CHAPTER THREE

ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY Tribes in

There are total 461 tribes mentioned in the list of Scheduled tribes. As per 2001 census, tribal population in Maharashtra is 8.85% of total population and the rank of the state is 6th in the country regarding tribal population. Density of tribal population found in the pockets of the state made the president to declare 15 districts as tribal ones and total 47 tribes are found in the state. Some continuity of patches of tribal concentrations can be found in the state. Geographically, there are three divisions of the state where majority of the tribals reside. Those are: Sahyadri region: in the hilly ranges of Sahyadri, Mahadeo Koli, , Konkana, , Katkari live. Satpura region: in the hilly ranges of Satpura Bhil, Konkana, Gavit, Dubala, Dhanaka live. Gondvan region: mountainous and forest land of Vidarbha constitute a very big area of Chandrpur, Gadchiroli, Yavatmal and Melghat of Amaravati region; where Gond, Maria, Muria, Pardhan, Korku, Kolam, Andhra, Halba, etc. tribes live. Thus density of tribal population is found in the districts of Thane, Raigad, Pune, Nasik, Nagar, Dhule, Nandurbar, Yavatmal, Chandrapur, Amaravati, Gadchiroli, etc. (Kulkarni, 2009).

Scheduled tribe population in 2001 was 84,326,240 and as per 2011 census, it was more than 104 million people, constituted 8.6% of the total population. In Maharashtra, ST population is 10,510,213, which constitutes 9.4% of the total population. Nandurbar is a district having more than 50% tribal population; the percentage is 69.3% means, 11,41,933 tribals and Dhule, Nasik and Gadchiroli districts have 25-50% tribal populations. Bhil is the biggest tribal community all over and its extent is also very large (Census of India, 2001 and 2011).

Ethnography of Contemporary Tribal Populations:

Ethnography of three living endogamous populations in Maharashtra, viz. Bhil, Warli, Mahadeo Koli, have been studied by various sociologists, anthropologists, travelers, etc. and reports are available in the form of Government census reports, monographs, research articles and unpublished Ph.D. dissertations (Census of India 1931, 1961, Encyclopedia Britannica 1939, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences 1930, Deogaonkar1982, Enthoven 1920, 1922, 1923, Gazetteers of 1901, 1881, 1982, 1984, Gazetteers of Maharashtra State 1954, 1962, Ghurye 1963, Grigson1938, Hutton 1961, Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908, Mackintosh 1844, Risley 1969, etc.). It needs to be mentioned that the information presented here is primarily a compilation of the published literature on the subject, supported by observations made in the field during the data collection process. The information related to this thesis like habitat, housing and settlement, food and diet pattern, occupation, marital distance, etc. is presented (Kulkarni, 2009).

BHIL

Bhil is the one of the biggest tribe of India. The name Bhil is often given to half tribes such as Chodharas, Dhanka, Dhodias, Katkaris, Konkna, and . From this Dhankas, , Pawara, etc. are subtype of Bhils. Their original home is the hilly country between Abu and Asirgadh, from which they have spread westward and southward into the plains of and the western Deccan, and lately, under pressure of famine, even to Sind. They are found in considerable number in Central India.

The term Bhil according to Wilson, is derived from billee the Dravidian word for bow, which is the characteristic weapon of the tribe. Sanskrit lexicographer derived it from the root Bhil, which means to cut. The passage in which the word occurs is highly interesting since it makes mention of a Bhil chief mounted on an elephant and opposing in great force the progress of another King through the Vindhya. This would show that the Bhil in those times were very powerful. It is well known fact that Shabari, Eklavya are Bhil. According to them they have blood and they fill proud of that.

