INTRODUCTION

At its most general, “utopianism” refers to various ways of imagining, creat- ing, or theorizing about alternative and often dramatically different ways of life. It derives from the word “” that was coined by Thomas More as the name of the imaginary country he described in his book Libellus vere aureus nec minus salutaris quam festivus de optimo reip[ublicae] statu, deq[ue] noua Insula Vtopia, published in 1516, now known as Utopia. The word is derived from the Greek, but also used in Latin, with “u” or “ou” meaning “no” or “not” and “topos” or “place,” but More punned on “eutopia,” or good place. “,” or bad place, was added in the eighteenth century but came into common use only in the twentieth. A number of other subgenres have been identified since then. On the definitional problems, the editors propose slightly varying ac- counts. The first is Sargent’s: The following definitions, among others, were proposed by Sargent in 1994 and are now widely used:1

Utopianism—­social dreaming. Utopia—­a nonexistent described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space. In standard usage “utopia” is used both as defined here and as a synonym for “eutopia.” Eutopia or positive utopia—­a nonexistent society described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space that the author intended a contemporaneous reader to view as considerably better than the society in which that reader lived. Dystopia or negative utopia—­a nonexistent society described in considerable detail and normally located in time and space that the author intended a contemporaneous reader to view as considerably worse than the society in which that reader lived.2

In addition, in 1986, Tom Moylan proposed the critical utopia, which is very widely used:

Critical utopia—­a nonexistent society described in considerable de- tail and normally located in time and space that the author intended a contemporaneous reader to view as better than contemporary society

1

Claeys_i_530.indd 1 11/21/16 4:45 PM but with difficult problems that the described society may or may not be able to solve and that takes a critical view of the utopian genre.3

Although these subgenres are the most widely used, there have been a num- ber of others proposed, like the critical dystopia, but none that are in common usage. Gregory Claeys writes: The term “utopia” is susceptible to such a large range of useful and sug- gestive meanings that reducing it to any one is unhelpful. Every discipline sees in utopia a semblance or shadow of itself, its alter ego, so to speak. Here psychology, sociology, literature, political thought, and other subjects over- lap and interpenetrate. The authors of the main study of the subject, Frank and Fritzie Manuel, write of a “utopian propensity” that is grouped around seven major “constellations” and describe “the heart of the utopian fantasy” as lying in the “myth of a heaven on earth.” Emphasizing the “pluralism of the commentary,” they stress the “partial validity” of many angles of enquiry into the subject, while not privileging one approach.4 In the best account of later modern utopianism, published in 1987, Krishan Kumar also concludes that “a strict definition of Utopia would serve no useful purpose.”5 It thus remains an “essentially contested” concept where no fixed definition as such is attainable. In moving away from the common-language­ usages of the term (“perfect,” “impossible”), however, we should in the first instance avoid confusing utopia with four things it is not, or which it should not be reduced to, though literary , communes, and may have components of each element present in them. It is not, solely, however, a literary tradition; not a branch of theology, despite the close proximity of images of paradise and ideas of the millennium to much utopian thought; not a state of mind, a feeling, impulse, or principle, especially of the Blochian ideal of “hope,” or of a psychological wholeness achieved by superseding alienation; and, finally, not a synonym for in general, or merely making society “better.”6 These boundaries indicate disagreements respecting even some of the most common definitions of utopia. The idea of utopia as a “social dream” origi- nated as early as 1886 in the writings of the secularist G. W. Foote and has been used by many later writers. The sociologist Ruth Levitas describes utopia as “the desire for a better way of being and living.”7 But to the author of the chief study of early modern British utopianism, J. C. Davis, “the concept of ‘better’ is too imprecise, vague and subjective, so the emphasis on ‘dream’ carries with it difficulties of its own. For it can ambivalently mean fictional, unreal or im- practical.” Instead, Davis argues, “The utopian mode is one which accepts defi- ciencies in men and nature and strives to contain and condition them through organisational controls and sanctions.”8 Kumar comes close to this evidently

