PoS(HRMS)030 http://pos.sissa.it 1900-1950 I also make reference to the impact of two scientific visitors to Argentina: first to Albert This paper ends with a brief reference to changes in the physics scene of Argentina in Mathematics, mathematicalMathematics, physics and physics, theoretical The emergence of theoretical physics in Argentina, in Argentina, of theoretical physics The emergence Copyright owned by the author(s) of Commons the terms the Copyright owned by Creative Licence. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike under  The emergence of studies on theoretical physics in Argentina Rubinstein joined Buenos Aires prior University, is the topic of to this paper. I first consider the 1950, impact the year Héctor in Argentina of philosophical ideas favorable to the promotion of experimental science, which emerged in the last two decades de the 19th century and reached physics towards 1900. Then, I make reference to the influence of changes in these philosophical perceptions in the late 1910 and early 1920s, which more gave emphasis to theoretical studies and, again, of their impact on physics. Finally, the emergence of briefly considered. is research in mathematics advances relation to previous research in theoretical physics around 1935-45 and its Einstein, who visited in 1925 and, fifteen years later, to George D. Birkhoff. The latter opened a wider channel of communication with decades. the USA, which was developed further in the next the early 1950s as a consequence of new institutional developments, universities and to to be the the return main seat of of the theoretical physicssecond part of the 1950s. research, which began to happen in the Eduardo L. Ortiz Imperial College London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom E-mail: e.ortiz@ imperial.ac.uk PoS(HRMS)030 http://pos.sissa.it Copyright owned by the author(s) of Commons the terms the Copyright owned by Creative Licence. Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike under  Quarks, Strings and the Cosmos - Héctor Rubinstein Memorial Symposium, AlbaNova, Stockholm, Sweden August 9-11, 2010 PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. 3 : La Plata component which affected the contemporary perception of cultural Although Argentina lived through a deep financial crisis in 1890, by the turn of the Tensions arising from the expansion of commerce and the demands of modern Positivist experiments However, it was in the early 1900s when a considerable expansion took place as a Physics This paper briefly discusses the transition from mathematics and mathematical physics to There were several attempts to physics develop in Argentina through the19th The century. century, through massive exports of leather, wool, corn, and later of beef, restored its financial position and by 1910 it was again modernization of its a infrastructure possible and, prosperous as we country. shall see, This some of the circumstance initiatives of this made of physics in Argentina. period affected the development a radical technology provided a context for the development of physics in Argentina, which is discussed in some detail in [1], [2]. However, they were not the only factor. There was also, in different periods, a significant 2. The 1. Introduction Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 first of them, between 1817 and around 1830, when mathematician José de Lanz and physicist Ottavio Fabrizio Mossotti moved to Buenos Aires from Paris and London respectivey. After a complex period, in which the universities suffered neglect, there was a new effort in the 1850- 60s, particularly after the return of Santiago Cáceres, who had graduated in mathematics physics and at the University of Göttingen. Again in the student sent 1880s, to when Europe for Valentín further Balbín, training, returned a to gifted Buenos Aires. He analysis and lectured algebra as well as on on quaternions’ theory, a modern topic on which he wrote a book which received positive reviews in Europe. In addition, together with Jorge Duclout, a graduate form the ETH, Zürich, Balbín created a Sociedad Mathematics and Científica Mathematical Argentina Physics in Seminar at the Euclidean the early geometries 1890s and where recent topics works such on published. theoretical as physics space-time, were non- discussed and papers Institute was created at the new University of La Plata. In it physics acquired, for the first time in Argentina, a professional status. Following a long tradition in higher education in Argentina, which goes again back at least to Cáceres’ times natural sciences. the exact and the standard of in to help rising teachers were invited the 1850s, German and German-trained the new subject of theoretical physics, as we know it today, in the Argentina of the first half of the 20th century. The first original research note on this subject appeared in 1926. In particular, I try to show that in addition to important requirements in fields of technology, particularly in connection with the development electricity and its applications, there was an often important- neglected- and cultural component which, associated in with the the predominance of Argentina trends related to of French Positivism. the The transition Positivism to late from new and more sophisticated formulations, carrying 19th a more critical analysis of the century, is concept of experiment and giving more weight to studies had, I argue, a considerable theoretical impact on the directions of the official in the 1920s. in Argentina, particularly theoretical physics support given to science and on the early path of PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. in the process of laboratory . In them a deeper exploration of archival 4 scientific science, was still regarded as a luxury in Argentina experimental . An Institute of Physics was created in it and initially put in the hands of a local Figure 1 reproduces a caricature of Ricaldoni, published in a large circulation weekly By the end of the decade of 1900 the authorities of the University of La Plata began to On the basis of these conceptions a more modern view of science and, in particular, an In an interesting new departure an Anglo-Saxon model was used for the structural By the end of the century philosophical thought in Argentina was dominated by an Pro Scientia et Patria Pro Scientia et Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 experimentalist, Teobaldo J. Ricaldoni, an engineer who had made his name as both a popular inventor dealing with submarines and other impressive machines and teacher. Through as his inventions an he came into inspiring contact with science electricity and radio telegraphy and, working closely with the navy, he became a pioneer of them author in of his