billefjorden Group both in central cene Firkanten Formation in the Central Basin and possibly the Spitsbergen and Bjornoya. They have been actively mined at upper part with the overlying Basilika Formation. Indeed, although Pyramiden and Tunheim respectively (Dibner 1986; Antevs & currently separated from the Central Basin by the Broggerhalvoya Nathorst 1917). fold and thrust front, in pre-Eocene time it appears to have been In Bjornoya, of the three (Ursa Sandstone facies) members of continuous and correspondingly is classified with the Van Mijen- the Roedvika Formation, the lower (Vesalstranda) member is of fjorden Group. Famennian age, and the middle (Kapp Levin) and upper (Tunheim) The seams vary greatly in thickness even within the c. 5 km 2. members are Tournaisian. Only the Tunheim member coals have explored in five boreholes and many pits up to 1928. Orvin's been mined (at Tunheim), but coals are also found in the upper account of the coalfield is the best available. Midboe worked on the 60 m of the Vesalstranda Member. At Tunheim coal is exposed in mine records after that until closure of the mine, but his work has the cliffs of the east coast and of the many seams only one or two not yet been published except for extracts (used here) from SKS are workable. Mining ceased in 1925 for combined reasons of reports (Dallmann et al. 1996). Orvin (1934) recorded in detail divided seams, difficult loading from a cliff top and low prices sections, analyses and volume estimates of every available excava- internationally (Horn & Orvin 1928). Of the many seams in the tion (pp. 85-161) from which the following is abstracted. lower (Vesalstranda) member all are too thin so that their likely wide extent underground has no economic interest (Gjelberg 1978; KB2 is roofed by the Kapp Starostin thrust. It could be equivalent to KB1. Pavlov et al. 1983). ?8 m separation from the In the Billefjorden area there is undoubtedly extensive KBI Seam which is too thin to be economically interesting. 30 m below is the Mississippian coal for which a potential may exist in Gipsdalen Ragnhild Seam, which was thin and cut by the Kapp Starostin overthrust (Helovuori 1983). This would be the only substantial prospect in a and not effectively worked. 36 m below this the coalfield beneath sea-level. Coal is exposed near Brucebyen south of Josefine Seam, extended up to 135m beneath the overriding thrust. Up to Adolfbukta, but the principal outcrop has been extensively mined 2 m undivided coal was worked. 20 m below this is the at Pyramiden where thick seams have been claimed (Lyutkevich Agnes-Otelie, which was largely worked out and was cut by the overriding thrust surface. Totalling nearly 2 m of coal it was divided by up to 0.4 m 1937b). The area has been described by Cutbill, Henderson & of sandstone. Separated from the seam below by 70-80 m is the Wright (1976). In the succession (at Birger Johnsonfjellet), with Advoeat Seam. This seam is divided by as many as 5 shale partings, is revised classification and nomenclature, the original Svenbreen variable and proved unworkable economically. Formation has been divided with the upper red beds which are Sofle Seam varies in thickness and with shale partings, the coal itself included in a new Hultberget Formation within the overlying totalling up to 3 m. 8-12m below is the lowest seam. This is the Gipsdalen Group. Thus in the Billefjorden Group, the (upper) Ester Seam, which is the most important in the coalfield of more uniform Mumien Formation shows at least three coal seams in the upper thickness, of up to 2-3 m with thin shale partings and greatest area. It (Birger Johnsonfjellet) member largely of carbonaceous shales. The rests on the 'Bottom shale' (Triassic Vardebukta Formation). lower (Sporehogda) member is of coarser sandstone and conglom- erate facies with plant remains, but no coal. The (lower) Horbyebreen Formation has at least three more seams of poor coal near the top of the Hoelbreen Member, and at least one seam coal. The Helvetiafjellet Formation, of probable Barre- near its base. The underlying Triungen Member is coarser grained mian age, is the only Cretaceous unit with a record of coal. without coal. The formation crops out throughout the rim of the Central Basin and commonly shows traces of coal in the typical sandstone facies of the upper (Glitrefjellet) member. The only records of Devonian coal. Svalbard may claim two of the few occurrences of significant exploitation refer to the outcrops east of , Devonian coal anywhere. Already noted are the seams of c. 90 cm, mainly at (now a ruin) and Moskushamna. Famennian age in Bjornoya which are of no economic interest Hoel (1929) had reported reserves of 1500 x 106t of l m seams (e.g. Gjelberg 1978). Similarly in Mimerdalen, up-stream from within 600 m of the surface (above and below sea-level) but from Pyramiden, is the late Devonian 'brown coal'-type outcrop (Horn the investigation of Smith & Pickton (1976) in the mountains 1941; Vogt 1941). It is not known to have been worked, and if there between Adventdalen and Sassendalen, including the eponymous were a slight potential it is too near to Pyramiden to compete. mountains, it appears that Advent City mined the best seam between 1904 and 1908. At the mine is a lower seam of 40cm separated by 9 cm of shale from an upper seam of 50 cm. Generally, Sturtian 'anthracite'. Sturtian is taken here (from Harland et al. however, the seams are further divided and, with an ash content of 1990) as the period preceding Vendian and possibly extending back 14% to more than 19%, have proved uneconomic. to about 800 Ma. The formation in question is the H6ferpynten To the north of Isfjorden, at Bohemanneset, the last effort to Formation of Hornsund which is most likely coeval with the mine Cretaceous coal between 1920 and 1921 was made. Coal Akademikerbreen Formation of Ny Friesland and which might below sea-level was noted by Hoel at Grumantbyen (Harland, have an age of around 750 • 50 Ma. It was surprising, therefore, Pickton & Wright 1976). when Birkenmajer, Frankiewicz & Wagner (1992) reported 'Late Proterozoic anthracite coals'. These are not seams, but high-grade hydrocarbons appearing to coal was reported earlier (Stevenson 1905) but has not been be metamorphosed organic material in irregular voids or vugs in noted recently. dolostone. 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APPENDIX: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 451

