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Latin American Jewish life in the 21st Century: "e paradox of shrinking communities, 11 and expanded - revitalized Jewish life

In the second decade of the 21st century, Latin 150,000 and 250,000 have emigrated from American Jewish life faces new opportunities and Latin American countries, both inside and outside challenges created by globalization and migration the region, mainly to the , , and processes. Globalization and its contradictory to a lesser extent, countries in Western Europe nature have sharpened sectorial inequalities while (Spain) as well as Canada. "us, there has been a posing new opportunities a!ecting Jews. New significant drop in the number of Jews in the region economic models have brought achievements – from 514,000 in the 1970s to 392,000 today and cyclical crises, and growing pluralism and (DellaPergola 2009, 2011). Argentina still hosts the democratization processes have reached high largest Jewish community on the continent in spite points. Economic and political changes combined of its significant demographic reduction – from with social inequalities provoked increased an alleged half a million in the 1960s to 390,000 a emigration fluxes of Latin American Jews from decade later, and subsequent radical drops. Today, the region, leading them to transition from its core population numbers around 180,000. communities of immigrants to communities of "e demographic profile of the Jewish population citizens and simultaneously, of emigrants; also to in Mexico has been more stable, due to more new professional opportunities and expanding traditional socio-demographic patterns and the markets. influx of Jews from other parts of Latin America. Indeed, in the last decades, the net direction of Mexican Jews presently number 40,000. "e Jewish migration flows tended to be from Latin America population in Uruguay has dropped from 50,000 to other destinations. Outward mobility of Latin to 22,000; in Venezuela, from 30,000 to 15,000; American Jews is part of a larger globalization and in Chile, from 30,000 to 21,000. El Salvador, phenomenon of unexpected scope – from 75 Ecuador, Peru, and Paraguay have also experienced million migrants in 1965 to 120 million in 1990, and significant decreases in their Jewish populations 214 million in 2009 (Held et al. 1999; UNDP 2009). since the 1970s. In Brazil, the number of Jews It is estimated that in the past 40 years between fell from 140,000 to 96,000, mainly as a result of

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 159 assimilation. In the last few years, however, this di!erent moments of migratory movements and trend has stabilized and the numbers even show a their impact on communities and societies of the slight increase (Ibid.). region. Sharp Jewish population decreases in Central Current scenarios can be viewed from diverse American countries since the mid-1980s represent perspectives. "e new trends point both to relatively significant outflows. But in the case emigration and to an expanded and revitalized of Guatemala, more than half of its population Latin American Jewish life in origin countries and decided to remain in their homeland. Neighboring beyond the territorial borders of local communities, Costa Rica has increased its Jewish population nation-States, and the region at large. Migration by two-thirds since 1967, while Panama became flows influence both sending and receiving Jewish a relocation destination communities/national societies within wide social 35% of for groups of Jews from spheres and institutional arenas characterized by Argentina's other Central American increasingly dynamic relationships between Jewish Jewish countries. individuals and groups (Bokser Liwerant 20 02, 2006). For the various receiving Jewish communities, population Migration waves from immigration constitutes a factor of demographic migrated Latin America are of support while bringing cultural enrichment and between 1970- di!erent nature and institutional renovation. "us, one cannot analyze 2009 and yet only scope; they reflect both Latin American Jewish life through conventional 8% expressed needs and opportunities: dichotomous categories (such as internal-external, that emigration they encompassed periphery-center) but rather via elastic and constitutes a forced migration and comprehensive frameworks based on a transnational serious threat exiled individuals at perspective. "e recent election of Chávez’s successor, high risk (e.g. politically President Nicolás Maduro, will likely reinforce the involved activists and intellectuals); voluntary prevailing trend. household relocation motivated by safety, security and economic considerations; and As stated, a contrasting case in the leadership’s movement of professionals seeking opportunities perceptions is Argentina, which has also and entrepreneurial expansion within a context experienced a significant demographic reduction of interconnected markets. Indeed, there has (-35% of its Jewish population, 1970-2009), and yet been a sustained movement of professionals in only 8% expressed that emigration constitutes a privileged occupations who began or operated serious threat. We may explain the di!erences in businesses and sought education; Jews constituted perceptions first, as a result of an ongoing process a high proportion of them. "e diverse processes of institution building and communal recovery, and leading to emigration have operated selectively. secondly, because of return movements that have "us, changes in migration streams shed light on taken place there. "e perception of emigration as