country. a He widely was read also physics the textbook which, although Ganot’s, no more as than a we free have translation of shown elsewhere, imagination of included its fascinating young accounts readers. capable The of university furnish his institute provided firing and adapt it Ricaldoni for the the teaching with of modern physics ample with a particular funding emphasis to on experimentation. His first task was to After provide consulting widely it with with foreign modern scientific demonstration instruments manufacturers makers. French instrument equipment. over those of firm Kohl, in Chemnitz, from the German he favoured offers magazine, which offers an interesting image of the public Argentina perception on 1901. of Notice that a physicist in Ricaldoni is cutting the overhead wires, in a reference to his work on wireless telegraphy, on the ground there is a fishbowl with a submarine in it, a reference to his textbook. Physics lays his popular also on the ground finally, best known invention, consider the possibility of upgrading the scope of the Physics Institute, which had already and didn’t have a single institution tending for it. single institution and didn’t have a appreciation of experimental science, developed in Argentina. When a new and third university national was created in the new city of La Plata in 1905 its authorities, same which circles as García, moved declared in their intention to the make of it a temple for experimental science. They also expressed the wish to establish a closer link with the modern interests of the nation, particularly in the field of energy. In connection training with of physics specialists it in meant the new a branches contribution of to the the science there. hospitable place would clearly find a of electricity. Experimental physics design of this institution with colleges, student residences, sports relation facilities and between a less teachers formal and experimental science. The role of students. data collection and the notion of But above all there was a new appreciation of records and the use of solidly documented historical and more data sociological central played a role. The current state of science in Argentina leading member was of not that ignored generation, the by historian Juan these Agustín authors. García, expressed In pure concern 1900 that science, understood a as acquiring knowledge were in understood a very wide sense, as indicated which before, included more precise historical archive-research sciences studies. Pedagogy was also and given a place as a science in extensive this university, which trained data-collection secondary processes school teachers and had its own in secondary school. The motto of this social new institution was science and gave its promotion a definite signature. The impact of this science component on policy official decisions can be detected in several periods pedagogical of Argentina’s choices history, when had key to be epilogue made. to a pure-science training when For the university engineering school was example, designed in the in the of physics. the development which affected late 1860s, a decision perception of technology as an amalgam of ideas for which French Positivism offers a useful label. However, it also contained elements of Scientism and Pragmatism. By 1900 these humanities. New new and valuable views studies began to had appear on already Argentina’s history and impacted society with the an approach that was generally known as PoS(HRMS)030

E. L. Ortiz E. L. 5 . In 1909 Emil Bose, a former student of Nernst’s, was invited to replace the local old- The first Argentine professional physicists, Teófilo Isnardi, José Collo, and Ramón There was no reason for the German connection to be disrupted. After a short interim In Argentina experimental scientists such as Walter Nernst were then perceived by style inventor Ricaldoni as director of the Physics Institute. Later, other German, trained, physicists were appointed through Bose’s or intervention.German- Once in La Plata Bose, a skilled experimentalist who was also processing patents for his own inventions, worked hard to put the physics demonstration instruments acquired by Ricaldoni to really good use and to expand the institute infrastructure in a new successful efforts to bring building the students attracted in the earlier [3], period closer to topics of modern which is experimental physics shown research. Sadly, Bose died less in than a couple of years Figure after his arrival, in 2 He mid 1911. also As made the University history. in such a short period in Argentina’s achieved so much Vice-President said at his funeral, few foreign teachers had Loyarte, graduated by 1912 and were soon the same years La Plata’s sent scientific research. In under Nernst or Plank and produced publishable to Germany [4], [5], [6], [7]. They astronomer and worked geodesy expert Félix Aguilar was also sent to Germany and France for further training in his field. period, Bose was replaced by an even more outstanding research physicist, Richard Gans who [8], had made his name though valuable research work in the field at La Plata. to lecture of visit to Argentina 1914 Nernst paid a personal magnetism. Finally, in Figure 2 Figure 1 Plata Physics Institute The La Teobaldo J. Ricaldoni Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 attracted some gifted students, beyond basic teaching and to stimulate original enquiry in it, as faculties. in the humanity some as leading academics, but also as men whose science They was were not closely confined connected to with abstractions. industrial production and capable of energizing it power with of the their science-based inventions. This was in line role in Argentina. University for its creators of La Plata with the declared intentions of the PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. . In 1912 a German and in his periods in Lalande medal 6 École Practique des Hautes Études : Córdoba and Buenos Aires and Buenos : Córdoba oon after, chairs and laboratories in experimental biology and a few other s In 1909, around the time Bose moved to La Plata, the American astronomer Charles In a matter of a few years the Humanities Faculty created over twenty chairs covering a Cané argued, with limited immediate success, that new infrastructure was required to As the designers of the La Plata’s experiment later, Cané believed that the notion of A third, much neglected attempt to establish experimental sciences in Argentina, was Positivist experiments Positivist If La Plata’s was the most successful, it was not the only large experimental science effort the in early 20th century contemporary which cultural scene of could Argentina. I shall be refer briefly to associated two to physics. relevant are also as