(dolostone with cherts) of the H6ferpynten Formation at H6fer- Stratigraphic. Paleogene: Manum & Throndsen (1978); Throndsen (1982). pynten south of Hornsund and (ii) in a similar dolostone at Mesozoic: Dypvik (1980); Mork & Bjoroy (1984); Embry (1989); Krajewski Krakken just east of Vestre Torellbreen and possibly related to the (1989). Cretaceous-Jurassic: Bjoroy & Vigran (1980); Bjoroy et al. (1979); (?coeval) Dunoyane Formation. Dypvik (1985); Gramberg & Ronkina (1988); Hvoslef et al. (1986); The organic material has been interpreted according to coal Zakharov & Kulibakina (1988). Triassic: Bjoroy & Hall (1983); Bjoroy routines as of algal origin in a lagoonal setting. It is clearly a et al. (1979,1980); Dypvik (1979); Falcon (1928); Forsberg & Bjoroy (1983); bituminous substance which indicates the most extreme alteration Throndsen (1979). -Carboniferous: Cameron & Goodarzi (1992); Emery (1989); Kano (1992); Lonoy (1988); Staff & Wedekind (1910); suggested at 500~ and pressure of 20 000 MPa. There are multi- Stemmerik et al. (1994); Stemmerik & Larsen (1993). Neoproterozoic: phase graphite crystallites. Danyushevskaya et al. (1970). Graphitic phyllites and schists of presumed Vendian age are not uncommon and the implication is for genesis of petroleum in late Geochemical/composition. Bjoroy (1977); Bjoroy & Vigran (1979); Bjoroy Proterozoic carbonates which are abundant in Svalbard (Danyush- et al. (1980, 1983, 1987); Dypvik (1980); Hvoslef et al. (1986); Isaksen evskaya et al. 1970). (1996); Krajewski (1989); Schou et al. (1984); Voytov et al. (1979, 1981). Other references are included below. Subsurface environment. Birkenmajer (1992); Dypvik (1979); Hughes et al. General, historical, political, economic. Adadurov (1927); Ahlmann (1941) (1976); Manum et al. (1977); Pedersen (1979); Throndsen (1979), (1982); Andersson (1917); Berr (1914); Breuer & Zimmelund (1922); Burov (1919); Zakharov & Kulibakina (1994). De Geer (1899, 1012); Deutscher Seefischerei-Verein (1900); Dillner (1913); Gothan (1937); Harland et al. (1976); H6gbom (1913); Hoel (1916, 1920, Hydrocarbon occurrences. Bakken et al. (1994/5); Lammers et al. (1995); 1922b, c, 1924, 1925, 1938, 1966); Horn (1928, 1930); Kotlukov (1933); Max & Lowrie (1993); Voytov et al. (1979, 1981). Lyutkevich (1937); Mewins (1900, 1901); Odelberg (1916); Ohlson (1979); Olsen (1929); Orheim (1982); Pavlov & Evdokimova (1996); Reusch (1913); Stuctural constraints. Dalland (1979), Breach & Rowan (1992); Dengo & Simmerbach (1917, 1919); Zaytzev (1917, 1921). Rossland (1992); Ronnevik & Jacobsen (1984); Spencer et al. (1984); Sverdrup & Bjorlykke (1992). Mining. Brugmans (1987); Cadell (1920); Hanoa (1993); Hoel (1922a); Exploration. In Barents shelf (not Svalbard). General: Bergsager (1986); Mansfield (1919); Misnik & Belousov (1983); Myrvang & Utsi (1989); Nagy (1965, 1968); Pedersen (1977); Spencer (1984); Winsnes (1975); Orheim (1979); Pewe et al. (1981); Statistiske Centalbyrft (1916); Wer- Yevdokimova (1980). Regional: Bjoroy et al. (1980, 1983, 1987); Dalland enskiold & Oftedahl (1922); (1979); Heafford (1992); King (1964); Ronnevik (1981, 1983); Ulmishek Geochemical/composition. Horn (1929); Pavlov (1964, 1065); Yevdoki- (1985). Potential: Bergsager (1986); Bleie et al. (1982); Bro et al. (1991); mova et al. (1986); Yevdokimova (1996). Dalland (1979); Halbouty (1986); Harland (1969a); Leith et al. (1992); Nottvedt et al. (1992); Nys~ether & Saeboee (1979); Oljedirektoratet (1996); Environment and coalification. Abdullah et al. (1988); Horn (1929); Hughes Rasmussen et al. (1995); Wells: Bjoroy et al. (1981); Bugge et al. (1990); et al. (1976); Manure & Throndsen (1978); Pavlov et al. (1980). Gramberg et al. (1985); Kornfield (1965); Leythaeuser et al. (1983); Shkola et al. (1980); Shvarts (1985). Exploration. Bugge et al. (1990); Orheim (1982).