2 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 2 11/21/16 4:45 PM realist description in asserting that “Utopia is a secular variety of social thought. It is a creation of Renaissance humanism.”9 In this view the utopian polity has thus usually stood closer to a republican model or paradigm than any other. It has not usually been restrained by the idea of Original Sin, which has ham- pered aspirations for social improvement throughout much of the history of the Christian West. It may both formally and psychologically have aspects of a “social dream” about it, in the senses of speculation, thought experiments, projection and extrapolation, imagined and/or forecasts. But it may be more helpful to restrict “utopia” to the less fantastic forms of the genre. For utopia has often been seen as something realizable, if only on a small scale, by real human beings. Where utopia is projected—on­ remote islands, in lost civili- zations, in galaxies in space, or underground—­is here less important than how the new social order is described, how it is introduced, and what it demands of human nature. Respecting utopian fiction, a “realist” definition that takes these factors into account stresses that utopias are imaginary defined by the predominance of some form of enhanced sociability, or strengthened sense of community. The majority of such works are tracts on social and politi- cal thought cast in fictional form, sometimes with fairly thin plots. Often they propose egalitarianism, though this is usually combined with some form of hi- erarchy, elective or otherwise. Commonly they limit property holding or enjoin community goods, and “cooperation” has been used to describe social owner- ship of enterprises without any communal component, and the “cooperative commonwealth” is a common description of late nineteenth-­century utopian aspiration. A greater stress on the value of individualism, however, also comes to characterize the tradition from the mid-­nineteenth century. A realist definition of “utopia” is particularly useful insofar as students of utopianism need to address problems related to the three domains or “faces” (as Sargent terms them) of the wider subject, where generalizations that hold for ideologies, communal movements, and literary texts are necessary. This presents additional problems not evident when literature is the sole focus. The concept of “dystopia” presents still further definitional problems. It is sometimes conceived as a “bad” or “worse” place. Some disaster novels appear to fit the bill here, though a focus on social and political content is more char- acteristically dystopian. The same logical problems present themselves here, too, as with utopia as a “better” place: Worse than what? Worse for whom? We need also to distinguish anti-­utopias, which result from failed attempts to create utopia, and , which grow out of existing social, political, and economic trends. In both cases, however, some group may well benefit from the dystopian scenario. Somewhat more precise, thus, is the description of dystopia is “a utopia that has gone wrong, or a utopia that functions only for a particular segment of society.”10 Here we get some sense, too, of portrayals of

Introduction 3

Claeys_i_530.indd 3 11/21/16 4:45 PM one person’s utopia being another’s dystopia. (To extreme individualists, like the anarchist William Godwin, all groups are dystopian.) It is also helpful to stress that many dystopias can be conceived as portrayals of societies where individuals are alienated from each other, and destroy “society” by undermin- ing institutions of mutual support.”11 This can also be conceived as a contrast between estranged and enhanced sociability. Such alienation in the modern period typically stems from rampant , extreme social and politi- cal collectivism, or some combination of both (Huxley, Orwell). However, there are exceptions here too, both in communities and in fictional utopias (for instance those influenced by Herbert Spencer). Here a maximization of individuality is sought, though this too is conceived as contributing to rather than detracting from sociability. But it can be suggested that a spectrum of dystopian scenarios ranges from the prevalence of extreme tedium and lack of innovation to the more horrific imposition of despotism and consequent widespread fear and asociability. Texts may also exhibit dystopias and utopias sequentially, typically where a revolution overthrows an oppressive regime. But the new order may turn out to be less than ideal too. And it is evident that almost every early modern utopia, including More’s, appears as a dystopia to modern readers, through Spartan conditions, the puritanical of amusements, clothing, and so on, the restriction of religious and other private matters, and/or the propensity toward universal surveillance. The concepts of “critical utopia” and later “critical dystopia” were proposed to describe trends in utopian writing in the 1970s and later. The latter has been contrasted to the “classic dystopia” in particular, meaning texts in which no “hope” is presented internally, within the text, as to the overthrow of despotic systems. While there are more or less pessimistic texts, there are few if any of which this can be said. The suggestion that “hope” is a quality to be prioritized in texts, and should be linked to preferring “authentic” utopian experience over other forms, implies a questionable moral essentialism. The idea that utopian writing somehow improved by moving beyond “blueprints” to “dreams” is also dubious. The applicability of these categories to a very large number of earlier texts in the genre would hinge upon some concept of measuring the utopian/ dystopian qualities in texts. These concepts also propose a theory of reading that ignores the author’s intentions, and also much historical context to boot. Claeys and Sargent continue: The play on words has led to deeply conflicted readings of More’s Uto- pia so that five hundred years after it was written the book is read as a seri- ous proposal, a satire, and simply as a playful fiction to be enjoyed by More’s friends. The fact that More opposed its translation into English suggests that he recognized it as potentially subversive,12 but he cooperated with the pub- lication of multiple editions in Latin during his lifetime.13