Bhil have subtype like Valvi – who resides in Forests, Vasave – who resides on hill slops, Tadavi – who resides on river banks, Naiks are head of the community and Gowals are shepherds. Gowal do not have own land and they live outside the village. Tribes like Pawara, Dhanka and Gavit belongs to Bhils. Bhil resides in Satpura range and borders of Maharashtra, Madhya – Pradesh, Gujarat – Maharashtra border (Dhule - Nandurbar). Because of these Bhils are of two types Gujarat Bhil and Maharashtra Bhil and they speak language accordingly that. Bhils speaks the dialects of Gujarati, Marathi, Rangadi, Mevadi, , Rajputani and now a day a dialect of Ahirani which is already the dialect of Marathi. Earlier Bhil was hunter and gatherers. Nevertheless, as time passes their main occupation is Agriculture. They have their own land and they do farming. People who do not have land they worked as laborers in others’ farms. They do not have any secondary occupation. Like some other tribes Bhil worship nature. They worship plants, animals, and supreme power of god. Cow, horse and Bullock have an importance in society. They also worship Snake and Tiger too. Mango, pipal and banana are holy trees in community. They also gives importance to dead one and ghost. They have different type of gods for different type of activities, like a god for the protection of cattle, god for good crop, god for good fishing too. Like Hindu deity they give importance to Muslim pir.

Bhil have hard skeletal structure, long nose and smart face. Now a day they were modern dresses like pant shirt and Sari, but traditional dress is Langoti, shirt without collar and Pagote for men and choli and short sari for women. Other than this they like different types of ornaments. They used to wear many kinds of ornaments in ears, hands, feet, head etc.. Many times ornaments are of silver. They draw tattoos on their body, in that moon, star, flowers, partner’s name, brother’s name are inscribed. Holi and Diwali are major festivals in Bhil. Men and women both do farming and charge of cooking is in hand of women. Bhil used to eat Maka, Bajara, and Jowar with some kind of vegetables. Rice is negligible. They store there food in Big ‘Kanagi’.

In Bhil, one can choose their own partner for marriage, but parents concern is very important. Widow marriages are allowed. Marriage takes place at girls place, they practice bride price. Marriage performs in March, April and May. Marriage takes place in Afternoon or after afternoon.

Today they are influenced by education and modern life style and they accept it. But culturally still they are very strong. Bhil which are located at hilly area they do farming. But health status and other socio – economic conditions still low (Kulkarni, 2009). Ethnographical Observations during the Fieldwork:

Cultural ecology has significant role in day to day life of the community; especially in the remote settlement like Kewadi. Their religion and gods are found in the forest around the settlement. ‘Yaha Mogi’ situated in ‘Devmogra’, district ‘Satbar’ in Gujrat. They consider Yahamogi as their ‘kuldevi ’ and ‘Benehoja’ and ‘Gandathakur’ or ‘Rajapatha ’ as kulpurush. They visit at the time of prime events in their life, such as marriage, child birth, etc. At the time of fieldwork when people in neighboring village were going for pilgrimage, observed a cobra having five hoods sitting roadside, became a news for surrounding, rather miracle that astonished the people believe in nature worship. Their idols are rounded stones from river. At the time of picking the stones some rituals are performed. Every year these rituals are performed by people. Other rituals performed are: Vaghdeo: police patil of the village performs this ritual. A person holding dung ball is thrown out of the village. It is all symbolic. People from the village chase this person till the border of the village. In the evening the person comes back in the village. After that villagers perform puja of Vaghdeo. Offer a fowl and consume it. ‘Rani diwali’: this festival is celebrated in the month of ‘Poush’, ‘khola pujane’: at the time of harvesting give sacrifice of fowl.

Ashvaththama/ Ashvastambha: is a village near Satpura where some rituals are performed. They offer coconut to God. Women are not permitted to attend this ritual. The ritual includes bathing in ‘Bhimkunda’ the person has to walk compulsory from 'Bhimkund' to Ashvastambha. He has to be ‘Vratastha’ i.e. follow selebacy. Meanwhile they are not supposed to take food from women.