Comparisons elsewhere. Cameron & Goodanzi (1992); Dibner & Krylova Petroleum exploration (A. M. S). Exploration is conducted under (1963). the rules for mining set out in the of 1920, with applicants 'staking' licence areas each up to 10 km 2. These are then registered with the Bergmester for Svalbard who regulates all 23.2 Petroleum exploration activity, but utilizes the Norwegian Petroleum Direc- torate for resource assessment and for technical assessment of the Confirmed by 17 wells Svalbard has been disappointing in the safety aspects of drilling. Exploration licence areas have durations search for petroleum and for various reasons, not least the tack of five years: they are retained by undertaking geological studies, until recently of subsurface structural information and the lower seismic surveys or by drilling. In contrast to the Norwegian Shelf, porosities in reservoirs that might otherwise have been promising. This results partly from the Eocene orogeny in the west. Mesozoic latitudes reached about 70~ by the end of Triassic time so that later biogenic productivity may not have been encouraging, though r-.,k~,mhukenl ~+0" ~ ++~"' 3,r+-,, m~ ' ...... ~.4o' ' ' 7+: higher atmospheric CO2 may have obtained (Fig. 23.2). "~:K,Jadehuken il \~ IJ~'v'~' ".+ On the other hand Svalbard comprises a varied sedimentary $8~~ rstarlgen -- "'*'" sequence that is commonly regarded as an exposed sample of typical successions beneath the Barents Sea. There is reason for this in that Svalbard may be regarded as the uptilted corner of the Barents shelf (e.g. Harland 1969) resulting from a reversal of mantle cooling and contraction at that corner which approximates the ultimate fission that developed into the Arctic and Greenland .. __=_J__~,L-"I~ L+Jla l ..... ) _ (" i 7." Sea basins. Gnantjorden !11 -+T+ -+ + QReinaaJsPasse t i \ \ " Vass[dalonll _ . /<... /~ ~'~ lllRar The petroleum potential of the cover sequence (Carboniferous Vass.d+alen, I IlllY~I I s nag o%a i ~, i t" through Paleogene) has been mentioned in passing in the foregoing chapters and is summarized in Spencer's contribution below. The basement as defined in this work is not generally considered in this respect. Early Paleozoic strata containing carbonates have gen- erally suffered extensive Caledonian tectogenesis. Where in west Spitsbergen they have escaped such intense tectonism the facies are not so rich in carbonates. A++n, ".";'" ~ Late Proterozoic successions in the east especially are rich in T ms.broon 11 Hopen7 carbonate facies with significant but uneconomic biogenic compo- nents and traces of bitumen often mentioned in Russian literature. ...{~.~,.+ ~ ...... fla. . 'II~I0 Hoponl The following works relevant to petroleum and petroleum IE~ ...... t+s 9 ...... , ++e+ 12+~ 124~ geology have been taken from the selected bibliography and arranged alphabetically. Fig. 23.1. Plot of major wells in Spitsbergen. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

