DOCUMENT RESUME

RD 135 890 UD 016,724 TIME The Lesegregation Literature: A Critical Appraisal. INSTITUTION National Inst. of Education (DBEW), Rashington, D.C. Educational Equity Group. Desegregation Studies Div. PUB DATE Jul 76 NOTE 164p. EDRS PRICE rIF-$0.83 BC-$8.69 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; Curriculum Problems; Discipline Problems; Integration Litigation; Integration Methods; *Integration Studies; legal Problems; *Literature Reviews; *Negro Education; *; School Administration; *School Integration;

ABSTRACT This volume contains three analytic literature reviews of desegregation literature.' The'first review examines trends ln the literature of school desegregation and educational inequality from 1960-1975. The second review provides an assessment of conceptual frameworks and methodological orientations concerning interracial schooling. One purpose of this review, is to examine t10- possible association between research methodology and conceptual frameworks. The third review provides an annotated bibliography dealing with research On desegregation in school and classroom settings. It focuses on a field methods approach for studying the patterns and dynamics of socialization in desegregated settings. (Author/AM)

*********************************************************************** Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * * materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes everyeffort * * to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality * * of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS).. EDRS is not * responsible for the quality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. *********************************************************************** THE DESEGREGATION LITERATURE: A Critical Appraisal

July 1976

U.S, DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE NATIONAL. INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION _ THIS DOCVMENT HAS BEEN REPRO. DoCED EXACTLY AS RE:Ewer) FROM THE PEILSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN- ATING I T POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRE- SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EONCATION POSITION OR POLICY

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare David::Mathews, Secretary National Institute of Education Harold L. Hodgkinson, Director Educational Equity Group Harold Delaney, Associate Director Desegregation Studies Staff Ray C. Rist, Chief 30 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I. School Desegregation and Educational Inequality:Trends in The Literature, 1960-1975 1 Dorothy C. Clement Margaret Eisenhaa John W. Wood I. Introduction 1 II.Framewolts: General Perspectives on School Desegregation 3 III.Litigation, Legislation, and Enforcement 10 IV.Extent and Causes of Educational Inequality 23 V.Remedial Efforts and Counter Forces in Implementation 31 VI.Research on Outcomes of Desegregation 46 VII.References 57 CHAPTER IL The Process of Interracial Schooling: An Assessment of Conceptual Frameworks and Methodological Orientations 79

Thomas W. Collins George W. Nob lit Introduction 79 Organization of the Literature Review 79 Law and Politics 80 Community :.:oncerns 82 School Administration 83 Order and Discipline 86 Curriculum and Instruction Faculty 90 Extraschool Factors 92 Consequences for Students , 95 References 100

3 CHAPTER 111. Research on Desegregation in School and Classroom Settings Rodney RUM Francis A. J. lanni Margaret Orr Elizabeth Reuss-lanni Audrey Savwoir Andrea Sparks

Preface 111 The Socio-Legal History of Desegregation in America 112 The Effects of Desegregation in the Classroom 117 Acculturation, Ethnicity, and Desegregation 143 The Labeling Perspective and Desegregation 151 Implications for Classroom Observation 156 Synthesis and Conclusions References PREFACE

It is only a statement of the obvious to note sonal relations, tolerance, educational aspira- that yet twenty-three years after the Supreme tions, and aptitude. There have also been a Court Decisionof Brown v. Board of Education, multitude of studies on school administration, the United States continues to grapple with the school climate, school-community relations, issue of school desegregation. While tremen- school curriculum, and school facultiesin dous strides have been made in the desegrega- desegregated settings. tion of public education, there have also been The Na,ional Instituteof Educationis more than isolated instances of resistance to pleased to present in this vol'une three efforts this effort at social change. The constitutional by distinguishedrt .earchers to gather,in- mandate is clear; the legal precedents have terpret, and summarize major portions of the been firmly established. The question is no desegregation literature. Moving beyond sim- longer one of whether to integrate schools, but ple bibliographies, annotated or not, these rather how to do so. three papers provide significant contributions Amidst this more than two decades of through their systematic and coherent sum- school desegregation debate, behavioral and maries of a literature that is threatening to social science evidence and the scientists them- become an avalance of reports, articles, books, selves have been actively involved. From even papers, conference proceedings, and before the time of the Supreme Court citation maauscripts in draft form. We trust that others of social science evidence in theBrowndeci- willfindthesecritical assessments of the sion, there has continued to the present a literature as beneficial and stimulating as have vigorous effort to assess, analyze, interpret, we here at the Institute. and describe the processes and outcomes of school desegregation. These data have pro2 Ray C. Rist, vided information on such diverse factors as Head, Desegregation Studies Staff self esteem, academic achievement, interper- Educational Equity Group SCHOOL DESEGREGATION AND EDUCATIONAL INEQUALITY: TRENDS IN THE LITERATURE, 1960-1975

Dorothy C. Clement of de jure has been greatly expanded. Battles Margaret Eisenhart over token desegregation .have been replaced John R. Wood by struggle over metropolitan desegregation. And, equality of educational opportunity has University of undergone a number of reconceptualizations. North Carolina To use the metaphor of a contest, the contest Chapel .H ill, which desegregation constitutes is one in which North Carolina the rules change, the goals change, and even to some extent the composition of the "sides" change over time. In'order to follow the con- 1. INTRODUCTION temporary events and anticipate future events, it is helprul to know whe the participants are, 1. 1. Objectives what resources they use, the perceptions which Desegregation of schools inthe United those using the resources have, and the history States has been referred to as a "peacetime behind -the events. School desegregation is the social revolution". At theleast, school product of many different participants: the desegregation is part of a social movement, a federal and state courts, legislatures, and ex- trend-in--social-and-cultural-change-which has ecutives; local school and federal administra- organized proponents and opponentsthe tors; strong citizens groups; the public; and former seeking to modify the status quo while social scientists. The courts have made deci- the latter try to reinforce and strengthen it. sions which educational decision-makers nor- School desegregation is part of a movement the mally make; the federal government has taken aim of which, conceptualized most generally, is a much greater role in educational programs removal of -like aspects of American than ever before; and social science has been society. given a role, albeit a disputed one, in court The process of school desegregation has and decisions. We assume that to separate out the is taking place in an evolving context forged at legal, political, educational, and cultural each stage from the interaction of parties hav- strands of school desegregation is impossible at ing differing visions, desires, and interests. The this juncture. For that reason it seem evi ence ot isevo ution is capturein the meaningful in conceptualizing this review to literature on school desegregation which fixes think of the literature as representing the coun- concepts,tactics, and approaches intheir try's growing pool of knowledge and beliefs respective time frames. In the fifteen years that about school desegregation. We have tried to this review c S. ge_the,articles and books in terms of their cant alteratiOns in perspectives on desegrega- informational content relative to the develop- tion and their resulting conceptual manifesta ment of the desegregation movement rather tions. The de facto-de jure distinctirn, for ex- than judging their content relative to some set ample, utilized heavily in the 1960's to calm of disciplinary standards such as soundness of urban fears has undergone a shift: he domain research. 6 2

We have attempted to place the develop- on hand at the University of North Carolina, ;. ments in a larger context. Research reports, for Chapel Hi:I campus library. The fifth example, may stress or not stress findings de- reference source was a series of bibliographies pending, one might guess, on factors affecting on school desegregation. These included Wein- the researcher. Similarly, one finds that some berg's (1970) compendium of 10,000 selected questions are asked while Others are ignored references onThe Eckcation of the Minority just as court decisions are not necessarily the Child; (his newer edition was not available for product of logical deduction from the legal use), De'Ath, Gibbons, and O'Neil's (1969) charter. Our orientation has been to pay atten- Black Education and Black Society in the United tion to changes in definitions and methods that States: a Bibliography for Development Educa- pertain to desegregation and . to guide the tors; the University of Florida Library's (1960, reader to sources which expand upon and 1962)Segregation and Desegregation 'in reference particular topics. American Education;Meyer Weinberg's (1967) Ultimately,itwill be usefulto analyze School Integration: a Comprehensive Classified school desegregation in terms of its impact on Bibliography of3,100References;and the American society and institutions. In the long bibliography from Ray C.Rist's(n.d.) run, it may become evident that the civil rights forthcoming book concerning desegregation. movement contributed to the decay of social In addition, Burnett's (1974) bibliography of stratificationin American society;alter:. Anthropology' and Educationsources was natively, its effects may be negligible, evidence- searched for anthropological sources on only of the stability of the American dilemma. desegregation. Finally, various recent issues of We believe that the place of the desegregation journals devoted to desegregation-related movenient in history is not clear at this time, topics were reviewed. (It should be noted that although, of course, there are many who have references which dealt solely with minority prophesiedits consequences and there are groups other than black Americans were. elimi- social science theories which would generate a nated from the set of sources.) position. Instead, we have chosen to present The resulting set of items, which numbered the literature more in its own terms, that is, in approximately 1500, was viewed as a sample of terms of the issues and solutions as they have the literature from which basic trends in the been and are conceptualized by those who have` _literature could be ascertained. Counting on been active in affecting policy and practice. the fact that some important works might have been, omitted in our initial search, we pro- 1.2. Sources and Format ceeded to develop categorizations of the literature and to obtains copies of material In compiling a 'basic set of references on mentioned, but .notincluded, amongour school desegregation, six types of sources were original items. utilized. Two cf these were computerized As described- above, we viewed the searches using the DIALOG Search Service materials as indicative of conceptualizations of (natural language searches). One search was of school desegregation and educationaline- titles and abstracts present in the Educational quality as well as descriptive of events and Resource Information Center files (ERIC). positions' relevanttodesegregation. Thus, The other was a similar search of Psychological items in popular as' well as academic journals Abstracts. Both searches used a set of twenty were read in preparation of the overview. descriptors to locate relevant desegregation The review is divided into six major areas. references. A third computerized search was Discussions in each sub7section present over- done ofSociological Abstracts,using the views of particular areas, emphasiling trends facilities ofihe University of Georgia. Due to in the conceptualizations and-events relating to various complications, it was possible to search those areas. References are interspersed in the only one volume (21, 1973) of Sociological context of those overviews. Abstracts. A fourth source of references was ob- At the end of some of the sub-sections, more tained from manual searches of the materials general references are mentioned by author 3 and date. There has been no attempt to list all The perspective which can he associated possible references for each area. Instead, the with most of the proponents of school objective was to include: 1) examples of points desegregation is labled "the AMeiican Creed", of view and types of research, 2) major or because of its emphasis upon the .egalitarian central items, ana 3) general references pro- principles of the society as the over-arching viding bibliogiaphies for further reading. motivation for school. desegregation. Repre- Published materials were given priority over senting the mainstream position, this perspec- unpublished materials. tive appears to be the one held by many of the The full reference for each item mentioned members of the judiciary, social scientists, _ is listed alphabetically by author in the final "liberal" whites, and active civil rights groups reference section. Due to space limitations, such as the NAACP (National Association for only those items not described in the text which the Advancement of Colored People) who seem of particular value were annotated. have been active in promoting school Following each reference is a number indicat- desegregation. These groups and individuals ing the sub-section(s) in which the reference is see themselves as the offensive againstanti- d iscussed. desegregationists whose perspective is labeled "forced mixing/forced busing", II. FRAMEWORKS: GENERAL Segregationists in the South resisted school PERSPECTIVES ON SCHOOL desegregation. Currently desegregation is being resistedin some other regions of the DESEGREGATION country where busing is used ,as a means of School desegregation symbolizes far more achieving school desegregation in'residentially to Americans than the elimination of laws re- segregc:ed areas. Although those who protest quiring school segregation. It symbolizes possi- busing are not popularly considered to be ble futures for individual children and for the segregationists, thOr viewpoints are similar country. These visions of the future brought enough to thos, of the segregationists that they posi- about by integration give meaning to the events can, without too much violence to their that occur and have occurred in the process of tion, be placed in the same category. school desegregation: They provide the con- Proponents of the third perspective, labeled text in which courses of action are evaluated, "the promise of Brown", are predominantly research questions are formulated, alternatives black peoples who became discouraged with the progress of school desegregation. Diverg- are weighed, and policy isdevelOped. Twenty years ago, the ideals symbolized by ing from the "American Creed" perspective, scht Dl desegregation were not completely ar- these individuals, who include black social ticulated and the means for achieving the scientists, educators, and civil rights and com- transformation were nowhere spelled out. As munity leaders, have turned away from visions the means werc developed and tried, concepts of America as a unitary society to visions of underwent reinterpretation and refinement. America as a culturally and structurally plural Perspectives on school desegregation changed society. In the fourth section, the three perspectives and diversified. In spite of the proliferation and changes in are collapsed yet again as alternatives of a perspectives associated with school aesegrega- single paradigm. tion,itispossible, through some over- simplification, to trace the development of II. 1. Forced Mixing/Forced Busing three distinctive perspectives which have in- To segregationists the Brown decision meant formed the action of those involved in strug- that white children would be forced by law to gles over school desegregation. These perspec-- fives are described below under the rubrics of "forcedintegration/forcedbusing", "the *A review of school desegregation as it has affected .American Creed", and "the promise of non-black minority groups is outside the scope of this Brown". paper. 4 associate with people whom the segregationists tion, are fears that social race and social class considered morally, intellectually, and integration will result iniducational degrada- physically inferior. They were afraidtheir tion for the middle- and upper-class whites and children would suffer spiritual, mental, and that viotence will threaten the safety of the stu- perhaps physical harm as a result of desegrega- dents.Sithilarl5r,thenotion of cultural tion. In public, however, segregationists did deprivation which posited educational, not propound these racist views as much ascultural; and behavioral "gaps" between the they pointed to the aspect of imposition. They advantaged (usually white middle- and upper- argued that Supreme Court justices had income) and the disadvantaged (usually low- usurped the law-making power of Congress, income and often minorit)i) could be seen as a establishing their own political and socialrefined "scientific" version of some of the views as the law of the land. ("The Southernsegregationists' ideas about the inferiority of Manifesto" of 1956 is included in Humphrey black people. The main difference seems to lie 1964.) When the federal agencies became in- in the permanencepftheattributed inferiority. volved in enforcement, the white southerners The cultural deprivationists thought the gaps again complained; claiming that administra- could be narrowed, whereas the segregationists tion demands were illegal and disruptive cf rioited no basis for change. The nature of the localsystems (Orfield1975). Along with urban resistance to plans to achieve desegrega- force, the Southern segregationists later in- tion which focused upon "forced" busing was cluded in their position the theme of unfair also foreshadowed by Southern public outcry treatment of the South. Although under a over the use of force. (See NAACP Legal special obligation to desegregate because of the Defense and Educational Fund 1973 on the use of state power to promote and maintain busing controversy.) segregation, the constituenci6 of ihe Southern For a period during the 1960's, desegrega- congressmen and senators began to complain tion for those who did not desire black-white of the relative lack of enforcement of segrega- mixing became associated with "the law of the tiOn remedies in the urbar; North and West. On land"; they. thus assumed. that .desegregation.. this basis, Sonthern senatorS in .1968, for exam- would have to be accomplished sooner or later. ple, demanded that half. of the enforcement During this period, national support for efforts conducted. by the Department ofenforcement of desegregation was high. All Health, Education, and Welfare be aimed atthree branches of fP .eral government and a non-Southern cases. great deal of popular support coalesced for a The shift of emphasis on enforcement ofperiod behind civilrights and school desegregatiOn to the urban North and West, desegregation. The tide of this national support which began to occur in the late 1960's, stimul- crested in 1964-1966 and then receded. Nix- ated oppositiorrin those areas which to some on's' policies did not continue the movement's degree has been more successful than the resis- momentum and in fact tended to reverse it. tance encountered in the South. The public Since 1969, forestalling desegregation through outcry in these Northern areas has taken a "legal" means, especially in the urban areas, different form than in the South, however. has continued to be possible Meanwhile, for While white people in the,North, according to some areas that have already desegregated, the their verbalized statements, tend to be more 1974 School Aid bill opened the possibility accepting than,Southern whites of the idea ofthat the pressure to maintain desegregated black students in their children's schools, they schools will be reduced. A section of the bill have resisted the buses which transport the stu- allows a court or agency to declare that the dents from segregatedneig!tborhoods.In- results of intentional segregation have been terestingly, certain segregationist themes are eradicated,.and that, in effect, the 'officials are apparent in the ideas of some so:called non- freed from responsibility for resegregation in segregationists. Two of the myths held by white case of population movement. When legisla- and middle-income -parents, which Suilivan tors and presidents began taking an active part (1968) lists as those associated with desegrega- in adviSing enforcement agencies in certain 5 cases, busing, permissible resegregation, and peaceful civil right demonstrators lead by Dr. 0 the segregated neighborhood school acquired King being attacked by dogs and fire hoses. At roles as political footballs. The aura of law this time, blacks as the victims of Southern which had become associatedwith school social injustice became prominent as a national desegregation dissipated in the midst of politi- concern. cal maneuverings. The remedial efforts required by the courts adjudicating school desegregation cases were 11. 2. The American Creed based upon the illegality of school segregation and associated assumptions about, the damag- The "mainstream" or predominant perspec- ing nature of institutions for blacks. tiv e on school desegregation, held by most of In these cases black-white mixing, and in some the individuals who have been active in pro- cases racial balance, evolved as the standard moting school desegregation, is often couched which systems previously segregated by law in terms of American ideology. Especially in had to meet to show that the illegal dual system the beginning stages, school desegregation was had been eliminated. The courts came to re- spoken of ir light of egalitarian principles pro- quire outcomes concretely visible in the form pounded as the bedrock of American society. of the presence of black and white students in Since that period this position has undergone a the same school building. Tangible results number of reconceptualizations, changes in were required because stated policies of equal emphasis, and, to some extent, a fragmenta- opportunity could not be trusted: It ivas found tion:This perspective and its changes over time that color-blindlaws, such as freedom of are outlined below. choice attendance plans, had few results since The discrepancy between American whites resistedeven "token desegregation",. idealogy and the realities of the society's treat- through various formal and informal means, ment of black citizens was articulated by Myr- causing blacks- to be apprehensive about leav- dal (1944) aS "an American dilemma." Dis- ing relatively safe segregated.schools to enter crimination On'the baSis of skin color was pro- racially tei4aesegregalea schools..As a result tested is being inconsistent with the egalitarian of the courts insistence on mixing, whife principles of the society. The Supreme Court in schoolmates became identified as ,a necessary the 1954 Brown decision symbolized tO some component of the-pro(iision of Opal educa- that the United States would be brought closer tional opportunity for black" chlidren- (Ed- to the ideals which it professed: an op;:n and monds 1973). democratic society in which equal opportunity This trend was affected by the Coleman, et for all is a reality. The disgrace of a legally- al. (1966) government-funded nationwide supported caste-like system would be -elimi- survey of- school conditions and student nated and thc terrible psychological damage achievement. Coleman's study had a large im- done to black children would be halted. pact on the development of the concept of Some attention has been devoted to predic- equal education opportunity. For one thing, tions of long-run costs of apartheid to the the Coleman report drew specific attention to society in terms of violence and debilitating ex- the distinction betwxn educational resources ploitation as a whole (see, for example, Levine and educational outcomes. Prior to the 1960s 1969), but a more predominant theme has been the schools were seen as a resource provided to the evils of , , and rac- the public. At that time, equal opportunity ism as,they affect the non-white portion of the meant equal access to equivalent schools. Dur- population. The Brown case brought to na- ing the 1960's, the definitiOn shifted to mean tional consciousness the inequality of black access to equal effects (see Section III). (Cole- education in states where blacks were barred man 1968 attributes the explicit emphasis on by law from attending schools with whites - an equal outputs as opposed to equal inputs to the incontestable indication of the stigma of black- Office of Education's survey on equal educa- ness. Vividly portrayed on nationalTV as tion opportunity in 1966. (See also White 1974 well, in the early 1960's, was the sightof and Mosteller and Moynihan 1972.) Better - To educational opportunity for blacks became desegregation. If the quality of education for associated with closing the educationalblacks could be improved through these achievement gai between blacks and whites. remedial programs, then they woulil be able to Secondly, the Coleman report undercut participate.equally in American society and the what some desegregationists had considered to process of school desegregation would be un- be a major reason why black childrenin necessary. Others (Cohen 1968) argued that segregated schools did poorly. Coleman's find- both desegregation and remedial programs ings did not support the belief that black were necessary. (See Schwartz, et al. 1968 who schools were inferior in facilities. Instead they discuss proposed alternatives to desegrega- seemedtoindicatethatblack and white tion.) schools in each region of the country were On the one hand, Coleman's findings roughly equivalent in terms of facilitiesk; that because they distracted attention from any link white children had higher scores on achieve- between social race,* segregation, and equal ment tests than black children in each region of educational opportunity, opened the way for the country, and that the small differences alternative explanations of lower black perfor- which did exist among schools did not seem t3 mance. On the other hand, his findings were account for differences in performance. taken by some as supporting the need for In an article assessing the developments desegregation. His results did show some following Brown, D. Cohen (1974:40) makes limited gains for black students in majority the following obseryation: white schools. Secondly, his findings that peer Brown was epochal not simply because of its group characteristics had an important effect impact on race relations, but because it was on achievement was taken as anindication of a remarkable synthesis of diverse ideas support for desegregation since children with about equality, race, and education. middle- and upper-income .,*:hool peers tended As Cohen goes on to point out, this synthesis to do better on achievemr.1( .,ests. The reason- was wrenched apart. The breakdown of the ing was that integration l),:y social race would synthesis was especially acute for researchers tend to produce social-class integration since affected by Coleman's survey. If differences blacks are predominantly from lower-income between black/white educational outcomesbackgrounds arid;thus, black scores would im- were not explained by schools, then how were prove as a result of exposure to middle- and they to be explained? A variety of differentupper-class children. ideas came to the fore, including genetic in- In the 'popular press, Coleman's findings feriority, social and cultural inferiority, and also promoted a de-emphasis on the effects of cultural differences. Coleman's data seemed to purposive isolation or stigmatization. In its support the- position that family and com- place, as a result of the over-simplification of munity background were of major importance. the Coleman findings, grew the notion that all- This view was compatible with a major black institutions were harmful for blahk stu- remedial program instituted in the War- on dents. Black institutions were inferior not Poverty. because of lack of resources but because of lack One of the thrusts of President Johnson's of whites. The idea that mixture represented an poverty. program was based upon the assump- end to segregation as well as a necessity for tion .that education could break the cycle ofequal educational opportunity (outcomes) poverty by providing special education to became even more firmly entrenched. As a children from disadvantaged home back- result, "whiteflight" and related trends began grounds. Eligibility for remedial programs was determined (until recently) by income level, thus including many of the black children since *"Social race" or ''color" is used whenever possible in place of "race_ in order to distinguish between "race" as a blacks are over represented among the poor. biological concept pertaining to populations and "race" Compensatory education as these remedial asadiffusestatuscharacteristic used primarilyin programs were known, came to be concep- reference to individuals. (See Harris 1975.) "Social race" tualized by some as an alternative to is used to refer to the latter meaning. to be perceived as a major problem-because an equal. Soon the courts were faced with cases they decreased the number of whites in the dealing with "second generation" problems or desegregated schools. There were cautions devices such as tracking which had the effect of given that demands for racial balance in places segregating students within the same school where the black percentage was over the "tip- building (see Section IV). There developed in ping point" would cause and thus this regard a distinction between the frequent eliminate the possibility for black gains associ- attainment of mixed student bodies and the en- ated with desegregation. (See Coleman 1975 visioned result of a school in which skin color for example, who argues that white flight has was irrelevant. (See Pettigrew 1969b or Kro- important policy implications.) vetz 1972, for example.) The term "desegrega- It is difficult to ascertain how much the tion" came to be used to refer to the fornier courts were affected by the Coleman findings while the latter came to be referred to by some and the reanalysis of his findings by Jencks, et as "integration".** al. (1972) which suggested that not only did Research also contributed to another recon- school facilities not affect achievement, but ceptualization of desegregation, this time in ac- that number of years in school did not correl- cord with the courts. In the beginning, the ate with adult income. The courts, in spite of courts focused primarily upon segregation that these well-publicized findings suggesting the had formerly been sanctioned by law. There irreleVance of facilities and even education in was a distinction made between de jure general (to use a popular interpretation ofsegregation and de factc; segregation. The Jencks' findings), continued to require segregation in the South was 'associated with desegregation and continued to consider cases law. In the North and West, however; it was calling for equalization of school facilities popularly assumed' that segregation resulted based on equal protection guaranteed by the not from law, but was de facto, a fortuitous Constitution. (See Section I11.11.) consequence of residential patterns, immune to Support-for-desegregation-also-decreased-in the. Brown-decision-andtherefore-immune--to------other quarters. Especially in the 1970's there federal enforcementIneehanisrns established in was strong pressure in Congress to limit the Congress. (See Orfield '1969b.) The basis for ee, powers of the courts to order busing. (See Sec- maintaining the di'stin'ction between de jure tion 111.2.) Even the- NAACP Legal Defense and de facto segregation has been seriously Fund, a constant proponent of desegregation, eroded by research which indicates that as far seems to have decreasedits emphasis on as effects on black children are concerned, de desegregation asagoal.* Althoughitis jure is difficult to distinguish from de facto difficult to assess the impact of these trends on segregation. The distinctiOn between de jure the courts, the judiciary, in any event, con- and de facto segregation became even less tinued to be responsive to black plaintiffs tenable when it became clear that actions of claiming violation of their Constitutional school boards in "de facto" areas were, for all rights. intents and purposes, often done to promote The amount of money funneled by the school segregation. (See, for example, Pet- federal government into remedial programs, tigrew 1969b.) The courts responded to this the subsequent development of compensatory type of intentional segregation as they had to education programs, and the preoccupation in intentional segregation by statute. Desegrega- scientific circles with Coleman's data over- tion was ordered. shadowed a realization that, was quite clear to The response to the desegregation of urban many blacks: namely, that being in the same areas, which often involves busing, has been school building does not assure acceptance as