Bamboo and Mahua are the trees as important as god. Making of Mahua liquor is also observed. At the time of marriage ceremony, consuming Mahua is a part of liquor. For key informant’s engagement ceremony they distilled six litres Mahua and for marriage they were estimating the need of it upto fifty litres. Women also enjoy Mahua, bidi, gudgudi. Bamboo, karvi, tur khatya – by-products of agricultural goods, is used for house construction. Huts of Bhil are very clean and tidy. Huts are situated 2-3 feet from ground level. Walls are prepared from the Bamboo and Karvi sticks and thatched with mud and cow dung. In house 2-3 rooms are made. Bamboo is grown out of many houses used to make some instruments, drums, mothi – a grain container. In Kewadi this nature dependency is more in terms of broom and rope making, ethno-medicines, etc. than Savar and Kundwa. They use kitchen utensils ‘tosvo’ (a deep pan for cooking liquid or semi- liquid recipes), ‘ranno’ (a flat pan for cooking chapaties) are made up of soil. Mahua is a Kalpvrikha – gives whatever wished, a boon for them as each and every part of the tree is used. for house construction the wood is used, flowers for making vegetable (sabji) and liquor, seeds ‘doni’ used for extracting oil for cooking and roots and skin as medicines. Sometimes give and take exchange is done through barter system, when someone has scarcity of food, someone works as laborer in villager’s field or works as laborer in house.

WARLI Some communities have some specialties and those specialties become their identity. When you say Warli, you easily remember Warli paintings. These paintings are peculiarity of this tribe. Warli mainly resides in Thane and districts of Maharashtra. – Mokhada is the famous region of Warli people. The term Warli derived from the word varal meaning uplander. In 1922 Enthoven has observed that the Warli were semi-nomadic and lived in small groups under their own headmen. They are spread over the state of Maharashtra and Gujarat, and the union territory of . The Warli of Maharashtra is concentrated in the districts of Greater , Raigarh, Nasik, Dhule, Jalgaon, Ahamednagar, and Pune. Their largest concentration however, is in Dahanu taluka of Palghar (old Thane) district. The language they speak among themselves is Warli. Wilson thinks the word Warli comes from word ‘varal’ a small patch of cultivated land, and means an uplander. The Warli have four endogamous divisions, namely Suddha or Pure Warli, Murde, Davar, and Nihar. There are more than forty exogamous social divisions (Kula) of which twenty – four have been identified.

Rajvade V. K. the well known historian – derives the word from ‘Varud’ as mentioned in Katyayana’s Vartika’s thus: Varud – Varudki – Varulai – Varuli and finally Warli. Enthoven describes that Warlis are subdivision of Bhil. Wilson says Warli and Thakars are off shoot of Koli tribe. At, present, the Warli do not show any affinity with Bhil, Thakars and Kolis. A legend current among the Warli says God once wanted to distribute certain gifts among men. One man got a book and so he became a . Another got a spade, so he was named a gardener. A third received a bamboo; he was called a Dhed as he made baskets out of the Bamboo. A fourth got bellows and became a black smith. A Warli was given a plough and therefore he became a , meaning a farmer.

The Warli family is patriarchal with patronymic designation. Their women take part in economic activities. Kin on the mother’s side play important ritual and social roles. Sexual contacts before marriages are allowed but after sexual contact and even after childbirth couple have to marry once. Widow re - marriage and divorce is allowed. They offer worship to a few tribal gods. They stand in a great awe of spirit. The Warli worship Waghya, Hirva, Narayan dev, Himai, Vir, and Kansari. They celebrate Nag panchami, Diwali, Akhaja, and Holi.

Warli male used to wear langoti, bandi earlier, but now they wear pant and shirts too. Women wear sadi, choli and phadke. They wear ornaments of silver, copper, brass, glass, and beads. They are non-vegetarian; their staple cereals are rice, jowar and wheat. Most of the Warli houses display graphics on the walls drawn with rice powder. The women painters paint in white with touches of Brilliant gerua (Saffron) on the earth colored wall of their houses. These pictographs are made to celebrate the festivals. House is often a square or rectangular single room structure on an earth foundation with a partition inside dividing the area into two components, having one or two doors and no window.

Primary and traditional occupation of the Warli is agriculture. The forests, agricultural land, saw mills; timber depots and fruit gardens in the area provide the people of the region good jobs throughout the year, especially at the time when they are free from their major activities. They launched a movement to seek the abolition of serfdom. And now they are advancing with their Warli art (Kulkarni, 2009).