452 APPENDIX

Table 23.1. Deep well data for Svalbard

Well Location Lat/ Date Company Total Age: Long depth at surface (m) at TD

1 Gronfjorden Nordenski61d Land 77 57 34 1963 to 1964 NPN 972 Early Cretaceous 14 20 36 ? 2 Ishogda I* 77 50 22 1965 to 1966 Amoseas 3304 Paleogene 15 58 00 ? Triassic 3 Berzeliusdalen 77 47 00 1967 to 1981 NPN 405 ? Jurassic 14 46 00 4 It Hopen 76 26 57 1971 Fina 908 Triassic 25 01 45 Triassic 5 Raddedalent Edgeoya 77 54 10 1972 Total 2823 Permian 22 41 50 ? Carboniferous 6 Plurdalent Edgeoya 77 44 33 1972 Fina 2351 Triassic 21 50 00 ? Carboniferous 7 Kvadehuken I Broggerhalvoya 78 57 03 1972 to 1973 NPN 479 ? Permo-Carboniferous 11 23 23 ? 8 Hopen IIt Hopen 76 41 15 1973 Fina 2840 Triassic 25 28 00 Carboniferous 9 Kvadehuken II Broggerhalvoya 78 55 32 1973 to 1974 NPN 394 Permian 11 33 11 ?Carboniferous 10 Sarstangen Forlandsrevet 78 43 36 1974 NPN 1114 Paleogene 11 28 40 ? 11 Colesbukta* Nordenski61d Land 78 07 00 1974 to 1975 Trust 3180 Paleogene 15 02 00 ? 12 Tromsobreen I Haketangen 76 52 30 1976 to 1977 NPN 990 Early Cretaceous 17 05 30 ? 13 Tromsobreen II~ Haketangen 76 52 31 1987 to 1988 Tundra/Polargas 2337 Early Cretaceous 17 05 38 ? 14 Vassdalen II* Van Mijenfjorden 77 49 57 1985 Trust Arktikugol 2481 Paleogene 15 11 15 ? 15 Vassdalen III* Van Mijenfjorden 77 49 57 1988 to 1989 Trust Arktikugol 2352 Paleogene 15 11 15 Triassic 16 Reindalspasset I* 78 03 28 1991 Norsk Hydro/SNSK 2315 Early Cretaceous 16 56 31 Carboniferous 17 Kapp Laila I* Nordenski61d Land 78 06 52 1994 SNSK 504 Paleogene 14 43 38 Early Cretaceous