4 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 4 11/21/16 4:45 PM The disagreements over the founding text are reflected in arguments among scholars today (including the editors of this volume) over how utopias and utopianism should be understood. As a result it is best to think of utopia and utopianism as what are called “essentially contested concepts,” or con- cepts that are thought of in ways that do not merely diverge but are, at least as currently understood, fundamentally incompatible. The discord stems from the fact that the word, while quickly adopted into other European languages and then by other languages, initially referred to a fictional place and then to a genre of literature, which, conflating no place and good place, described a nonexistent good society. But over time it was used to refer to other phenom- ena. As the philosopher Leszek Kolakowski put it, a word that “emerged as an artificially concocted proper name has acquired, in the last two centuries, a sense so extended that it refers not only to a literary genre but to a way of thinking, to a mentality, to a philosophical attitude, and is being employed in depicting cultural phenomena going back into antiquity.”14 As a result, while the genre of literature is the best known aspect of utopia- nism, and the aspect that dominates in this book, it also refers to intentional communities (the neutral label for what is better known as communes and that used be called utopian communities or utopian experiments)15 and uto- pian social theory, both of which are represented in this book.16 Words take on a life of their own, and utopia and most of the other terms used now refer to things that existed well before the words were coined. We now talk about Classical Greek, ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Indian, and early Jewish and Christian utopias. Also, the first intentional communities are gen- erally thought to have been the Indian ashrams first established around 1500 BCE. Such groups have been established in Africa, Japan, Israel, and many other parts of the world and in the include ex-­slave or free black communities. There are, though, continuing disputes over what should be counted as a utopia or an intentional community. For example, it is possible to argue that not all of the selections in this volume belong here. We may distinguish between three fundamental literary utopian traditions. The first has been called “utopias of escape,” “utopias of sensual gratification,” or the “body utopia.”17 The second has been called “utopias of reconstruc- tion,” “utopias of human contrivance,” or the “city utopia,”18 and some com- mentators limit utopias to this category.19 The third is the dystopia. The first two reflect alternate ways of expressing the utopian impulse—­the tendency to dream of or imagine a better life, even when we are reasonably content. The third reflects the fear that things might get much worse. In addition and outside the literary tradition, the belief that things can greatly improve and the belief that things can dramatically deteriorate also play significant roles in social thought.

Introduction 5

Claeys_i_530.indd 5 11/21/16 4:45 PM The first eutopias known to history are myths that look to the past of the human race or beyond death for a time when human life was or will be easier and more satisfying. They have various labels such as golden ages, Arcadias, earthly paradises, fortunate isles, and isles of the blest. They are peopled with our earliest ancestors; heroes and, very rarely, heroines; the virtuous dead; or, in some cases, contemporaneous but little-­known noble savages. These eutopias have certain features in common—­simplicity, security, or an easy death, unity among the people, unity between the people and God or the gods, abundance without labor, and no enmity between human beings and the other animals. If women are included (they often are not), they give birth without pain. These eutopias are achieved without human effort and are seen as a gift of nature or the gods. They are the simplest expression of a desire for a better life, and every culture has some such stories. And this sug- gests one place the editors agree. Utopias are not, as Krishan Kumar contends, a phenomenon of the Christian West. As noted above, there were early Jew- ish utopias, long utopian traditions in the Middle East, and well-­established utopian traditions in China, India, and Japan.20 But human beings do not like to depend on nature or gods. As a first step, and when it becomes intellectually possible, identical imagery is projected into life on earth, rather than after death. A second step can be seen in the existence of festivals such as Saturnalia, the Feast of Fools, and Carnival, where the world is turned upside down for a few days and at least temporarily the poor possess plenty and experience abundance. A third step is found in , sometimes called the “Peasant’s Utopia,” and its variants, in which a permanent utopia of sensual gratification is described and, in most versions, presented as possible for some people after completing an almost incredible rite of passage. The fourth and most important step is to imagine that every aspect of the social order is susceptible to human control, thus creating an entirely new tradition—utopias­ of human contrivance, often cast in the form of the imagi- nary city. There are many possible histories of utopia. The brief overview given here is explicitly a Western history, and in addition to histories of utopias in other traditions, there are alternative histories of the Western tradition.21 Utopias and the changes they undergo both help bring about and are re- flections of paradigm shifts in the way a culture views itself. Sometimes it is possible to identify fairly precisely the role of a utopia or a group of utopias in this process, but all such shifts take place unevenly, and therefore different utopias in any time and place may reflect different stages in the paradigm shift, including reactions against it. We may enumerate four main histori- cal stages in the evolution of the utopian tradition. First, religious in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries spawned a variety of egalitar-