Ethnographical Observations During The Fieldwork: Warlis are known for their traditional paintings, which are not observed in the settlement at the time of fieldwork. The art is restricted for marriage ceremony only. In Jawhar, there are centers to teach the art. Ramkhind is also known for a very unusual paper mesh art, animal statues, masks, deities are made out of that. Masks are used at Bohada. People are still dependent on natural surroundings for all the subsistence activities and basic needs. They enjoy many forest vegetables, roots and tubers and fruits. Tarpa, a musical instrument is made up of kind of guard. Many people have information about ethnomedicines. These are Bhagats only but most of the people respect them when it comes to health problem. Many people don’t call the Bhagats for puja but take medicines from them.

Ragi, forest vegetables, fruits and black gram dal along with chicken, mutton provide nutrition to them. Vaadi or kitchen garden in back yard is almost a pattern seen many places, where they cultivate some guards – bitter, bottle which have 2-3 varieties, papaya, guava, etc., flowers like rose, mogara, etc. BAIF had taken initiative to cultivate and manufacture ragi and cashew nut products in the region and sale those. Water in the region when tested for pot ability, it was found quite pure very close to mineral water. All these should give gift to the settlement dwellers, but the problem lies there is all about ‘the culture’. It is found that marital age for boys and girls is very low. Under Integrated Child Development Scheme, Anganwadi teacher, Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) worker work very sincerely, but maternal – child heath is affected due to getting married at very young age. Two boys had become fathers at the age of sixteen of kids older than one year.

MAHADEO KOLI Mahadeo (Mahadev) Koli is an advanced scheduled tribe in Maharashtra state whose higher position is accepted by most of the other tribes in the region. They are also referred to as Dongar Koli (as they inhabit the hilly areas) and sometimes as Raj Koli (as the ruler of Jawhar State belonged to this group). The name Mahadeo indicates their region of concentration rather than their occupational activity. The present concentration of Mahadeo Kolis (in Maharashtra) is such that one would associate them with places sacred to lord Mahadeo, viz. Bhimashankar, Kalasubai and Trimbak, the high peaks of Sahyadri ranges in Pune, Ahamednagar and Nasik districts. According to Mackintosh (1844), their original home was in the Mahadeo and Balaght hills near Hyderabad. However, Mahadeo Kolis of Ahamednagar and Nasik look back to Junnar (Dist. Pune) as their place of origin. According to Mckintosh (1844), they originally belonged to twenty-four clans or kuls, from which many off-shoots pot-kuls, numbering about 276 in all, have sprung. The different clans of the tribe enjoy same social status. Sameness of kula (gotribhau) is a bar to marriage. However, today nobody knows the pot-kulas (or sub-type names), and exogamous divisions based on clan divisions are vanishing. There is evidently certain grouping of family names, and a group whose members cannot intermarry is known as Gotribhau or brother. No marriage is possible between members having the same family name. Clan’s exogamy is based on divas, totalistic objects of the family. Persons with the same devak cannot marry. Marriages with father’s sister’s or mother’s sister’s daughter is not allowed. Marriage with mother’s brother’s daughter and wife’s sister are permitted. Marital bonds with a known family in the Panchakroshi (distance of ten miles) are preferred.

The Mahadeo Kolis report their religion as Hindu. Ghurye (1957) says that the complex of religious beliefs and practices current among them is fundamentally the same as among the , with the addition of a few Gods and Goddess whom they have in common with the scheduled tribes of Maharashtra and one or two peculiar to them. They also worship Hindu Gods and celebrate many Hindu festivals.