Data from NPD Annual Reports and Nottvedt et al. (1993, fig.7); NPN, Norsk Polarnavigasjon; SNSK. Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani. * Minor shows of oil or gas encountered in well. t Wells discussed in Chapter 5 sections 7 8 and 9. Tested minor gas from Permian carbonates.

there are no rules allowing the release of well information, which is Nottvedt et al. (1992) have reviewed the petroleum geology of thus held privately by the licensing companies. Seventeen deep the Central Spitsbergen Basin, which with its thick sedimentary exploration wells (Fig. 23.1) have been drilled over the period 1963 sequence is probably the area of Svalbard with the best petroleum to 1994 without encountering commercial hydrocarbons, but little prospectivity. Potential reservoir beds, both sandstones and information on their stratigraphy or fluid content has been made carbonates, occur there in every System from Carboniferous to public. In the period 1984 to 1992 seismic surveys were conducted Paleogene. Generally speaking, reservoir quality in sandstones is in the Central Spitsbergen Basin: comprising about 1000km on poor in West Spitsbergen, due to quartz cementation, and gradually land and glaciers and a further 1500 km in the fiords (see Nottvedt improves towards east Spitsbergen and the eastern islands. The et al. 1993, fig. 5). Some lines and structural information from these principal, widespread potential source rocks are the Triassic and seismic surveys have been published (Nottvedt et al. 1993; Eiken Jurassic marine shales (Botneheia, Barentsoya and Janusfjellet 1994). Table 23.1 summarizes the deep well data on Svalbard. formations), each of which can generate oil and gas (Fig. A2). The Only the last two wells in Table 23.1 date from after the maximum burial of these source rocks was achieved in late Eocene acquisition of seismic surveys in their areas. Of the earlier wells only times and subsequent regional uplift of 2-3 km probably stopped Ishogda 1 Raddedalen and perhaps Plurdalen are located on generation. Maturities at Triassic level now range from gas to the closures mapped at the surface. Seismic data have since shown that oil generation zone (Mork & Bjoroy 1984, fig. 6) with an overall Ishogda 1 is positioned to the side of the subsurface closure decreasing trend towards the east. Any future hydrocarbon finds (N~ttvedt et al. 1992). Most of the other wells are located in here are most likely to be in Mesozoic reservoirs in pre-Tertiary monoclinal or synclinal areas where a closed trapping structure is structures that have remained intact during Paleogene compression probably absent (Gronfjorden 1, Bellsund 1, Hopen, Vassdalen) or and Neogene uplift, or in Paleogene compressional structures. in an area where the subsurface structure is unknown (Sarstangen). Comprehensive surveys of the whole Norwegian Continental Few of the wells have been drilled on certain closures. This may be Shelf with respect to (a) petroleum discoveries and (b) petroleum the main explanation for their lack of success, with only one well resources were published by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate testing minor quantities of gas and a few others having shows of gas (Berge 1997a, b). These authoritative works place the Svalbard or oil. This also implies that there have been few valid tests of the exploration in relation to the whole Norwegian context and in turn petroleum prospectivity of the region. in a global perspective. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

APPENDIX: ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 453

I SOUTH BARENTS I N ALASKA MACKENZIE DELTA SVERDRUP BASIN SVALBARD TROMSOFLAKET [ SHELF 1

TERTIARY- PALEOCEINIE

: I MAASTRICHTIAN i PRINCE CREEK

CAE~ANIAN

I-< SANTONIAN J CONIACIAN TURONIAN 0') o~) CENOMANIAN uJ O ALBIAN

I= CAROLINEFJELLET O ,~pnA. >.