6 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 6 11/21/16 4:45 PM ian schemes in which communal property holding, linked to Spartan ide- als as well as Christian monasticism, attained high priority. These strands of thought would eventually give rise to in the nineteenth century. Second, voyages of discovery from the sixteenth century on encouraged a heated debate over the virtues and vices of primitive peoples, their relation to pagan and Christian traditions of an original age of innocence, and the moral any such discussion held out for societies concerned that their increas- ing wealth threatened moral degeneration. Third, scientific discovery and technological innovation from the seven- teenth century on began to hold out the promise of an indefinite progress of the human species toward better health, a longer life, and the domination of nature in the interests of humankind. In the late nineteenth and early twenti- eth centuries fiction developed as the characteristic genre expressing both the hopes and the fears of our own era. The modern dystopia crystallizes the anxieties that increasingly accompanied the onward march of progress. Finally, aspirations for much greater social equality emerged in the revo- lutionary movements of late eighteenth-­century North America and France, in which the utopian promise of a society of greater virtue, equality, and so- cial justice was now projected onto a national scale. This was matched by the transformation of socialism after 1848. Early socialism, sometimes, but now decreasingly, termed “,” a derogatory label proposed by Marx and Engels, had mostly involved small-scale­ communitarianism. This was now largely replaced by the ideal of centralized state socialism. Small-­scale com- munitarianism was reflected in the establishment of many intentional com- munities. Many such communities have been founded, sometimes linked to the formation of states and at other times to movements for social reform, such as the hippie communities of the 1960s, and many continue to exist. B. F. Skinner’s Walden Two represents an important literary expression at this time. In such communities, and in a continued outpouring of utopian literature, the imagina- tive aspiration for social and human improvement continues to provide models for forward movement, as well as dangers to be avoided. Between the end of the 1920s and the end of the 1950s, a number of theo- rists discussed utopia and utopianism from a wide variety of perspectives, all of which feed into the current disagreements over them. Here we will mention only four of them; more information can be found in the Further Reading section. In 1929 Karl Mannheim published Ideologie und Utopie in German, and in 1936 he published a significantly different version in English titled and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge.22 Mannheim treats both ideology and utopia as ways that different groups of people understand the world. Ideology is as contested a concept as utopia, and their interrelation has led to continuing debate, with the French philoso-

Introduction 7

Claeys_i_530.indd 7 11/21/16 4:45 PM pher Paul Ricoeur’s 1986 Lectures on Ideology and Utopia the most substantial work deriving directly from and superseding Mannheim’s work.23 In 1945 the political theorist Karl Popper published The Open Society and Its Enemies, an attack on utopianism in which he argued that utopias depict perfect societies, and since perfection is impossible, utopias must inevitably lead to totalitarianism and violence to impose the utopia in all its details.24 Many others have followed his lead, but the editors of this volume argue that this view misrepresents utopias and utopianism in that authors of utopias, including the ones discussed by Popper, rarely present perfect societies, just ones that are significantly better than those in which the authors lived. In the 1950s the theologian Paul Tillich published a number of articles proposing an important role for utopia in Christian theology.25 This proved controversial, and there have been continuing debates among Christian theo- logians over the subject. Between 1955 and 1959 the Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch published the three volumes of his Das Prinzip Hoffnung, which was first printed in Eng- lish in 1986.26 Bloch influenced many theorists of utopianism, most notably Darko Suvin and Frederic Jameson, both of whom have written more exten- sively on science fiction. Some more contemporary theorists of utopianism are listed in the Further Reading section. The 1989 fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent collapse of Soviet commu- nism in the 1990s brought about renewed discussion of the utopian elements in , and their possible relation to dystopian totalitarianism. Renewed economic and social crises within capitalism, however, especially after 2008, also revitalized critiques of existing forms of society, including those inspired by Marx. Such debates show no signs of subsiding today.

