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University of Auckland Research Repository, Researchspace Libraries and Learning Services University of Auckland Research Repository, ResearchSpace Copyright Statement The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). This thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: • Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. • Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognize the author's right to be identified as the author of this thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. • You will obtain the author's permission before publishing any material from their thesis. General copyright and disclaimer In addition to the above conditions, authors give their consent for the digital copy of their work to be used subject to the conditions specified on the Library Thesis Consent Form and Deposit Licence. The Cook Islands Christian Churches of Rarotonga LIVING CONSERVATION IN CULTURAL LANDSCAPES Carolyn Hill A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture, the University of Auckland, 2016. ABSTRACT The architecture of the Cook Islands’ coral churches has entangled indigenous and foreign beliefs, social practice and place-making since their instigation by the London Missionary Society in the 1840s. As well as examining the historical significance of their formation, this thesis explores Rarotonga’s churches, now under the Cook Islands Christian Church, as contemporary cultural landscapes. The study examines how place meanings have been recontested, recontextualised and renewed through the churches’ continued use, and questions how architectural conservation practices may respond to their living heritage. Research methods included site investigation in Rarotonga in 2014 and an analysis of literature and images. Fieldwork involved: first, physical investigation of the island’s historical churches, focusing on the Matavera church as a case study, and second, interviews with local people. Adopting a qualitative approach enabled people’s complex emotional and cultural connections to church places to be explored in ways that directly shaped research findings. The study supports earlier scholarship and local perspectives suggesting that churches were conceptualised and constructed as the island’s “new marae,” their presence physically restating tribal rights to land. This has bearing on their contemporary significance as places embedded in ancestral meaning and constellational understandings of time. Research findings indicate that it is churchscapes’ temporal and intangible aspects, rather than their physical form, that remain their most enduring heritage. Local agency directs modifications and use, highlighting the living reality of church places as not only indigenised but indigenous. These findings have implications for heritage conservation in a context where decisions are based on local consensus and collective process. Churchscapes, like marae, remain entwined with tribal mana, hierarchy and land. This may mean that they continue to have cultural value for increasingly diasporic Cook Islands communities. Responding holistically to their complex and sometimes contradictory strands of intangible and tangible significance may become increasingly important for their living sustainment. Keywords: Cook Islands, coral church, place attachment, cultural landscape. i For Naomi and Mark, who walked with me, and for Helen, who joined us. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the generous input of the people who shared with me their knowledge and thoughts about church places. I gratefully acknowledge the Cook Islands Office of the Prime Minister, the Ministry of Cultural Development and the Cook Islands Christian Church (CICC) for permitting and enabling this research, kia orana. I am indebted to the General Secretary of the CICC, Nga Mataio, for his ongoing advice and sharing of material, to Ngatuaine Maui for her facilitation, to William Vogel for his kind assistance in accessing and documenting the Matavera church, to the leadership of the Otara CICC and the Newton PIPC for their welcomes, and to all those who talked with me and allowed me to interview them, meitaki ma‘ata. Many thanks to Miriama Arnold, Lucy Farquhar and the Vogels for permitting me to use their personal photographs, to Jean Mason and Rod Dixon for sharing their expertise and ideas through this process, and to Rea Kautai, Alan Fenwick and Michael Fenwick whose encouragement and introductions helped to get me going in the first place. I am grateful to my supervisor, Deidre Brown, for her insightful critique; it has been a privilege. Thank you to Yvonne Underhill-Sem and Sally Nicholas for generously