er BARREMIAN MOUNT GOODB,K~GH

HAUTERIV|AN ! VALANGINIAN m~ m KIMMERIOGIAN UPPER "J 0XFOROIAN

..I ~NIAN <[ I .~O BAJOCUm ~! AALENIAN ~1 >" TOARCIAN Ir PLIENSBACHtAN ul WILHELMOYA

w N~

CARNIAN

W LADINIAN -I O AN~AN All; ]; {r;Vill I r:~ ;l :[,]1] ~ i SPATHIAN ,~i swr.~N

['[ j GRIESBACHIAN

LIMESTONE SHALE,SILTSTONE :11 OMM ~ SANDSTONE-DOMINATED

Fig. 23.2. Mesozoic petroleum source-rocks of the Arctic. OMM, organic-rich marine mudrocks. Reproduced with permission from Leith et al. (1993), Mesozoic hydrocarbon source rocks of the Arctic region, p. 3 in Arctic Geology and Petroleum Potential, Elsevier.

23.3 Metalliferous minerals and/or the lithosphere), and that were such basement available in the other areas, with extrusive granitic intrusions, it would have Sulphide minerals in particular have attracted the attention of geo- showed, possibly in their aureoles. The reason why such basement logists and mining companies mainly for their economic potential was not general throughout Spitsbergen may well be related to the which has turned out, with minor exceptions, to be nil. Their foregoing composite terrane hypothesis for Spitsbergen. occurrence is significant in that they are all recorded in one broad In short, the Western Terrane almost coincides with the zone, as conveniently summarized by Flood (1969), in basement sulphide occurrences which onlap marginally to the east. If that rocks along the western side of the West Spitsbergen Orogen terrane originated north of Greenland it contrasted with the two (Fig 3.5.5). Further detail was provided by Kieres & Peistrzynski other provinces of north eastern and central eastern Greenland. (1992), Czerny (1992a, b,c) and Wojciechowski (1964). Mention This hypothesis might be supported by a survey of mineral has been made of these deposits in their stratigraphic context in the occurrences around eastern and northern Greenland and Ellesmere regional chapters (9, 10 &l 1). Because of differences of opinion as Island, but not disproved. The literature is not adequate for testing to the age of mineralisation it would have been clumsy to treat the because of interest mainly on economic concentrations which need matter successively in four possibly relevant historical chapters and to be considerable for Arctic exploitation (Miles & Wright 1978). so the general discussion is summarised here. This terrane hypothesis is almost, but not quite, indifferent to With few exceptions the host rocks are Precambrian carbonates. the age of mineralisation in the surface exposures. A Paleogene This has led to the opinion of Precambrian paragenesis (Birken- age is favoured because of the structural circumstances of the majer & Wojciechowski 1964). occurrences. It could be argued that the final docking of Also most occurrences fall within the Paleogene West Spitsber- the terranes in pre-Carboniferous time with Late Devonian gen Orogen (e.g Siggerud 1962). This led Hjelle (1962) to define a transpression and compression tightened up the sinistral shear Tertiary age, citing a possible occurrence in Western Nordenski61d zones. The general dextral strike-slip Paleogene regime, in addi- Land of sulphides in the Carboniferous cover to the basement. tion to generating its own faults, may have reworked and reopened The restriction of sulphide mineral concentrates to the broad the earlier faults which only brought forth the metalliferous zone which satisfies these two hypotheses is not an accident of minerals from appropriate deep basement. A little diffusion or exploration. Metamorphic terranes in Northwest Spitsbergen, in Ny tectonic transport east of the fault zone would account for the few Friesland and in Nordaustlandet have been searched not least for adjacent occurrences there. their mineral content and without significant success. The hypoth- It is conjectured that this mineralized zone was not part of the esis is put forward here that the distribution of these occurrences is Caledonides. Even before tectonization the zone had related to the composition of the deeper basement (within the crust suffered, say Grenvillian, and still earlier orogeny. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021