they Aires, Córdoba and Buenos similar efforts, with made in prevalent Positivist views in the Dillon Perrine was designated director of the National Observatory, Córdoba, following a long directors which started withline of American nearly forty years earlier. Perrine Gould Benjamin was a practical astronomer with remarkable observational and technical skills, known internationally and already rewarded in Paris with the prestigious Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 3. The branches of science were added to it. The authorities made efforts to attract leading laboratories. experts to run these European sociology, history of anthropology, number on new fields in art such as ethnography, Argentina, Central Europe he examined in detail the dynamics of some of Germany’s leading universities. On his return Cané brought claimed back that a the “inquisitive new minds” and of more young science”. Specifically sophisticated in students relation to physics, Cané conception was should deeply impressed by what of be he referred to culture helped to and “move as towards the “revocation of the principle of the discovery immutability of of matter” radio-active and phenomena to that the revealed impact energy”. of that “the what we call matter is nothing but update the culture of his country. He proposed that a modern centre for advanced studies in the sciences and humanities as well as an independent Faculty of Sciences, separated from that of Engineering, should be created. The first proposal was never accepted, while the place second half a took century later. In 1900 he was elected Dean of the Humanities Faculty (Facultad de Filosofía y Letras), which had been created only four years earlier. materializing his He ideas there saw and attempted the to give possibility experimental sciences a of platform in Buenos Faculty. Aires at the new Humanities experience should be the foundation of science, be it physics, medicine or the social sciences, which he also wished to be Humanities ruled Faculty, by quantitative in measurement. 1904, By the laboratory it time and, had Cané left already the acquired a modern experimental psychology colleague, in close touch with Einstein, requested him to attempt to measure the light deflection predicted by the latter. His group in Argentina themade first attempt to measure that deflection in 1912 at an eclipse visible from Brazil, then in 1916. Russia In all cases he and in others failed because of bad weather. Sadly, he 1914 did not receive official and finally in Venezuela in funding to participate in the observation of the eclipse of 1919, when the weather was fine [9]. Another of his important initiatives was the expansion of the Observatory workshop, where he started working a large mirror that would have given Córdoba the years. second on for many and work dragged difficulties considerable largest the world. Perrine faced telescope in conducted in Buenos Aires in 1900, that is, well before that of La Plata. Responsible for it was Miguel Cané, an outstanding Argentine writer who returned to Buenos Aires in the 1890s after many years working in Europe as awhich he continued diplomatic to representative visit of after being his Senator country. and Interior From sent and notes to Europe, Buenos Foreign Aires newspapers and Affairs in one Minister, of them, dated he March 1896, he discussed an exhibition of X-rays in Paris in the year of their discovery. In France Cané cultural had witnessed impact the of Victor Duruy’s PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. Revista de and published as a book in 1915: 7 [10]. Although he referred to Einstein’s work on specific come to a close: the renovation of mathematics and Anales de la Sociedad Científica Argentina , a prestigious journal with Positivist leanings directed by José Ingenieros, who was a Positivist experiments By the end of the 1910s the Positivist experiment Cané had started at the Humanities Coriolano Alberini, later in association with Alejandro Korn, was amongst the most Around 1910, quite independently, there was also some activity at the Engineering Camille Mayer, a French physics teacher who had been a classmate and friend of Henri However, Meyer’s free lectures were marginal to the life of the Engineering Faculty; Faculty around 1900 was loosing momentum rapidly moved as the away dominant philosophical from outlook Positivism and measurement its were emphasis now on focussed experiment. philosophers began to explore modern logic and the coined newly Collection, of discipline through epistemology taxonomy in a and more the free atmosphere of the rigorous Humanities Faculty and opened a fierce critique of Positivism. They analysis. A followed trends mapped by a variety of foreign influences, such as the works of philosophers H. group of young Bergson, E. Boutroux and E. Meyerson in France, B. Croce and in G. Gentile in Italy, W. James philosophers. German neo-Kantian the USA and also by dynamic personalities in that group of young critical philosophers whose influence culminated 4. The the onset of theoretical physics Radiation and Quantum Theory Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 leading professor at both the Humanities and Medicine faculties. and Medicine faculties. both the Humanities at leading professor Faculty in Buenos Aires, but with a much more limited experimental success. science Lacking and the the laboratory commitment facilities to available in La Plata, modern physics in the Engineering Faculty at Buenos Aires could only focus on theory, for which it could draw on a longstanding background in mathematics, which goes back the 1880s. particularly from and Duclout, recent ones of Balbín Mossotti and the more to the early efforts of Lanz and 1909 and 1914 Argentina in the 1890s and between to Poincaré in Nancy moved offered a series of lectures physics. The on mathematical first four were based on directly some of the advanced in courses recently delivered by Poincaré Paris, which had been published in book form. For the last of his courses he departed from Poincaré and followed the of proceedings the recent Solvay and quantum theory; this is the first set of lectured on radiation this course Meyer conference. In lectured on quantum theory delivered in Argentina. These lectures have beenwere serialized in preserved: they heaths, he did not discuss his work on relativity. his work discuss heaths, he did not they were never integrated into its official syllabus and remained optional. Still, their influence may not have been exact scientists trained in the early 1910s and in tributes to Meyer, leading recollections of some insignificant. We can who died in find 1918. The unresponsiveness of the Engineering Faculty references to give physics research a to