'The NAACP Legal Defense Fund agreement to drop Integration iusai by others to refer to a situation prosecutiOn in Atlanta in return for guarantees of black in which all participate as equals with differences being positions is seen by Cohen (1974) as a reordering of respected. For an example of this definition see Sizemore priorities. (1972). vociferous. As described in the previous 'sec- road to better educational opportunity, but in tion, there has been an outcry of protests in the fact had succeeded in eliminating many of the Northern as well as the Southern cities. teaching and administrative positions blacks The 1970's in particular have been an era of had held (before desegregation). (See Billings fragmentation of the "American Creed" 1972 for another association between perspective. To some degree the symbolic desegr' oments and teaching value of school desegregation as a step in the jo$. 2d on assumptions that direction of realizing equality has been eroded some blacks, namely and the ideal of equality as a result of efforts to Iti Inqtawns were inferior and that translateitinto measurable standards has bit ' olidien must be associated with white become murky. in order to learn. As CORE (theton- ir Racial Equality) articulated the H. 3. The Promise ofBrown. evaluation: "Blacks who have gone along with integration have done so in search of dignity, For- black people, Brown held promise for but have found humiliation at the end of the society in general but more importantly it held rainbow" (1973:316). Some even began to ask promise' for their children. Brown seemed to whether the education offered by the schools, promise better edncational opportunities for particularly the values stressed in the schools, black children. In 1954, black peop!e could were really what they wanted their children to share with white "liberals" the dream of the learn (Hamilton 1968). United States as an open, democratic society The "remarkable" switch from Civil Rights which they hoped would be realized in their Movement to Black Power is not so remarka- childrens' if not their own lifetime. ble when perceived inthislight. Black In pursuit of the anticipated future, groups spokespeople began to consider alternatives to such as the NAACP worked to bring com- desegregation for achieving better education. pliance with the Supreme Court's decision and (See Bell 1970, 1975b, for example.) The cru- black children tried to take advantage of the cial element did not seem to be access to white opportunity created by the courts. Resistance school buildings. The route to equality instead to black attendance, in the form of indecision now seemed to lie in access to power over and inaction, economic and physical reprisals, schools. (Again, see Congress of Radial and the inaction of the president and Congress Equality 1973, for example.) to overcome white resistance, however, soon The sharing of power suggested to some that dispelled any expectations that securement of there must be a structural change in how in- those guaranteed rights would come ragidly. stitutions are administrated and how decision- In the ensuing struggle, the realities of makers are designated. Administration must be desegregation and equal educational oppor- reorganized to include more input from the tunity as they were being defined by the courts local black community. "Communitx con- and by federal programs failedto match trolled" systems (see Section V. 3.) became the original hopes. "Racial balance" did not seem desired outcome of those seeking structural very effective in eliminating discrimination or change in decision making, '' in producing better educational opportunities. At present there is no prominent symbol (See, for example, Banks 1972.), To some it unifying support for the educational rights of became increasingly clear that desegregation minorities. Instead, the school bus is in ascen- did not mean integration; that desegregation dancy as the symbol of resistance to forced did not mean that whites would accept blacks as equals; that integration was not feasible given white ; and that even desegrega- tion as defined by the courts would be slow in 'It is interesting to note kiln communky control plans were considered either counter to the goals of desegrega- coming. Desegregation as it was evolving was tion or not feasible by individuals having other perspec- seen as just another routine of the same act of tives, e.g., those holding the "American Creed". (See, for enforcement of white superiority. It was not a example, Cohen 1969 and Schwartz, et al. 1968.) 13 k desegregation. It has been suggested that there tenance of distinctive cultural patterns (e.g., is and has been a relative disunity amongdialect) among groups are referredto as blacks since the mid 1960's when some of the . Models which emphasize direct-action civil rights groups became more the maintenance of separate institutions (e.g., militant. Plans for redistributing power such as schools) for each group are referred to as struc- described by Sizemore (1972) are quite com- tural pluralism. plex and the efforts of black educators such as The assimilationist model can be associated Sizemore to restructure school systems have with those who emphasize American not yet produced nevi unifying conceptualiza- egalitarian principles. Alt',lh the emphasis tions. isuponequal treatment,r,,odiPl.efforts are (See Bell 1970, 1975b for detailed descrip- generated to mini-zize the difference between tions of black disenchantment with deser. ?ga- minority and non-minority individuals. Rist don.) (1974b:61), in describing the assimilative ap- proach includes the following: II. 4. A Broader. Context To operationalize -thisalternative It is possible to put the three perspectives [assimilation], forichoolintegration,it described above into a single context. Ogbu would suggest there be few numbers of non- (n.d.), an anthropologist, ina comparative white children among manyWhites. In this study of minority education in six societies, in- way, there would benodanger of sufficient cluding the United States, argues that the numbers of blacks or other non-white stu- future possibility for equal participation of a dents having the opportunity to reinforce , minority group inmajor institutions and equal within their peer group any traits that would access to resources affects the type of formal be perceived as non-white. education they are provided as well as the type Cultural pluralists* pay more attention to of socialization they receive in their homes. cultural factors than do assimilationists. They School desegregation and the frames of seek the remodeling of the educational system reference Associated with it (described above) so that it responds more favorably to cultural invblve implicitif not explicit assumptions . The goal of 'eultural pluralism is that about the future participation envisioned for minority group cultural patterns be respected, black Americans. reinforced, and utilized in school while the The ferment for change in minority status child is also being prepared for equal par- sparked by the Brown decision encompasied ticipation in the dominant institutions which two basic types of reformative visions:1) control adult life. (See Valentine 1971 for a assimilative and 2) pluralistic (see Rist 1974b.) refinement on this position.) An impOrtant Assimilative approaches envision the in- question concerning cultural pluralism as it is tegration of minority individuals intothe now envisioned in educatiou is whether multi- mainstream institutions. The remedial policy culturalism is feasible in an institution con- seeks to open the way for the minority person trolled and developed for individuals of the through enculturation or acculturation into the dominant background (Rist 1974b:62). mainstream culture so that he or she behaves as Alternatives to assimilative and cultural a non-mirwity person would. Through suc- pluralistic approaches began to receive atten- cessfulassimilation, the minority members tion in the late 1960's, especially from black would be absorbed and lose their distinctive- people discouraged with the failure of the pro- ness. mise of Brown to materialize. Power was recog- The pluralistic vision, on the other hand, does not call for the elimination of distinctive groups. Pluralistic models vary in terms of the 'Most researchers and educators attracted by the types of separation between groups, the degree argument that the achievement gap bctween blacks and of cultural distinctiveness, and the degree of whites Is a result of cultural differences rather than shared control over public institutions that is deficits support cultural pluralism as a meaningful model envisioned. Models which emphasize the main- for present and futurc America. 14 10 nized as important, leading to the adoption of programs associated with desegregated structural pluralistic models. Minority group schools. members concerned with structural pluralism emphasize increased control over vital insthu- 111. 1. Litigation tions affectingtheirlives.Separatism, the III. 1.a. The role of the judiciary in school establishment of completely separaio institu- desegregation.On May 17, 1954, referred to tions and communiti(A as advocated by Black as "Black Monday" by the segregationists, the Nationalists, was-a r.Jute to increasing control Supreme Court announced a unanimous deci- which attracted attt ntion in the late 1960's. sion striking down thePlessy v. Ferguson1896 (See Feagin 1971 61i separatist models.) doctrine of "separate but equal" which allowed Segregationists, too, seek separate instit is Constitutional state statutes requiring or tions and communities, but their visim, :tting apartheid schooling. Henceforth, eludes maintenance of inferior and re,.. , states were required to provide educational separate institutions for minority groups. opportunities to all on equal terms. According believe for various reasons (genetic inferiority, to the Court, separate educational facilities cultural deprivation, poor educational back- were inherently unequal. (See Kirp and Yudof ground, lack of motivation) that most minority 1974 for discussion and commentary.) individuals are unable or unwilling to assimil- Thereafter followed a massive number of cOurt ate. Non-segregationists 'who are concerned cases dealing with whether violations of the with power (some of whom arealso law had occurred and what remedies were per- separatists), on the other hand, advocate alter- missible in bringing relief to black citizens. In native educational institutions and/or alterna- effect, the courts assumed a major burden, tive routes to achieving equal voice in controll- especially in the ten years followingBrown,for ing vital institutions. Community control and devising standards for and seeing to the imple- decentralization are seen by some as routes to mentation of desegregation (see Read 1975). structuralpluralism. Others discuss the In February of 1976, the Nation'al Insitute necessity for what may be an even more funda- of Education convened an international Sym- mental structural change before the promise of posium to explore the "increasing role of the Browncan be realized. (See Valentine 1971 courts in the formulation of educational policy and Sizemore 1972.) at local, state, and federal levels." The recog- nition of the increased role of the courts is not III. LITIGATION, LEGISLATION, new and has not gone unassessed. (See for ex- AND ENFORCEMENT ample, Kirp and Yudof, 1974.) theoretically, the burden of implementation of theBrown The perspectives described in Section 11 are decision and its progeny could have been, and held by individuals who have influenced 'the in some cases was, undertaken by local and direction of school desegregation as judges, as 'state officials on a voluntary basis. Certainly legislators, as local school officials, as rioters, the congressmen and the presidents who held as presidents, as researchers, as civil rights office inthe period 1954-1974 had the leaders, and as community leaders. These in- authority to relieve the courts of more of their dividuals participate in various governmental burden than they did. Resistance on the local bodies and organizations each of which have and state levels, especially in the South where their own history of participation in school most of theBrown Icases had originated, and desegregation. In this section, literature on the at the national level, however, threw the bulk roles of governmental bodies and voluntary of the responsibility upon the federal courts. civil rights organiiations is discussed. Two The lower federal courts particularly were other sections, IV and VI, concern the con- called upon to make decision after decision tribution of researchers to desegregation, while concerning the legality of efforts to avoid section V focuses upon local community desegregation. At times the only other bodies response to desegregation and to educational devoted to the implementation of the law were 15 civil rights organizations such as- SNCC (Stu- reached its limit. Others suggest that the deci- dent Non-Violent Coordinating Committee),. sion against metropolitan desegregation plans SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Con- is a product of a "Nixon-packed" court which ference), and most prominently, the NAACP will result in the prevention of major school Legal Defense. and: Education Fund which desegregation in the urban North as well as the figured in financing and arguing many Court urban South. Thus, the current situation in cases. Local and state officials, for the most which Southern public educationismore part, devoted their energy to stalling the desegregated than Northern public education desegregation process. School desegregation may continue. struggles cost a great deal of anguish, as well as (Further references: Peltason 1961 lives in some cases. To some degree, they also describes the position of the judges of the diverted energy and money away from the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit who development of new edurt° p y, were for the most part nativr Southerners put programs, and facilitic 'it mot into the position of effecting a very unpopular desegregation. policy. Bell -1975a suggests factors affecting This diversion of energy is well portrayed in the Court's Milliken decision. For accounts of congressional struggles over civil rights provi- the judicial struggle see Levin and Moise 1975, sions in appropriations bills. Beginning in .the Read 1975, and Bell 1975b. Also see Orfield 1950's, Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, 1969b.) Jr. attempted to bring about a provision to pre- , ventthe support of segregated districts by 1.b. Desegregation Cases in the federal funds. After the short period of SouthDe Jure Segregation. The Brown deci- relatively strong national and executive sup- sion of 1954 invalidated the use Of the power of port for civil rights which saw the passage of the state to promote and maintain dual school- the 1964 Civil Rights BilI and a period of ing systems based upon social race. It did not, rather strong enforcement by HEW and the however, specify what would constitute evi- Justice Departments, .Congress became an dence of a unitary system nor 4.1,at methods arena for efforts to curb desegregation momeR- would be permissible in achieving a unitary tum. This was primarily thaleugh anti-busing system-Neither did it provide a rive frame for amendments attached to a7rnvopriations bills. the conversion. Brown II, the iNornientation The energy devoted to stnTities over the anti- decision, basically handed the To6z7. -rn back to busing amendments were;sveth that the main the lower federal courts althoulghane vague .content or purposes of theeliiiiis,were relatively directives such as the "all del3 t1/47:to speed" ignored. In 1974, the Conwess came close to clause were included. The possibil-ts were so approving amendments which would have great that a federal judge in So. iiCarolina brought theminto confrontation with the ruled on one of the "Brown" cases remanded to Judiciary over desegregation. his court that the Constitution forbids dis- Itremains to be seen, now that the crimination but does not require integration.. desegregation battle has shifted in earnest to This minimum interpretation enunciated in the the urban areas of the North and West and now Briggs v. Elliot decision of 1955 was notlaid to that anti-busing forces have come so strongly rest until 1966 (Read 1975). to the fore, whether the courts will continue to The lower courts had been told that play the same forefront role that.they have in desettregation must take place but not how the last twenty years. BAIL-4 upon the decision much must take place, how it must take;place, handed down in Mfiliken v. Bradley wherein whain fact constituted a violatiotrof thelaw, the school district Iines-Ark. accepted as the ortvitsat political entity was responsible for get- division beyond which-lie_ Court would not tingithe job done. The evolution of standards cross (barring further evingnce) in proposing and criteria for judging the occurrence of a remedies to desegregativrt, some have pre- violation and for assessing the legality of a dicted that the use of the.Cialstitution alone as remedy has proceeded apace as forces for and a means for achieving schocil desegregationhas against desegregation demanded answers from

1 6 12 the court. The ingenuity of the pro-segregation dering massive desegregation in whichBrown forces in devising means of avoidance and the was interpretedas charging the school diligence of the voluntary associations formed authorities with eliminating racial discrimina- to secure the promise of Brown pushed thetion "root and branch." The HEW (Depart- courts to rule on many permutations and ment of Health, Education, and Welfare) methods. The process still continues. gt,-.:elines for assessing compliance Were given The !bore clear-cut violations of the lawweight by the court as standards jr com- were found in the South where state statutes pliance. Desegregation in the South, especially provided alegal foundation for the dual the rural South, proceeded at a rapid pace. system. Cases brought for black plaintiffs were In the 1970's, the attention of the courts based on fairly obvious violations of the shifted to Northern and Western cases, most of federal law. Nonetheless, court decisions in which involvd-urban areas. Early images of favor of the plaintiffs were met with resistance school segregation stemmed from the rural on the part of the local and state officials and South where white controlled 'local govern- vocal members of the white populaiion. ments barred-blacks from full participation by George Wallace's effort to bar Vivian Malone force of law. In urban areas, especially those in and James Hood from matriculating at the the North and West, the discriminatory actions University of and the activities of the of white-contkolled governmental bodies have then Governor of Arkansas, Faubus, to bar en- been less blatant and certainly.not inscribed as try to a Little Rock High School to eight black a right in law books. The blurring of the dis- students through use of the Arkansas National tinction between de jure and de facto segrega- Guard are symbols of the era a outspoken tion,however, had produced a similar blurring resistance to desegregationiiPthe $outh of tzdistinction between segregation in the From this period until ttiiry' middle sicties, South versus the North. As the courts in the remedies accepted by the co*,,,P! tSlisteihisced, at 19710ls have moved to consideration of urban the maximum, only very limitoi\reabiltresults. segregation in both the North and South, the The defendants in the South's,* Icast;:.$ argued North-South distinction has to some extent for "color-blind" or "mipmellr ireutral been replaced by a rural-urban distinction. policies, such as pupil placement and Remedying rural segregation has proven to be freedonfof choice attendance pIansteltizti for- less difficult than remedying urban segrega- mally allowed, but did not Tegnireeleimega- tion. (See Cohen 1974.) tion.,These plans met what vostrustIpSought of (A number of sources are available which as the intent of the law, but in Mind lif*Ance as reviewschool desegregation cases. Read 1975 a result of white social,and eo,Onomic sanctions provides a compact summary of cases from against black desegregators, very little to Brown tothe present with some attention to promote any observable dift,leltice in school social processes related to the cases. Levin and populations. These limited rtilts4ame to be Ivtoise 1975, in the same volume, instead of referred to, as "token desegyagat,on" as the dividing the set of cases into four periods as number of students remaininz), dq:'.k black in- Read does, discuss ttraiue in terms of legal stitutions became the most important criterion questions. Carter 1955 ants pre-1955 cases in desegregation cases. which culminated in-Wrown.Blaustein and In the middle and late 060's, cataciding Ferguson, Jr. 1957 provia description, for a with a national concern witel civil rights, the general audience, of the segregation cases," lower courts adopted a -wad AMC*. The!, their legal background, and the parties in- turned away from accepting tam detegrega- volved. Peltason 1961 describes the plight of don to requiring massive desegregatk*. The the judges of the lower federal courts upon cases ofUnited States v. Jefferson C.ourAt)v,ibard whom the most pressure was put in the early of EducationandSingletoo V.iockson implementation of,Brown-.Orfield 1969a,b; Municipal Districtiktrelignifi- 1975, although focusing primarily on the cantin this regard as was Greif* wCounty legislative and executive branches, provides School Board.These cases set tht tone%for or- information on their points of contact with the

1 7 13 actions of the judiciaryinformation often In the case of Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklen- omitted in "cases"acccdnts.) burg County Board of Education decided in 1971, the Court, in a much awaited decision, III. 1.c. School Desegregatioii in the ruled that although the current patterns of North and WestDe Facto Segregation. segregation were not due to current actions of Keyes v. School District No. I (referred to as the the school board, they were the result of past Denver case) was the first non-Southern case to practices of segr6gation and thus had to be come before the Court. It was also the first case remedied. Those awaiting the decision hoped that clearly did not involve segregation man- foraclear statement on whether "racial dated or permitted by state statute. De jure balance" (representation proportional to the versus de facto segregation a distinction district population in each school) would, be popularly associated with descgregation cases. the standard for the extent of desegregation re- There continues to be the idea that segregation quired. The decision, however, was equivocal. as mandated by racially explicit state laws can Some read it to indicate that in certain cases (of be and is distinct irom segregation which oc- proven intent to segregate) racial lialance is ex- curs "naturally" or non-deliberately as a result pected unless the district can show that it is not of fortuitous social factors such as residential at all practical. Others read the decision to segregation. De facto segregation was thought mean that racial balance is not necessarily re- to be immune from legalaction requiring quired. Perhaps even more significantly, the desegregation. (See, for example, Feldstein use of extensive crosstown busing was granted and Mackler i 969 and Hyman and Newhouse as a permissible remedy.