The Mahadeo Kolis enjoy a fairly high social position among all other scheduled tribes and scheduled castes of the region. They do not accept food from other tribal groups. All other scheduled tribes and castes accept this ranking and consider Mahadeo Kolis to be of higher status. In terms of caste frame of reference, the Mahadeo Kolis are considered lower in status than Marathas, Kunbis, Wanis, and other such tribes castes of the region. Ritually, they do not suffer any social disability from . They receive traditional services from the Dhobi (washerman), Nhavi (barber) and the Brahmin priests. They fetch water from public wells along with caste Hindus. They have free access to Hindu temples. Their entry to the houses of Hindu castes people is also not restricted in any way. Caste Hindus attend their marriage ceremony and visit their houses as when occasion arises. The Mahadeo Kolis are day by day losing their traditional tribal pattern of life because the increasing contacts with the urban life and tend to assume a caste-like structure in the main stream of Hindu society. This observation receives full support from Ghurye (1957, 1963), Hooton (1961) and Risley (1969), quoted by Kulkarni, 2009)

Ethnographical Observations During The Fieldwork: A rockslide incidence in a neighboring village Malin underlines significant geographical situation of Ahupe. Heavy rains in monsoon shatter their life and till summer no water is left for drinking purpose. Tar road and Devrai in the settlement marks its identity just because Shashvat took efforts for that. As there are many visitors viz. trekkers, botanists, environmentalists, geologists, tourists and also now transportation facility is available, Ahupe – though remote – is slowly getting urbanized. This can be observed through changed housing pattern, increasing dependence on modern medicinal system and socio- demographic transition. Still they depend on the surrounding ecological background. But it is found worst in case of medical emergency, such as snake bites and maternal health (as sub center PHC at Ahupe is closed) and surrounding settlement-dwellers have to tarvel a lot. Though all Mahadeo are divotee of Lord Shiva, due to Bhimashankar in the region make them very religious. For all auspicious days they walk around 15 Km. to the temple and fair. Reserved Forest in the vicinity prohibits them from hunting. But one of the informants could show teeth of hunted wild boar. Anjanavale is taken as biggest settlement and its hamlet Pasarwadi treated as small settlement, though it contributes voluminous data through interview schedules, but shares many commodities in common with Anjanavale. History of this region goes back more than 1st century B.C. as Naneghat – an ancient trade route is very close. Anjanavale also has Devrai like that of Ahupe’s. Though the settlement is remote, it is quite accessible as S.T. goes there twice a day. So again urbanization impact can be seen; especially, regarding clothing, house construction and food. People tend to construct pakka house from outside and kachha from inside. They get money from Indira Awas Yojana, but they either construct and use one room only for themselves or use it as storage, fodder and cattle shed. It has been observed that dependency on flora for house construction has reduced a lot, they get wooden fuel but house construction material is bought from the market. Documentation of Primitive Agro-pastoral Populations: Different sites of primitive agro-pastoral populations have been found in Maharashtra. Technologically these are copper using people, hence, the sites are also characterized as Chalcolithic sites. In Maharashtra, no Neolithic sites have been found specifically; some sites show the features of Neolithic age in combination with Chalcolithic era. Domestication of animals and beginning of agriculture, marked by varied styles of pottery manufacturing and its use are diagnostic features of Neolithic periods. These sites have been excavated by eminent archaeologists, institutes like Archaeological Survey of India, Deccan College Post- graduate Research Institute, Pune. The reports, documents, research papers are available of these excavated sites, which is referred for the purpose to establish analogy between past and present. The site as a settlement, ecology around the site, density of the population for this particular era, housing structures and work-space- activity found in-house and in-settlement, material culture, subsistence pattern, food habits and dietary pattern, nutritional status of the people, palaeopathology and disease patterns, mortuary practices, etc. are the issues which are looked in the above literature. The sites of primitive agro-pastoral populations are: The reports, documents, research papers are available of these excavated sites, which are referred for the purpose to establish analogy between past and present. The site as a settlement, ecology around the site, density of the population for this particular era, housing structures and work-space- activity found in-house and in-settlement, material culture, subsistence pattern, food habits and dietary pattern, nutritional status of the people, palaeopathology and disease patterns, mortuary practices, etc. are the issues which are looked in the above literature. The sites of primitive agro-pastoral populations are: Inamgaon: The site (Lat.230 52’ N; Long.740 30’ E) is situated on the river Ghod in the district of Pune. The Chalcolithic mound was horizontally excavated by the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune between the periods 1968-83 which yielded an extensive Chalcolithic settlement dating from c. 1600 B.C. TO 700 B.C. Three cultural phases were recorded from the site, namely, Malwa, Early Jorwe, and Late Jorwe. Walki is a satellite settlement 2 k.m. from Inamgaon. There are vast evidences about housing patterns, populations, life ways, diet and religious beliefs of the people (Dhavalikar, 1986). The human skeletal series includes remains of 173 individuals recovered from 243 burials. The material have been studied systematically in palaeodemographic and palaeopathological perspectives (Lucaks and Walimbe, 1986) providing valuable information about the nature of the biological adaptations of these early agriculturists in response to the changed lifeways.

