Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021 PART 4 Appendix: Economic geology: exploration for coal, oil and Glossary of stratigraphic names, 463 minerals, 449 References, 477 Index of place names, 455 General Index, 515 Alkahornet, a distinctive landmark on the northwest, entrance to Isfjorden, is formed of early Varanger carbonates. The view is from Trygghamna ('Safe Harbour') with CSE motorboats Salterella and Collenia by the shore, with good anchorage and easy access inland. Photo M. J. Hambrey, CSE (SP. 1561). Routine journeys to the fjords of north Spitsbergen and Nordaustlandet pass by the rocky coastline of northwest Spitsbergen. Here is a view of Smeerenburgbreen from Smeerenburgfjordenwhich affords some shelter being protected by outer islands. On one of these was Smeerenburg, the principal base for early whaling, hence the Dutch name for 'blubber town'. Photo N. I. Cox, CSE 1989. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021 The CSE motorboat Salterella in Liefdefjorden looking north towards Erikbreen with largely Devonian rocks in the background unconformably on metamorphic Proterozoic to the left. Photo P. W. Web, CSE 1989. Access to cliffs and a glacier route (up Hannabreen) often necessitates crossing blocky talus (here Devonian in foreground) and then possibly a pleasanter route up the moraine on to hard glacier ice. Moraine generally affords a useful introduction to the rocks to be traversed along the glacial margin. The dots in the sky are geese training their young to fly in V formation for their migration back to the UK at the end of the summer. Photo W. B. Harland, CSE 1990. Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021 Appendix Economic Geology: Exploration for coal, oil and minerals W. BRIAN HARLAND & ANTHONY M. SPENCER 23.1 Coal, 449 23.3 Metalliferous minerals, 453 23.2 Petroleum, 451 23.4 Non-metalliferous minerals, 454 The incentive for most geological exploration has been related to The Calypsostranda Basin, which is about 4 km along the coast, the possibility of mineral wealth. Some has been undertaken by extends about 700m from the shore. The Skilvika Formation industry, other as a result of national interest. A great deal of (Livshits 1967; Thiedig et al. 1979), 115.5m of mainly silts and academic research, particularly since 1960, has been financed by shales with plant remains, contains many thin coal horizons which industry. It is impossible with financial pressures so strong to were the basis of short lived exploitation at Calypsobyen. Seams are disentangle the presentation of research as between 'fundamental' mostly only a few cm, but three attained 0.28, 0.46 and 0.65m and 'applied'. This section, summarizes the explicit search for thickness. hydrocarbons (coal and petroleum) and metalliferous and other The Central Basin is a N-S brachy-syncline of the Van minerals which in various ways has been alluded to in the preceding Mijenfjorden Group with six units CB6 to CB1, top to bottom, chapters. It is not intended as a comprehensive survey. as described in Chapter 4.2 and ranging from mid-Eocene back to Paleocene. Of the six formations coal has been recorded in CB6, CB3 and CB1, and of these CB1 is by far the most important 23.1 Coal (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937; Major & Nagy 1972; Manum 1956; Pavlov & Panov 1980). Coal seams crop out extensively in Svalbard and, being conspic- The Aspelintoppen Formation (CB6), occurring at the tops of uous in cliffs and talus, have been exploited in surface workings for mountains in the middle of the Central Basin, contains thin seams fuel by whalers and hunters from the earliest days. near the base, and below sediments formed in a mobile environ- The potential for mining and export and the political ment with slumping related to the uplifting West Spitsbergen implications was increasingly realised from the later years of the Orogen. No seams thicker than 30 cm have been recorded. Nineteenth Century. Until the status of Spitsbergen and Bjornoya The Grumantbyen (Sarkofagen) Formation (CB3) contains a was settled, coal was a political consideration and when the Treaty seam of a few cm and was recorded by Croxton & Pickton (1976) in protected international commercial rights, economic facts slowly the Berzeliusdalen area; Livshits (1965) noted a 1 m seam in the displaced political manoeuvring until the present situation where Barentsburg region. The opportunity at Grumantbyen was purely commercial considerations hardly make mining coal for exploited (e.g. Lyutkevich 1937b; Shkola et al. 1980). Exploration export competitive. Coal occurrences may also have a potential for of Heer Land (Pavlov & Panov 1980) and Nordenski61d Land natural gas, possibly with similar competitive limitations with the (Croxton & Pickton 1976) has not led to exploitation. present perception of offshore resources. The Paleocene Firkanten Formation (CB1) is the principal Coal, being the only mineral