1 ;4.) This distinction became embedded in Recently, the question of the extent of Court desegregation law with the Jefferson cases of demanded remedy has received the most in- 1966 and 1967 (Read 1975). At first sight, the tense- interest: The crucial question concerns Denver case might seem to be a case of de facto the extent of the area which must be desegreg- versus de jure segregation. The decision, in ated in the.event that a violation is found. The fact, maintained the de jure-de facto distinc- doctrine of equity law holds that the nature tion but included under the rubric of de jure and extent of the remedy are determined by segregation that which results from the actions measuring- the violation and the extent of its of governmental officials (including both effects.-In Keyes, the Court ruled that district- education and non-education officials). The wide remedies were appropriate even though Supreme Court's decision endorsed similar the segregative actions occurred only in one lower court policies as enunciated in the Pon- part of the school system. The Court held that tiac case. These decisions decreased the num- scgregation in one part of the district had con- ber of cases which would be immune to court sequences for other parts of the district and action as a result of being de facto (as opposed thus that a district-wide remedy was appropri- to de jure) segregation and there has yet to be a atc. case in which the segregation has been found to The next landmark case was the Milliken.v. be purely de facto. Actions which are taken as Bradley decision rendered by the Supreme an indication of intent to segregate include the Court in 1974. The Supreme Court found that manipulation or of attendance the practice of utilizing neighborhood schools zones to effect separatism, transfer policies where the residential patterns were definitely which result in segregation, and the selection of segregated, that the particular locations chosen school sites so as to maintain segregation of for school construction, -and that optional at- students by skin color. Disproportionate tendance zones (which permitted segregated assignment of minority persons to schools dis- patterns) had produced results from which it proportionately attended by minority pupils could be inferred that there was intent to have also been considered evidence of viola- segregate. In other words, segregation found in tion of the law as is open enrollment, free Detroit was judged to be de jure and therefore transfer, and optional attendance zones which the responsibility of schoolauthoritiesto do not produce desegregation. remedy. On the other hand, in what has been 18 14 identified by some as a retreat in the forward schooling for black children, partieulatirthose battle of the courts against, segregation, the from lower-income familieF, has to do with Supreme Court honored the .school district methods of school finance. The current method lines which subdivide the metropolitan area of of school finance through p:operty taxes is Detroit and shifted the burden of proof to the considered by some to be a structural means of plaintiffs to show that actions of the suburban discrimination against minorities. school officials or of state education officials The concern focuses upon the great were based upon intent to segregate. Reversing differences that exist among school districts in the lower courts, the Supreme Court refused to per pupil expenditure. These differentials are demand an interdistrict remedy.* (The deci- linked to district wealth as measured by the sion, however, did suggest that state respon- value of property in the district. Districts with sibility for desegregation might later become low property value must tax at a higher rate to more emphasized.) get comparab;e tax revenues or settle forilower (Read 1975 and Levin and Moise 1975 pro- rates of per pupil expenditure. It is argued that vide reviews. Levin and Moise specifically differentials-in district wealth produce focus upon. the 1970's. Both articles also in- differences in school expenditures affecting the chide short sections on zthe segregation of efficiency and effectiveness of' theschools aispano-Americans. Flannery 1972 provides Poorer schools supposedly provide fewer explicit descriptions of actions considered to sociaLand economic benefits. show intent to segregate Abrams 1975 tdis- As with other reforms undertaken in the cusses violations in the Boston case. Chachkin pursuit of equal opportunity, the concept of 1972, an NAACP 'staff att,...rney, argues for equity in school finance reforms has undergone metropolitan desegregation.) a series of redefinitions and reorientations. In some of the intial cases which were rejected by HI. 1..d. School Finance Cases. One of the the courts, the argument was phrased in terms grounds upon which the Supreme Court ob- of pupils' educational needs, a judicially un- jected to apartheid schooling was the denial of manageable standard. Coons, et al. (1970) pro- equal educational opportunity. The national posed an alternative standard or basis for impetus to desegregate schools was closelyrtied remediation of interdistrict resource ine- to, and to some extent overshadowed by,zthe quality, "fiscal neutrality", whereby the cor- goal of equal educational opportunity (see Sec- relationthetween district wealth.and per pupil tion II and IV). Cases involv ing components,of expenditure would be eliminated: Fiscal equal educational opportunity other than neutrality was seen as a step in the direction of racial composition have been brought before eliminating inequality in education for poor the courts as well. One of these areas which-has childrem been linked to the question of inequitable The hest known court cases.zeinnected ;with school finance areSerrano v.Priest ruled ,upon by the California Supreme Courtin 1971;and It is interesting to note that there is some-element of fairness arising in the popular response to the question of, San Antonio District v. metropolitan desegregation. Those making policy de- Rodriquez,the first `liscal neutrality" case to manding urban desegregation are viewed as sending their reach theUnited States Supreme Court. InSer- children to private schools or as living in suburban dis- rano v. Priest,the California Supreme Court tricts untouched by the decisions. In a documentary on accepted the "fiscal neutrality" approach as busing televised by CBS on May 29,1976, Edward Ken- nedy was shown talking_ with_ residents_ of a .Boston standand, The Supreme COMM, in1973, neighborhood disrupted by violence concerning busing. however, Teversed the lower court decision in One of the resideats-comments could be overheard. He the caseof San Antonio Independent School Dis- was telling Kenne4. "Bus your kids, Teddy. Bus your trict v. Rodriquez,ruling that the Texas method kids." Another extacie*e of this thinking k given in Taylor of schoolfmance (largely basechupon property 1973:343, whichintkecreference to "limousine liberals", the middle- and uppex-class individuals who look down at tax) did norviolate the equal protection clause working class prensiioces and call for desegregation while of the .constitution. The majority opinion was remaining ensconsen:in their homogeneous suburbs. that the methods of finance are in need of 15 reform, but that reform should be undertaken tracking, streaming, orability grouping by lawmakers. State constitutions such as that whereby children of similar abilities or back- in California do, in some cases, provide for ground are placed in the same class (often on "thorough and efficient" or "thorough and the basis of standardized IQ tests). In the Hob- uniform" education thus makinv"fiscal son v. Hansen case, the plaintiff won. The deci- neutrality" approaches more appropriate than sion rendered was that the tracking system property tax methods in meeting the legal re-used in the District of Columbia schools was quirements of the state. unconstitutional because the method of student Aside from analyses of the implications of classificationor assignment totracks was school finance reform litigation and legisla- biased. The decision is not a cl,.) pi tion, there have also been efforts to show that however, as the circuitcourt, on appeal, those who are_affected itsy district poverty are decided only that the type of tracking used in often poormirrority students.:Spratlen (1973), the District schools was invalid. The invalidity for example, using data such as that provided of:all tracking 'systems was not enunciated. in the Hobson report: on Washington, D.C. Another secon&generation problem has- to schools attempts Ito show color disparity in do with the disproportionate amount of terms of the greater economic disadvantage to suspensions and, expulsions of black versus inner city districtswliich hiire-high proportions white students. In the Hawkins v. Coleman case of black students. (See Coons, et aL 1970 for decided in 1974, the court found that black an alternative positionto which Spratlen students in Dallas did suffer more frequent 1973 objects.) Others dispute the assumption:suspensions, longer suspensions, and more cor- that poor districts necessarily have poor stu- poral punishment than the white students, dents and that students will benefit from a especially when black students constituted strict policy of fiscaLneutrality. (See Cohen minorities in their schools. 1974-4,44,Levin 1974,for example.) Cohen in- These second-generation:problems which cludes-,conclusions from Coleman, et al. (1966) have sometimes been referred to under the and Jencks, et al. (1972) which contradictrubric of "resegregation" have not been arguments given in court that fiscal inputs are definitively responded to by the courts. They, related to educational,achievement and future along with questions concerning inter-district ,life chances. (SeSection I V.2.) remedies, constitute some of the legal Background information and discussions of-unknowns concerning court involvement in the implications of the school finance reform school desegregation. movement-are-presented-in-Pincus (1974); (See Section V.5 for further discussion of Kirp (1973) discusses background of early these methods of resegregation. See also Kirp school finance cases. (See also Coons, et al. and Yudof 1974 for a description of relevant 1970 for evolution of the&scal neutrality ap- cases as well as Levin and Moise 1975 who diS- proach.) cuss the problem of separating, ascertaining, and verifying the educational utility of track- III. 1.e. The Courts.:and Second-Genera- ing versus the intent of the practice to segreg- tion Problems.As the standardsfor desegrega- ateas well as other complications of second tion evolved, figures indicatingthe social-race generation problems. One problem depends zompositionsiof,the district's schools became upon the validity of the classification pro- the usual criterion for ascertaining compliance cedures some of which, e.g., standardized in- with the law. At first, thesecompositions were telligence tests, are also under fire. Flannery ;considered oirthe basis of schools as a whole; 1972 also provides a discussion of second bhowever, it soon became evident that there generation problems.) were methods for intra-school idiscrimination which maintained separation cof the children III. 1.1. Prhmte School Cases. In a sense, within the buildings. These:methods of intro- private schools are a second generation school segregation are in a sense "second- problem that has arisen in the course of at- generation" problems. One neethod is called tempts to circumvent desegregation.Initial

211 16 efforts to forestall desegregation on the part of HI. 2. Legislation Southern legislatures included the tactic of III. 2.a. The Role of Congress and the providing tuition grants directly and indirectly President in School Desegregation, TheBrown to private institutions which were segregated. decision required massive efforts for imple- Cases concerning such devices were brought to Griffin v. mentation. In 1954, the task of estr.thlishing ad- court. One of the best known cases is ministradve and enforcement maelliAtery and County School Board of Prince Edward County the fleshing out of policy still lay ahead. Many which was decided in 1964. In 1959, the super- of these tasks were ones appropriately taken up visors of Prince Edward County, Virginia, by Congress and the:president in the event of refused to levy taxes for schools. The public default on the local /level. Until 1964, the role schools did not open in the fall of 1959 and re- of Congress and thepsesident had been limited mained closed until the year of the case. Pri- federal vate schools were established for white stu- lo situations such as-the provision of troops by Presidentasenhower to stop Gover- dents with support from the state via a tuition Presi- plan. (See Orfield 1969b for a description of -nor Faubus and prociamations issued by contested prac- dent Kennedy in support of court ordered ac- the political context of the don. In 1964, PreSident Johnson signed into tices.) These attemptsofthe states to support segregated private schools were ruled un- law the Civil Rights Act which provided an ex- panded role for .federal agencies in encourag- constitutional. r ing and enforcing school desegregation. The- question of whether private schools Congress and presidents working with Con-. rnay bar individuals onthe basis ot color with- gress have relied primarily upon three means out violating the Civil Rights Act or theCon- of promoting school desegregation:1.laws stitution has also been debated. A recent case regulating the activity of federal agencies in on this question hasbeen brought to the Fourth dispensing funds; 2.establishment of ad- Circuit Court of Appeals from eastern Virginia ministrative machinery for review and enforce- where the district court ruled the discrimina- ment; and 3, allocation of funds to assist in tion a violation of the 1966 Civil Rights Act. desegregation-related .probitms. A means more effective than court decisions The employment of these measures has not for preventing private schools from formal been uniform, As mentioned above, the courts segregation is-found in laws providing that tax- carried most of the burdens of implementing exemptions permitted to private schools and school desegregation, especially in the first ten for doners' contributions are nol allowed in the years following the 1954 decision.With the case of segregated private schools.The 1974 passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, someof ,2repOrt (Volum.r.. ill) of the U.S. Commission the resources of the Department of HEW and on Civil Rights (1975), inreviewing civil rights the Justice Departmenrwere brought to bear enforcement practices, criticizes the Internal on school desegregation. Thosemechanisms, Revenue Service administrators for their very however, have been less.utilized since .1968-69 narrow interpretation of thelaw. (The Com- when the efforts of Congress and the President mission report provides a thorough description turned to struggles over limiting the roles of of IRS's responsibilities, data collection pro- HEW and the Justice Department in utilizing cedures, and_enforcement efforts.) the powers originally established in the Civil (See Kirp and Yudof 1974 for description of Rights Act of 1964. the various cases. Champagne 1973 also A more diffuse influence o Congressional describes some of the cases, avoidance techni- and Executive activity upon schod desegrega- ques, and some early data on thespread of pri- tion has been suggested by Orfield (1975). Bus- vate schools. See Section V. 2.b. forfurther in- ing has attracted a great dealvEpol it ical Wen- formation on private schools. -talon in the last five years. litesegregation has 21 17 become associated primar'iv on their own behalf, tt ,lking available On portrayals colstantly reiterated an on_ed resources of the D. mit:tit of Justice for by anti-busing congressmen and presicnts In- desegregation litigation. stead of leaders serving to inspire the country Laying the groundwork for an enforcement during a diffinult period of social and cultural device which was quite effective, Title VI change, the late 1960's and 1970's have seen an proscribed discrimination in any program or emphasis upon negative aspects of those activity receiving federal financial assistance, changes. To some degree, the fears and nega- under threat of loss of "funding. The act or- tive views of particular segments of thepopula- dered that: tion have been championed in the public arena. No person in the United States shall on the (See Section II for more on particular view- grounds of race, color, or national origip, be points.) Instead 'of focusing upon positive out- excluded from participation in, be fdenied comes,,t'forced busing': has,become a political the benefits of, or be subjected to dis- focus encouraging the public to:question the crimination under any program of activity legitimacy of court orders. The primary receiving Federal financial assistance. burden of implementing Brown :has- been Title VI provided an impetus for the establish- paSied back to the courts. ment of offices within HEW charged with (For reference on specific areas, see Section determining compliance of school districts ap- III. 2.b. and III. 2.c. For detailed descriptions plying for federal funds. of the Congressional role see OrfieldI 969b, 1975.) The Act brought an expansion of HEW. Prior to 1964, the Office of Education was III."2.b. Civil Rights Legislation and fairly powerless (see Kirp and Yudof 1974: School Desegregation.Federal agencies have 328). The process of preparing for enforcement traditionally had a limited role in education as was difficult as was the development of compared to local and state governments. The guidelines, given strong pressures from both expansion of that ,role was strongly contested civil rights groups and local officials. At one in Congress especially by powerful Southern point, one of the chief consultants, -George Congressmen and Senators. The 1954 decision Foster (1965), resorted to writing an unofficial by the Supreme Court meant that a number of article in the Saturday Review as a means of school systems were operating illegally yet communicating what seemed to be developing federal money continued to flow to those il- agency guidelines on standards. legal systems. Efforts by Congressman Adam Since most of the administrative machinery Clayton Povell to amend appropriations so of the American educational system is located that this support could no longer be supplied at state and local levels, the method of with- were defeated time after time. Not until 1964 holding funds was practically the only enforce- when die crest of national support for cittil ment mechanism that could be wielded by the rights-was at its height was it possible to get a federal government. The threat of nial of restrictive provision through Congress. That funds was effective and brought about much legislation, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, began faster compliance thanthecase-by-case what has been called the "administrative era" method of the court/process. Orfield (197585) of school desegregation. points out that more black students attended Some of the important aspects of the 1964 desegregatedschoolsinthefirstyear of Civil Rights Act include the following: Title enforcement of the 1964 Civil Rights Act than IV of the Act required the Commissioner of during the previous ten years. There were HEW to make technical assistance available to drawbacks, however. In some cases, the local school boards which were in the process elimination of federalsupport meant the of preparing school desegregation plans. Title elimination of programs designed to help these IV authorized the Attorney General to bring whom desegregation was supposed to aid. The desegregationsuits on behalf of potential method also opened the agency to political at- plaintiffs who otherwise had no recourse to sue tacks. 18

After the height of effort in the mid 1960's, ed a limited role in education finance. The act congressional and executive support for school provided a number, of basic education desegregation waned. Effortstolimitad- programs, channeling a good deal of money ministrative enforcement activity have been into public schools serving low-income stu- debatedin Congress annually. since1966. dents. These funds were important sources of Desegregation was an issue in the 1968 Presi- revenue especially during a period in which per dential election. When Nixon took office in pupil expenditures were rising even faster than 1968, he-reversed the trend toward strict en- the cost of living. Together with the pro-vision forcement. The resouces were disengaged and for delaying and eliminating funding to segreg- officials were encouraged by Nixon and by ated districts passed in the 1964 Civil Rights pressurelrom some members of Congress not Act, ESEA provided powerful inducements to to press, for enforcement. In Congress there desegregate. State departments of education continued to be efforts to limit the conditions expanded through ESEA funds and became under which HEW could withhold or cut oft more dependent on federal funds (Campbell funds:The Justice Department's prodesegrega- and Layton 1968). tion stand was diverted and, infact, the As referred to above, the-fight in Congress Department was used in the service of those over the extension of ESEA programs pro- desiring to delay desegregation. Justice law- vided an area for a terrific struggle over the yers went to the Supreme Court in theAlex- future of desegregation. President Nixon and a ander v. :Holmes case to request a delay in the good number of senators and respresentatives desegregation order. pushed strongly for anti-busing proposals to be Enforcement procedures became highly written into the extnesions. The bill was finally politicized by Nixon (Orfield 1969a, b) and the passed and signed by Nixon's successor, Ford, in spite of its lack of stringent antibusing re- aura of inevitability of desegregation which quirements. had begun:to develop in the 1960's dissipated. Although the first statement in statutory law ot In addition to preventing the inclusion of any affirmative duty to desegregateappeared stringent anti-busing provisions, the civil rights in the 1974 education bill extending the Ele- advocates in Congress did manage to secure mentary and Secondary Education Act, that some support for desegregation. The bill con- bill contained little in the way of measures to tained the first statement in statutory law of promote desegregation. Its formulation had any affirmative duty to desegregate. It also for- taken plare in a heated struggle over the anti- bade gerrymhndering for the purpose of busing amendments which, if they Irql not been segregation. -- defeated, would have limited actions which The anti-busing anti-desegregation forces, could be ordered by the courts. Those amend- on the other hand, won some concessions from ments were only narrowly defeated. or managed to neutralize some of the foreward (For description of the development of the momentum of the desegregation measures. In administrative staff and procedures up through the past the school boards continued to be lia- the late 1960s, see Orfield 1969b. For critic- ble to further court suits as new legal develop- isms of the enforcement procedures, see ments occured or as population shifts resulted SoutherntRegional Council 1969 and the U.S. in non-compliance with guidelines. The educa- Commission on Civil Rights reports, especially tion bill signed into law in 1974 made it possi- 1975.) ble for a presiding judge to declare a case closedin other words, to declare that all III. 2.c Federal aid to education. In 1965, vestiges of de jure segregation had been elimi- Congress enacted the Elementary and Second- nated and, thus, that the court had no further ary Education Act (ESEA). The bill, a$1.3 jurisdiction over the school board. Intenfional billion- measure, was the first significant piece segregation would be liable to prosecution, but of federallegislation in the area of general aid changes brought about through population to educatiorn in the nation'shistory. shift would be ignored, thus allowing Historically, thetFederal government has play- resegregation. 19