Walki : This site is located (Lat. 18°35' E; Long. 74°18 N) about 32 Km west from Inamgaon and approximately 60 Km east from Pune on the right bank of Bhima. It is said to be a satellite site of Inamgaon. The site gives cultural evidence of Jorwe (Early and Late) period (Dhavalikar et al. 1990b) All together 14 burials were unearthed. Some of these burials are symbolic and osseous remains of only nine (?) individuals were available for study. Except one, all are of sub adult age group (Mushrif and Walimbe 2001).

Daimabad: The site (Lat. 190 31’ N; Long. 740 42’ E) is situated on the banks of river Pravara in Ahmednagar district. This settlement which dates back to c. 2200 B.C. to 1140 B.C., was excavated during 1976-79 by the Archaeological Survey of India. The Chalcolithic Culture at this site is divided into five different phases, the Savalda, Late Harappan, Daimabad, Malwa and Jorwe phase. The evidence of burial was available from all the phases. From the total of 75 burials exposed during the excavations, remains of 37 individuals were have been studied (Walimbe 1986b).the condition of preservation is fragmentary and weathered.

Jorwe: The site (Lat. 190 33’ N; Long. 740 00’E) is situated on the north bank of river Pravara in Ahmednagar district near Sangamner. The site was excavated during 1950-51 under the guidance of Dr. H.D. Sankalia. The small scale excavation confirmed the culture of chalcolithic phase. Since the Pottery is having specific characters like loud and clear noise, well baked, wheel made, red colored with geometric designs, funnel shaped and having spouts and it was found for the first time, the culture is named after the village, which is popularly known as Jorwe tradition (Deo, 2002).

Nasik: The site is situated at (Lat. 200 N Long. 730 51’E) in Nasik. The site was excavated between 1950-51by H.D.Sankalia. The excavation reveals the culture from chalcolithic phase to period. The material found at the site resembles with that of the Jorwe tradition and relative dating method indicates the period for both the sites (Nasik and Jorwe) as 1500 B.C to 1000 B.C. It shows the human habitation on the banks of river Pravara and Godavari also in chalcolithic period (Deo 1968, quoted, Deo, 2002).

Nevase: The site is situated at (Lat. 190 34’ N Long. 740 54’E) in Nevase. The site was first excavated between 1954-56 and 1959-60 by Dr. H.D. Sankalia. The evidences found at the site were not only limited with the pottery and flake tools but it threw light on the various aspects of socio-cultural life of the contemporary people. Out of 131 burials found in the excavation, 126 were of the children of age 2.5 to 3 years. The carbon dating of the first layer of the habitation shows the period of the culture was 1500 B.C.

Prakashe: The site is situated on the confluence of Tapi and Gomai River in Dhule district. The exaction was carried out in 1955 by S.A.Sali. The evidences occurred at the site reveals the trade and cultural contacts between chalcolithic Maharashtra, Gujrat and (Thapar 1964-65, quoted, Deo, 2002).

Kaothe: The site (Lat. 210 60’ N; Long. 740 17’ E) is situated in Dhule district. Excavations undertaken by the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune during 1984-85 yielded a single cultural habitation of Savalda phase dating back to c. 2000 B.C. to 1800 B.C. The tool kit recovered from the site is characterized by total absence of metal with very rare occurrence of stone blades. A large variety of bone tools were available. People practiced subsistence agriculture combined with stock raising and hunting, fishing. It has been hypothesized that the people were probably pastoralists leading seasonally settled life and they lived here only during monsoon human remains are preserved in good condition facilitating a thorough morphometric analysis (Walimbe, 1990).