Further Reading Utopianism Bibliography Sargent, Lyman Tower. British and American Utopian Literature, 1516–­1985: An Anno- tated, Chronological Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1988. This work is obviously out of date, but a new, online searchable edition, which extends the bibliography through the present and will be updated annually, Utopian Literature in English: An Annotated, Chronological Bibliography, can be found at openpublishing.psu.edu/ utopia.

Definition Claeys, Gregory. “News from Somewhere: Enhanced Sociability and the Composite Definition of Utopia and Dystopia.” History 98 (2013): 145–­73.

8 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 8 11/21/16 4:45 PM Sargent, Lyman Tower. “The Three Faces of Utopianism Revisited.” 5.1 (1994): 1–­37.

Introductions Claeys, Gregory. Utopianism: A History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, forthcoming. Kumar, Krishan. Utopianism. Milton Keynes: Open University Press/Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. Sargent, Lyman Tower. Utopianism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 2010. Segal, Howard P. Utopias: A Brief History from Ancient Writings to Virtual Communi- ties. Malden, MA: Wiley-­Blackwell, 2012.

Surveys Bartkowski, Frances. Feminist Utopias. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. Claeys, Gregory, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Utopian Literature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. ———. Searching for Utopia: The History of an Idea. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2011. Donawerth, Jane L. and Carol A. Kolmerten, eds. Utopian and Science Fiction by Women: Worlds of Difference. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994. Fortunati, Vita and Raymond Trousson, eds. Dictionary of Literary Utopias. Paris: Hon- oré Champion Éditeur, 2000. Pordzik, Ralph. The Quest for Postcolonial Utopia: A Comparative Introduction to the Utopian Novel in the New English Literatures. New York: Peter Lang, 2001. Ramiro Avilés, Miguel Á. and J. C. Davis, eds. Utopian Moments: Reading Utopian Texts. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012. Sargisson, Lucy. Contemporary Feminist Utopianism. London: Routledge, 1996. Schaer, Roland, Gregory Claeys, and Lyman Tower Sargent, eds. Utopia: The Search for the Ideal Society in the Western World. New York: New York Public Library/Oxford University Press, 2000. Vieira, Fátima, ed. Dystopia(n) Matters: On the Page, on Screen, on Stage. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2013. Vieira, Fátima and Marinella Freitas, eds. Utopia Matters: Theory, , Literature and the Arts. Oporto, Portugal: Editora da Universidade do Porto, 2005. Wagner-­Lawlor, Jennifer. Postmodern Utopias and Feminist Fictions. New York: Cam- bridge University Press, 2013. Wu, Qingyun. Female Rule in Chinese and English Literary Utopia. Syracuse, NY: Syra- cuse University Press, 1995.

Collections Claeys, Gregory, ed. Late Victorian Utopias: A Prospectus. 6 vols. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2009.

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Claeys_i_530.indd 9 11/21/16 4:45 PM ———, ed. Modern British Utopias 1700–­1850. 8 vols. London: Pickering & Chatto, 1997. ———, ed. Owenite Socialism: Pamphlets and Correspondence. 10 vols. London: Rout- ledge, 2005. ———, ed. Restoration and Augustan British Utopias. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000. ———, ed. Utopias of the British Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Clarke, I. F., ed. British Future Fiction. 8 vols. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2001. Kessler, Carol Farley, ed. Daring to Dream: Utopian Fiction by United States Women before 1950. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995. ———. Daring to Dream: Utopian Stories by United States Women: 1836–­1919. London: Pandora Press, 1984. Manuel, Frank E. and Fritzie P. Manuel, eds. and trans. French Utopias. New York: Free Press, 1966.

History Baczko, Bronislaw. Utopian Lights: The Evolution of the Idea of Social Progress. Trans- lated by Judith L. Greenberg. New York: Paragon House, 1989. Late eighteenth-­ century French utopianism. Claeys, Gregory. Dystopia: A Natural History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017. ———. Searching for Utopia: The History of an Idea. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2011. Cohn, Norman. The Pursuit of the Millennium Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages. Rev. and exp. ed. London: Temple Smith, 1970. Davis, J. C. Utopia and the Ideal Society: A Study of English Utopian Writing 1516–­1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Eliav-­Feldon, Miriam. Realistic Utopias: The Ideal Imaginary Societies of the Renais- sance, 1516–1630­ . Oxford: Clarendon, 1982. Ferguson, John. Utopias of the Classical World. London: Thames and Hudson, 1975. Johns, Alessa. Women’s Utopias of the Eighteenth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003. Kenyon, Timothy. Utopian and Political Thought in Early Modern Eng- land. London: Pinter, 1989. Knapp, Jeffrey. An Empire Nowhere: England, America, and Literature from “Utopia” to “The Tempest.” Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Kumar, Krishan. Utopia and Anti-­Utopia in Modern Times. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987. Manuel, Frank E. and Fritzie P. Manuel. Utopian Thought in the Western World. Cam- bridge, MA: Belknap, 1979. Pfaelzer, Jean. The Utopian Novel in America 1888–­1896: The Politics of Form. Pitts- burgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984. Rees, Christine. Utopian Imagination and Eighteenth-­Century Fiction. London: Long- man, 1996.