To date, the efforts to curb busing as a tion. Campbell and Layton 1968 provide a means of desegregation have not been suc- brief analysis of the extent and impact of cessful. The anti-desegregationists, however, federal entry. For evaluation of compliance of did manage to limit the courts and HEW en- districts receiving Title I ESEA funds with forcement practices by prohibiting the courts program requirements, see Southern Center for and HEW from requiring mid-year pupil Studies in Public Policy and the NAACP Legal transfer to effect desegregation. Further, the Defense and Educition Fund 1969 and Na- procedure and the time period preceding the tional Advisory Council on the Education of cut-off of funds was lengthened. HEW was also the Disadvantaged Children 1967; for a simi- forbidden to order a school system to implei. lary evaluation _of _federally funded Indian ment a plan requiring "extensive" busing. education programs see NAACP Legal Although this may not be binding upon HEW Defense and Education Fund 1971.) since HEW does not order the implementation of any plan, it can be and has been cited by an III. 3. Civil Rights Organizations and the HEW official as a reason for failure to demand Genesis and Implementation of compliance. Federal aid to education also played School Desegregation another role in school desegregation. In the Elimination of intentional segregation has late sixdes, when the courts had ordered im- proceeded as a result of voluntary effort, im- mediate, massive desegregation in areas of the plementation of court ordered desegregation, South, Nixon promised to provide federal and induced compliance wherein districts were money to aid in the transition. This was done in threatened with loss of funds. The federal the form of the Emergency School Assistance courts cannot bring suits, thus, it was left to . Program (ESAP). Congress approved immedi- private citizens and voluntary groups to sue for ate dispersal of seventy-five million dollars relief if the local authorities were resistant. In through existing programs. Because of the order to gain their constitutional rights, pri- pressure for haste, applications were not vate citizens, with the support of some cifil carefully- sCrutinized and, as a result, money rights group such as the NAACP Legal was not always spent on desegregation-related Defense and Education Fund, brought suit costs. In fact, the money was more-or-less against school officials. Private citizens and given away which may have eased some of the groups were relieved of the burden to any great pain felt by segregationists over losing the bat- extent only during the short period when the tle against desegregation. Over two periods of federal systems set up to effect desegregation extension and struggle of the emergency were being supported by the president and program, it was shaped into a less amorphous Congress during the mid 1960's. program with standards that did provide some Two crucial aspects of federal agency incentives for desegregation. pressure were the passage of legislation, the (See Eidenberg and Morey 1969 and 1964 Civil Rights Act, and the establishment Meranto 1967 for detailed descriptions of of enforcement machinery and guidelines passage of the 1965 ESEA. See Orfield 1975 authorized by the act. The passage of the Civil for brief descriptions of the passage of the ini- Rights Act with a powerful enforcer, Title VI, tial ESEA and ESAP appropriations. A more had been pushed in Congress by Representa- extended coverage of the 1974 Congressional tive Adam Clayton Powell since the 1950's, struggle over ESEA is given in Section VI of but always blocked by Southern segrega- ,Hillson, et al. 1969 who provide some early tionists. Federal money continued to go to sup- examples of how educators conceptualized the port illegal systems. As late as early 1963, purpose of the federal money made available President Kennedy saw no possibility that a Ti- to the disiricts. An evaluation study of ESAP is tle VI type provision could be passed. The presented in Crain 1973. See Campbell 1967 , with its sit-ins and for a description of the then contemporary demonstrations :was, however, during that conceptualization of federal entry into educa- period bringing black to.televisions and newspapers across the country. The local 1972. The Southern Regional Council, a civil whitepolicereactiontotheBirmingham rights research group funded by foundations, demonstration organized by Martin Luther also has provided a monitorg function as has King, Jr., symbolized and gave meaning to the the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. See black struggle in the South. Confrontation with reports issued by the Southern Regional Coun- a clear symbolic portrayal of white oppression cil, Inc. 1969, such as the "Special Report: The on blacks crystalized national opinion for civil Federal RetreatinSchool Desegregation," rights and against Southern apartheid. which describe the general trends in enforce- The three major direct action Civil Rights ment, the techniques utilized, and the organizations, CORE, SCLC, and SNCC, politicization of the process. Particular cases 'which had been formed in the 1940's and are described in some detail. U.S. Commission 1950's expanded enormously. Besides the on CivilRights reports may be obtained demonstrations that garnered national support through ERIC.) for the Civil Rights Act, voluntary civil rights groups also had influence in helping to 111. 4. Role of Sockal Science Research establish the, momentum for HEW enforce- in the Desegregation Process ment policies. The NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund joined together with AFSC There are two areasin which applied (the American Friends Service Committee) to research on social problems has played a role form a Task Force which helped spread infor- inthe process of desegregation. The more mation to communities and put pressure on the questioned has" been the use of social science Office of Education (OE) to establish data incourt cases. The famous footnote meaningful guidelines. The Task Force, eleven in thc Supreme Court'sBrowndecision SNCC, and other civil rights groups monitored cites evidence amassed by the psychologist enforcement activities and encouraged OE not -Kenneth Clark and others which pointed to tile" to submit totally to the desires of local school psychological harm iendered black children persons in the South. by thePlessydoctrine of separate but equal. In thelate1960's, some of the action- The role of this extra-legal evidence in court oriented civil rights groups, such as CORE, cases continues to be debated. Clark has became more militant, rejecting integration as argued the importance of social science data in irrelevant. The remarks of leaders of these establishing .the link between segregation and groups and the riots that were occurring in inequality while others have denied it. (See, for Watts, Detroit, and other larger cities pro- example, Clark's 1959 response to Cahn 1955; vided a new symbolization of black hopes see also VandenHaag 1960 who denies the which frightened whites. As a result, national importance of the Clark data.) support for desegregation measures which had Probably the most frequent counter argu- been strong during the King era lessened. ment is that the decision was based on societal (Adams and Burke 1970 provide an en- norms suggested in the Constitution which for- cyclopedia-like description of people, bid differential privileges regardless of organizations, and events involved in the Civil whether lack of access to the privileges has an Rights Movement. Positions of some of the adverse effect. (For a discussion relevant to civilrights advocates are available inthe this issue see Kirp and Yudof 1974:297-299.) transcription of a national forum included in Judge Wisdom (1575) in reviewing the opi- Howe, et al. 1970. For examples of reports of nions of others on the admissibility of social enforcement activities and the misuse of science evidence concludes that 'courts pri- federal funds see Southern Center for Studies marily use social science evidence to lend a inPublicPolicy andthe NAACP Legal factual and scientific aura to a result sustaina- Defense and Education Fund 1969; NAACP ble on other bases. (See also Levin and Moise LD and EF 1971; and Rodgers and Bullock 1975.) He argues that in thinking about cases 25 21 judges comn. lnly use assumptions similar to studies have included extensive research such hypotheses presented in sociological journals as that undertaken by Coleman, et al. (1966) to which may or may not be explicitly researched, ascertain the major determinants of inequality Craven (1975:156) summarizes a similar point: and evaluation research of. the remedial programs undertaken by the federal govern- Just as a raconteur will seldom let the facts ment, particularly "compensatory education" interfere with a good story, judges seem to programs and the educational outcomes of have seldom allowed to interfere desegregation itself. The legitimacy of,this use with a good theoryuntil the time of a new of social science is not questioned, but to some idea has come. Sometimes it is a long time degree the susceptibility of social science find- coming; but when it arrives, it is then woven ings to political manipulation is. Research on into the constitution fabric. educational outcomes, for example, in what Aside from the original Brown decision, have been called desegregated settings, do not social science data as such have been admitted readily support the notion that ,simple in desegregation cases to show that various desegregation will improve educational out- - policies resulted in segregated schools. It has comes for black children (see Section VI). also been admitted in the important area of These findings along with other studies pur- devising remedial measures. Pettigrew, for ex- porting to show other factors as influencing ample, has been called to testify in cases where black outcomes, itis sometimes suggested, remedies have been protested because of the have provided a rationale for those who wish possibility of provoking "white flight." Pet- to muffle efforts to desegregate the North and tigrew, (1972) has testified regarding his West as well as the urban areas of the South. researchthatthe black-White ratioaffects Concerning such studies, particularly those educational achievement and that without undertaken by Jensen (1969) and Jencks, et al. sufficient numbers of whites desegregation may (1972), Clark (1973:78) points out: have negligible effects on black educational All of the more publicized social science achievement. Some courts reject this informa- research-arid theoridsand the acceleration tion on the basis of legal precedent which says of concern of social science with problems probable resistance should not prevent protec- which have direct educational policy im- tion offered by the14th amendment (see plications--came in the wake of the Brown Craven 1975). decision, and became part of the political Glazer, in the foreward to Kirp and Yudof controversy surrounding the desirability, (1974), suggests that the "marriage" of law and the methods, and the rat4 of public school social science has occurred and will continue desegregation. because legal questions involving" policy Clark goes on to suggest that much of the necessarily involve questions of effect which research and many of the theories which the courts are not accustomed to predicting. proliferated in the post-Brown era did not The role of social science in court cases, focus upon the social science findings cited by however, is not yet firmly established. Some the Court in Brown, but rather postulated other jurors, as cited above, consider such data to reasons for the academic and psychological in- constitute supporting evidence only, others feriority of black students. Some of these consider research as irrelevant to the legal emphases such as genetic inferiority would, of questions involved, and others as contributing course, have implications counter to BrOwn more to confusion than clarification. In any and were in fact cited in some court cases as event, individuals in the judiciary are proba- reasons for opposing .or' disregarding the im- bly, at the least, affected by social science plications of the Supreme Court decision. research indirectly to the extent that findings Clark's analysis places the desegregation become "common Lnowledge." research subsequent to Browninpolitical The second area in which 'social science relief. He is not the only author to suggest research has hada major impact upon political motivations behind the support of desegregation has been in assessing causes and researchers pursuing determinants other than evaluating educational programs. These discrimination. (see Edmonds, et al. 1973, for 22 example.) An early essay by Long (1955) Published descriptions of the conditions of argued that the criteria for choice Of the potential recipients of social policies have desegregation research should be derived con- played an important role in this area. Some of sistent with the spirit ofBrown. these works became general reading as well, Long's article is interesting not only because communicating to the public at, large some of it points out the politically charged nature of the same images which were helping to form desegregation research at an early stage, but the social policy from which programs would also because it provides an argument that black be generated. Some publications in this tradi- social scientists would be more likely to ask tion are Conant (1961) who focused upon the questions appropriate to "le Supreme Court problems faced by urban schools and Clark's mandate of elimination of apartheid schooling (1965)Dark Ghettowhich provided a descrip- than would white researchers. An assertion tion, ofteninthe words of inhabitants of which became popular especially in the late Harlem, of what lifeislike under im- 1960's was that social scientists, educators, and poverished conditions. Portraits vary as to program developers who were white were not what aspect of the problem they reveal. Riess- appropriate as students of or administrators of man (1962) contains descriptions of the child programs and policies developed to alleviate for whom compensatory education programs the problems of low-income, black, or other were devised while the observational field minority individuals and groups. A strand of studies of Rosenfeld (1971) and Rist (1973), this ideology is suggested by Long (1955:205) for example, present in compelling form struc- in the following: tural aspects of urban schools which doom The orientation of Negro and white educa- some students to failure. tors and socialscientistsisdoubtlessly Probably the greatest impact of social somewhat different; one group accepting science research on desegregation policy has and being motivated by the equalitarian come from the study reported in Coleman, et ideology, and the other accepting the al. (1966) and the subsequent analyses and ideology with qualifications based upon reanalyses of Coleman's school and achieve- status considerations, expediencies and tra- ment data. Social scientists, especially na- dition.... There appears to be an inclina- tionally known ones such as Moynihan (1969) tion for Negro spokesman to under-estimate attribute the Coleman data with shaping con- the difficulties of change and for the white ceptualizations of equal education opportunity "liberals", including educators and social and with affecting the course of desegregation scientists, to over-emphasize the difficulties. policy by destroying some widely held beliefs Both Long and Clark, and of course many about why black children do poorly in school. others, recognize the importance of research These arguments are reviewed in Sections 11.2. findings as a medium of debate7-in policy for- and IV. Desegregation-related research has in mation. While some, hoWever, would argue some cases supported or reinforced certain vi- that because of the social and political struc- sions of society while in others it has called into ture only a limited number of questions are question certain tenetS oi such work1 views (see asked, others discuss the manner in which find- Jencks, et al. 1972). The policy of compensato- ings feed back on policy. Cohen and Garet ry education, for example, which emerged dur- (1975) explain the impact of research findings ing the era of the War on Poverty provided the .not as impinging in a logical way on policy and charter upon which a number of educational program development but rather as entering programs such as Head Start and Follow into the general body of knowledge and beliefs' Through were undertaken by the Government. upon which social policy is based. Long (1955) Adherence to that frame of reference has been presents the same argument in terms of black- undermined, Cohen and Garet (1975) suggest, white relations, arguing that research plays an by evaluation research on the early interven- important role in the integrating and socializ- tion programs such as Head Start which are ing relationships between blacks and whites. counter to the predicted results. As a result, 2 7 23 there is decreasing confidence in the previously (In addition to the above, see Cohen and widely accepted importance attributed to early Garet 1975 for a critiCal assessment of the ac- intervention and to methods designed to customed manner in which applied research, stimulate early conceptual development. The particularly evaluation research, is viewed by assumptions upon which the policy rests have consumers and researchers alike. They give been undercut and support for the programs figures on the increase in federal spending on has decreased even though the programs are evaluation of educational programsevalua- politically popular and the next logical step tion following the government's venture into would be to expand them toalleligible educational programming. For a general children. Whether a covert policy has pro- description of evaluation in federal agencies, duced these findings or the findings have see Wholey, et al. 1970. Pettigrew 1972 pro- affected policy is an issue under debate. vides an example of policy decisions based on An interesting sideline to the role of research.) research in desegregation is the clash among social science disciplines in the methodologies IV. EXTENT AND CAUSES OF and analytic approaches which have been high- EDUCATIONAL I N E - lighted. (See, for example, controversies con- QUALITY cerning Coleman's analysis of the 1966 data re- ferred to in 'ion IV.) Government money Since the 1930's, psychologists have ltostul- has gone to sup,-,ort a great deal of desegrega- ated that the attached to being tion research which has stimulated the interests black produced a negative self-concept. Clark and efforts of researchers from many fields and Clark (1950), for example, demonstrated thus providing another arena for conflict: the that both black and white children preferred favorite methods and variables of different dis- white dolls over black dolls and associated ciplines. This interplay has brought changing more positive character traits with white dolls. emphasis in the research so that some of the In the 1954 Supreme Court decision, Clark's research questions have been reformulad. research was cited in support of the argument The onslaught, for example, on the valk11.1 of that segregated schools are inherently unequal. standardized intelligence tests as a means of Schools segregated by force of law stigmatize classifying students has raised questions con- those who are restricted to certain schools. cerning the advisability of the use of standar- Since the Brown decision, the conceptualiza- dind tests as the primary measures for assess- tion of the consequences of segregation and of ing educational outcome as affected by equal education opportunity have undergone a desegregation and compensatory education number of re-definitions. This section is ar- programs. ranged to reflect the sequence of development The use of social science research in court of different emphases in research and educa- cases may have also had an interesting out- tional thinking. come, that of encouraging what Rivlin (1973) IV. 1. Color Isolation in Schools has referred to as "forensic social science" wherein the traditional posture of objectivity Initially segregation, or the stigmatizing and impartiality on the part of the social scien- purposive separation of black children from tistis abandoned in favor of a very clearly whites, was considered to constitute a lack of stated positionfor or against a particularunequal education opportunity for black policy: The best case possible is made with the children. Segregation was translated into a notion in mind that another scholar or team ofjudicially manageable and sociologically scholars will undertake to demolish the case measurable concept by defining it as color with counter evidence. Rivlin cites as a clear isolation or the physical separation of black example, Guthrie, et al. (1971) and also sug- and white children in different schools. The gests that Jencks, et al. (1972) would fall into a nuance of stigmatization in some sense was lost similar genre. and color isolation became a research focus. 2 8 24

A large amount of material describing the or South. Secondly, they concluded that the extent of color isolation in U. S. schools exists. problemisincreasing. Demographic trends Much of this material might be placed in the beginning some sixty years ago had resulted in category of "progress repprts" or evaluations an increasing concehtration of black people in of the degree of desegregation which has (not) the central cities with whites more heavily occurred in the public schools in a particular populating the suburban rings around the area. (For examples see Clark 1962; Alex- cities. These trends were associated by the ander 1963; Gibson, et al. 1963; Rose 1964; authors of the report with the patterns of isola- Walker, etal.1967; Alabama Council on tion found in the schools: Human Relations 1972; Clark 1972a,b; and The richvariety of the Nation's urban Hope 1975.) population is being separated into distinct The most comprehensive documentation nt* groups, living increasingly in isolation from isolation was undertaken by a team headed by each other. In metropolitan areas there is a James Coleman. The nationwide survey was growing separation between the poor and mandated by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, ap- the affluent, between the well educated and parently to document the lack of availability of the poorly educated, between Negroes and equal educational opportunity. The project, whites. The racial, economic, and social the second largest social science projectin stratification of cities and suburbs is history, involved the testing of over half a reflected in similar stratification in city and million individuals and the gathering of data suburban school districts. (1967b:17) from some 4,000 schools. The report, the Itis a general consensus that residential Equality of &Ideational OpportunityReport, segregation in urban areas impedes school in- commonly known as the Coleman Report, was tegration This segregation occurs within the submitted to Congress in 1966. (See Coleman, central city as well as between cities and their etal.1966 and Mosteller and Moynihan suburbs. Coleman (1975), on the basis of data 1972.) on trends in school segregation between 1968-1973, suggests that while intra- or with- The Coleman mport revealed that most in-district segregation has decreased, inter- or American school ,:hildren were in schools between-district segregation has increased. where children of tl:eir own color constituted a The increase in between-district segregation is large proportion ofthestudent body. Eighty associated with white migration to the suburbs, percent of all first grade white students, for ex- a trend originally labeled "white flight" ample, were in such schools while sixty-five because it was believed to be associated with per cent of all first grade black students were in desegregation. The extent to which "white such schools. flight" is a result of school desegregation is a A second large report,Racial Isolation in the current source of research and debate. Given Public Schools,was the product of a study con- the current dominant perspective regarding ducted by the U. S. Commission on Civil school desegregation (thatthe presence of Rights (1967b), its mandate being to focus whites is essential to attainment of positive upon segregation resulting from circumstances gains for blacks), the trend of white flight has other than legal compulsion. Within this con- important implications for policy formation. straint, primary attention was given to the (The debate over the causes of white flight cities and metropolitan areas. The findings of has been stimulated by Coleman, et al.'s n.d. this study were that national and regional report on trendsinschool segregation, averages underestimated school segregation in 1968-1973. Coleman attributes white flight to the metropolitan areas where two-thirds of the school desegregation especially where blacks black and two-thiids of the white population constitute a large proportion of the population. then lived. On the basis of their study the His 'argument is contested in Green and Pet- researchers concluded that color isolation in tigrew 1976 and Farley 1976. See also Rist and city schools is intense regardless of the size of Orfield 1976 and Coleman 1976. See Section the city and whether it is located in the North V.2.e for further discussion of this topic.) C.9 25

IV. 2. School Facilities were found to be roughly equivalent.* The Underlying the conviton ttiat segregated physical facilities, the formal curricula, and black students were systemaktbally denied most of $121V measorable chamsateristics of equal:education opportutuy %was the assump- teters irltlack anthwhite tiots- Aatt black schtnols -kraal, facilities due: . White schools. Blaci:- Ntiit,01.- were im- SSeccattirty the findings were stronegy, coamter aginnd to be over-crowctit_ pidated, as to rectefttiii wisdom .in that when family and peer pfiiim,,cliaracteristics were *gild constant havim; shorter tertm., fe LCXi ooks, fewer shcoolffmcilities explained relativeN little of andiess qualified teachers, .:ourses, and so forth. The implicirctelit:' 'ay some was the diffenences in achievement.lracy to popularimpression, differences'Wlioen black that these restricted faCiliti- account for and white schools' physical fagg,fonnal black-white differences in;. itiz.tv,ion. Perhaps as a result of the use of thedtau44_as the vehicle curricula, and teacher characteriklies Os- they of change, the notion of Ad-Times was trans- were mnasured in the study) were. .. between lated into per pupil expendituta.:. The expecta- The unsall differences that did e tion of differences in facilities.Aten, especially schooks-did not relate to the achk-vement of as they applied to the Southern schools, was students in the school. Differences were in the that blacks were provided with inferior schools directions expected, but the amount of as measured by funds allocated. difference explained was practically negligi- These assumptions were strongly challenged ble. -by an important piece of government-spon- The Coleman study has been subjected to in- sored research designed and reported upon by tense criticisms as might be expected of a study Coleman, et al. (1966). The Coleman study of such Magnitude and importance. The critic- was a nationwide survey of segregated and isms which have been given most attention: desegregated school facilities and student were primarily from researchers critical of the achievement. The data from the survey have research- methods. The criticisms of the Cole- been analyzed and reanalyzed by groups such man study have been placed into four catego- as that formed at Harvard and funded by the ries by thd dditors of-a Harvard Educational Review (1969) issue which was devoted to Carnegie Corporation (Mosteller and further analysis and discussion of the EEO Moynihan 1972). The data have had a major data: impact on conceptualizations of desegregation (1)Alleged flaws in the design of the study and educational inequality. (for example, a weak set of attitudc The purpose of the survey was only vaguely questions). described in the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The in the execution of the objectives which eventually evolved were: 1) to (2) Difficulties provide a description of differences in educa- survey which may have affected the tional outcomes for six different groups (in- results (for example, the refusal of a substantial number of school systems to cluding black and white students),2)to describe the resource inputs for six different cooperate). Alleged shortcomings in the analysis of groups, and 3) to examine the effects of various (3) inputs on achievement. the data (for example, the decision to control for the child's social class before The findings of the study did support the ex- istence of differences between blacks and examining the influence of the school on whites in educational outcomes. They did not, his achievement). however, support the belief that there were marked differences between blacks and whites `There were differences between regions with the in terms of school facilities. In the various South having less adequate facilities in general than other regions of the country, the level of school regions. At that time, half of the black population was lo- facilities of the black versus the white students cated in the South. 3 0 26

(4) Limitations of ra . 4.ailom V ne isms crznnecting segr: -Ation and unequal point in time as fOrecwAing educational outcarnt, that of inferior the sustained effez.,7:- ii.1"...e.:duate4sts in facilities, was weakened PAohe Coleman study. the ed ucation a 1 ..smeilv,, (fr; o..rixstp 1 e , According to the manne"-in Which it was in- the effect of school Intekztr,witt):. terpreted, the Coleman :audy was taken to (See Moynihan 1969 fora.dts thn feac- mean that differences in stnools could not ac- tions to the Coleman rt.pio-t firwm the count for black-white differences in perfor- "research, education, and e°, !..V4.4tAish- mance on standardized tests. This notion that ments.") school :didnot have any effectonthese The general impact of .tbe kcia:. -Atcly differences spurred on those who would ex- with regard to school facili tef. lhave plain the,gap in other ways. shifted attention away from tot an_ex- In the survey, equality .of educational op- planation of differences bei.-m '.041.1,3:. and portunity was measurdtL:mr.terms of school in- white educational outcomes rmword..ex- puts, including racial composition. In analyz- amination of non-school - tçiextleiain ing theeffectof- racial :composition upon these differences. Arguments:astli.,oeeessity educational achievement,EOleman found that for equal facilities, however.. v e "Pt tokkmed. minority students in majority-white desegreg- The present controversy con,:y-fot,',ing. ladr. of ated schools did somewhat better than those in equal financing among dit ti"ueto non-majority-white schools, but that the differences in wealth of the di.;leo IN:(rtieex- difference was not large. His findings were ample. (See Section III.I.d.) considered, however, as indicating the impor- (There are numerous article.....414ging the tance of the social class of the student body. Coleman report. Two source:,re 'Harvard These findings were interpreted by Moynihan Educational Review 1969 and: Mosteller and (1969:30) for example as follows: Moynihan 1972, the later -prrid.:accid by the His report has been correctly interpreted to group at Harvard funded.to rzazlyze tfte.data. be the most powerful social science case for There have been further reartalpie,'.14iiirected to school integration that has ever been made. some Of the same and different ici.Iestions. The According to the thinking derived, children U.S. Commission on Civil Rights-- [9671i:study profited from being around peers of middle- or was based upon these data as-wasr.he Jencks, et upper-income. Since black children are inor- al. 1972 volume.) dinately lower-income, thenit follows that desegregation would be beneficial to them IV. 3. Explanations of Unequal.Slikulutional because color desegregation would mean class Outcomes. desegregation. Coleman's summary of his The Coleman survey may be-r-emad as a resalts (quoted in Mosteller and Moynihan watershed in conceptualizations at -ingequal 19772:20, italics Coleman's) are as follows: education opportunity. The regetina directed Altogether,the sources of inequality of explicit attention to both pupitand school in- educational opportunity appear to lie first in put as well as outcomes and their interrelation- the home itself and tlw cultural influences im- ships. Previously, it was imPlicitly assumed mediately surrounding the home; then they.lie that the factors affecting educational outcomes in the schools' ineffectiveness to free achieve- were understood and that these included ment from the impact of thehome, and in the school facilities and resources.V.hentheôle- schools' cultural homogeneity which perpetu- man report undercut this assurriSion.,e:point ates the social influences ofthe home and its of focus in conceptualization of equall educa- en virons. tionopportunity shiftedtoward outcomes. This perspective was compatible with an Equal educational opporturririt came: to .be emphasis that reached its peak in the 1960's on associated with ecral outcoiS rather-than family backgrountl as a way to explain educa- equal inputs. tional outcomes. Discussed under the label of The Coleman study had lurthter implica- "cultural deprivation", this idea achieved a tions. One of the basic explanatory mechan- considerable degree of support. 31' 27