160 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE a serious threat is shared by the leadership of other those who had graduated with a PhD or were Latin American Jewish communities: Colombia engineers employed in the U.S. (UNESCO 2010). (45%), Peru (33%), Mexico (25%), Uruguay (20%), Yet, within a region that ranks as the third highest and Chile (10%). Venezuela stands out with the source of migrants in the world, the increased highest percentage (90%). For the majority (8 out mobility of qualified migrants coexists with large of 10 respondents), their country would likely not marginal sectors of non-skilled workers and the receive Jewish immigration in the coming years, rural poor who lack formal education and face thereby signaling a negative balance between restrictive immigration policies (so-called “red emigration and immigration. card” migrants) (Faist 2010). Contemporary migration has also expanded Latin In this context of interconnected realities, according American Jewish life. It includes steady, repeated, to the AJDC survey of circular, bi-local and multi-local movements. In a opinion makers, almost all An estimated world in flux, new phenomena include expanded interviewees (99%) agreed range of mobility, multiple relocations, transmigration and that it is “very important” between the creation of sustained links and interactions to “strengthen” relations 100,000 and across borders of the nation-states. Furthermore, among Jews living in 133,000 new patterns of circulation of people and various parts of the region. Latin American knowledge develop, as well as the exchange of 8 out of 10 agreed that Jews live intellectual, scientific, and cultural production. “Latin American Jews had in the Latin American Jews are part of the cohort of a special responsibility to U.S. today qualified migrants with “red carpet” status who one another.” 77% agreed increasingly move to OECD countries. Because of that “Latin American its proximity and the opportunities it o!ers, the Jews have unique and valuable perspectives U.S. attracts a large number of highly qualified to share.” However, 6 out of 10 disagreed with Latin American migrants. In the first decade of the statement that “each local community was the 21st century there were 494,000 scientists of strongly integrated to other Latin American Jewish Latin American origin; this number represents communities.” "us, while there seems to be great 15% of foreigners incorporated into the science interest in closer cooperation and exchanges across and technology system. At present, education of Latin American communal-territorial borders, this Latin American students at U.S. universities and expectation has not necessarily been matched by their insertion into the academic and professional the reality on the ground. It remains a challenge to spectrum is widespread. In 2007, 229 Mexicans, 180 communal regional and global policy. Brazilians, 141 Argentines, and 121 Colombians Demographic trends associated with the migration obtained a PhD in the U.S. In 2003, naturalized of Latin American Jews mainly to North America, individuals or non-residents constituted 19% of Israel, and Europe imply diverse models of Jewish life