454 APPENDIX

Extensive Russian investigations in Svalbard resulted in detailed (Vendian) and not as much older (e.g. Mesoproterozoic of Ohta et al.). They chemical analysis of many rocks encountered for both hydrocarbon and all belong to the western terranes with a common basement. metalliferous potential. Abstracts of previously confidential reports gave Uranium and thorium were investigated in the black shale of the some convenient summaries (Krasil'shchikov 1996). Some conclusions are Janusfjellet Subgroup (Dypvik & Bue 1984). The Cambridge group drilled noted here. superficially for traces of uranium in western without success Turchenko et al. (1996a, b) recorded chalcopyrite in the Northwest (e.g. Wright & Henderson 1976). corner of Spitsbergen as well as other well known occurrences. In another Earlier reports include: Robert (1840-1850), Durochez (1850), Holte- abstract (Turchenko et al. 1996, p. 95) other mineral occurrences were dahl (1912) and Werenskiold (1919). recorded and were classified into (i) siderophile (ii) chalcophile and (iii) lithophile groups. (i) Skarn iron formations were noted at Magdalenefjorden and Mag- nethogda; iron-titaniun-vanadiun in gabbroids of Ny Friesland and Chamberlindalen; copper-nickel in peridotites of Chamberlindalen 23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals and Jurassic-Cretaceous dolerites of Dickson Land; chromite (in ultrabasic rocks of Oscar II Land). Exogenic goethite-hematite in laterites of Oscar II Only high-value materials, easy to load and transport, are likely to Land, silicate nickel in Kaffioyra and Sarsoyra and vein siderite at be of economic interest which virtually rules Svalbard out of Daudmannsoyra. Siggerud (1962) reported an iron occurrence at Farm- commercial consideration. hamna in Oscar II Land. Sulphates in the form of gypsum and anhydrite are abundant (ii) Barite-lead-zinc in Bjornoya; lead~inc in Revdalen, Andvika, and easily accessible, especially in the Ebbadalen Formation in Kapp Mineral and Kapp Petermann, all the foregoing in veins. Stratiform Billefjorden. See especially Cutbill & Challinor (1965), Holliday occurrences were zinc-chalcopyrite, lead-zinc carbonate in western Nor- (1966, 1967) and Johannesson & Steel (1981). An abortive mine was denski61d Land and Oscar II Land; bornite-chalcocite volcanogenic, and started in Skansbukta, Billefjorden. chalcopyrite metamorphogenic at Bockfjorden; metasomatic arsenic-nickel Phosphorite has been considered over a long period, especially at St Jonsfjorden. Triassic concretions in the Sassendalen Group further south at Other occurrences were also recorded. Svenskehuset, off Billefjorden, 6km ENE of Kapp Thordsen, Makar'ev et al. (1996, p.97) reported a variety of results including: 'the where a mining party perished in the winter 1882-3. Further occurrences of gold sulphide ores, as replacements, were found in the central references include Bugge (1922) and E1-Kammar & Nysa~ther part of the west coast of Oscar II Land. The mineral composition of the ores, high metal (primary gold) content, and apparent 'gold size' suggest a (1980). Jurassic phosphorite concretions have been described by chance of discovering endogenic and exogenic gold occurrences in further Backstr6m & Nagy (1985). prospecting'. Marble as a decorative stone was the subject of a failed This gold occurrence appears to be related to the shear zone at Kaffioyra enterprise attempting to mine it at London on Blomstrandhalvoya, and Sarsoya (Ohta, Krasil'shchikov et al. 1995) discussed in Chapters 9 and but was found to be too jointed. (Northern Exploration Company 12. These sheared occurrences were interpreted here as by Ohta et al. as 1913; Siggerud 1963; Ohlson 1979). deriving from the Lovliebreen basic volcanic rocks of Oscar II land. The Barite was mined in Bjornoya, yielding 75 tons in 1926 (Horn & shear zone of the Kongsfjorden-Hansbreen Fault might be the best prospect Orvin 1928). for gold. Early Paleogene bentonites were described by Dypvik & Nagy Many of the metalliferous occurrences along the west coast of Spits- (1979) and a discussion of mineral waters may be of interest bergen are associated with basic volcanic rocks which are correlated in this (Postnov 1983). River gravels, a virtually renewable resource, are work (also Harland, Hambrey & Waddams 1993) as early Varanger used for road construction.