making time to share your knowledge and perspectives, to Marjorie van Roon for your ethics application guidance and to Caroline Foster-Atkins, Judy McFall-McCaffery, Stephen Innes and Lynette Leong for your assistance with library resources. To my family, many thanks for your support through this journey. Mark, thank you. Thank you to my father, Peter Hill, for proofreading this work, and to my mother-in-law, Eva Tamura, for your wonderful care of our children. I have not been alone on the journey, and I am grateful. iii Contents List of Figures vii Glossary xiii Chapter One Introduction 1 Chapter Two Literature review 27 Chapter Three Scene-setting 43 Chapter Four Physical analysis 63 Chapter Five Contextual analysis part one: place modifications 103 Chapter Six Contextual analysis part two: the “unchanged” place 127 Chapter Seven Thinking conservation 153 Chapter Eight Conclusion 177 Appendix A Approvals for research 191 Appendix B Processes of interviewing 193 Appendix C Matavera CICC architectural drawings 201 Appendix D Matavera CICC commemorative dates 203 Bibliography 207 v List of Figures Figure 1 The region, with the Cook Islands shown 3 Figure 2 Map of Rarotonga showing vaka and tapere land divisions and the 4 location of CICC churches Figure 3 Aerial view of Rarotonga 4 Figure 4 Matavera CICC, completed in 1864 5 Figure 5 Ngatangiia CICC, completed in 1935 6 Figure 6 Titikaveka CICC, completed in 1841 6 Figure 7 Arorangi CICC, completed in 1849 7 Figure 8 Kimi Henry, “Nikao LMS Church.” Date unknown 7 Figure 9 The current Nikao CICC, which was built to replace the 1954 church 7 that was demolished to make way for Rarotonga’s airport Figure 10 Avarua CICC, completed in 1853 8 Figure 11 Matavera churchyard and signpost, viewing west 9 Figure 12 Boundary wall with trees, south-eastern corner 9 Figure 13 Main entrances, east and north elevations 10 Figure 14 Rear (west) elevation 10 Figure 15 The ‘orometua of the Matavera CICC, 1839 to 1995, listed on a cut 11 tree trunk Figure 16 Former belfry on the eastern side of the Ara Tapu, demolished in 11 2015 Figure 17 New church hall, “Gibeona,” completed in 2015 12 Figure 18 The ‘orometua’s residence, a modern building to the south of the 12 church vii List of Figures | Figure 19 “Rarotonga in 1814” showing its geo-political boundaries 49 Figure 20 Recorded marae on Rarotonga 52 Figure 21 Marae, Matavera 52 Figure 22 Schematic examples of Rarotonga’s marae 53 Figure 23 A severe rainstorm, c.1829 55 Figure 24 Evidence of the coral stone cut for the Titikaveka church remains 56 inscribed on the Tikioki beach, Titikaveka Figure 25 The Titikaveka church, completed in 1841 57 Figure 26 The lime cycle 69 Figure 27 A diagram of 19th century LMS lime-burning pits 71 Figure 28 Collecting punga from the lagoon, Mangaia c.1955 72 Figure 29 Preparing the umu punga, Mangaia c.1955 73 Figure 30 Burning coral to restore the ariki palace in Arorangi 73 Figure 31 An umu punga beside the Oneroa Church in Mangaia, 2014 74 Figure 32 The Matavera Church, 1904 83 Figure 33 The Matavera church prior to its reduction in height in c.1944 84 Figure 34 The Matavera church, c.1935 84 Figure 35 A further image of the same hurricane damage 85 Figure 36 Plan of a dwelling’s paepae in Aitutaki 86 Figure 37 Wedding at Matavera, c.1960s 86 Figure 38 The same wedding party 87 Figure 39 Toa trees on the Ara Tapu road edge 87 Figure 40 The gothic-style Avarua Church 88 Figure 41 A sketch of the Matavera church c.1960, post lowering of the walls 89 Figure 42 A similar view in 2014 90 Figure 43 Site plan 90 Figure 44 Church floor plan, interior furnishings shown 91 viii | List of Figures Figure 45 East elevation 91 Figure 46 North elevation 92 Figure 47 Matavera village, showing church [red], hall [blue] and mission 93 house [green] Figure 48 The inland peaks that mark the Matavera district’s boundary 94 Figure 49 View from the north-east; note the mountains visible behind the 94 church Figure 50 Interior, showing three bays of pews and main entrances 95 Figure 51 Monumental buttresses 96 Figure 52 Existing ceiling void 97 Figure 53 Hole in wall where a redundant (original) beam has been removed 97 Figure 54 View into wall interior where a timber member has decayed. Inset 98 sketch indicates wall construction Figure 55 Transverse beams [red arrow] notched onto longitudinal main 99 beam [blue arrow]. Notches are either timber-pegged or mechanically-fixed Figure 56 Half check joint in main beam [red arrow], carved bearer [blue 99 arrow] and post below [yellow arrow] Figure 57 Support post [red arrow] hewn into a vertical tenon [blue arrow] 100 Figure 58 Avarua church – note the panelled gallery
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