Arguing by analogy Erom studies of children The outcomes of desegregation rto be who had very little admit stimulation such as researched in earnest with regard I,imseffects those locked in attics orlhoused in understaffed upon educational variables (seeSeci -ntril4P1). In orphanages, the theory arose that lower-in- a sense, however, the theoreticaibi_13is oft- con- come children did not get proper adult ceptual foundation had been undero.a. A num- stimulation during periods of conceptual and ber of alternative conceptualizatii such as verbal development. Research contrasting culture conflict, deprivation, and tic in- lower-income living cenaditions and parenting-- ferioritywith uncertain theoreticz-t'i styles with idealized eariddle- and upper-in- ships to desegregationarose in th..'bitace of come conditions and styles found the former what had been a consensus in which E...e.ega- lacking. The federal funds made available tion constituted the major obstacle jpite=ting through the 1965 Elementarynd Secondary access to equal educational opponoinirtzs_for Education Act were used to fund the develop- blacks. ment of programs to conteract this.deprivation for disadvantaged students. Because many EL 3.a. Cultural and Social Dtviination. black children are products of lower-income Deprivation has been used to refer to:a 'variety backgrounds, the "disadvantaged" child was of characteristics. Gordon and \Wilk.erson often thought of as a black child. To some (1966) define deprivation as a complex of degree, compensatory education, the rubric characteristics: low economic status, low social under which counters to deprivation came to status, low educational achievement, tenuous be placed, was seenas an alternative to or no employment, limited participation in desegregation. If compensatory education took community organizations, and limited .ready care of the gap between whites and blacks in ,potential for upward mobility. People- con- educational outcomes, then why desegregate? !sidered to be handicapped by this depressed The cultural deprivation perspective was social and economic status have been referred opposed by a number of reform-minded educa- to in the literature by terms such as culturally tors and social scientists, particularly deprived, socioeconomically deprived, educa- anthropologists,who objected to the basic con- tionally disadvantaged, and the like. The large cept of cultural deprivation, arguingthat body of literature that exists on the disadvan- cultural differences were being misinterpreted taged was developed by researchers who as cultural deficits. These arguments are simi-, broadly regarded the deprived as bearers of lar to objections to the use of standardized tests cultural attitudes and behaviors substandard with minority students on the grounds that they to those dominant in the broader communities do not measure what the child has learned they inhabit. from his life experiences and are thus biased The "theory" of cultural deprivation, which assessments of his ability. There have also been reached its peak of acceptance in the middle attempts at altering educational programs so as and late 1960's, was based on the belief tir...tt to make them more appropriate for the multi- lower-income as opposed to middle- and up- cultural nature of the U. S. population. per-income children tended to be exposed to Flowevt-r, these -programs, developed by insufficient stimulation which stunted their educators, have not received the same cognitive andverbal development. The widesiorvad national attention as have the find- childrenof the socially and economilly ings ofColeman, et al. (1966) and Jencks, et al. deprived, it was argued, come to school diikad- (1972). vantaged in that their parents' culture failedEto Along with the emphasis on family and provide them with the experiences that art:- social class background as variables explaining "normal" to the .majority of school children. differences in educational achievement, there Primarily because of this condition, minority was also a revival of interest in genetic ex- children were thought to show dispropor, planations of group differences. The major tionately high rates of sociaLmaladjustment researcherarguingthis positionisJensen behavioral disturbance, phySicaldisability, (1969). mental subnormality, and particularly. 28 academic rettardAion. Theeulturally deprived elaboran)n of these ideas, see M. Deuweh child was titouer to be lacking in readiness, i1967b).. motivation. as& alearsing-oriented The ccscepr of linguistic deprivatiovid system. Exampt-. of research interoveted to associated rnicarch has beeneriticizedlitTsttose support this orterzation are numerous. Lessor. who argac, for example, that the:supgurrin Fifer, and Clanc...:"(19651..aind Fort, Wiatts.,.and .-esearch i everely biased became tite Lessor (1969) tuanid::Mat: children of:various researchers. seem to lack -awareness. ,of '1&.e ethnic groups differed amtests of verbal ability, sociolinnuistic factors affecting their rmitts reasoning, and::.1.-4.1merical and spacial concep- and to isle ignorrant of the fact that what:they tualization. Thevbelievedahat a lack of visual regard aslinsuistic errorsar.:e actually and verbal stimuli and lack of attention from manifestations of rules :.usedinalternative: parents in low-income.homes led to diticits in dialects ofEngliSh (See Labov 1970;cazden, visual,auditory,linguistic, and mnemonic John, and! Ilymes 1972; Keddie 1973;and abilities (see, for example; C. Deutsch 1967). Cole and. Scribner 1974.) Jensen (1968) found that :basic learning Other research has looked at how depriva- abilities correlated highly with IQ scores for tion affects cognitive and social development middlt:.-class but not .for lower-class students, of children (see,for example, Riessmatc-19.0.--- leading him to postulate that basic abilities Ausubel 1964, and Deutsch and Brown-19641. .coupled with environmental advantages en- Rosen (1956) and 'Katz (1967), repretnecttnin couraged the type. of conceptual development another line of research, looked at mvatutirc which the school requires. among different social class..groups. A great deal of the deprivaainn literature concerns langunge acquisition. It has been sug- Educational policies associated wititi; :and gested that children from:disadvantaged. back:-__.resultineffrom the research ineulturalideprimai- wounds,in cintmparison: with: middle-class tion wenereflected in the general development Children, are less verbalty: proficient. Bloom. of compensatory education programs whih Mavis, and Hess (1965), Gordon and Wilker- were pritharily constructed :to fulfill delihien-- S3011 (1966), and Osser (1973) provide summ- cies in child backgrounds. -While some 'later itries of the research. An early 'study by Pringle, research has attempted to disprove- or lmer, and Tanner (1958) found differences redefine:basic assumptions of cultural depriva- in quantitatively measured language functions tion, there has also been a growing body oferi- which consistentlyindicatedthat children ticisms of the appropriatenetts of compensatory raised in their own hom es. were superior to education programs. (Wolf and Wolf 1962, children who were raised in institutimis. In- Baratz and Baratz 1970, D. Cohen 1972). terpretation of these results suggested .that (Further description of compensatory educa- children raised in conditimrs.of inadequate ex- tion is included in Section V. 5..c.) posure to language would:fail to fully dt-v.elop (At a intire global level, cultural andocial linguistically- Further studies looked ,at the deprivationitheories have their counterpartin relationship-between ecanomic grouvstatus the concept of "culture.of poverty." SeeTitchs and language:development. (For an eatiy-ex- 1969, Leacock 1969, Harris 1475 for further ample, see. Irwin 1948). These stouines-cfiound references and critiques of these wiews:asap- that more .chilcrcn with what wasantusidered plied to minority groups in theUnited:States.). retarded speechdevelopment wereirmn. lOwer socioeconominpoupsithan from upperehasses, IV. 3.1L. Genetic Inferiority.Etollowing.the in a series,:of suidies...iikrnstein developed the .Suprem e.Cnsres schoo 1. desegr egationcidecisio n hypothesis .thatt:tthe luaguage of lower-class iirl954,;tire was-.a r ev ival of radistAtuctrin es youth was eharacterizett by a restricted, form.:positing: biningically based. inferiority:writhe whieh confinecitheirthinking. In contrast, up-.alleged. genetic intellectuaLiiinterianky- of per-class youttclended. :to develop a :more.blacks, Inferior educational itutcorntes:for elaborative language which allowed greater black children, the argument :went, attaulted freedom in communication (Bernstein 1961). from genes, not segregation. 29

What ''ttis been .-jeferred 'to as .a. "scientific subject including others by Coleand his associ- racist" pwsition win.,:.-Arinecfuentlydeveloped by ates_ Early articles on in testing refer to several .,-social szieritdsrwho looked at the c;bncept of "culture fair" tests. See Anatasi differencesbetween perforrtemees on I.Q. tests 11966. As others have argued and Cole's work by blacLE.-versus, \whites ( A- Coleman 1972). nstrates, this concept is not very The bulkiaf this resech.foinad blacks lower in ii,entrimgful.) I .Q. than whites.S]ux-..,,'yIiit.1".66) The Testing oj 11.-2 biases in these tests have come under Negro Itrte11igence-r.,5;the culmination par...... ular attack in situations where such tests of this type of reseieldT- Aviiith concluded that arTsed inclassification procedures. Jane the presence of sCrrtre::::',qtiat differences be- Mmr.er's work has been important inthis tween blacks and Avtalies deterniinedin- re=ard. She explored school and agency telligence: ..test resu These early studies clzesgitication procedures for children based on assumed that.intellit=-.'w.as a fixed capacity staladardized intelligence tests, and found that which was .d istingdiShable "from educational timrlirocedures resulted in labeling as mentally achievement. This busic:genetic difference was re:waded a disproportionately large number of cited as onc reason fortheiallure oethe corn- Chammos and blacks. She argued that current pensator-yed ucationall programs,of.the 1960's. clasaiRcation procedures violate the rights of Pettigrew (1964)7rovidesalzoodreview of chile:I-en to be evaluated within a culturally ap- the--early research -an...1..Q...ancl..genetic racial propriate normative framework, their right to differencr,L. Davy (il9-73) reviews the later be :assessed as multi-dimensional beings, their research, particularly .focusinrmpon Jensen's rightto be fully educated, their right to be free views. Jensen (1969, 1973)remainsAhe prim- of stigmatizinglabels, andtheirrightto ary proponent of genetic differences between cultural identityarrdrespect(Ser whites:and 'blacks which-have:educational im- 19741;:see also Section VI. 1. a.) plications. Criticisirmofttheienetic:inferiority Faulty assessment has also been linked to position are numerous. Forexample, see Light another explanation of poor performance by and Smith (19691, and .Brace, et al. 1971... minority children. Research during thelast ten years indicates that differing expectations of IV. 3.c. BiardtV Assessment ant' Negative students are held by teachers and communi- Labeling. The c.timpral dertnivatios tended cated perhaps unconsciously to the students. to compare the .77/arenting styles L:and .COITE- Development of thought and research in how ity_orga "-in_of lower in.:Ai le iLaLhe.r expectations influence student:per for- with idealized --,-Lteisions of iniddle--.d uppei mance was originally stimulated by Rosenthal class styles. iiiiinguistic 'eharacteriaics 4. and Jacobson's 1968 study,Pygmuliiion in the social Ireilavior pkttern s ofI ow.=-..iincarr,...2: Thaysrootn.The basic assumption-oftheirstudy children sirnilad.v. wmra 'assessed azaiinst -par-- was that one person's expectation for:another's tern s n t±avraiiiiie.- and upper-income behavior could come to serve as..a. self-fulfill- children.. Thisigifler-- on:a deficit .view.iof ing Iprophecy (1968:174). Carried out in a m ino ciny;,..c)i4tternirsa, lava-A:OR v e rge ncesi from mut- public elementary school in grades Ithrough zonsideredi errors, 6, =his ,study tested the hypotheois by dec=ised so inewiaLlitithei. a re a otintstine4 qv ter- manipulating teachers' expectations far their theiiist few 'rnarilv the wrimatherifii. suidents' achievement to sec if those. expecta- against standarilla.tzti.tits isthat;thv,.xil-e tiaras would be fulfilled. The manipulation, valü1withrnitualisv.....aiiildrenoxviat, areardierefore the influence on teacher expecta- Standmiiiized :tests tior.: was created by claiming that a general . are-normed orniddildren whose mperiences adiiLvement test had been developed to iden- .vary systematically-.fituarthose of many black tifyRue intellectual"bloomers." Children children;:thus the content of questions:and the wenT accordingly labeled on a random: basis types.of testing.situatiarts, for example, tend..to arulthe results given to the teachers. At:the end beinappropriate -kyr-rminority children_ (See of_year, achievement test data offered some Cole and:.:Stribne:r 1974..for references on this evidence that the children labeled as late 34 30

-bloomers showed better performance than they may be made more difficult-than :if the:content :had previously. The authors concluded that was more closely matchedlto :the learner's 'the results could be explained by the self- rmility. Underlying :basic differences between fulfillinsiprophecy effects of teacher expecta- thchild's home and school .experiences Itions. Theyreasoned that:the expectations:cre- wind.d, in other words, be in conflict resulting ated about these "special" children causecilhe in; depressed academic achievement ancLpoor ,teachers to somehow treat them differentiv, sa pe :rtbrmance in school,. Some of The research that they really did do better by the end c:f-'the hem forexample, rocuses on styles-of behavior year. :expected and :rewarded _in the students' home The controvvsy which followed publication situation, compathisit:with thosetexpectecland of this finding was given impetus by theserious -valued in? school. For example,the: black -child implications ofthe findings that Iteachersniight may learn to 'undertake responsibility for.his be responsiblefor maintaining different -stu, care and that of younger siblings; dent performancelevels.Even more seriously, 'however, theskill's and v.alue. orientations since minorityzstudentsfrequentlyhave been at ;which comprise thisability are distegardediina a disadvantageiirmeetinsmainstream cultural school where the:teacher regulates 'and often and academic standard's because they had -aeverelY restricts r - pe r so n al activities:as::a different ctiltural backgrounds, they were often Tmeans of directing studentS': attention :toward placed:in:the "slow- category. Through tinte,.a :academic:achievement. Other '-xescarCh :corn- cycle ofrbeing so labeled..and performingup to -Tares learnirg.: styles and ,sociblinguistic:pat- that label could . form a.basis for co.ntimued:Aerns, finding:in some cases thatIpatterns ex- minority group existencesince members:of:the pected:in the ool vjolatz:.patterns expected group would not have the chance to :enter at home. Thesenteas of "ctflfural conflict",..it is mainstream:culture. :argued.,.lead to:niisinterpretations ozthevarts The seriousness of Rosenthal and Jacobsen's :of both minority suidentsamd their teachers. findings were, and are generally -sal con- i.(Many of these !studies; are i-the work of sidered convincing. Numerous rettfii=tions, .anthropologists, Fuchs,:..1:4459,.'Rosmfeld however, have lion Troduced conclutitme sup- 1971, Valentine...1971_ and :CGallimore, 'port for the arguatenurbus dinainishinshellm- 1974. Fat a position paper in this area see tency of their resells. Johnson 1973.): Thorndike (1968), White (1969), ihy The cultural :difference. :model 'which:ex- and Good (1970,1974),and Fleming:and Alit-plains lower educatimaloutraAinesof lower4tt- tonen (1971) all :prnvidesood reviews 1g Ithis come:and minority :e7bildrecussiagulie.zoncept area of research. Fiarr(' 972) boO,':reviews,:th of:cal:nue conflict wasxritidizadhy'Vaikentine

r e sea rch an d p I acestittin ihe.gertieral..contir (197711,. .1972) vilo . argued.- that. .railtural other work in biased-assessment. :differences- woul&become sinitilyaeuphem ism for cultural deficits..or deprivation,andl that IV. 3.d. CulturtilliDiffereueess_ _There-- is a :educators would.simply useiicasarationaliza- small body of literature adiciamsed to the_tion forfailure' tosucceed:Lox/4th' minority effects of school a:expanse :to zultural and....children. Valentine argued black linguistic differences-(not :deficits) on-reduca- Americans- tend -to be bicultacril;:that.is, they bona! inequality. Stimulated by a growing :are able to negotiate white mainstream' institu- awareness of problemsllaced by ethnic, tions as well as :'.black. :institutions.. :Valentine especially black,..studenta-in public. schools, argues, thus, that hiack Ameriicarmas..welllas research in this area has -fucused orr:the com- other m inanity stoups are perftattlrcapabilof patibility between-the cultural patternslearned learning. alternative-:_cakaaral jpatterilisAo use at home and those. required .anthexpected at when...the: needarises. -AtremementwoSitionis school. It is assumed Itat -txperiemice_ affects -that culturecautflict is'notis Ctialicientarproduce learning and titan if littuntew.disjunctions be-..Tpoocachievertient in schoOliitinustaillsabeac- tween the studeniisztaltity-aluitthatreflected in -companied bysome fOrm,:aitaiontinering.nega- the content taastaartAchaoil occur, learning7tive. institutional ' response to :cultural

3gf$ 31 differences. Recently; Gallimore, et aL (19741, the application-of other sanctions. (SeeStrout. in a study of minority high school students, and Sroufe 196* -win, outline the diihrnma have added to the conceptualization by faced by school .admirdistrators.) describing what they term a "culture of con- In the short run, desegregation 11r-is:tended- to flict". A culture of conflict is a pattern of in- separate commodities intopro- .',andanti- teraction which arises in cases where teachers desegregat ion factiords: which- exert a_ great deal and students of different backgrounds of creative enerr., clot in devising constnuctive negatively respond to ono another so that pat- means of achieving desegregation, but in: coun:-. terns of behavior are developed which would tering one another .and the latest emergerrt not occur ineither culture. Teachers treat ;government policy . Piece:by piece, the.mairy children in a way they would never consider changes required dure-process Of adaptation treating children of their own group and of the school district:add the schools.have been similarly students treat teachers in ways ;they developed -on the bora! level .in response .to would never treat adults in their own com- specific pressure from external sources of munity. powerrather tharrirraccord with a:perspective that is ideologically meaningful on-the. local V. REMEDIAL EFFORTS AND COUNTER FORCES IN IMPLE- In the absence of a meaningful ideological hasis_ perhaps parenos, both black.andwrbite: MENTATION who aredissatisfiedl -and discourage& Widlibuthe The major actors and events determining public schools, have turned to. alternatidres the course of school desegregation -policy have: associatedwith more coherent :iiiieralogies,. not been local officials, educators, or-parents White parenes;:seeking to :avoid .dresegregated involvedin the schools on a day-to-day basis. SchoolsThayelbeen rponsibleJiritectirnii The Se individuals, however, have borne the .atvapansion .of albenmeive 1,:rriaatecitrodls. brunt ofthe responsibility for therimplementa- erapirasizir:.conse.:.-vativ:e vainies: ..r.datacit tion of &segregation. In many \ways, the de- vareins, on:..Ih.e other hamd, :and .sonte-whire mands exceeded the ability of load systemsto juE-eurs (although for differentoreasonwi;have respond constructively to the changes re- !aupporrted. a -,:mmeturrent. to :Tredistrrecont r ol quired. ,'WeS sthool -;r1F÷r.-.1nit, ernpi.hasiziwtherOle of Initially. Ochool desegregation- was associ- tliiecommunityircSaurfingAts sehormis, ated with a strong ideological l'ocus onfthe :School ,desegregartion on the. :laical egalitarian principles of:American:society:The ,i,itat,.has.t elated m a t te ro.f±eactivier and ideologicalbasis, however_ did: not over- -uOifir.stment forgedat shadow the cultural basis for white resistance er 'level. The neactiire nature of -the local to desegregation in the South. (rSee Section iresponse is :als) -reflected -in .educatiPs:.onal ILI) As a result of strong local mesistance to qttevelopmerrm-whithrhave come ..about .'m. the: desegregation, the courts and federal agenci . wake of desagt_regatiou . efforts, 'The.-Narious were forced.to devise measurablestandards.by programs :may be seen prim atdAy.Latt: :aimed at which to assess compliance. In, the process of itkdjustmerns.to trimilsoreased:-.Abientiityvtstu- this translation-, some of the ideological-tome aretzstrawattrentliawriiiv_sameshoedrs,Amaopany motivating the changes was Iost. cases, ihe tenement .-prograrns .hteee7orterely- were told to implement specific plans narroW/3,,, heen meth o dsrto-ya Haw theccartinuaationtott he focused upon achieving a certain degree of :status :.qoco.. mixtureby social race. Not :able to argue:the Wthads aiftrict Desegreggp. plans on educational merits nor in terms,Ofan ideological position acceptable to their:cousii- Eatly.- -methods of implemenratiorr of tuentS, the :officials could only present. the desegregation- bcilakezed. "skillful distnintine, plans as directives from higher and not always putiil.-:placentent .ipmvisions for freedom of valued government sources, which, iFnot:iim- some:huding to plemented, would result in the loss of fundsrmr- disperse. .heaary intrations of triiisority