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 161 that partly reflect global trends, and partly reflect ranging from literature to music – as well as their the specificity of the region. As to their presence political leverage, as demonstrated in the 2012 in the United States, precise numbers still need to presidential election. be discerned. But estimates range between 100,000 Latin American Jews have incorporated into and 133,000 (by core and enlarged definitions di!erent “American” milieus while maintaining their – DellaPergola 2011) and 156,000 (Sheskin and socio-cultural distinctiveness, both with respect Dashefsky 2011). It is calculated that a similar to their of origin and their Jewishness. number migrated to Israel (115,000/150,000 Jewish collective models have been transferred to – core/enlarged definition) and 12,500/20,000 and recreated into educational institutions and to other places. In comparison to other Jewish communal organizations in the United States migrant groups in the while hybrid models are also part of the new United States, the various Latin American scenarios. In a global Jewish world characterized by Latin American flows Jews have high institutional and organizational density, Latin feature steady growth, incorporated American Jews can incorporate and even integrate although di!erences into di!erent into di!erent host communities by displaying prevail in each particular American multiple identities – as Jews, as Latin American national context. milieus while Jews, as Latin or /Latinos, as maintaining "e relocation of Latin Mexicans, Colombians, Argentines…Americans/ their socio- American Jewish life in the Israelis. "eir increasing arrival numbers and cultural U.S. should be seen within their demands for inclusion test conventional distinctiveness the broader Hispanic/ boundaries and mutual perceptions of similarity Latino concrete and and di!erence. imagined world. Hispanic/ Permanence amid mobility characterizes urban Latinos have reached sites where Latin American Jews have relocated. nearly 50.5 million in the U.S. (16.3% of the total In the United States, Jewish communities become population) and have become the largest minority magnets for settlement. For example, Miami- in the United States, a 61% increase since 1990. Dade county in Southern and San Diego It is estimated that they will comprise 25% of in Southern constitute new centers 1 the U.S. population by 2020. "is demographic where diverse transnational processes operate trend is even more significant when compared to concurrently: out-migration, translocation, the growth of the total U.S. population and the relocation, return, short-term and temporary demographic trends of the U.S. Jewish population. experiences. In both places, the non-homogenous Given their group’s size and profile, Hispanic/ character of American Jewish life stands out. San Latinos residing in the U.S. have significantly Diego’s Jewish population of 89,000 is smaller than increased their social and cultural influence – the traditionally large community of Argentina,

162 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE but larger than the Mexican Jewish community. that are part of the connecting-reconnecting "e Jewish community in Miami-Dade county, experiences across communities within American combined with the neighboring Ft. Lauderdale and Jewry and which widen and enrich the scope of Palm Beach areas (Southeast Florida), represents Jewish life. the third most populous in the country. Although Migratory waves to Miami from Venezuela, updated data needs to be collected, the number Colombia, Argentina, and Mexico draw convergent of Latin American Jews is estimated at 16,000 scenarios of trans-local status. Mexican Jews in San individuals in Miami-Dade (Sheskin 2004) and Diego travel to Tijuana/Mexico City; Venezuelans 600-700 Mexican Jewish families (or 2,400 Jews) in and Mexicans do so from Miami to Caracas and San Diego (private estimates). Mexico City. "e well-established connections of Mobility and relocation widen the spectrum of Venezuelan and Mexican social and cultural encounters between distinct Jewish businessmen in principles, historical trajectories, models and logics Florida highlight the of the collective: congregational and community way current economic Mobility and (kehilah). However, both di!erences and changes create favorable relocation similarities today shape the paths of incorporation conditions for transitory widen the and mutual influence with outcomes still in the migration that, as spectrum making. Overall, a#liation rates in Latin America will be seen, do not of social are higher than in the United States. While the gap exclude permanence and cultural between Mexico City and San Diego is striking (80 or incorporation encounters and 35%, respectively), cities in Brazil and Argentina into American Jewish have far lower a#liation rates (40-45%), closer to communities/society. the U.S. national average. Intermarriage rates in the Educational institutions in U.S. (about 50%) contrast with much lower rates the U.S. reflect a mosaic in Mexico and Venezuela (less than or just above of experience that ranges from more religious 10%) but are similar to those in Argentina and frameworks to pluralistic ones. In both Miami Brazil. and San Diego, stable Jewish educational settings, "e integration of Latin American Jews into the which are also socially cohesive, have attracted U.S. and the keeping of both original collective Latin American Jews even when characterized by codes of old-country cultural norms/models and greater religiosity levels than those to which they of transnational connections are not mutually belonged in their countries of origin. Some Jewish exclusive social processes; therefore, the possibility educational settings – with a significant ratio of of “simultaneity” is increased (Levitt and Glick Latin American migrants – show integration and Schiller, 2004). In turn, integration is not a one- mutual influence, and the reciprocal adoption sided process; it entails reciprocal influences of new religious and quotidian cultural practices