Bahal : The site is situated on the bank of river Girna which is the tributary of Tapi in the district of Jalgaon. It is excavated in 1952 and 1956-57. It exists on the ancient trade route from Mathura to Paithan and the first habitation was from chalcolithic period. The pottery found was handmade and resembling to the pottery of Neolithic phase of Brahmagiri in . Other type of pottery found was of shiny and glossy type which shows contacts with Rangapur, Gujarat. Thus it can be said that the contacts between Karnataka and Gujarat were established by these people (IAR 1956-57, quoted Deo, 2002).

Tekawda: It is situated on the bank of river Girna on the opposite side of Bahal. Excavation was carried out in the year 1956-57. Two types of burials were found at the site. Adults were buried directly in the pits whereas children were buried in grey earthen pots (IAR 1959-60, quoted Deo, 2002).

Chandoli: The site is situated (Lat.190 10’N; Long. 730 58’ E) Eastwards five Km. from Manchar, Dist. Pune on the banks of river Ghod. As Jorwe pottery was found on the surface, the site was excavated in 1960. Post-holes formed due to the pillars erected to support rectangular thatched house, earthen granary container buried underneath ground of the house, hearths, saddle-querns, oval shaped earthen lamps, bull shaped bottle, etc. are found along with many copper objects like bangles, rings, beads, axes, chisels, Dagon, etc. The burials of children – who were ornamented with colorful stone beads and copper beads – were done in gray pots in the house and that of adults were done directly in the pits. Carbon-14 dating method confirms the evidences from 14th century B.C. These evidences show contacts with Gujarat-Saurashtra and also with Andhra-Karnataka (Deo et al 1965).

Also there are number of chalcolithic sites found in the Districts Ahemadnagar, Dhule, Nandurbar, Jalgaon, Aurangabad, Pune, Nasik and few at Chandrapur, Kolaba, Amaravati, Beed, Solapur, Osmanabad.

Human habitation in Thane, Mumbai, region: Konkan stretches from Damanganga river in North to Terekhol river in South. This region is some 530 Km. long and 30-50 Km. wide between 200 and 160 N Latitude and 720 40’and 730 55’ E. Longitude. The whole, is divided into several administrative districts of which Thane, Mumbai, Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Sawantwadi are considered (to study Quaternary Environment and Stone Age Culture). The Konkan is a land of contrasts: of hills and plains, wet and dry seasons, forests and cultivated valleys, bare rocks and laterite plateaus. Karal and sand dune formation is the characteristics of many places. Thus archaeologically, the Konkan region poses a number of problems in excursion and exploration. Kandivali and Borivali in Mumbai region give stone tools evidences for middle palaeolithic period (Guzder,1980).

But there are many direct and indirect evidences of human habitations in the region. At Kalyan in , some evidences from Harappan period has been found. ‘Shurparaka’ of course Sopara – ancient maritime trade port has been mentioned in the text “Old Testament” dating back 1000 B.C. Prior to that the epic Mahabharata also mentions ‘Shurparaka’. Also Buddha Jataka tale (6th century B.C.) describes ‘Shurparaka Jataka’ later mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions (3rd century B.C.). Dr. R.V. Joshi also found prehistoric evidences at Pachad near Raigad fort. Hathkhamba is another prehistoric site reported in the region (Thosar, 1993).

A very limited archaeological exploration has been done in Konkan, except few efforts done by Joshi, Bopordikar, Guzder and Marathe. Still recent evidences in Guhaghar and earlier from Malvan, Kandivali, Pachad, Hathkhanba prove that Homo erectus must have reached in Konkan region. Homo sapien (AMHS) is known to move out of Africa in groups through sea route by doing food exchange with inland people and Konkan must have played significant role. As major evidences from palaeolithic period and not from Neolithic or Chalcolithic, it can be concluded that they did not need to domesticate plants, animals and to get settled for agricultural activities as fishing in abundance was obvious subsistence activity in the creeks around and / or the climatic conditions were not suitable for agricultural activities (Walimbe, 2010)