proper its home in Buenos Aires in positive the decade of 1910 impact prompted a group of scientists, in mainly interested in the physical-chemistry, to revive the Mathematics and created in Mathematical the Physics 1890s by Seminar Balbín and Duclout at the Sociedad Engineering Científica Faculty. Argentina, However, outside following the Meyer’s frustrated attempt there university was system change in Argentina in towards the the end of the 1910s, through the so-called University Faculty. at the Engineering of sciences on the position effect Reform, which had an and education. The promoters of this system. project They were considered interested in also the application of introducing modern experimental physics physics techniques into to of the study geographyphysical their Juan Laub, and invited Jacobo associated a physicist previously with Einstein and brought to La Plata by Bose, particularly to teach on and conduct research terrestrial on geophysics, magnetism, aero-electricity which he and for Faculty with that associated earlier. Laub remained training in Europe received had seismology. These were areas a short period until 1919. In in these years he general published articles on relativity in Filosofía PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. 8 In addition to the briefly mentioned astronomical attempts by Perrine, it is possible to There was an important precedent: in 1916 the German-trained Spanish philosopher In 1917-18 another Spaniard, Julio Rey Pastor, a brilliant 29 years-old mathematician Rey Pastor was a function theorist with a vast mathematical and historical background. Rey Pastor was critical of Positivism, as much Albert as Einstein for what they his perceived as an friend attempt to expand intellectual Ortega exploration and go y Gasset. Both admired beyond merely collecting more data. critical In references to their what personal they correspondence physics colleagues. there refer are to revealing as the “data collection” activities of their Spanish detect some real interest in relativity in Argentina lecture from given around 1910. by It Vito was Volterra enhanced at by a visiting the in Sociedad connection Científica with Argentina the in celebrations of 1910, directly the when first referred he centenary was to of Independence. Einstein’s Volterra work. philosophical journals Later, by Gans, Laub, courses and others supported the and cause of relativity. As contributions all over to the world results of the had a expedition inEddington’s considerable impact Argentina sparking local scientific or controversy and bringing the local discourse on that theory to a more precise and technical 5. Einstein’s visit to Argentina in 1925 Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 in the early 1920s when Alberini became Dean of the Humanities Faculty, in Buenos Aires. In 1923 he extended his influence to the old Positivist stronghold of La Plata, becoming professor of Gnoseology and Metaphysics there and giving a measure of how much Positivist influence had declined. José Ortega y Gasset visited Argentina and offered a splendid set of lectures at the Humanities and of Positivism to construct a technical critique Kant and began discussed Faculty in which he of its methodological approach [11]. He perceived this as experience based and on relying the uncertain excessively concept on of external observation, called with “the little exercise reference to of what internal he philosophical senses”. impact of the new Ortega physical theories. During his time y in Germany he had Gasset been in also contact opened with leading a theoretical physicists, discussion among others on Hermann Weyl, the whose translated wife Helene one of his standards, even by mine, Ortega y Gasset’s physics was not most always right. However, lecturing in celebrated philosophical works a cultural milieu as into Buenos Aires then was, where philosophy, German. literature and the arts had Surely for a zenith very long time been regarded as the of culture, the very fact that he the physical extracted by your sciences from the mundane world of engineers’ nuts and bolts and gave it a new deep cultural future. its for considerable significance meaning, had a very trained in Göttingen and Berlin, mathematics. He also on lectured the current crisis was of mathematics, repeating a successful cycle invited to Buenos given Aires in where Madrid he in lectured 1915. on philosophers; one These of them, Korn has left his impression on the cultural resonance of this course. pure lectures attracted physicists and The impact mathematicians, of Rey Pastor’s visit was unprecedented and but at the request of his graduate students, also at a time of Engineering offered intense him a chair. change He settled in in Buenos Aires for the good in profound consequences 1922. for His mathematics university, as move well had as for the theoretical physics in Argentina. Figure authorities of 3, taken a in Göttingen renovated around 1915, Faculty shows Rey David Hilbert (seated). of Pastor (second at the back) with his teacher From the early 1920s he offered a series of advanced courses on topics such as tensor analysis, differential geometry, Riemannian geometry and partial differential the impact of his courses was physics; on some of his students read modern works mathematical equations, which helped notes in Göttingen, he wrote as he had seen F. Klein doing by his diligence: amplified nationally them. and his students published PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. 9 dimension: its connection with the Positivist and anti-

cultural Einstein’s visit to Argentina offered a unique opportunity to reveal to the general public Figure 5 is a shot at the audience during one of the subsequent lectures. In the first row That visit has been discussed in some detail elsewhere [14]. I wish to concentrate here J. Rey Pastor and D. Hilbert, Einstein’s course on Relativity Theory: the real dimension of theoretical physics in the framework of modern science. Figure 4 shows the audience attending Einstein’s first lecture, which forced auditorium, the at University the to use University its High largest School. presence Notice, of female students in the attending this lecture. right In the podium, on corner the sides of of Einstein, seat several the Secretaries of State first and, just under it, row, on a small the table, two physicists take notes of the lectures. of this last picture we see some of the leading intellectuals and scientists of mathematician the C. time C. (such as Dassen, poet L. Lugones, engineer E. Loyarte) while Butty, the upper and rows are physicists occupied by Isnardi younger academics and and graduate students from Buenos Aires, La Plata and Montevideo who show attentiveness. Theoretical physics had never in Argentina before. attention attracted such wide on a particular aspect of its Partly through the offices of Rey Pastor, who visited him was invited to in visit Spain, which Berlin he did in in 1923 [13]. 1920, In 1922, before Einstein Einstein received the Nobel Prize for physics and at the same time as the Sociedad Científica Argentina’s series mentioned above was University of in Buenos Aires progress, should invite the him which he did in 1925. lecture on his theory of relativity, to veteran visit Argentina Duclout for one proposed month and that the Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 3 the inaugural lecture, Buenos Aires, 1925 Göttingen, 1915

Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 Positivist disputes, a topic that deserves some attention in relation to science. that Einstein’s I is visit associated with deep wish changes in the perception of to science and research in argue shifts in the towards theoretical studies and, also, of Argentina, with a move emphasis of official science. on experimental almost exclusively the past cantered patronage, which in dimension. dimension. In 1922 the Sociedad Científica Argentina [12] organised a series of lectures on the new theory given by resident foreign scientists, such as Gans and Rey Pastor, as well as by the Argentine young physicists Collo and in 1923. into a booklet collected serious accounts were Isnardi and astronomer Aguilar. Their detailed and PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. Revista de in 1926 [18]. In some ways, 10 Physikalische Zeitschrift (which later serialized part of Einstein’s lectures in Buenos Aires), on the other hand Duclout’s Duclout’s initial proposal of 1922 quickly gained the support of academics from the Humanities Humanities Faculty; on one the hand scientists Positivist close to and Ingenieros’ his this short note opened a new chapter for physics in Argentina. However, after Einstein left, only a few continue Palumbo discussing soon moved to relativity consider the philosophical and foundations of the relativity and other subject Erwin Schrödinger. physical theories, particularly after a spell in Europe working under slowly died. Loedel Rey Pastor’s teachings in Buenos Aires, extended, and enabled also in at La least Plata, mathematical arguments where given a in his the lectures. influence few The minutes of members Einstein’s the reception by Buenos of Aires Academy Einstein’s of audience Sciences show Gans’ to that graduate Enrique students follow Loedel from Palumbo, La the one Plata, of asked dimensional space-time him surfaces in if a “it Euclidean space is of three possible dimensions” to said, which, had he lead represent him to bi-formulate a system of partial differential equations. According to the same minutes, Einstein replied, referring to these equations that “they have not been solved and the question of investigating the shapea space-time surface would be very of interesting”. In fact differential geometer Edward Kasner, of Columbia University, had advanced a solution [16] to that problem four years earlier, embedding the solution in a flattened six dimensional space [17]. Loedel Palumbo’ paper, which added a representation, was pictorial published by Figure 5 lectures on Relativity Theory, Buenos Aires, 1925 The audience of one of Einstein’s Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 the anti-Positivist lobby close to Positivism Alberini. by Einstein. Very recent research and The the reconstruction of a manuscript of Einstein latter was have shown that keen he actually intended on to give a a philosophically-oriented opening lecture to possible his relativity course critique [15]. However, of he disappointed his anti-Positivist text admirers he had by prepared in dropping favour of the one which avoided facing the controversies between the two camps. Alberini invited him to the Humanities Faculty to open the academic year of 1925 but, again, Einstein did not presentation. condemned Positivism as expected from the text of Alberini’s Filosofía PoS(HRMS)030 E. L. Ortiz E. L. 11 Without leaving La Plata entirely, Isnardi and Collo became more closely associated We have made brief references to changes in the philosophical scene of Argentina and If contrasted against its early meteoric progress, physics in La Plata was showing some with the Engineering Faculty at Buenos Aires. In addition, they taught physics at military and their impact on the Humanities Faculty, Buenos Aires, just before Einstein was invited to visit Argentina. Let us now examine briefly the situation of experimental physics in La Plata in that period, where, as we have indicated, the position of and Positivism the fervour for experimental changing. science was also signs of fatigue. After a decade in La Plata, where he produced high-quality research work, in 1925 Gans was offered a chair in Germany and he decided to return. No doubt his country was scientifically far more exciting, but it was still seriously affected by the impactafter of the war. Ironically, as he left emigration in the opposite direction was reaching a students peak. The Argentine of Bose’s “nationalisation” of physics teaching and, to some extent, also of research. time, Clearly, their vision, later sent experience and contacts were not those to of Gans. Loyarte took over Germany, as Director of Institute the Physics took while Isnardi over and Collo and differences remained of began associated opinion. with Isnardi a the taught initially Institute, physical-chemistry process some as as times well of Loyarte’s with as assistant. thermodynamics mathematical and physics, radiation, Isnardi’s electrodynamics and the first special theory of set part relativity. was based The on works of of first Plank, the second on those of lectures Becker, Poincaré and Abraham, and covered relativity on the works of von Laue, Eddington and the collection of papers of Lorentz, Einstein three main areas: and Minkowski. Special topics were reserved for the second course. After 1944 IsnardiLoyarte’s until 1949. death physics full professor of mathematical became in A young and promising student at La Plata, Enrique Gaviola, who would later become the most remarkable Argentine experimental physicist of the first half of the twentieth century, was in the middle of his university studies when Gans Gans advised left. him He to has move said to that Berlin and continue gained a doctorate his under Peter Pringsheim, a former studies student of Nernst. Gaviola there, was not where he finally the only Argentine student moving to Germany in those years. They took advantage of the strong position of the Argentine currency in relation advice, to however, seems the German to define Mark. clearly Gans’ enough his views