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 163 within bilingual environments. Pluri-national "e Latin American presence in Israel, where and sub-ethnic origins act as defining factors of they have been incorporated in major scientific, practices and institutional arrangements (Bokser academic, sociocultural and economic realms, Liwerant, 2013).2 points to high levels of integration and the Paradigmatic examples of patterns of centrality of the place and role of the Zionist idea participation, leadership, and activism of these and the State of Israel in the region (Roniger and migrants can be observed in local communal Babis, 2011). organizations (e.g., Jewish Federations, Hillel, While sharing global trends and expressing AIPAC, Israel’s University Associations). Similar singularity, the links and attachment to Israel have to Hebraica/JCC in Miami, the Ken in San Diego a central role in Jewish Latin American life. Political can be seen as an ethno- concepts, values, aspirations, and organizational national bordered space entities of the global Jewish world played a that reproduces and fundamental role in the cultural and institutional Links and sustains Latin American formation of the Jewish communities, while the attachment Jewish social practices State of Israel and the Jewish/Zionist ethos were to Israel (including language, singular actors/catalysts in one center-periphery have a food, music, social model. Family ties, youth travel programs, and central role gatherings, and Zionist educational programs are today understood as key in Jewish identification). to strengthening support for Israel. Latin American life Additionally, it is worth Data on Mexico and Argentina show that the underscoring the transfer level of importance attributed to Israel and the of the Hebraica/Latin degree of proximity are largely determined by American communal age3 and country of origin.4 In the region, Mexico model worldwide, has exceptionally high rates of visits to Israel while including to the United States, Central and Western lower rates characterize Argentina, Brazil and Europe and the FSU, mainly through global Jewish Venezuela. Past tendencies in the U.S. show that institutions and highly mobile individuals with just over one third of all American Jewish adults key community roles. "e Jewish communities have been to Israel (35%), almost two thirds of Spain, mainly in Madrid and Barcelona, have (63%) of American Jews say they are emotionally experienced revival of Jewish life through this attached to Israel, and nearly three quarters (72%) model aided by the presence of Latin American say U.S. and share a common destiny Jewish educators, intellectuals, and professionals. (NJPS, 2001). In America, ties to Israel also vary "e clear bond between Hebraica and JDC can be by a#liation and age. "e a#liated are uniformly found in as well. more connected to Israel than the una#liated. However, an interesting debate regarding the

164 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE “distancing hypothesis” has developed. While An important perspective from which to analyze some researchers claim that there is a growing border crossing and mutual influences is the distance from Israel by the younger American impact on individual and communal religious Jewish cohort, with the exception of Orthodox practices (in Latin America and beyond its youth, and this trend will likely lead to a geographic boundaries) by both the Conservative general distancing of American Jews form Israel, and Orthodox religious movements, as part of old (Cohen and Kellman, 2009), others do not find and new Jewish transnationalism. In the 1960s the a dramatic change in attachment. According to Conservative movement spread to South America Sasson, Kadushin and Saxe (2010), the weakened providing the first congregational model that attachment among the young is not the result was imported from the United States (instead of of a distancing pattern but a characteristic of Europe). "is movement the Jewish life cycle. Further discussion has brought the In the 1960s the highlighted the increased complexity of Israel- to the forefront of conservative diaspora relations and the lack of conclusive communal and societal movement evidence regarding the above mentioned erosion, life by mobilizing spread to which shows the need to consider both the thousands of otherwise South America changing circumstances of American Jewish life non-a#liated Jews (Elazar providing and Israel’s social and political scenario (Rosner 1989). One proof of the the first and Hakman, 2012). lack of religious leadership congregational to which Elazar refers On their part, Latin American youngsters in the model imported and its importance to U.S. increasingly participate in Taglit, a watershed from the United religious development is initiative that has come as an alternative to the States study trips and Hachsharot in their countries of found in the success of origin (Saxe et al, 2011). Recent data reveal that Marshall Meyer. propensities in the U.S. are the lowest of any Rabbi Meyer took upon himself the task of country worldwide (DellaPergola, 2011). Cultural preparing a new rabbinical leadership, establishing activities and events, public opinion and political the Seminario Rabínico Latino Americano in support for Israel are growing in importance, though Argentina. Today its graduates serve throughout di!erentially in the region, depending on the scope Latin America and beyond. "eir presence in and nature of the public sphere, civil society, and communities in the United States is not only due citizen participation (Sznajder and Roniger, 2013). to the lack of opportunities in local communities, New public codes have developed legitimizing but also reflects the new phenomenon of regional transnational links of the Jewish communities both migration. Close to 22 presently serve related to Israel and other communities through a throughout the United States. "ey circulated to wide web of lateral ties and interactions. the North due to new windows of opportunity