effectively exploited, has focused source of coal in Svalbard, being mined at Longyearbyen, research on coal-bearing strata. This review treats coal in situ from Barentsburg and Sveagruva. Major & Nagy (1972) named five a stratigraphic-regional viewpoint beginning with the youngest seams (from the top) Askeladden, Svarteper, Longyear, Todalen seams. Further discussion in a stratigraphic context can be found in and Svea. They pointed out that the Todalen is typically less than the regional and historical chapters. Hitherto coal has been 60 cm and the Askeladden seam though well developed has a high relatively easy to exploit above sea-level (for bunkers and export) sulphur content (Major et al. 1992). and, within the permafrost zone of mountains, freezing tempera- From Longyearbyen mines have successively exploited the seams often tures avoided problems with water. Deep mining would need high in the mountains, in successive blocks between the valleys with substantial resources and has been considered seriously perhaps in numbered mines, old numbers 1 and 2 occur on the mountain sides at the only one locality, Gipsdalen (Helovnori 1983). opening of Longyeardalen. New numbered mines 1 (and '1') on both sides of Adventdalen half way up the valley; No. 3 (the latest to be reworked) due Pavlov & Yevdokimova (1996) noted extensive analysis of Svalbard's south of Longyear/Svalbard Lufthavn at Hotellneset; No. 4 near the head of coals. Perhaps the principal impression is of the burial and local tectonic Longyeardalen; No. 5 on the south flank of Endalen to the southeast; No. 6 history. The Early Carboniferous coals of Pyramiden and Bjornoya gave due east at the nose of Karlundhfjellet between Todalen and Bolterdalen ash rich in A1203. Reserves were estimated at 836 x 106t with 96% and the presently working No. 7 east of Bolterdalen 11 km ESE of represented by gas or coking coals. Of the above 208 x 10 6 t, 138 x 10 6 t and Longyearbyen. The later mines up Adventdalen and No. 3 were served by 490 x 106 t of coal reserves are respectively. Early Carboniferous, Barremian road after the cable system was discontinued. In each case the coal was and Paleogene. Similarly Yevdokimova (1996, p. 99) noted that Carbonifer- stored through the winter at Hotellneset and shipped out in the summer. ous (Mississippian) coals derived from lycopsids, selaginellas and pteridos- These mines have been practically exhausted and the only viable coal mine is permaphytes whereas Paleogene coals depended on plane, yew, cypress, pine at Sveagruva, also in the Firkanten Formation, where a 5 m seam presents etc. All were classified as humid (see also Yevdokimova 1980; Yevdoki- opposite problems in mining (Pewe et al. 1981; Myrvang & Utsi 1989). With mova, Vorokhovskaya & Birukov 1986). so well serviced a settlement at the capital Longyearbyen and with shipping difficult at Sveagruva, the project for a road between the two settlements Paleogene coal. Oligocene or latest Eocene coals occur in graben was under consideration; miners fly each 10 days. Coal mining even with sequences on the west coast of Spitsbergen. present-day efficiency, is hardly self-supporting in Svalbard. The Forlandsundet Basin on the east side, especially at Sarsoyra, Similarly the mine at Barentsburg (Kotlukov 1936) has exhausted the exposes the Balanuspynten Formation whose Sarsbukta member original concession and a further concession has been leased to the south. contains coal and plant fragments defining thin seams of up to The economic case without political support may be difficult to maintain. 15cm. Thin seams of coal were also recorded in the west by The mine at Grumantbyen also in the Firkanten Formation was Atkinson (1962) at McVitiepynten. Although there is no prospect abandoned after the Second World War when most mines were destroyed to of mining coal the several km of such facies may generate significant prevent their use by the other side. (For the history of this mine see gas as has been confirmed by the Norsk Polar Navigasjon A/S well Samoilivich 1913, 1920; Samoilivich et al. 1927; and a more recent at Sarstangen (Petroleum Economist 1975). exploration borehole - Shkola et al. 1980.) Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on October 1, 2021 450 APPENDIX The Ny-Alesund coalfield. This had been worked from the surface Trassic coal. Thin coals have been reported from the Late Triassic since whaling days with early exploration claims. Systematic mining (?Carnian) De Geerdalen Formation, of sandy deltaic facies developed between about 1917 to 1962 when the mine was finally (Klubov, Aleksejeva & Drosdova 1967). Klubov (1964, 1965) had abandoned after the worst of a series of accidents, even though mapped coal in this unit at Wilhelmoya, Barentsoya and Edgeoya, significant extensions of the mine had been planned. and Pchelina & Panov (1966) noted coals around Wichebukta and The Ny-Alesund coalfield is shown in Fig. 9.3 where the Ny- upper Sassendalen.