S 6 populations, pairing of schools to shift away such a reference as is Wey and, ,Corey 1959. from neighborhood schools, and implementa- Representing newer works of this sort is Orns- tion of-the Pupil Assignment Act (Day, et al. tein's1974 analysis. This book outlines 1963). These procedures, however, only organizational approaches for distributing slightly reduced school segregation and were decision-making authority and power in the not widely practiced, particularly in the South, community for school desegregation, Clark (1972a) in another review of earlier especially in metropolitan areas.) methods of implementing desegregation describes a number of "educational programs, V. la. Open Enrollment and Freedom of plans. and gimmicks" offered in the 1960's tO Choice.Early attempts during the 1950's to entice blacks to accept substitutes for serious desegregate the schools were often circum- andeffectivepublic schooldesegregation. vented by laws and state constitutional amend- Compensatory education and voucher ments which had the effect of actually delaying prop-ams are two plans he discusses. the desegregation process. The most common There is a large body of literature on cur- device was pupil assignment laws which gave rPnt school desegregation programs, most of local schools the power to establish criteria for which is descriptive. A summary of current im- assigning students to schools. By manipulating plementation plans is provided by the U.S. the various requirements, local officials were Commission on Civil Rights (1961, 1967a) and able topreserve segregation (Orfield, Brain (19,63). Most of the other references 1969b:I 8). desmibe aesegregation practices in particular Open enrollment and freedom of choice schools aind school districts, such as that of plans were methods of desegregation klenderick (1968) which is a detailed history developed in the 1960's. Under these plans, no and cument descriptionof theRiverside, student was forced totransfer out of hi: neighborhood or local school to another, but eCalifornia, desegregation plan. Turner (1962) pmvides.asimilar report for New York City. individual students Were given the opportunity Many of these studies evaluate procedures to make transfers (both within and sometimes used to obtain racial balance in schools, as well outside their district lines) if they wished to do as _describe the current conditions in school so. The courts were not impressed with the systems. Camp, etal. (1969), for example, results of such plans although it is possible to describes the Portland, Oregon, "Suburban see both hypothetical advantages and disad- Transfer Program". These descriptive studies vantages. Mizel (1968), for example, presents vary in detail and comprehensiveness. In the two views. The first view is favorable, but notes following sections of this outline, desegrega- that much more time is needed for freedom of tion techniques'implemented in some of these choice to start operating effectively. Unlike areas are further detailed. quota transfer plans, open enrollment plans do A great deal of the energy devoted to imple- not deny black (or white) parents their menting school desegregation in many districts democratic right to choose a school. The other has involved devising plans whereby the view argues against open enrollment plans on degree of ;mixing required by the courts or the basis that general psychological and social HEW will be realized. The types of remedy restraints make the black's freedom to choose which have become prominent at different more theoretical than real. For example, Or- periods represent the increasing demand of the field (1969b:I37), mentions a study by the courts for massive as opposed to token Office of Education which identified twenty- desegregation and the shift of judicial attention five practical difficulties of free choice. One from rural Southern drstricts to urban districts such difficulty concerned the method of mak- including those in the North and the West. ing application forms for freedom of choice (Aside from the descriptive materials men- available to black parents. Usually these forms tioned above there are also some sources which were given to the children to take home to be were intended to serve as guides to desegrega- tilledout. However, in some eases, black tion implementation. Suchman, et al. 1958 is. 'teachers werepressured by school officials to 33 mark black students' choices for primarily In communities which have a larger number black schools; parents were-often afraid to take of schools, "central schools" have been back to the school principal a request to established. This is essentially an extended transfer a child to a white school. (Also see form of pairing, where a whole district is made Crockett 1957; Weinstein and Geisel 1962; a single attendance zone and all students in one Day, et al. 1963; and Binderman 1972.) or, two grades are placed in a single large There is a general consensus in the literature school. Englewood, N.J., Berkeley, Cal., and that open enrollment and. freedom of choice 'Teaneck, N.J. all implemented this type of plans are not a successful approach to school program to aecomplish desegregation. A re- desegregation (Saint Louis Board of Education latedideaisthat of "educational parks." 1969; Binderman 1972; and McAdams 1974). Several desegregated schools, serving a total Later, attempts were made to make freedom of student population of 5,000 to 30,000 would choice workable, using such things as be grouped together to allow efficient use of assurances from the courts and school officials staff and resouces, provide a wide range of ad- that guidelines directing school superinten- ministrative and auxiliary services, and offer dents to assign free choice students to the expanded educational opportunities beyond nearest school with available space would be the financialcapabilities of the smaller enforced. Compliance with these guidelines schools. A nurnber of educational advantages became an administrative nightmare and pro- to such parks have been discussed. (See Fischer voked considerable local opposition (Orfield 1967 and Keppel1967.) With regard to 1969b:138). desegregation, educational parks, by combin- ing smaller schools, would have the effect of V. 1.b. Rezoning. Especiallyinsmaller substituting desegregated parks for segregated cities or areas which have relatively small sec- neighborhood schools. tions of high density black populations, (A general report by the U.S. Commission desegregation has been achieved by some of the on Civil Rights' on racial isolationI 967b pro:. same methods originally usedto preserve vides brief descriptions of several educational segregation, such as strategic site selection for park proposals in East Orange, N.J., New York schools. Other frequently used methods have City, Berketey; Cal.:Pittsburg, Pa., and Albu- included changing and enlarging the atten- querque, N.M. as well as some discussion of dance areas of school districts. the advantages of this plan. This reference also Pairing, one such device, involves merging includes a comprehensive bibliography. A the attendance areas of two or more schools number of papers which further evaluate the serving the same area. The concept was in- potential of educational parks are combined in troduced in 1948 in Princeton, New Jersey, a special report by the U.S. Commission on where two elementary school student popula- Civil Rights I 967a.) :;ons were merged; students in grades K-5 were assigned to one school and students in grades V. I.c. Busing. Inlarge urban eIstricts 6-8, to the other. Swanson (1965) presents a where residential segregation is extre..,,-, itis detailed report of the introduction of the often impossible to obtain any degree of mix- "Princeton Plan" in New York City, with ing withouil transporting some children out of special emphasis on resulting political their neighborhoods to other schools. With ramifications. court pressure on urban areas such as Boston In some cases where schools have been or- and Detroit to desegregate, the means of dered to achieve racial balance contiguous at- transportation, buses, have acquired an ascen- tendance areas have been impossible given dancy in the 1970's as a symbol of desegrega- residential segregation. In these cases, satellit- tion. In the Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg ing may be used where a quota of students are Board of Education decision of 1971, the sent to a school in an area not contiguous with Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of their own. busing as one means by which a dual school 34 system could be dismantled. The court cau- well, indicating that the busing controversy is tioned, however, that the decision did not ap- being used as an excuse to avoid facing the real ply to using- issues, the development of a pluralistic society. based on neighborhood patterns and that when Others, such as the NAACP Legal Defense busing was employed, time and distance of bus-. Fund, have put what they consider the real ing should be carefully considered as well as issue underlying the busing controversy in the age of students to be bused. Despite these more direct terms. One of the 1973 articles is assurances, busing has become an emotional, entitled, "It's Not the Busing. It's the Niggers." political, and social symbol for many favoring. neighborhood schools (Hermalin and Farley V. 1.d. Multi-district Desegregation.Col- 1973). This is reflected by the massive, grow- eman (1975) in some of his latest analyses of ing amount of literature concerning busing. trends in school desegregation, points out that Mills (1973) presents one of the most com- although segregation within districts has to prehensive reviews of the busing issue in an some extent been alleviated, segregation be- edited collection which includes important ar- tween districts has accelerated. This pattern ticles on the background and legal history of results in part from the demographic trends of busing, the debate on the effectiveness and im- black settlement in the inner citieS with white plications of busing, and several case studies of migration to the suburban areas. For a number particular busing plans.. Also see Durham of reasons, the question of the meaningfulness (1973), Rist (1974a), Mathews ('1975) and Or- of desegregating districts which are mostly field (1975) for overviews of the busing issue. black has been raised. This has focused atten- The primary points of discussion in busing tion upon the issue of metropolitan desegrega- are its effectiveness in achieving equal educa- tion or desegregation across the school district tion opportunity for black children and its ulti- lines which subdivide metropolis areas. mate social cost in terms of neighborhood dis- The most important court cases of the ruption. In a detailed article, Armor (1972a) 1970's have concerned issues in urban concludes that busing does not lead to im- desegregation one of which is metropolitan proved grades, aspirations, and attitudes for desegregation. The 1974 Milliken v. Bradley black children. Pettigrew, et al. (1973) in an Supreme Court decision included this issue. In extensive reply to Armor and other opponents that case, the judges did not require desegrega- of mandatory busing. point out that, although tion across district lines, but the ultimate posi- the evidence is incomplete, busing does achieve tion of the courts is not yet clear. (See Section legal desegregation and desegregated schools 111.I.c.) may improve the academic performance of Popular support for multi-district black pupils and lead to increased 'college desegregation is not high. As Gittell (1976) enrollment for black students (see Section VI points out, consolidation of school districts has for a more detailed discussion of these ques- been a strong trend in the last twenty-five tions). Popular objections to busing tend to years. Contrary to these trends, however, con- focus upon the element of being "forced" to solidation of metropolitan districts has had a send children to a particular school and the different history. State laws have been passed prospect or loss of neighborhood unity through to allow more local input on consolidation the loss of neighborhood schools which serve decisions with the results that many referen- as a force in preserving neighborhood tradi- dums are turned down by localvotes. tions. Spokespeople against metropolitan desegrega- Busing is obviously just one factor in the tion have also at times included black leaders complex issue of school desegregation. who argue that black control of city districts Although there is a great deal of discussion will be lost. about busing, some suggest that busing is ac- On the other hand, the push toward tually a phony issue. (See Askew 1972 and metropolitan desegregation is occurring at the Durham 1973.) Harvey and Holmes (1972) same time as a push toward rnetropolitaniza- and Green, et al. (1972) stress,this point as tion of services in general. There have been a 35 number of educators, for example, who haAve V. 2.a. Demonstrations, Protests, Harass- advocated the tnetropolitainzation of educa- ment- Local resistance to school desegregation tional services for a variety of reasons.:Bartle has included various forms of protest, (1973), for etample, advocates cooperative ar- demonstrations, and acts of violence against rangementsletween city and suburban school potential desegregators. School boycotts, districts whic.-±t can potential lytareak down cur- picket liner;, and protest marches which some- rent financial and ethnic boUndaries between times result in riots, assaults, and the destruc- thecity and suburb. With this.plan. tbefini- tion of hated symbols of desegregation such as cial base of the school system, the property school buses continue to be expressions of area.. is broader and more equally shared be- community resistance. tween schools. As another examp*. Levine Local resistance to school desegregation has (1973) further describes the advmntages and also included more seemingly premeditated disadvantages of the approacb. forms of violence which in some cases have (Far a detailed analysis ofiposrAtiepattemns: resulted in the loss of life. Acts of terrorism to of theimplementation of metropvilitan schools, prevent black children from attending white see Ornstein '1974. For overViews of other schools were undertaken by unorganized white problems inmettopolitanization, !seeScott resisters and groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, 1972 and Glazer 1974. Also see:Section a secret society which experienced a revival on community control, a traditional pattern of when segi egated institutions began to come school control that metropolitanizadion court- under serious threat from civil rights activity in ters.) the early 1960's. Materials on these methods of resistance to V. 2. Community and IndiriaTuaifiltesisaance desegregation tendtobe incorporatedin Community-level resistance to des' egrega- general accounts of early desegregation in the tiOnhas been provoked by tbe ispread of South (e.g., Orfield 1969b) or in the general c- beliefs;:some grounded in fact andothers-mot; counts of the civil rights movement in the about -the harmful effects.of desegregation on 1950's and 1960's. Accounts written for white school children. Whine parents have ex- general audiences also exist. Coles' (1967) ac- pressed fear and anxiety about sending Iheir count of the experiences of black children in children to schools in certain neighborhoods; the Deep South 'during the early period of they have balked at the idea of .their children desegregation is probably the best known. It aitending lower status schools.rbeybave com- includes sections describing and analyzing the plained about the breakup ,of friendship various forms .of harassment encountered by graups, thedistance-traveledrto get to school, black children and their families. (For other audthe denial ,of their"rightS" axer- examples, see Braden's 1958 description of tairrneighborhood and.benefit from its schools. community resistance to residential desegrega- Other more extremist groups !have resisted tion in Louisville in the early 1950's. Chesler desegregation on the'grounds that interracial 1967 includes verbatim accounts of the ex- contact will lead -to interraCial marriage:and periences of early black school desegregators.) theevential degradation orthe white race.. Some research is also available concerning Belierin the validityof :these concerns:has the role of community groups in desegregation spawned pu.blic, :somenlines'violent, implementation and the factors related to the demonstrations, harrassmenttuf black families. degree of resistance which develops. An early a large increase in the number of private study by Vander Zanden (1958) looked par- schools dedicated to segrecation, and move- ticularly at the kinds of resistance and the con- ment by white middle- and upper-income ditions under which it occurred. He proposed a families to suburban school districtsall of number of generalizations and hypotheses in- which traave succeeded in slowhirthe forward cluding the following: I) the exploitation of momentum of the desegregation process. racial and desegregation issues for political 36 purposes tends to be associated Niith an in- Palmer 1971). In , for example, be- crease in resistance; 2) disagreement, competi- tween 1964 and 1971, the number of private tion, or conflict between levels or agencies of schools jumped from under twenty to two government over the policy or procedure to be hundred thirty-six. Many of these private pursued toward desegregation tends to inten- schools which appear to have been started pri- sify mass resistance; and3) the prevalent marily as acts of resistance to desegregation "educative programs" designed to facilitate have now become known as"segregation adult acceptance of desegregation, which oper- academies" by their detractors. ate through parent-teacher associations and Some of the early efforts to avoid desegrega- civic groups, has tended to be at best a minor tion involved an attempt to create state-sup- factor determining the incidence or severity of ported segregated private schools. The disturbances attendant upon desegregation. methods used whereby extensive state grants Some of Vander Zander's generalizations and loans were made.to private schools or tui- have been supported M. later work. Kirby, et al. tion grants were made ta students who could (1973) investigated the sch(liol desegregation then choose private schools werelater issuein ninety-one Northern and Western declaredillegal. (See Section III. 1 .f. ) cities between 1963 and 1969. The study in- Although lacking state support, such private vestigated such questions as the identity of schools continue to exist, sometimes with the power holders in decision-making, participants assistance of voluntary organizations such as in desegregation-related decisions, and factors churches which sponsor such schools. affecting conflict. The conclusions drawn were (At this point, there is only a limited amount that the most important actors in desegregation of literautre concerning the private school were thecivicelite;including mayors, movement. There are two articles, however, businessmen, and school superintendents; the that do emphasize the growing importance of desegregation issue was not settledin the private schools in relation to desegregation. streets; and White citizen groups opposed to One by Brown and Provizer 1972 is a case desegregation were rather ineffective as were study of two segregation academies in a county pro-desegregation groups. Reporting the find- in Georgia. The other by Terjon 1972, presents ings of the study with regard to community an overview of the role of segregated private unrest, Kirby and Crain (1974) draw the con- schools and some initial data on the number of clusions that cities with militant black popula- such institutions.) tions and school boards with a high level of in- ternalconflict are more likelyto have V. 2.c. White Flight. There are a number desegregation-related disturbances. Further of,references which deal with the relationship information along these lines is included in between school desegregation and population Crain (1968). movements in, and out of school attendance (See also Dentler's 1965 article which looks areas (Pettigrew and Cramer 1959; Farley at the various elements of community 1976; Orfield 1976). In some cases, this type of organization which influence desegregation, population movement ultimately leads to what whether by impeding or facilitating action on has been calledresegregation orthere- the issue. Also see Killian and Crigg 1965 and establishment of segregated patterns. A term Rogers 1967 for other general evaluations and that has become associated with certain types descriptions of community disturbance pat- of population movement, "white flight", refers terns.) to what was originally believed to be a white response to desegregation. Leacock, etal. V. 2.b. Private Schools. Particularly fol low- (1959), for example, defined white flight as ing the Supreme Court's decision and the 1964 "panic moving" where there was a quick sale Civil Rights Act, there has been a rapid in- and turnover of housing from whites to blacks, creaseinthe number of private schools, This movement was primarily thought to be in- especially in the South (Leeson 1966, 1967; itiated by desegregation. 4 1 37

Reporting the major findings of his larger mid 1960's. Although the two issues derive work,Trends in School Segregation, 1968-1973 from different perspectives, they both seem to (Coleman, et al. n.d.), Coleman (1975) sug- have gained momentum as a r.:sult of court-or- gests that desegregation of central city schools dered desegregation. has acceleratedtheprocess of residential Proponents of decentralization are most segregation between the city and the suburbs by often white parents who feel that their control increasing the extent of white flight. Where of schools has been usurped by large .school district boundaries are basically coter- bureaucratic bodies which are more respon- minious with city-county municipal units, such sive, especially with regard to desegregation, residential segregation is reflected in school to the demands of federal officials than to local enrollment figures. Coleman finds that the pat- citizens. This group advocates tile dissolution terns of mass exodus have occurred during the of the massive bureaucracies and the return of year of school desegregation in a number-of controlto units. The neighborhood cities, especially in the larger cities where there school symbolizes the decentralization issue. is a higher proportion of black studen.ts. Green Although itis conceded that such schools 00 and Pettigrew (1976) arc highly critical of Col- promote a closer school-community bond, they eman's Jesearch methodology which, they have been attacked on the grounds that they claims, has biased his results. Other articles by maintain de facto segregation. (See Fischer Mumford (1973), Farley (1976); Orfield, 1964, Dodson1965, Burt and . Alexander (1976), and Rist and Orfield (1976) substanti- 1969, and Somerville1969.) Sincethe ate Green and Pettigrew's claim and look more neighborhood school concept is counter to cur- closelyatthe nature of white flight, par- rent trends in desegregation, especially multi- ticularly questioning whether white flight is in- district desegregation, a great deal, of conflict itiated and supported by forced school has been generated at the community level by desegregation, or is primarily an independent proponents of this approach. occurrence which results from: (1) a general Comrtrimity control, on the other hand, trend toward declining enrollments primarily tends to be a position espoused by blacks in cities but also in many suburbs, (2) the pat- frustrated by the slow pace of desegregation tern of white out-migration from cities which and the failure of expected positive outcomes developed primarily as a result of lack of hous- for their, children. For blacks who have come ing long before the school desegregation issue to believe that present school systems arc fun- was a dominant social pressure, or (3) special damentally racist in their social and cultural local circumstances which occur organization, community control is seen as a simultaneously with desegregation, such as the means of transferring control of schools to closing of an industry. Regardless of its causes, black groups who will be more responsive to whether they be social, economic, or political, the needs of black children. Other blacks have white flight is seen as an important issue to deal focused on the educational importance of con- with in educational planning (Rist and Orfield trol. They are concerned with the negative psy- 1976). As described above, the presence of an chological consequences for blacks of-lack of ample number of whites in a desegregating dis- control over important institutions which trict has achieved the position of a high priority affect their lives. They cite Coleman, et al.'s concern for sonic who argue that whites arc (1966) finding that increases in black necessary both in terms of financial resouces children's sense of control over their environ- and their effect on black achievement scores. ment promotes higher academic achievement (See Section IV.) as evidence of the need for black control of schools. With community control, the focus of V. 3. Community Control and Decentraliza- the black perspective on education oppor- tion tunities shifts from improved achievement to Issues of decentralization and community improved self-respect as a means of stimulat- control became increasingly important in the ing achievement gains. 4 2 38