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 165 associated with regional migration as well as to Connecting processes that imply social growing shared patterns of collective life. Latin transformation are also evident along a North- American rabbis and their participation in the new South influence axis as illustrated by the recent settings contribute to the expansion of communal establishment of Hillel chapters in Argentina practices, as Congregation B'nei Jeshurun in New and Uruguay (by individuals connected to Taglit- York City exemplifies. ). "ese rabbis maintain links with their Although extreme religious and self-segregation communities of origin by travelling to the region strategies are still marginal in Latin American to lead holiday services. As mobile agents of Jewish life, their growing presence corresponds change across national borders, they recreate to global Jewish trends. Jewish communal life and a congregational-communitarian matrix."us, concomitant identity building processes face new the relocation of Latin challenges. In fact, in a seemingly paradoxical Orthodox American Jews in the U.S. context of shrinking and expanding in revitalizing groups have constitutes a case that Latin American Jewish communities, identity gathered new allows examination of referents are being redefined as new expressions momentum; such processes by looking of spirituality and forms of religious sociability the spread of at frontier experiences, fill some vacuums. In certain ways Buenos Aires, Chabad is one cultural trade-o!s, and Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Miami, San Diego, New exemplary incorporation strategies in York City, , Madrid and Zurich express case. In Latin a globalized Jewish world similarities along the transnationally constituted America there where diverse historical Jewish communal-religious axis. are close to 80 trajectories and shared Local communities face di!erent opportunities Chabad centers trends coexist. and challenges with respect to central issues of "e transnational continuity. Along the region, strengthening Jewish religious circuit has also spread to Orthodoxy. education is a top priority for Jewish communities. Indeed, Orthodox groups have gathered Education has had a central role in the shaping of new momentum, founding new religious Latin American Jewish life. has congregations and supplying communities with been historically prioritized over other collective religious leadership. "e spread of Chabad is one needs in the region, and characterized by integral exemplary case. In Latin America there are close education in day schools. In Mexico, close to 93% to 80 Chabad centers. Its presence is noteworthy of Jewish children today attend Jewish schools with in small and large cities in the U.S. and other a constant student population from kindergarten countries; thousands of Chabad shlichim through high school. A strong organizational (emissaries) currently work around the world. structure of 16 day schools has developed (one school for each 2,500 Jews in Mexico City). "e