offered to a gifted student. on the prospects La Plata To summarise this period in La Plata it could be importing said that a Bose’s well-trained tenure showed physicist that was definitely a tensions positive step. a It also showed poor the modernisation of university secondary-school studies from the physics top. interesting This correspondence is training clearly with reflected in imposed Ricaldoni, Bose’s Institute remained in charge who of teaching basic physics on courses. It turned after out that raising leaving plans the the standards direction at for the basic of level, to the allow the for more career advanced ladder, courses was at much the harder than top expected. of Despite the these and other well difficulties,as working hard as in the installation the Institute’s laboratory, very productiveBose had also on the research side. been In his less than two years in Argentina: three local physicists (Collo, Isnardi and Loyarte, who period) had as started well their a studies in doctorates under German him and finished them Ricaldoni’s shortly after his teacher death, in 1912. Gans’s decade, working in ending Argentina in 1925, began added only three working more doctoral for dissertations data given in [19]. in their physics according to Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 after Einstein in Argentina 6. Physics PoS(HRMS)030 . In his E. L. Ortiz E. L. professional Licenciatura 12 and Doctorate in Physico-Mathematical Sciences at the Engineering at the Engineering Sciences Physico-Mathematical and Doctorate in Licenciatura There was also a more clear understanding that, in the past, some of the most gifted A new perception of scientific research became gradually clear to some Argentine The process of modernisation of physics and mathematics studies benefited from the Modernisation efforts received a further stimulus when Butty was elected Dean of the Changing views on instruments and experiment may have also had an impact on activity, a full-time occupation, as it was beginning to be accepted in countries. some leading European scientists (such as Collo, Isnardi and others in the case of physics) had been given promoting the research in task of Argentina but very limited means to carry it out. As it has already military and been of institutions: universities, at a variety their living teaching mentioned, they earned naval institutions and also secondary research schools. as a Through profession the generated a 1930s, strong movement Gaviola, this Isnardi in and new which others exact perception played scientists a of Rey significant role. Pastor, As part of a series of new institutional 7. Some changes in the perception of science in the 1930s and its impact on physics 7. Some changes in the perception of science in the 1930s and Through the late 1920s and early 1930s some deep changes began to take place in the scene of science in Argentina. The number of scientists was increasing and they slowly began to be more autonomous in their views of their disciplines; with their own views. to contribute They even began in the past. fields of culture than less dependent on general trends from other physicists and as well mathematicians to other scientists, such as those in physiologist Bernardo A. Houssay’s school. They believed that research should be regarded as a serious Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 Faculty in 1926, following a plan landmark may proposed be by associated with Duclout the and local Rey career impact benefited substantially from Collo of Pastor. and Isnardi’s presence in Einstein’s Buenos Aires. This The visit. engineer institutional The new professional Enrique Butty, a specialist in calculus seriously in connection elasticity with his own field of work and theory was in a position to understand and a disciple the of mathematics of Duclout’s, the studied general theory tensor of relativity. thereafter he well as the theory accessible to the general as make aspects of the specialist public, Before Einstein’s visit he contributed to took over the two university courses on Mathematical Physics for the naval institutes and at secondary schools. Facilities for experimental research in Buenos Aires remained far below the standards of those at La Plata, which may interests. have physics topics in their to theoretical turning and Collo’s contributed to Isnardi creation of the lectures he developed topics of differential geometry as which well he used to as discuss relativity tensor theory. His lessons algebra were published and by the university calculus, in two Physics. of Mathematical a new concern for the advance [20], showing thick volumes Engineering Faculty while Gaviola, back in Argentina and dissatisfied with the situation at La Plata, moved to Buenos replaced Butty as Aires in 1930 and Physics. Professor of Mathematical Although he left four years later, in his time there he shifted the contents of this closer to course theoretical, rather than mathematical physics, as Butty’s course was. Isnardi replaced him and it until 1952. continued teaching performance at the Córdoba Observatory, where the lavish support Perrine enjoyed in the initial years turned to be more moderate as the decade of 1910 came to an end. We already pointed to the fact that after going in an astronomical expedition to Russia in 1916 he 1914 failed to and get support for to an expedition Venezuela to neighbouring Brazil in to observe the eclipse of 1919. It has been already pointed out that technical difficulties to work found the to be large nontrivial. However, taking mirror into account that were Perrine was a skilled experimentalist, it is possible to miscalculation, but that changing conjecture policies regarding financial that support for large the have also played a part. and as his may enterprises such experimental science expensive project may not have been just an overoptimistic PoS(HRMS)030 , another E. L. Ortiz E. L. ome new large new ome S Moderne Algebra 13 In the late 1930s Gaviola left academia and joined the Córdoba Observatory, of which Meanwhile, Rey Pastor’s school was beginning to produce highly motivated students. From the early 1940s the Second World War reduced the possibilities of Birkhoff’s visit marks an interesting turning point in the development of mathematics 8. The onset of modern theoretical physics in Argentina 8. The onset of In parallel, particularly after the military for national authorities. distant objective a more gradually, universities became, coup of 1930, the development of science at the Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 scientific schemes, in cases connected with international projects, and not necessarily cantered at the national support universities, began to receive in decade of Aguilar,1930. of