(For more information on these topics,see creases bureaucracy, and the erosion -of ad- Altschuler 1970 for a discussion of community ministrative control of classroom activities in control, Kirp 1970 fordiscussion of the the face of increased teacher militancy have legality of community control, and D. Cohen been cited as further reasons for loss of local 1969 for information on both decentralization administrative power. (See, for example, and commun:.: control as well as a discussion Goodman 1968 and Guthrie and Skene 1973). of the general confusion produced by cOnflicf- This lack of power seems to have been-further ing research results which question whether accentuated by the threat of desegregation. either approach to school reorganization will Desegregation is disruptive to school officials produce more positive educational outcomes. because it undermines the power base from which they operate. School superintendents, V. 4. The Role of School Personnel in Dis- who normally have some control over educa- trict Desegregation tional policy have no power to prevent court- Administrators, school board members, ordered desegregations. Superintendents also principals, and teachers often fear the imple- have no educationalbasisfor advOcating mentation of desegregation because itis dis- desegregation since the research findings on ruptive. It often requires complicated atten- academic outcomes are inconclusive. At the dance plans, student and'teacher transfers as same time, traditional backers of the school well as provisions and facilities for new stu- board (those most actively involved and those dents in a school. Although these participants who provide the schools' financial base), most in the desegregation process could provide a often white middle-income parents, are often strong voice of support which might calm opposed to or at least divided over the issue of parental fears about and promote a smooth desegregated schools. At the same time the transition to desegregated ,schools, they have board, entrusted with the task of implementing usually not done so. Political reasons for this desegregation at the district level, faces failure are discussed in the two subsections counter pressures from other local interests. which follow. Groups, including civil rights groups, who Teacher organizations have also been favor desegregation rimy also represent a new relatively inactive in desegregatio'n although community force with which the school board some have come to the aid of black teachers must contend. This withdrawal of traditional who tended to be displaced when desegrega- support, coupled with the confrontation with tion occurred. new interest groups, is seen as a difficulty which may prevent the board from taking any V. 4.a. School Boards and Administrators. decisive action, thus increasing the possibility Local school boards have been involved in of conflict. desegregation struggles for a long period of One proposed solution to the board's dilem- time. During the 1950's, school boards tried to ma has been to set up citizen advisory commit- forestall the desegration forces by upgrading tees and hold public meetings to symbolize black schools: Later, local boards in other community participation and legilimization of areas affected by increasingresidential decisions on desegregation imph o'ation. It segregation also made attempts to avert the has been suggested, however, that groups court's attention by developing plans for some areeffectiveonly when theyi. ..udein- desegregation of schools. (See, for example, dividuals who are influentialin the com- Stout' and Sroufe 1968.) munity. Many have argued that local school boards (For an interesting case study of one school have little real power as a result of the in- board's attemptto develop aprovisional creased politicalization of education which, in desegregation plan, see Stout and Sroufe 1968; many cases, has placed the educational deci- for the effect of school board dissention on sion-making process in the hands of state conflict over desegregation, see Vander legislators, Also, the consolidation of school Zanden 1958, and Kirby and Crain 1974; for districts, which limits parental access and in- the influence of community leaders on local 4 3 39 desegregation, see King and Mayer 1972. and for the effect on reducing violence and dis- Kirby and Crain 1974.) cipline, see Pettigrew 1975. There is some literature concerned with the V. 4.b. Teachers. Soon after the 1964 Civil role of teacher organizations in desegregation. Rights Act ordered large-scale and immediate Once article by Myers (1966) suggests that the desegregation of public schools, it became ap- American Federation of Teachers (AFT), parent that faculty desegregation would not through its locals, can plan a valuable role in proceed at the same rate as desegregation of desegreption if its members recognize that student bodies. An immeuiate consequence of desegregationisa part of a larger school desegregation was a reduction in the number of reform and educational improvement move- black teachers and administrators. Typically, ment. However, a look at the literature on whenever black students were transfered to teacher groups suggests they have taken a white schools, black teachers were dismissed or :.z.,,itedand sometimes negative stand on transfered to crowded black schools. When scuool desegregation. whole schools were closed (which most fre- Groff (1962) and Dewing (1968) present quently happened to black schools ostensibly overviews of AFT and NEA (National Educa- because their facilities were not as good as tion Association) policy regarding school those in white schools), teachers, principals, desegregation since the 1930's. They suggest and other staff members were often left without that because uf their size and collective nature, jobs. In some states school districts changed these organizations are often forced to take a certification policies, failed to renew contracts, moderate position with regard to controversial and harassed teachers who were black or who issues like desegregation. On the other hand, as advocated civil rights. This practice enabled early as 1954 NEA was involved in protecting the districts to hire more conservative white the, rights Ct black teachers who lost their jobs teachers. In other places, black teachers were as a consequence of desegregation. Initially assignedto desegregatedschoolsin some NEA provided counseling and advice as well "special" capacity, such as black student coun- as limited financial assistance to displaced selor or special education teacher, which kept teachers. In 1965 they organized a drive to them isolated from contact with most of the raise one million dollars to help with legal fees predominantly white students. These tactics made necessary by school administrative at- also reduced job opportunities for black grad- tempts to block the hiring and rehiring of black uates in education. (For more information, see teachers in newly desegregated districts. (See National Commission on Professional Rights Commission on Professional Rights and and Responsibilities of the National Education Responsibilities of the National Education Association 1965, Ozmon 1965, and Egerton Association 1965.) 1967.) One reference notes specifically how a local Since 1970, more strict policies for teacher teacher organization can affect segregation. assignments have been established at the insis- Sobel (1973:2; cites an incident where teachers tence of black leaders and the National Educa- blocked the implementation of a research tion Association. Although itis scanty, some program which would have substantially in- research now exists which indicates the_ posi- creased documentary evidence of the value of tive effects that black teacners, principals, and integrated education: "T hey did so because other staff members can have in desegregated they were fearful that the project might reveal schools. For information on the positive out- racism among some of the teaching staff and comes of black teachers and staff as role possibly lead to dismissal, loss of tenure, com- models for black children, see Lamanna 1965; munity favor, or something similar. Sobel also forpositiveeffects on black achievement suggests that the developing pattern of teacher scores, see Spady 1973; for positive effects on organization and teacher militancy may be 'educational attainment, see Darkenwald 1975; linked to white resistance to social race mixing, 4 4 40 representing one of the more covert deterrents in lower groups. Because of this segregative to desegregation which runs through society. effect, "racially identifiable" classes have been frowned upon by federal agencies and the V. 5. Educational Programs and Practices courts in some cases have found tracking Related to Desegregation systems to be in violation of the Constitution. Relative to the elaborate preparation that (See Section 111.1.e.). went into designing busing plans and redraw- Another phenomenon encountered in ingdistrictlinesto achieve desegregated desegregated schools involVes the expulsion of schools, changes in the educational system it- black students by various formal and informal self as a result of desegregation have been means such as suspensions. These students, re- slight. A number of reasons have been sug- ferredtoas "pushouts"intheliterature gested for this. Limitations on the school's describing suchpatterns,are seeninthe ability to change may stem from lack of com- schools as behavior and disciplinary problems. munity committment to desegregation which Another approach, compensatory educa- results in refusals to vote bond issues to finance tion, involves the provision of remedial programs for meeting the individual needs of programs designed to aid students disadvan- new studentsinthe schools (M. Deutsch taged by their home environments. These 1967a) as well as from resistance by school programs were originally developed to correct personnel to innovations which threaten exist- "cultural deprivation" which was posited as a ing and familiar patterns of the social cause of depressed educational outcomes for organization of the school, such as means of minority and lower-income children. Federal controlling and grouping pupils and status support for these programs provided through relationships among staff members (Willover, the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Educa- et al. 1973, Baratz 1975). Eddy (1975) in one tion Act provided a stimulus for the develop- of the few anthropological studies of the ment -of this approach,- For .various reasons, desegregation process, found that a new educa- support for compensatory education is waning. tionalprogram, introducedsimultaneously Another way of conceptualizing improved with desegregation, helped to re-establish tra- education and increased educational oppor- ditional social status positions. According to tunity for minority students in desegregated Eddy's analysis, the program provided a vehi- schools' has been to focus upon diversifying cle for establishing black-white faculty rela- education rather than homogenizing the stu- tionships where black teachers were placed in a dents. Differences in students are conceived as position of lesser autonomy relative to whites. differences in cultural bickgrounds. One of the Following the initial period of faculty goals stated in the Minnesota State Board of desegregation, once the relationships were Education Guideline, for eximple, contained established, the program was more-or-less dis- the following definition of inter-cultural- continued. education, as a goal of its system: Education programs utilized and practices ...that educational process.... by which all emergent in desegregated schools can be seen individuals gain a knowledge, respect, and primarily as approaches to handling probilems appreciation for the language patterns, resulting from increased diversity amonj the history, heritage, culture, values and con- student body. These approaches reflect tributions to mankind of minority groups assumptioas about the basis of the diversity with special emphasis on Black-Americans, and the value placed on assimilative versus Spanish-surnamed Americans, American- pluralistic models of American society. (See Indians and Orientals, so as to enable all in- Section 11.4.) dividuals tolivebetterin a pluralistic Tracking and ability grouping are methods society (1971:52). of dealing with perceived differences in learn- These approaches vary in their emphases on ing ability. Separation of children according to the degree to which all students are supposed criteria such as scores on standardized tests to become multi-cultural and the emphasis results in over-representation of black children placed on mutual respect. Ethnic studies was

4 5 41 an early emphasis in this approach. Although homogeneous mixture (referred to as "ability this trend has captured the attention of many grouping" or "tracking") has been,a subject of educators (see Stent, et al. 1973, for example) debate. A good history of research on the it has not received the attention on the national effects of grouping is provided by Goldberg, et level that the, shortcomings of compensatory al. (1966), where studies and discussion on the education and desegregation programs have. subjectsincethe1920s are, traced. This A characteristic of the programs which have research, centering upon the issue of whether been utilized, is that they tend to be based on'students of like ability should be grouped remedies .direeted primarily to the individual togetherforinstructionalpurposes,is in- student. Remedies focused upon, alteration of conclusive. the social, order of the school as a result of More recently, the question of grouping has many factors tend to be less .,frequent and become entangled with desegregation issues unddopted on a large scale. An interesting ex- since_minority- and lower-income children ample of such a proposed rethedy and one tend to be placed in lower tracts. A pair of arti- which is based upon a theoretical orientation, cles by Weber and Pearl (1966) illustrate this is referred to by Cohen`(1972a). This remedy trend. Weber argued that grouping can be ad-. harks back to one of the initial components of ministratively justified to further the progress the argument against segregation presented in of students of differing ability and achievement Brown. .There has been sOme research which along a uniform curriculum. Pearl argued suggests that one reason whischool desegrega- against grouping, stressing that slower groups tion has not produced uniformly positive out- frequently are minority or economically poor comes for black children is that the social stig, student groups. This "academically" based ma Of being black is oftenmeinforced in the separation then maintains segregation. Areen classroom, although sociaLratce mixing has oc- (1973) also argues against grouping via ay:k- curred. Katz and 'Benjamint(1960) and Cohen ing and inadequate testing procedures. Shesa3s (1972.a) found that Whemblack and white stu- that grouping reinforces the effects of yearsuall dents were askedto pc:dormtasksina discriminatory treatment in the education laboratory setting, a pattraln- of white domi- black children by tracking them in -separatc nance emerged. They ihrdieved this pattern to and unequal classrooms', (For further informa- be a result of higher expectations, held by both tion see Lacey 1966 and Johnson 1969.) blacks and whites, for members pf .the higher There has been some court action concern- status group (factors other than.. social race ing tracking (see Section III.1.e.). The aspect were controlled). Cohen .describes ,a training of tracking isolated by the courts as illegal has process investigated in the laboratory whereby black and white students' expectations about been the biased nature of assessment pro- the task-performing ability of blacks are cedures such as standardized tests. In a rare raided, thus producing a situation in which observational study, Rist (1973) found rigid blacks and whites may interact on an "equal within-class ability grouping in the St. Louis status" basis. Cohen cautions that achievement \classes he followed for two and a half years. differences can also provide a basis for a status Because of the longitudinal nature of the study order in classrooms because achievement is and dependence upon observation, he was pre- highly rewardedinschool. This achieve- sent to note the processes involved in forming mentbased order may often be confounded and maintaining the groups. He concludes that with the social-race status order, thus making the groups were initially established by the equal status contact between blacks and whites teacher on the basis of social class charac- and to achieve in a traditional school setting. teristics.If such subtle processes are V. 5.a. Tracking and Ability Grouping. widespread, court action may prove ineffective The educational value of a heterogeneous mix- toward such methods of isolation and dis- t ure of students by ability versus a criminatory treatment.

4 6 42

V. 5.b. Pushouts. In this form of resegrega- compensatory education umbrella and subse- tion, a disproportionate number of minority quent responses to these programs. students are expelled, suspended, or en- The moit-comprehensive early review of the couraged by informal means to leave school. different kinds of compensatory education Especially in the South, black students have programs in the U.S. from pre-school through suffered an unusually high number of school college tis found in Gordon and Wilkerson suspensions and expulsions since court-or- (1966). They delineate seven categories -of dered desegregation. emphases in the diverse range of remedies One of the most extensive evaluations of this associated with the educational problems of phenomenon is presented in a report by the disadvantaged youth. These include: Southern Regional Council and the Robert F. (1) re;ding and language development, Kennedy Memorial (1973). The report surveys (2) extra-curricular innovation, rules, regulations, practices, and disciplinary (3) counseling and guidance, methods used in Southern schools to push (4) parental involvement, and blacks out of schools. One finding was that the (5) community involvement. expulsion rate for black studerns was far The launching of Project Head Start in the greater than that for non-minority students.-sum merof 1965 by the Office ofconornic Op- There arealso ainumber of city-specificasudies portunity --asapart 'ofPregident Lyndon regardingfpushauts, such as those of 7CIarke Johnson's-War on Poventy represented massive (1973) anti: Miller (1975). Clarke's. study national involvement inycompensatory educa- closely Treanalyzed the findings of a_ New tion. Early interventiorrwas a major premise to Orleans l'atrish.:Superintendent's Task Fcrzezon Head Start- programs_ Elkind (1969:32) Suspensionsfor "1972. Clarke defined the ex- phrases the orientation .as follows: tent of praftiouts by a group-to-group com- If disadvantaged children were to 'profit parison of suspensions, finding indications of from what the schools had to offer, it was what he considered blatant racism. argued, then they need a "Head Start" in Recognition of pushouts as a desegregation- ordertocatch up with middle-class related problem has generated some children. oraganizatk ial response. Miller (1975) for . example, describes the Massachusetts Ad- Payne, et al. (1973) present a critical review of vocacy Center's School Desegregation Project the programmatic facets of Head Start imple- which provides representation to individual mentation that encompasses paraprofessionals' students in administrative hearings to assure roles, teachas' qualifications, lunch and snack that they were accorded due process and to provisionsnutritional quality and children's monitor student discipline practices during the food in-take, transportation for children and implementation of the desegregation order: parents, and parent and community involve- (For an additional source see Yudof 1975; ment. Their review delineates three distinct Demarest and Jorden 1975 present a detailed types of Head Start programs: 1) full yoar/part discussion of the legal aspects of suspensions.) day, 2) full year/full day, and 3) summer. They further provide a chronology of events in the V. 5.c. Compensatory Education. Com- development of Head Start, its move from the pensatory education programs burgeoned in aegis of the Office of Economic Opportunity to themid-sixties under the impetus of the HEW's Office of Child Development, and the theoretical notion of social and cultural shift in focus to day care centers during the deprivation of poor peoples in the United Nixon administration. Payne, et al. describe States. (See Section IV. 3.a. for a review of the Head Start programs and include an overview literature delineating this concept.) This sec- of the critical literature on Head Start, includ- tion identifies some of the principal literature ing the Westinghouse-Ohio Report, a study on the kinds of programs developed under the whose design was_ hotly debated, and whose

4 7 43 report on the lack of intellectual achievement 1969 about the lack of significant difference of previous Head Start enrollees did much to between Head Start and non-Head Start discredit this form of compensatory education children on tests of language development and in popular eyes. (For another critical evalua- the Stanford Achievement tests. There are tion, see White, et al. 1973. See also Smith and those who have found little evidence through Bissell 1970.) The Payne book also presents a test scores that compensatory education has number of proposals for "corrective practices had a positive impact -on the intellectual for Head Start type programs, including a ma- achievement of so-called disadvantaged school jor component on "Teaching Parents How. to children, sufficient to justify the,,large financial Teach." Basically, the Payne recoMmendations input to the programs. view,*mechanisarts ofparent and community Other critics have spoken from a different actioninvolvemenvolHeadStart as in keepingperspective. For example; Baratz_ and Baratz with OEO's "community -action" oriental=(1970) criticize early intervention .programs rather thanuakingcriticaVview of-programs: for the ethnocentric judgments encompassed in on the.basiceofaheir underlying assumptions:,the goals of these programs to alter the black about the:.culture oEthe children. child's home environment including changing As, delineateth-irr Gordon and Wilkersom patterns of child-rearing in theJ home and (1966)1Land_a _more recent selected survey- replacing the child's languagegand cognitive CompensatoryitW.ucation Programs, Ages 2 to skills. These goals and their implementation edited by JuliamC..Stanley (1973), the initial:procedures stem, ,according to _the Baratzes, impetus of Head:Staxes early intervention was.,from an ignorance of black culture and deny expanded througlrthe initial Elementary and important strengths within that culture that Are Secondary Education Act of 1965 and later:integral for designing successful early -Child- acts to-provide on-going intensified programs hood programs. Stanley (1973) sums up a more of remedial and special educational'services to fundamental issue thatcritics such-as -the- children from homes designated as disadvan- Baratzes label "intellectual racism," an issue taged. This expansion included initiation of that is often ignored_in the criticisms of those Follow Through Programs. in elementary who have argued against compensatory educa- schools and Upward Bound for high school tion on the basis-Of test scores: students. D. Cohen (1972) contrasts the suc- "compensatory education," as presently cess of Upward Bound programs by their selec- understood, is counterproductive. It seems tion of promising (and motivated) participants to stem, on the one hand, from the kinds of late in high school and the program's concrete motivations Winschel (1970) describes goal of nearly guaranteed college matricula- prejudice, do-goodness, conscience-salving, tion for its graduates to the largely undifferen- and maintenance of the status,quoand, on tiated goals and undifferentiated clientele of the other hand, from a reluctance to tackle other compensatory education programs. He the larger project of revamping ,our entire further identifies and criticizes what he sees as educational structure (Stanley 1973:205). common assumptions about the impact of The differences between these two sets of schooling performance on -adult suceas in the Oritics, in other words, seem to lie in the degree job and social world, and about education as to which an assimilative versus a pluralistic an adequate eradicant of poverty via upward model of American society is held. (See Sec- jobmobility thatunderlie a diversity of tion 11.4.) In any event, support for compen- specific compensatory education pro- satory education has been seriously-eroded. jects/goals. "the assumption he questions is: "that there has been plenty of room at the top V. 5.d. Multi-cultural Approaches. and that schooling was the appropriate escala- Emergent in the late 1960's was a trend. to tor" (D. Cohen 1972.153). replace the heavy emphasis on compensatory A range of other criticisms have put corn- educationeschewed for its negative connota- pensatory educationindisfavor since the tionswith ethnic and culturalheritage Westinghouse Report's initial evaluation in programs in elementary and secondary public 44 schools.In recommending passage of the School Public Relations Association Emergency School Aid and Quality Integrated 1970:4). EduCation bill, the House committee (as The survey also reported descriptive infor- quoted in Giles 1974:6) iterated flit vial of mation about curriculum projects in selected this shift in emphasis by its concluskon that: U.S. cities that follow a second philosophy in children with differing languages and implementing a multi-cultural approach: cultures must be allowed tolearn and separate courscs on ethnic groups, such as respect the language and culture' of the African heritage classes in schools, or high group to which they belong. All children school coursesrequired or electiveranging will benefit from an opportunity to learn from Afro-American history to Swahili to about the diverse cultural heritage_of their Latin American and Asian studies. classmates. A more recent and evaluative look at school A heterogeneous school environment as prere- district curriculum guides and programs that quisite for achieving equality of educational follow these two philosophies operative in the opportunity was thereby set forth not only as a ethnic studiesfieldispresentedinGiles matter of the composition of schoolTpopula- (1974). In reviewing Afro-American studies tions by social race, but integration andquality programs from a number of school districts, he education were explicitly expanded irudefini- noted variations as to whether there are separ- tion to encompass the curriculum as men. ate black studies courses for black students The impetus for multi-cultural:approaches only, separate courses for minority studies for in school curricula, however, predates-dederal white students, and so forth. He labels and statute recognition. Its developmental direc- criticizes three distinct orientations to black tions can be viewed in a diverse range of cur- studies: contributionism, black identify, and a riculum and teacher resource guides initiated thematic approach. from the mid-sixties on by individual school Controversy discernable in the literature systems (see Daheim 1965, and New York City over ethnic study approaches to education Board of Education 1968 for early examples) reflects some of the major controversies in- in response to majority student needs/pressures herentinthedifferences between geneml for relevant course content or to state cur- perspectives on desegregation (see Section 11.) riculum reform mandates. nib trend largely and argued in the question of the causes of invedved what became referred to as "ethnic educational failure (see Section IV). A year- studies." (For example, see the Pennsylvania book published by the National Council forthe State Department of Public Instruction's Social Studies on teaching ethnic studiespro- booklet by Haller 1970, designed to answer vides a good example of the underlying themes . sociah studies teachers'questions about imple- as manifest in critiques by proponents of ethnic menting new state:regulations that require in- study approaches. One contributor to the tegrating "major contributions made by volume edited by Banks (1973), Larry Cuban, Negroes and other racial and ethnic groups" focuses on the teacher as the most important into all state public school courses on United variable in achieving multi-cultural perspec- States and Pennsylvania-history.) tives and addresses questions of teacher at- A major ,divisionin approaches to cur- titudes, behavior, and strategies as well as riculum integration has to do with the degree academic training, Anthropologist Mildred to which "ethnic studies" is set apart from Dickeman locates what she calls the racist other cour.Y:s. One philosophy stated in a 1970 design of schools in their function to perpetu- survey by Education U.S.A. as that advocated ate American middle-class economic goals that by nearly all educators holds that: pit personal individual success against family theultimate andideal way tohandle and kinship loyalties in which ethnic het .i.age is material on blacks and other ethnic groups rooted. Thus, she cautions that ethnic studies is to weave it into the regular curriculum as which emphasize culture hero "success" stories an integral part of everything that is taught may undercut the very ethnic identity they aim from kindergarten to grade 12 (National to reaffirm, Contributor Barbara Sizemore 49 45 contends that curriculum revision and teacher multi-cultural approaches already reelved in recruitment alone are band-aid approaches. maintaining that: Multi-cultural learning must involve a restruc- ... theinstructural use of thepanish turing of schools so that they become institu- languaire in the.classroom is not stient in tions for education rather than indoctrination. itself to improve the education e,if: these At present, multi-cultural approaches are in a children and that a new curriculum must be formative period. The criticisms given in the devised withculturalas well aslanguagere- 1973 volume referred to above indicate that quirements. A truly effective program of with regard to ethnic studies, one of the earliest bilingual education should encompass m_anifestations, multi-cultural approaches bicultural education as well. Irstentld in- were still in 1973 a subject of debate as to what clude'.systematic curricular covemmof the constitute their essential characteristics. history ancl heritageof Puerto Rim In fact, A second basic multi-cultural approach such inclusions often are as :important for which hasto some extent augmented or the student's effective development..:as the replaced the ethnic studies emphasis (Giles use of the Spanish language is forctitvelop- 1974:146) concerns more basic elements of the ing his cognitive skills, or as the larning of learning-teaching matrix. To some extent English as a second language is for his socio- based upon and respondentto cultural economic survival (1973:234). differences (see Section IV.3.d.), these ap- The methodological issues delineated by proaches consider alternative learning styles "bilingual education" approaches are'also evi- thattendto vary with ethnic backgroud. denced in the questions raised by educators Bilingual programs represent one direction of and linguists about the distinct and systematic suchanapproach. A legalprecidentfor characteristicSfEnglish spokon byAfro- bilingual programs was setin1968 by the American children...Which-is called try various Bilingual Education ActTitle V11 of the terms: Non-Stantlard Negro EngliSh, -"Black Elementary and Secondary Education Act. English" (Aatons;:-.-et: al. 1969;3)illard 1:973). Frahcesco Cordasco, with Diego, Identification of-lhe structure -of thissspoken Castellanos (Banks 1973), -presents an over- languageis viewed by many as :a-..-Ikey .to view of thislegislationinthe context of developing:processes Of teaching rentliing:--to methodological issues involved in educating -Mack children. Puerto Rican children who enter the public school system from homes in which Spanish is V. 5.e. Staff. icittjustment.Although there the spokenlanguage.Education forsuch are a few studies of-the social processes which children, these authors state, must begin with occur in the establishment of behavioral pat- the languare of the child: terns in newly desegregated schools,(Petterson While learning to read and write his mother 119'75, Eddy 1975), theitopiclhas primatilykeen tongue [Spanish], the child needs careful a concern of prograrn_developers seeking to traininginlearning, understanding, and assistteachersinthe transition.Five ap- speaking English as a Second Language proaches are discern:able in these desegrega- (ESL) through an aural-oral approach tion training programs. before learning to read and writeit. One such approach places major emphasis (1973:231) upon increasing personnel sensitivity toward Thus, "bilingual education" is defined as in- the ethnic student's problems. Frequently struction in two languages. The alternative to programs centered around such topics are-pre- using both English and Spanish as media of in- sented at summer institutes or in the form of in- struction of the school's curriculum for Puerto service courses. An example of such an in- Rican children has been, according to Cor- stitute is described by Fielder and Dychman dasco and Castellanos, "functional illiteracy" (1967). This institute was held for a selected in both languages (Banks 1973:228). However, group of teachers and community members to these authors tbllow the impetus of other develop skills, techniques, and understandings