166 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE student population has grown 16.5% in the last age population); in 2000, approximately 200,000, eight years as compared to a 6% Jewish population nearly one quarter of all Jewish school-age children growth earlier. attended Jewish day schools. Today, estimates Ashkenazi schools show the greatest percentage point to 242,000. of decrease, 28%, and Maguen David (Halebi) Linking the concepts of continuity and education schools show the highest growth rate with 46% of in public discourse was a relatively recent the total student population. Of this group, 40% phenomenon outside Latin America. It developed attend Haredi schools. "e increase of attendance in full force in A Time to Act, the deliberations of numbers in religious schools reflects both the Commission on Jewish Education in North demographic changes in community composition America (1990–1991). "is expansion in Jewish and the arrival of educators from intensively education and the high Orthodox South American communities. It also population growth rates Latin American reflects a global trend in Jewish education. among the Orthodox states play A comparative look at Argentina sheds light on sector have become a key role meaningful changes. While in the last decade of central trends that parallel in the the 1990s a total of 16 schools closed and only six new regional and world positioning were able to pass through rational institutional Jewish patterns. of Palestinian restructuring, today there are a total of 42 Similar to other Jewish statehood as schools out of which 14 day schools educate from communities worldwide, a central issue elementary through high school levels, and 17 are Latin American Jewish on the world limited to kindergartens and elementary schools. collective life has been political agenda While figures show a systematic increase of the radically transformed by school population compared to previous years global patterns showing (only 17,075 in 2002, against 19,274 in 1999), they both convergent and point to a total coverage of 43% of Jewish school- divergent trends: transitions from individualization age children. "e highest enrollment numbers to collective a#rmation as well as the reverse; from are found in religious schools. "ese educational congregational to communal axes simultaneous trends should be seen in light of the changing with the growing role of ; from approach to education in the Jewish world. secularization to rising religiosity. Even among Precisely, over the last two decades, the number Latin American Jews, these trends are not of children educated in Jewish day schools has linear; instead, they reflect di!erent moments, increased at an unprecedented rate. In the United fluctuations and crossing paths. States, it is estimated that there were 60,000 pupils Amid processes of globalization and in days schools in 1962, but by 1982-83 there were transnationalism, the Palestinian-Israeli conflict some 104,000 students (10% of the Jewish school-

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 167 reflects the complex interplay between of Statehood to the United Nation’s General international, regional, national and local Assembly. Latin America can be seen as a fertile soil dynamics. Latin American States play a key role for the two simultaneous but opposing processes in the positioning of Palestinian statehood as a of de-legitimation of Israel and legitimation of central issue on the global political agenda. As Palestine. "e latter has followed a pattern of early as December 2010, there emerged a chain Transnational Advocacy Networks of activists of recognitions of Palestine by di!erent Latin bound together by shared values, a common American states. Brazil took the initiative and discourse, and dense exchanges of information was followed shortly after by Argentina, Bolivia, and services. "ey are significant insofar as they Ecuador and Paraguay-, neo-populist governments interact with states and other non-state actors in Venezuela, Bolivia, (civic associations and NGOs, academics, media, Ecuador and Nicaragua unions, students) thereby contributing to the Latin America had a leading role (see convergence of social and cultural norms (Keck can be seen as Annual Assessment JPPI and Sikkink 1999; Wajner 2013). fertile ground 2011). for the two When analyzed in Brazil, one observes that in the simultaneous It has been further media struggles that legitimize the creation of but opposing facilitated by the a Palestinian state, a wide spectrum of regional, processes of international and national ethnic, social, religious, labor and academic de-legitimation realignments of interests organizations converge (Ibid). of Israel and and similar “cultural Across the region, interacting and similar trends legitimation of codes” that identify wide favor a fertile soil for emerging civil societies Palestine sectors of public thought, in the process of democratization. "e degree media, progressive camps of legitimation of Palestinian aspirations to and leftist intellectuals. statehood among local populations that results Latin America’s historical and ideational trajectory from Transnational Advocacy Networks is largely of anti-Americanism, anti-colonialism, and anti- founded on the presence (or lack thereof) of imperialism has led to the mutual reinforcement a “primary base” of support (e.g., a large Arab of meanings between di!erent components: anti- population in Brazil – estimated at 11 million Semitism, anti-, and anti-Israelism (Volkov among which 60,000 are Palestinian, and a 2007; Bokser 2012). significant Palestinian population in Chile: However, on September 23, 2011, with Brazil 400,000). As in the past, this could today lead to once again a key detonator, a parallel process of a domino e!ect that could very likely result in the worldwide political legitimation of the Palestinian further realignment of positions by Guatemala, cause developed following the support given by Mexico, Chile, and Costa Rica. more than 100 countries to the Palestinian proposal