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Claeys_i_530.indd 10 11/21/16 4:45 PM Roemer, Kenneth M, ed. America as Utopia. New York: Burt Franklin, 1981. ———. The Obsolete Necessity: America in Utopian Writings, 1888–­1900. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1976. Sargisson, Lucy. Fool’s Gold: Utopianism in the Twenty-­First Century. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Segal, Howard P. Technological Utopianism in American Culture. Chicago, IL: Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 1985. ———. Technological Utopianism in American Culture. 20th anniversary ed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005. Includes “Epilogue: New Perspectives, 1985–2005.”­

Theory Bloch, Ernst. The Principle of Hope. 3 vols. Translated by Neville Plaice, Stephen Plaice, and Paul Knight. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. ———. The Spirit of Utopia. Translated by Anthony A. Nassar. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000. ———. The Utopian Function of Art and Literature. Selected Essays. Translated by Jack Zipes and Frank Mecklenburg. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988. Claeys, Gregory. “The Five Languages of Utopia: Their Respective Advantages and Deficiencies; With a Plea for Prioritizing Social Realism.” InThe Spectres of Utopia: Theory, Practice, Conventions, edited by Artur Blaim and Ludmiła Gruszewska-­ Blaim, 27–­31, 271. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012. ———. “Rethinking Modern British Utopianism: Community and the Mastery of De- sire.” In Utopia Method Vision: The Use Value of Social Dreaming, vol. 1 of Ralahine Utopian Studies, edited by Tom Moylan and Raffaella Baccolini, 87–­111. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. ———. “Three Variants on the Concept of Utopia.” In Dystopia(n) Matters: On the Page, on Screen, on Stage, edited by Fátima Vieira, 14–­18. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cam- bridge Scholars, 2013. Geoghegan, Vincent. Ernst Bloch. London: Routledge, 1996. This is a good introduc- tion to his thought. Goodwin, Barbara, ed. The Philosophy of Utopia. The Philosophy of Utopia. London: Frank Cass, 2001. Goodwin, Barbara and Keith Taylor. The Politics of Utopia: A Study in Theory and Practice. London: Hutchinson, 1982. ———. The Politics of Utopia: A Study in Theory and Practice. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2009. Includes “Preface to the Classics Edition,” xiii–­xvi. Harvey, David. Spaces of Hope. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Jameson, Fredric. Archaeologies of the Future: The Desire Called Utopia and Other Sci- ence Fictions. London: Verso, 2005. Levitas, Ruth. The Concept of Utopia. Hemel Hempstead: Philip Allan/Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990. Reprint, Oxford: Peter Lang, 2010. ———. Utopia as Method: The Imaginary Reconstitution of Society. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