now director La Plata’s Observatory, conducted a successful geodesy project, part of an international effort, measuring a long Arc of Meridian along the territory of Argentina. His campaign the demanded coordination of complex computations and and also to resolve some problems connected with different physics research. In addition, tasks the assistance given by the army and navy to often Aguilar’s campaign was a preliminary exercise of on in the 1950s [1], [22]. difficult and science undertakings future army terrain, long numerical he later became director; he made efforts to facilitate a move into modern astrophysics there. In addition he took the significant step of sending Perrine’s large mirror to be worked in the USA, implicitly recognizing the technical difficulty of the La Plata. observatories, Córdoba and the two main between contacts and cooperation job. Gaviola and Aguilar deepened the Unlike their teacher, some of them González Domínguez was one expressed of them. Although Rey Pastor an had a direct intellectual influence interest in mathematical in physics; La Plata, it Alberto was through the initiative of two young academics there that the possibilities of began to emerge, also in La discussing modern theoretical physics the mid 1930s. They Plata, in were Agustín Durañona y Vedia, a Sagastume Berra, a mathematician who young had already collaborated with physicist Rafael Grinfeld mathematician trained in Germany, and in writing an introduction to quantum Alberto mechanics. In the mid 1930s these two teachers began to read M. Stone’s 1932 book on linear transformations in Hilbert spaces a with group of graduate students. The experience they gained at this seminar mathematical foundations made of possible quantum for theory them in, for to example, explore the the Sagastume works Berra also of introduced his J. students to von van der Neumann. Waerden’s developments, developments, outside the university system, an Argentine association for the advancement of science was created in 1933 [21]. However, their demands to academic and national authorities accepted to be decades took several research scientific to professionalise mathematical work relevant to modern theoretical physics. work relevant to modern mathematical communication with Europe, leaving open only a narrow corridor in the direction of the USA. In 1940 contacts with the US were considerably strengthened Birkhoff, through the a visit most by senior Georges mathematician D. at Harvard stayed for University, over a month lecturing on to function theory, the mathematical foundations of quantum Argentina [23], [24]. He an alternative to Einstein’s. During mechanics and on his own version of the theory of relativity, scientists. promising attention to young his stay he paid personal From a considerably. and mathematical physics in Argentina. It enhanced contacts with Harvard decade earlier they had been Houssay developing in Buenos Aires and Walter in Cannon at Harvard. Birkhoff had the an important advantage field of over physiology previous European visitors through in that the he enjoyed the efforts support of of large American particularly institutions, of the Guggenheim and Rockefeller Foundations, scholars to in facilitate the the direction movement of of the students USA. For started several to years after to Harvard and worked with Berra at La Plata, who moved Zarantonello, a student of Sagastume move that visit almost Argentine graduate exclusively Birkhoff’s son Garrett. to Together they wrote a classical book the on advanced topics of theoretical USA. One of them was Eduardo PoS(HRMS)030 , a E. L. Ortiz E. L. self-taught 14 In 1956 changes in the national political scene facilitated the migration of scientists Physicists D. Amati, J. C. Mallmann, H. Roederer, A. Sirlin were among the young In 1943 Gaviola secured theoretical physicist Guido Beck, who had been exiled in In Buenos Aires Cecilia Mossin Kotin, the first female Argentine theoretical physicist, This was the situation of mathematics, mathematical physics and theoretical physics 9. Final remarks: Atomic energy, military coups, brain physics in Argentina drain and its impact on As a result of new concerns about showed the the uses vulnerability of of atomic energy the and national an National government embarrassment Commission in which of highly Atomic technical Energy areas (CNEA) [27], was 1950s. created [28], Although there had in a been a Buenos discussion in Parliament Aires on the foundation in of a the physics and early chemistry science research institute under civilian control, the direct CNEA tutelage of was the armed created forces under [1]. However, the it opened a more relaxed than space for the research universities, where political discriminations military had been coup endemic, in particularly 1943 after a that dismissed in 1946 was Houssay. was In 1947, still segregated followed from the university, he by was awarded substantial the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine. In dismissals 1952 Collo, Isnardi, and Rey Pastor were also in 1946. On dismissed from Buenos of Aires University. Isnardi was those replaced by Balseiro, who made serious efforts to renovate teaching and introduce modern topics to facilitate a transition nuclear into modern physics. Again under the auspices training of facilities the CNEA, was a created physics in institute designated its director and as a ofresult it he with Bariloche left Buenos After Aires. Balseiro’s untimely death student’s [29], using existing name. his that institute was given installations. Balseiro was from the CNEA back limited to Giambiagi as well as to advanced training for over many years support others. However, the universities and had the left return Argentina with of only a some few, albeit advanced who mathematics, theoretical physics and generous other fields. Mathematics, with a and had much stronger enthusiastic, gone qualified specialists abroad, in tradition and less dependence disciplines. on instrumentation, was able to perform better than graduates of this other period. Theoretical physicist Bes has pointed out in that a recent a interview [30], new figure appeared among physics graduates in the late 1950s: the Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 hydrodynamics. hydrodynamics. Felix Cernuschi, a student from Buenos Aires who had gained a Cambridge doctorate in 1938, at working in statistical mechanics, joined his mentor and friend Gaviola the at Córdoba Observatory and in 1943 moved theory. to Harvard to work with Birkhoff on ergodic Portugal [25], a position at his before, Observatory. As Beck he drew had young done physicists in to so his some recently obtained a place. doctorate at many La Plata [26]. Damián One other Canals Frau and Mario