168 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE Other expressions of transnational realignments well as of the overlapping community/national that were nationally anchored in a conflicting spheres of debate and action point both to a scenario of political polarization are the latest singular case of communal politization and a shared developments in Argentina regarding the growing visibility of Jewish communities in the government's agreement with Iran to create a joint region. Latin American Jewish communities have Truth Commission to investigate the 1994 terrorist achieved a growing presence and participation attack on the , AMIA. in the expanding public spheres of regimes that Protracted and failed investigations were followed have succeeded in democratizing processes and by the formal accusation of Iran by two Argentinian autonomous civil societies. prosecutors (Alberto Nisman and Marcelo Burgos). In 2007, the Argentinian government issued arrest warrants against 6 Iranians, including the defense minister and former president. "e agreement to create a joint truth commission represents a new regional and transnational realignment between Argentina and Iran. "e search for a leading role in the continent after Chávez’s death and the interest in widening economic relations with Iran, have acted as main motors behind Argentina’s stance. "is agreement, approved by Congress, and its condemnation by the community’s leadership condenses a series of processes related to complex interactions between citizenship, loyalty, and the global Jewish world. "e role and of Foreign Minister Timerman, who has played a crucial function in the negotiation process; the expressions by di!erent world actors – from the State of Israel to the who opposed the agreement – throw light on such interactions. "e confrontation with the government reached unprecedented high points and unified a leadership that otherwise mirrors political national divisions in an extremely polarized scenario. "us, issues of being and belonging, of collective participation as

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 169 Policy Recommendations Taking into consideration the already largest and growing Latino-Hispanic minority in the U.S. International migration and new patterns of (reaching 50 million), Latin American Jews should circulation point to the need to design community be understood by policy planners as potential policies oriented toward identifying: a) the mobility bridge builders and they should, consequently, patterns that characterize Latin American Jews formulate strategic inter-group collaborations. and thus the human resources available in both New signs of change point to the need to define origin and destination countries; b) the circuits ways to approach policy making vis-à-vis Latin and networks that facilitate the intellectual, American Jewish life that are less based on scientific, educational, and artistic exchanges collective support in critical times, and more so that knowledge oriented toward prevention and consolidation of and creative products communal life, which take into account cultural no longer remain legacies. A multi-centered reality and increasing isolated but instead lateral ties between the new and old home(s) Transnationalism can be accumulated, should also guide the design of new perspectives today points transmitted, and by key actors from Latin America in leadership to the shared. "us, Jewish positions. need to communities in the think globally region develop in more Transnationalism today points to the need to equitable terms; c) the think globally and, accordingly, global approaches definition of mechanisms are required when responding (or influencing) and platforms – in situ local and regional public policies vis-à-vis Israel. and virtual – for intra- "ey should further take into consideration two regional and global levels: on the one hand, coordinated policies at cooperation. the governmental level and on the other, new strategies oriented toward civil society, its changing Increasing migratory fluxes of Latin American role as well as its new actors and mechanisms of Jews to the United States, Israel, and other participation. destination places pose new challenges to the host communities’ diversity and therefore demand from Jewish institutions strategies of incorporation addressing specificity instead of searching after homogenizing responses. Avenues for creating intercultural dialogue within communities, and synergies between collective models should also be devised.