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Claeys_i_530.indd 11 11/21/16 4:45 PM Mannheim, Karl. Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge. Translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils. New ed. London: Routledge, 1991. Originally published in German in 1929, with a substantially different version in English published in 1936. Marin, Louis. Utopics: Spatial Play. Translated by Robert A. Vollrath. Atlantic High- lands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1984. McKenna, Erin. The Task of Utopia: A Pragmatist and Feminist Perspective. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001. Moylan, Tom. Demand the Impossible: Science Fiction and the Utopian Imagination. London: Methuen, 1986. Reprinted with additions and commentary, edited by Raf- faella Raccolini. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2014. ———. Scraps of the Untainted Sky: Science Fiction, Utopia, Dystopia. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000. Sargent, Lyman Tower. “Authority & Utopia: Utopianism in Political Thought.”Polity 14.4 (Summer 1982): 565–­84. ———. “Choosing Utopia: Utopianism as an Essential Element in Political Thought and Action.” In Utopia Method Vision: The Use Value of Social Dreaming, vol. 1 of Ralahine Utopian Studies, edited by Tom Moylan and Raffaella Baccolini, 301–­17. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. ———. “Ideology and Utopia.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies, edited by Michael Freeden, Lyman Tower Sargent, and Marc Stern, 439–­51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. ———. “In Defense of Utopia.” Diogenes 53.1 (February 2006): 11–­17. ———. “The Necessity of Utopian Thinking: A Cross-­National Perspective.” In Think- ing Utopia: Steps into Other Worlds, edited by Jörn Rüsen, Michael Fehr, and Thomas W. Rieger, 1–­14. New York: Berghahn Books, 2005. ———. “The Problem of the ‘Flawed Utopia’: A Note on the Costs of Utopia.” InDark Horizons: Science Fiction and the Dystopian Imagination, edited by Raffaella Bac- colini and Tom Moylan, 225–­31. London: Routledge, 2003. ———. “Theorizing Utopia/Utopianism in the Twenty-­First Century.” In The Spec- tres of Utopia: Theory, Practice, Conventions, edited by Artur Blaim and Ludmiła Gruszewska-­Blaim, 13–­25, 269–­71. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2012. ———. “What Is a Utopia?” Morus. Utopia e Renascimento, no. 2 (2005): 153–­60. Suvin, Darko. Defined by a Hollow: Essays on Utopia, Science Fiction and Political Epis- temology. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2010. Wallerstein, Immanuel. Utopistics: Or, Historical Choices of the Twenty-­First Century. New York: New Press, 1998. Wegner, Phillip E. Imaginary Communities: Utopia, the Nation, and the Spatial Histories of . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Journals Revista Morus—­Utopia e Renasciemento. Founded 2004. Published in multiple languages.

12 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 12 11/21/16 4:45 PM Spaces of Utopia. Founded 2006. Online at http://ler.letras.up.pt/site/default. aspx?qry=id05id174&sum=sim. Utopian Studies. Founded 1990.

Professional Associations Society for Utopian Studies, http://utopian-­studies.org/. Utopian Studies Society of Europe, http://www.utopianstudieseurope.org/.

Intentional Communities Encyclopedia Miller, Timothy. The Encyclopedic Guide to American Intentional Communities. 2nd ed. Clinton, NY: Richard W. Couper Press, 2015.

Definition and Theory Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. Commitment and Community: Communes and Utopias in Sociological Perspective. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972. Lockyer, Joshua. “From Developmental to Transformative Utopianism: An Imagined Conversation with Donald Pitzer.” Communal Societies 29.1 (2009): 1–­14. Miller, Timothy. “A Matter of Definition: Just What Is an Intentional Community?” Communal Societies 30.1 (2010): 1–15.­ Near, Henry. Where Community Happens: The and the Philosophy of Commu- nalism. Oxford: Peter Lang, 2011. Pitzer, Donald E. “Developmental Communalism: An Alternative Approach to Com- munal Studies.” In Utopian Thought and Communal Experience, Geography and Planning Paper No. 24, edited by Dennis Hardy and Lorna Davidson, 68–­76. En- field: School of Geography and Planning, Middlesex Polytechnic, 1989. Reprinted in The Guide to Communal Living: Diggers & Dreamers 94/95, edited by Chris Coates, Jonathan How, Lee Jones, William Morris, and Andy Wood, 85–­92. Winslow: Com- munes Network, 1993. Pitzer, Donald E. “Developmental Communalism into the Twenty-­First Century.” In The Communal Idea in the 21st Century, edited by Eliezer Ben-­Rafael, Yaacov Oved, and Menahem Topel, 33–­52. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Sargent, Lyman Tower. “Theorizing Intentional Community in the Twenty-­First Century.” In The Communal Idea in the 21st Century, edited by Eliezer Ben-­Rafael, Yaacov Oved, and Menahem Topel, 53–­72. Leiden: Brill, 2012.

Directories Bunker, Sarah, Chris Coates, and Jonathan How, eds. Diggers & Dreamers: The Guide to Communal Living 2008/2009. London: Diggers and Dreamers Publications, 2007. Coates, Chris. Communes Britannica. A History of Communal Living in Britain: 1939–­ 2000. London: Diggers & Dreamers Publications, 2012.