Bunge were of places also them was José students of Balseiro, Beck’s; their doctorates awarded by La were Plata in 1950 and 1952 respectively. In who had the same period Fidel Alsina Fuertes and Carlos Bollini finished their dissertations, also in La Plata, with work on classical electrodynamics and special relativity, and mechanics respectively. on structure of quantum the mathematical also worked under mathematical Beck’s supervision doctoral while dissertation Juan physicists, often moving supervised from other fields José of science or from by newer universities, Giambiagi emerged also González submitted in this period. a Domínguez heavily in 1950. Other 1950. University, in joined Buenos Aires and I Bes Rubinstein, Daniel and at the time graduate student who looked for advice from abroad and, as soon as he could, moved overseas University. to Columbia them: he moved was one of Hector Rubinstein to complete his training. PoS(HRMS)030 National s in other E. L. Ortiz E. L. . A Ser. Fís. Part. y , , SCA, Buenos Aires, , Berlin, 1992. , 12: 1230-1243, 1911. 02,1: 40-81, 2009. . Form 1940 to 1966 the . Kluwer Academic Publishers, . Phys. Zeist. , . Peter Lang, New York, 1985. . Rev. Brasil. Hist. Ciencia , 15 , in P. Forman and J. M. Sánchez Ron (eds.), La Física en la Argentina en los dos primeros tercios del siglo veinte: Evolución de las Ciencias en la República Argentina, II, Física Centenario de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata Science and army in Argentina Cultural Imperialism and the Exact Sciences Richard Gans, Hochschullehrer in Deutschland und Argentinien Sobre las primeras investigaciones en física realizadas en la Argentina Das Physikalische Institut La der Universität Plata century. th Through the early 1960s local efforts as well as the return of young graduates trained From the institutional side again, the creation by UNESCO of an International Centre Sadly, the potential that then existed for further advances in physics and other sciences , 6, 1982. Military Establishments and the Advancement of Science and Technology 1924. [5] C. Galles, Campos [4] R. G. Loyarte, [7] A. G. Bibiloni, [8] E. Swinne, Boston, 1996. [2] E. L. Ortiz, and H. Rubinstein, [3] M. Bose, [6] L. Pyenson, algunos condicionantes exteriores a su desarrollo abroad contributed to enhance the position of the exact sciences in Argentina, while efforts were while in Argentina, of the exact sciences the position to enhance abroad contributed also done to facilitate the transition from the scientific training offered by secondary schools to the more advanced the universities were now demanding [31] LaPlata.www.fisica.unlp.edu.ar/centenario/Centenario References [1] E. L. Ortiz, Acknowledgements I wish to thank the organizers of this particularly meeting to Daniel honour the Amati, memory Lars of Héctor opportunity Bergstrom, to Rubinstein, discuss here some aspects and of the history of science in Elisabet Argentina in the first half Oppenheimer, of the 20 for giving me an Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 difficult periods of Argentina’s history, despite serious difficulties and fascinated by the subject rather than by the institutions, gifted young graduates continued to emerge. From 1983, after a instabilities However, to recover lost opportunities. have been made return to democracy, efforts generated theduring period military contributed to sharpen the impact of the brain drain, which attention in Argentina. still demands considerable population of physics graduates increased sharply in Argentina, rising from some 15 to 60-70 [32], [33]. for Theoretical Physics in students in Argentina. benefited and theoretical physicists Trieste, in 1964, widened the possibilities for the training of was affected by a new military coup in 1966. Following it, and repeating past mistakes, a large number of professors and assistants, many of them trained abroad, became separated from the universities. The activities of the Physics Department of Buenos Aires University’s Faculty of Science “were practically reduced to zero for several months” as a result of loosing about 85% of the staff, including 17 out of its 19 professors according to [19, pp. 58, 135-6] PoS(HRMS)030 , , Eudeba, E. L. Ortiz E. L. Ibero-Americanisches , Universidade, Porto, , FCE, Buenos Aires, 2000. in D. Howard, and J. Stachel , Buenos Aires, 2000. , , 8: 5-103, 153-245, 1915.281-371, , 15: 55-112; 16, 16: 21-70, 2003. Centro de Est. Mat. , 18: 123-158, 2004. Sudamericana . CUP, Cambridge, 2006. Anales SCA , Asoc. Argent. , Asoc. Argent. Astronomía, La Plata, 2009. . , Birkhäuser, Basel, 1989. . I-II, Universidad, Buenos Aires, 1931, 1934. 16 Saber y Tiempo . tica Los ideales de universidad "científica" (1931-1959). Saber y Tiempo Anales Inst. Cultural. Española de Buenos Aires, I: 140-208 27:645-48, 1926. , . , 21,3:435-59, 2008. J. A. Balseiro, crónica de una ilusión. matemá in M. do C. Silva, (ed.), Einstein’s unpublished opening lecture for his course on Relativity , Princeton University Press,, Princeton University Princeton, 1988. sica Enfoques científicos de la relatividad en la Argentina, de 1910 a 1925 fí Phys. Zeits. First echoes of relativity in Argentine astronomy, in G. Romero, S. Cora, , El secreto atómico de Huemul. Die Form der Raum-Zeit Oberfläche eines Gravitationsfeldes, das von einer n a la Evolución de las Ciencias en la República Argentina, 1923-1972. II, Física. SCA, Science in Context The early interpretation of Schwarzschild solution 19:127-188, 2005. , El giro de la física en la Argentina desde Alemania hacia los Estados Unidos: Gaviola A convergence of interests: Einstein's visit to Argentina in 1925 La política interamericana de Roosevelt: George D. 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Ortiz, punkt-förmigen Masse herrfürt [10] C. Meyer, 58: Beck, Monterio y Ruy Gomes, J. Maths Latina en las redes matemáticas internacionales [16] E. Kasner, Theory in Argentina [17] J. Einsenstaed, [15] A. Gangui and E. L. Ortiz, Buenos Aires, 1975. [20] E. Butty, Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 [9] A. Gangui and E. L. Ortiz, Einstein y las fundaciones estadounidenses PoS(HRMS)030 8- E. L. Ortiz E. L. 2: 1-34,1943. , 15, 88:60-65, 2005. Bul. Atomic Scientists. , Inst. Est. Industriales, Ciencia Hoy , Eudeba, Buenos Aires, 2010. . Fundación Bariloche, Bariloche, 1968. 17 Espíritu crítico y formacióncientífica. Physics and Politics in Latin America - A Personal Experience La industria y la actividad científica en país nuestro Que hacer la por en la física Argentina [33] F. Alsina, 10, 41-45, 1970. [30] J. D. Hurtado Martín and de Mendoza. Entrevista a Daniel Bes, [32] T. Isnardi, [31] Guijarro,E. Díaz de Theoretical physicsTheoretical in Argentina, 1900-1950 [29] L. Falicov,