170 THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE Notes References 1. "e number provided by the Pew Hispanic Center (2009) is smaller: 48, 348,000 live in the U.S.. Bokser Liwerant, Judit. 2002. Globalization and Collective Of this total, 31, 674,000 are Mexican (based on self- Identities. Social Compass. 49 (2): 253-271. described family ancestry or place of birth). http:// pewhispanic.org/ ______2006. Globalización, diversidad y 2. Exemplary cases of Orthodox settings are Soille pluralismo (Globalization, Diversity and Pluralism). In in San Diego and Hillel School in Diversidad y Multiculturalismo-Perspectivas y Desafíos Miami. "e Jewish Academy in San Diego works in (Diversity and Multiculturalism – Perspectives and a pluralistic framework, while Chabad Schools are Challenges), coord. Daniel Gutiérrez M., UNAM: 79-102. present in both settings. ______2012. Mexico in a Region Under 3. While among members of the Mexican Jewish Change. Journal for the Study of . 3: 2601-2610. community above 70 years, 97% declared that Israel ______2013. Latin American Jews in the is of utmost importance, among the age group United States. Community and Belonging in Times between 18 and 29 years old only 77% feel this way. of Transnationalism, in Contemporary Jewry, Springler 4. Figures are much higher in Mexico than in Argentina (forthcoming). (Jmelnizky and Erdei, 2005). Cohen, Steven and Ari Kellman (2010) “Beyond Distancing: Young Adult American Jews and "eir Alienation form Israel”, Contemporary Jewry 30 (2-3) :297-319

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______2011. Jewish Population Policies: Demographic Trends and Options in Israel and in the Diaspora. Jerusalem: "e Jewish People Policy Institute.

Elazar, Daniel J. 1989. People and Polity: !e Organizational Dynamics of World Jewry. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.

Faist, "omas, 2010, Transnationalization and development. In Migration, Development and Transnationalization. A critical stance, eds., Glick Schiller Nina, and "omas Faist. : Berghahn Books.

THE JEWISH PEOPLE POLICY INSTITUTE 171 Held, David et al. 1999. Global Transformations. Cambridge: of Citizenship: the Latin America experience,Leiden-Boston: Polity Press. Brill Editorial House.

Keck, Margaret E. and Kathryn Sikkink. 1999. Transnational Shulamit Volkov, “Readjusting Cultural Codes: Reflections Advocacy Networks in International and Regional Politics. on Antisemitism and Anti-Zionism,” in Je!rey Herf (ed.), International Social Science Journal. 51 (159): 89-101. Antisemitism and Anti-Zionismin Historical Perspective: Convergence and Di"erence (New York: Routledge), 2007): Latin America Survey Jewish Community Opinion Makers. 39-43. 2012. American Jewish Distribution Committee. Wajner, Daniel. 2013. Redes Transnacionales de Apoyo Levitt, Peggy and Nina Glick Schiller. 2004. Conceptualizing y sus Batallas por la Legitimidad:El caso brasileño de Simultaneity: a Transnational Social Perspective on reconocimiento al Estado palestino (Transnational Society. International Migration Review. 38 (145): 595-629. Advocacy Networks and their Struggles for Legitimacy: Roniger, Luis and Deby Babis, 2010 Latin American "e Brazilian case of recognition of a Palestinian State). Israelis:"e Collective Identity of an Invisible Community, Liwerant Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. in Jewish Identities in an Era of Globalization and World Social Science Report. Knowledge Divides. 2010. Multiculturalism, eds. Judit Bokser Liwerant, Eliezer Ben- UNESCO and International Social Science Council. Rafael, and Yossi Gorny, Leiden-Boston: Brill Editorial House.

Rosner, Shmuel and Inbal Hakman, 2012. "e Challenge of Peoplehood: Strengthening the Attachment of Young American Jews to Israel in the Time of the Distancing Discourse, JPPI.

Saxe, Leonard et al. 2011. Jwwish Futures Project. !e Impact of Taglit-Birthright-Israel, 2010 update. Cohen Center for Modern , .

Sasson, "eodore, Charles Kadushin and Leonard Saxe (2012) “Trends in American Jewish Attachment to Israel: An Assessment of the “Distancing” Hypothesis, Contemporary Jewry, Springer 30(2-3): 297- 319.

Sheskin, Ira M. 2004. Population Study of the Greater Miami Jewish Community. Greater Miami .

Sheskin, Ira, and Arnold Dashefsky. 2011. Jewish Population in the United States, 2011. Current Jewish Population Reports. North American Jewish Data Bank. http://www. bjpa.org/Publications/details.cfm?PublicationID=13458

Sznajder, Mario and Luis Roniger. 2012. Shifting Frontiers

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