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Claeys_i_530.indd 13 11/21/16 4:45 PM ———. Utopia Britannica. Volume 1: British Utopian Experiments: 1325–­1945. London: Diggers & Dreamers Publications, 2001. Communities Directory 2010 Edition. Rutledge, MO: Fellowship for Intentional Com- munity, 2010. Grindheim, Barbro and Declan Kennedy, eds. Directory of Eco-­villages in Europe. Stey- erberg, Germany: Global Ecovillage Network Europe, 1998. Knudsen, Barbara, ed. Eco-­Villages & Communities in Australia and New Zealand. Maleny, Australia: Global Ecovillage Network Oceania/Asia, 2000.

History Ben-­Rafael, Eliezer, Yaacov Oved, and Menahem Topel, eds. The Communal Idea in the 21st Century. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Bestor, Arthur Eugene, Jr. Backwoods Utopias: The Sectarian and Owenite Phases of Communitarian Socialism in America, 1663–­1829. 2nd enl. ed. Philadelphia: Univer- sity of Pennsylvania Press, 1970. Chmielewski, Wendy E., Louis J. Kern, and Marlyn Klee-­Hartzell, eds. Women in Spiritual and Communitarian Societies in the United States. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993. Eisenberg, Ellen. Jewish Agricultural Colonies in New Jersey 1882–­1920. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995. Fogarty, Robert S. All Things New: American Communes and Utopian Movements, 1860–1914­ . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Foster, Lawrence. Women, Family and Utopia: Communal Experiments of the Shakers, the Oneida Community, and the Mormons. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991. Francis, Richard. Transcendental Utopias: Individual and Community at Brook Farm, Fruitlands, and Walden. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997. Garnett, R. G. Co-­operation and the Owenite Socialist Communities in Britain, 1825–­45. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1972. Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-­Century America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991. Hardy, Dennis. Alternative Communities in Nineteenth Century England. London: Longman, 1979. ———. Utopian England: Community Experiments 1900–­1945. London: E & FN Spon, 2000. Hayden, Dolores. Seven American Utopias: The Architecture of Communitarian Social- ism, 1790–1975­ . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1976. Kesten, Seymour R. Utopian Episodes: Daily Life in Experimental Colonies Dedicated to Changing the World. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1993. Kolmerten, Carol A. Women in Utopia: The Ideology of Gender in the American Owenite Communities. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Reprint, Syra- cuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998.

14 Introduction

Claeys_i_530.indd 14 11/21/16 4:45 PM Miller, Timothy. The Quest for Utopia in Twentieth-­Century America. Volume I: 1900–­ 1960. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998. ———. The 60s Communes: Hippies and Beyond. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999. Near, Henry. The Kibbutz Movement: A History. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press/Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 1992–­97. Palmer, Susan Jean. Moon Sisters, Krishna Mothers, Rajneesh Lovers: Women’s Roles in New Religions. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994. Pearson, Lynn F. The Architectural and Social History of Cooperative Living. London: Macmillan, 1988. Pitzer, Donald E., ed. America’s Communal Utopias. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. Saxby, Trevor J. Pilgrims of a Common Life: Christian Community of Goods through the Centuries. Scottsdale, AZ: Herald Press, 1987.

Survey Gorni, Yosef, Yaacov Oved, and Idit Paz, eds. Communal Life: An International Perspec- tive. Efal, Israel: Yad Tabenkin/New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1987. Kozeny, Geoff.Visions of Utopia: Experiments in Sustainable Culture. Intentional Com- munities Today: Today’s Social Laboratories. A Documentary. Rutledge, MO: FIC, 2002. VHS, pts. 1 and 2, 94 and 124 minutes. Metcalf, Bill, ed. From Utopian Dreaming to Communal Reality: Cooperative. Lifestyles in Australia. Sydney: UNSW Press, 1995. ———. Shared Visions Shared Lives: Communal Living around the Globe. Findhorn: Findhorn Press, 1996. A New We: Ecological Communities and Ecovillages in Europe. L.O.V.E. Productions, 2010. DVD, 120 minutes. Sargisson, Lucy. Utopian Bodies and the Politics of Transgression. London: Routledge, 2000. Contemporary British ecological communities. Sargisson, Lucy and Lyman Tower Sargent. Living in Utopia: Intentional Communities in New Zealand. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004.

Journals Communal Societies. Founded 1981. COMMUNITIES: Life in Cooperative Culture. Founded as Communitas in 1974.

Professional Associations Communal Studies Association, http://www.communalstudies.org/. International Communal Studies Association, http://www.communa.org.il/icsa/.

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