rU 46 necessary to solve problems incident to socialscientists to undertake many varied desegregation. (Also see Banaka, et al. 1971.) studies of social race mixing in the educational A second approach includes curriculum system. Some of these studies, which will be guides and teacher guide books for multi- discussed in this section, are directed at in- ethnic classrooms. An example of such a vestigating the consequences for children and handbook is.one developed by the federally staff of mixing blacks and whites in schools and funded Far 'West Laboratory for Education classrooms. Research and Development to acquaint school Research on social race mixing, or personnel with data relevant to black people in desegregation, in schools usually focuses on the U.S. (Forbes n.d.). Other handbooks of this differences between students in segregated and type are oriented toward human relations. (See desegregated situations. One problem in com- Oklahoma State Department of Education paring findings from these studies lies in the 1971 and Arnez 1973.) fact that "desegregated" school settings have The third approach advocates establishment been defined by a range of black-white ratios. of special teaching and counselor positions to Pettigrew (1969) has argued that desegregated help in desegregation. Smith (1971), for exam- schools may vary widely in the quality of inter- ple, details how a guidance counselor model racial contact that takes place within them. could be revised to be more influential for When the school climate is characterized by a black students. (Also see Kaplan and Coleman high degree of interracial acceptance, more 1963, and, Bryson and Mowu 1973.) positive outcomes may be expected. There are A fourth approach seeks to analyze student other problems as well. Some studies compare behavior in such a way as to help teachers and desegregated schools while others compare counselors deal with multi-racial classes. For classrooms. The circumstances under which example, Noar 1966 provides a guide for desegregation takes place, such as school atten- beginning teachers who will be involved in dance plani, chinging residential patterns and desegregation. Other references following this ability grouping are also important. These are mode are Willie 1964, Klopf and Bowman significant differences which are sometimes ig- 1966, Burger 1968, and Vontress 1969. nored in interpreting research results. A final approach reflecting perhaps the The outcomes variables, or theconse- "human potential movement" is psychology in- quences of desegregation, can be grouped cluded sensitivity training through directed under three major headings: educational, psy- small group interaction. Westphal 1970, for chological, and social outcomes. These head- example, describes such training sessions used ings reflect the particular orientations of the in Minneapolis to make city personnel more social scientists who have done the majority of aware of attitudes that can frustrate equal op- the work on desegregation outcomes. Because portunity programs. Irvine and Brierley 1973 many studies have been narrowly focused, describe another series of sessions or there has been little attempt to integrate the workshops which were conducted toassist findings from these diverse approaches; teams of public school teachers and principals, however, the findings under each contribute to involving both blacks and whites, in interper- a general understanding of the consequences of sonalrelations. For other examples see desegregation. The outcome variables, too, Caliguir 1970, T. Clark 1970, Levine and have been variously defined and willbe Mares 1970, and Lowe 1973. described in the subsections which follow. To date, most of the research has focused on VI. RESEARCH ON OUTCOMES the early grades and has been conducted in the OF DESEGREGATION North where neighborhood or natural desegregation (changes in school populations Beginning in the late 1950's, interest in the as a result of changing residential patterns), effects of desegregation on public school led rather than desegregation which requires 5 1 :47

large-scale transfer of pupils, is the rule. This indicate a need to look at a multiplicity of fac- research has been carried by white investiga- tors rather than isolated variables when in- tors. Most of the studies also have been cross- vestigating desegregation outcomes. sectional in design, meaning that they compare Reviews of the research on outcomes of black and white children across schools of desegregation are presented in Weinburg differing racial percentages. There has been (1968) and St. John (1975). St. John's work is less emphasis on longitudinal studies which especially good for its appendices which list would allow a look at the effects of sustained studies under each of the outcome variables by change as students proceed through desegreg- location, target population, instruments, con- ated schools. Both types of studies, however, trols, and tests used as well as summaries of often fail or are unable to match students in comparisons made and results obtained. Wein- comparison groups by characteristics such as burg reviews a large number of unpublished family background, school quality, or achieve- works. Volume 39 (No. 2, 1975) of the journal, ment scores upon entering the desegregated Law and Contemporary Problems,include short situation in order that observed differences be- recent overviews of the research_ on these out- tween segregated and desegregated blacks may come variables. be explained by other variationssuch as school quality. Case studies, though not VI. 1. Educational Outcomes necessarily representative, would provide By far the greatest amount of desegregation more information on the process of desegrega- research time and money has been spent on in- tion and the subsequent establishment of social vestigating the question: What effects does patterns than do cross-sectional or social race mixing have on educational success longitudinalstudies based on limited for black and white children? The most am- knowledge of the cultural context. bitious work on educational outcomes is the After nearly two decades, desegregation national survey conducted by James Coleman research remains at the descriptive level in the and associates (Coleman, et al. 1966) entitled sense that it has mainly documented what has Equality of Educational Opportunity Survey happened as a result of desegregation. Studies (EEOS). This survey was conimissioned by the have demonstrated patterns of black-white U.S. Congress as a provision of the 1964 Civil differences on outcome variables, but attempts Rights Act and was designed to investigate the - at generalizing black-white patterns have not availability of educational opportunities in been particularly successful. Non-significant public education to individuals by social race, or mixed findings for research hypotheses, the color, religion, and national origin. The wide range of background and extraneous research involved studying 570,000 school variables which are hard to measure but which children and 60,000 teachers at 4,000 schools. may theoretically be considered influential, as Although psychological and social outcomes well as differences in sample populations, tests were investigated as part of this research, the administered, variables studied and con- primary emphasis, was on the explanation of trolled, measures used for eliciting informa- differences in educational outcomes. In in- tion, and procedures used in analyzing data terpreting their task, the researchers defined limit the comparability of research efforts. educational outcomes rather narrowly as There has generally been a lack of theoretical academic achievement and investigated the development inthefieldof desegregation effects of family background, school cur- research and, as a result, little is understood riculum and facilities, and teacher and student about why desegregation has such different body characteristics on academic achievement results in different situations. test scores. TO'conclude, findings from the desegrega- Most studies of educational effects, both tion research .to date suggest that social race before and after the Coleman.survey, have also mixing alone has little consistent effect on focused on achievement scores. A few studies black-white outcomes. Such different results investigate academic attainment (amount of 48 education completed) and subsequent occupa- tion and that most "desegregated" schools had tional attainmetit as indicators of educational only a few token blacks and remained pre- success. dominantly white. These conditions no longer Staff displacement and changes in the exist in many parts of the country where court educational system as a result of desegregation, decisions of the 1960's and early 1970's have which mightalso beconsidered outcomes of required desegregation programs which insure desegregation, have been included in Section racial balance through the requirement of dis- V. trict-wide desegregation or large-scale busing. From the mid 1960's to the present, achieve- VI. 1.a. Academic Achievement. ment and IQ test scores rather than grades Academic achievement is the variable most have been used as the criterion for measuring often used to measure the effect of desegrega- academic growth because they were believed to tion on students'eifiltational success. represent an objective measure of children's Academic achievement in desegregation progress in school. Recently problems associ- research has usually been assessed by compar- ated with the use of these tests have been ing standardized IQ or achievement test scores pointed out, and the assumption that they are (verbal and math achievement scores are "objective" measures has been challenged. sometimes evaluated separately or they may be Since test scores are sometimes used to assign lumped as an indication of general ability) for students to classrooms,.as with ability group- blacks in segregated versus desegregated ings, or associated with selection of students schools, for blacks in desegregated schools for schools where special programs are offered with national test score norms, or by compar- as incentives to desegregation, blacks and ing the extent of the gap between black and whites of unusually high ability may be con- white scores for students in the two types of centrated in certain "desegregated" situations. schools. If these situations are included as cases in the A number of cautions are advised when in- sample studied, achievement score changes terpreting the results of research on desegrega- willreflect selection processes rather than tion and academic achievement. First, chang- desegregation effects. Secondly, a number of ing social and political climates manifest by studies have shown that these standardized such things as changing social-race composi- tests are biased in favor of white middle-in- tion of neighborhoods and changing desegrega- come children because the material covered by tion policies since 1954 (when comparative the tests is more likely to be familiar to those data on black-white differences on standar- children than to minority group children (see dized test scores were first published) makes SectiOn IV. 3.c for more information on this cross-study comparisons tenuous. In the earlier argument). Others have suggested that achieve- studies (those before1966), for example, ment scores measure conceptual abilities achievement was sometimes measured by which are developed through the interaction of grades as well as by test scores. Increases in parents with their children before they enter black achievement scores for desegregated school rather than skills which the school itself pupils were more frequently reported during is trying to teach and for which the school that period. The use of grades as measures of should be held accountable (see, for example, achievement was soon discouraged because it Shaycoft 1967). The importance of trio ques- was felt that teachers' perceptions of academic tion of how well achievement scores measure standards and evaluation as well as the content what is learnfd in schools has been recently of the material they taught differed so greatly underscored by the factthat desegregated both within and between schools as to severely blacks tend to do better than segregated blacks grades. These earlyresults may also on math, but not verbal achievement scores. reflect the fact that most blacks in desegre- (For reports of studies which investigate these gated schools during that period were there by and other important variables with regard to choice as a result of neighborhood desegrega- achievement and desegregation, see Denmark 49

1970, St. John and Lewis 1971, and Mayer, et comprised between 10% and 75% of the al. 1974.) Since math skills are learned pri- population. marily in school, math tests may more ac- Other factors which have recently been in- curately reflect the effect of school conditions vestigated for their effects on achievement- on achievement. These potentially con- scores include procedures for achieving taiminating situations must be carefully con- desegregation (Armor 1972a and Pettigrew, et trolled and the limitations of the measur-% al. 1973) and the quality of teachers (see, for used must be considered in evaluating reported example, St. John 1971, and Hanushek 1972): changes in academic achievement with desegregation. VI. Lb. Educational Attainment. In In general, studies have shown that black evaluating theeffects of desegregation on students' scores do not geem to be adversely education, a few researchers have investigated affected by the desegregated situation and may the relationship between attendance at improve substantially in certain circumstances. desegregated versus segregated schools and the However, the achievement gap between black number of years students stayinschools and white students remains and tends to in- (educational attainment). Like those reported crease with grade level. Overall, Gndings are for the effects of desegregated on academic mixed on the question of whether or not achievement, findings on educational attain- desegregation significantly improves the scores ment are incbnclusive. There is some evidence of black students. No adverse effects on whites' to suggest that desegregated blacks and par- achievement scores have been reported except ticularly those who enter desegregated schools in cases where they attendpredominantly at an early age are likely to attain more years black schools. However, changing background of education than those who stay segregated, characteristics of the white population in pre- but there remains a substantial gap between dominantly black schoOls as a :result of in- median years of education for *desegregated creased pressure to desegregate allpublic black versus white students (see, for example, schools has not been carefully studied. Crain 1971 and Hanushck 1972). Surprisingly, little research effort has been Recently several researchers have suggested expended oninvestigatingthe black-white that whatever gains some black students in ratio most faVorable to improved black scores. desegregated schools are making in educa- Coleman, et aL's data (1966) suggested that tional attainment are more than offset by the school social-class differences accounted for increased number of black students who drop- the effects of percentage white on achievement out, are pushed out or are expelled from scores, but the U.S. Commission on Civil desegregated schools, thus restricting their ac- Rights (1967b) reported that when both cess to many jobs .(see, for example, Watson family, school, and social class were con- 1975 and Armor 1972b). (For other factors trolled, blacks in majority white classrooms which affect dropout and pushout rates for didsignificantlybetter.In an attempt to blacks, see Section VI. 3. Also see Section V. resolve this apparent contradiction, Cohen, 5.b.) Results from the Coleman Survey indi- Pettigrew, and Riley (1972) reanalyzed the cate that high school dropout rates and college EEOS data and found that the effect of school attendance are not related to social race when social-class was shared with theeffect of racial family background and test scores are con- composition, and the two could not be disen- trolled; however the research was conducted tangled. Jencks and Brown (1975), in another before large-scale desegregation was under- reanalysis of EEOS, compared achievement way. Others,have called into question the im- test scores for first and sixth graders while con- portance of number of years of formal educa- trolling for racial composition. Findings sug- tion. gested that the highest gains for both blacks The perceived link between educational at- and whites occurred in sbhools which were tainment and occupational attainment has been 51% to 75% white. However, blacks one of the factors underlying interest in how registered some gains in all schools where they long children stay in school. This belief that formal educational attainment is a good pre- social and educational conditions determine dictor of income level or occupation was psychological outcomes remain unresolved. brought under suspicion by a highly publicized The section has been divided into five por- analysis of the Coleman data by Jencks, et al. tions which cover the major aspects of per- (1972). That study demonstrates the difficulty sonality investigated in relation to desegrega- in trying to establish a direct relationship be- tion. For a good recent review of what is tween years in school and eventual income known about the psychological impact of level. Jencks, etal. argued that equalizing desegregation, see Epps 1975. educational attainment will not alleviate the economic inequality existing between blacks VI. 2.a. Orientation Toward Achieve. and whites in the United States today. These ment. An early study which provided the basis findings and their interpretation have been for much of the later work on desegregation subjected to much criticism including the fact and achievement orientation was conducted by that some high-paying jobs require little for- Rosen. Writing in 1959, he hypothesized that mal education, while at the same time some different social mobility rates for black and very low7paying jobs, such as teaching, require white adults could be explained by dissimilar considerable education. Despite the criticisms, orientations toward achievement. These the Jencks, et al. position has served to weaken different orientations were thought to come the beliefs of those wfio support education as a about as a result of differing 'socialization pat- means of reducing inequality and stratification terns in the home. Rosen broke down what he in America. called the "achievement syndrome" into three eleMents: motivation or inclination to achieve, values which guide preferences and goals, and VI. 2. Psychological Outcomes educational and occupational aspirations. Though not as extensively researched as Rosen found that blacks scored as high or educational outcomes, the psychological higher than whites on educational aspirations effects of school desegregation have always and that both placed a high value on achieve- been considered important. The 1954 Brown ment, butblacks scored much lower on decision was supported in part by reports of a motivation to achieve. Rosen concluded that number of social scientists who indicated in the reality of segregation for blacks had not en- their findings that school segregation produced couraged the development of behavior pat- a detrimental psychological effect on black terns which would lead to achievement of children. Concern over the psychological costs desired goals. of desegregationisstill being voiced, par- This framework for conceptualizing the ticularly in regard to token blacks or whites in relationship between psychelpgical-and social "desegregated" schools (see, for example, Rist factors which contribute to"success" was 1976). characteristic of much of the work which As has been characteristic of work on other followed on the impact of desegregation on outcomes, attempts at integrating the material orientation toward achievement in schools. It on psychological effects has been hampered by was repeatedly found that most black parents differences in research design and the biases of aspired to the same or high% level of attain- researchers working in the field. Some have ment for their children as did white parents stressed improving aspects of personality as (see, for example, Krysta, Chesler, and White ends in themselves because they improve the 1967 and Smith, Flory, Bashshur, and Shan- state of black mental health, while others have non 1967). The fact that black children seldom focused on personality factors as they affect achieved those high goals was explained by the educational outcomes. Very little work has fact that black parents had been denied the op- emphasized the role of peer groups on psy- portunity to compete in the white-dominated chological outcomes. Theoretical issues such sector of society, had not developed the as the relationship among various intraper- behavioral mechanisms for success in the white sonal characteristics and the extent to which world, and therefore could not train their :5 5 51 childrenin them (see,for example, Katz of control was greater for desegi egated blacks. 1967a). This finding has led some researchers to argue Inspite of thefactthatdifferencesin that increased sense of control compensates for academic motivation were thought to exist be- lowered aspirations.. inmotivating achieve- tween blacks andwhites, the element of ment. Increased satisfaCtion with school as ex- achievement orientation which has received pressed by desegregated blacks is another posi- the most attention with regard to desegregation tive outcome which has been associated with is the different levels of educational and oc- increased academic motivation (see, for exam- cupational aspirations of blacks and whites. ple, Williams and Venrlitti 1969). Most studies of aspirations have been done on high school students through the use of ques- VI. 2.b. Self-Concept.The study of how tionnaires which ask about plans and expecta- self-concept is affected by desegreation has tions for the future, Findings have shown that been carried nut under a number of names in- black students in segregated schools tend to cluding self-confidence, self-image, and self- have higher aspirations than those in desegreg- esteem. Self-concept as used here encompasses ated schools (see, for example, Armor I 972a, all of theseand the concept is usually defined Bachman 1970). Blacks were found to be more as the feelings one has about self which come likely to want to attend college but less likely about as a result of interaction with others. to have taken steps to prepare themselves for Since the 1930's, psychologists have postul- college (see, for example, Coleman, etal. ated that the social -stigma attached to being 1966). There is also evidence to suggest that black produced a low self-concept. Seward blacks define their life chances in terms of the (1956) argued that skin color was an integral more restricted range of opportunities which part of the concept of self. Studies of the have traditionally been available in the black development of racial awareness in children communitysuch as attending black univer- suggest that from the ages of three to seven, sities and training for jobs such as teachers, children are learriing labels and affective con- doctors, and ministers (see, for example, Falk notations associated with social race groups and Cosby 1974). (see Goodman 1964, Proshansky and Newton The fact that aspirations seem to be higher 1968). Clark and Clark (1947) demonstrated for segregated blacks has led some researchers that both black and white children preferred to hypothesize that the desegregated black stu- white dolls over black dolls and that more dent lowers his aspirations to a more realistic positive character traits were associated with level because direct contact with whites pro- the white dolls. A large number of studies since vides him with a better understanding of the that time have confirmed the Clarks' finding competition he muzt face to get through school and have demonstrated the range of negative successfully and to acquire a job. Some argue connotations which both whites and blacks that reduced and more realistic aspirations associate with black skin color. (See, for exam- should increase the academic motivation of ple, Williams 1966; Williams, Best, Wood and black students (see, for example, Katz I 967a). Filler 1973, and Redisch and Weissback 1974; It has been argued, on the other hand that con- for a study of the resukant anxiety which tact with whites ina desegregated school black, feel, see McDonald .1970.)-A few recent demoralizes blackstudents,thus reducing st' have suggested that this, tendency to aspirations as well as motivation (see, for ex- assu,,ate black skin color and negative charac- ample, Bachman 1970). Tests of these hy- teristics may no longer be as pronounced potheses are inconclusive (see, for example, among either blacks or whites (see, for exam- Hall and Wiant 1973, Veroff and Peele 1969). ple, Brigham 1974). The need for elimination Still another approach to dealing with the ap- of the debilitating effects of segregation on parent negative effect of desegregation on self-concept was cited as evidence favoring aspirations has been to link aspirations with an desegregation in the 1954 Brown decision. It individual's sense of control over his environ- was hoped that desegregation of schools would ment. Coleman, et al. (1966) found that sense improve black self-concepts. 5 6 Although some studies have indicated that turnto non-academic reference groups in direct contact between blacks and whites does which they can enjoy the rewards of impor- increase self-concept and produce better cross- tance and high status. In an interesting study, color understanding (see, for example, Coles Shaw (1974) shows thatblack and white 1963, 1967; Busk, Ford and Schulman 1973; children differ with regard to aspects of self- and for positive results among adults, see Pet- concept. Blacks, for example, see themselves as tigrew I969a). The composite findings show no more hostile and more independent than significant differencesinself-conceptasa whites although overall black-white self-con- result of desk gegation. St. John (1975) charts cept scores are not significantly affected by ten studies on self-concept which indicate that desegregation of the schools. Denmark (1970) black self-concept decreases as percentage reports that self-concepts of black males im- white in the classroorn increases. (See prove more than those for black females in a especially Rosenberg and Simons 1970.) Cole- desegregated situation. She suggests this find- man, et al. (1966) found that self-concept fell ing may be due to the fact that males can as a result of desegregation while sense of con- achieve higher status positions in the school, as trolover environment rose.McPartland's in sports, which are not available to girls (see (1968) reanalysis of Coleman'.s data confirmed also Yarrow, Campbell and Yarrow 1958 for the finding and, as was the case with orienta- more on the special hardships encountered by tion toward achievement, sense of environmen- desegregated girls). tal control was posited as a positive outcome of desegregation which might compensate for VI. 2.c. Anxiety. From the outset, many lowered self-concept. It is also argued that the social scientists have worried about the emo- advantages of direct black-white contact on tional strain which black children entering self-concept may be offset for blacks by fear of newly desegregated schools might feel. Cer- failure, perception of a very wide gap between tainly there were reasons for concern: Jflack ability levels, or feelings that probability of students would be entering schools as strangers success in school is low because whites seem to and as perceived inferiors. St. John (1975) perform better and have access to more status- summarizes seven articles which report the rewarding activities. relation of school desegregation to measured Since self-concept is defined in terms of an anxiety. Although a dominant concern of psy- individual's feeling about his status relative to chologists is the possible increase of emotional those with whom he has contact, it seems likely stress in black children with desegregation, St. that certain people will cxert more influence John points out the rather inconclusive results on self-concept than others. Some researchers of the studies. There generally is no significant have begun to focus on how different reference relation between increascd anxiety and groups or "audiences," such as parents, desegregation which has been isolated (for ex- neighborhood peers, and teachers and class- amples of studies on anxiety and desegrega- mates with which a child particularly identifies tion, see Mahan and Mahan 1971). or associates contribute to self-concept out- Studies by COles (1967), Nash (1968), and comes. Epps (1975) aruges that societal status Chesler and Segal (1970) document the fear is superseded by status within a small reference and rejection which early black desegregators group, especially for young children, and that felt, especially in the South. Coles' findings they. do not become aware of the stigma at- suggest, however, that these initially stressful tached to being black until they confront conditions were not permanently damaging whites at school, where whites receive more in- psychologically to most of the children in- stitutional rewards. A. Cohen (1968) argues volved, Other studies have suggestedthat that self-concept is dependent on a person's blacks are more anxious than whites about perception of how important he is to those being accepted by peers and teachers at school around him. Thus, the perception that whites (for brief summaries of the literature of these do better in school leads those blacks who do and otherfactorsrelatedto anxiety and not have the skills to compete academically to desegregation, see O'Reilly 1970, Chapter 3). 5 7 53

Katz I967a has suggested that the circum- attempt to explain the circumstances which stances surrounding desegregation as well as contribute to positive interracial settings, re- treatment of black students in desegregated cent attention has shifted away from a narrow schools are particularly important in deter- view of the social outcomes as being changes in mining anxiety levels. He fears that once anx- students' prejudicial attitudes about desegrega- - iety is produced as a result of feelings of rejec- tion and toward investigation of a variety of in- tion when blacks cannot compete in the white- dicators of the social milieu, including beliefs dominated school, the motivation levels and and preferences concerning interracial.contact thus the achievement levels of black children as well as behaviors which mark it. All partici- will further decline (for more on aspirations pants in a school are seen as contributing to the and motivations, see Subsection 2.a. above). social milieu through the attitudes they have about desegregation, different types of stu- VI. 3. Social Outcomes dents, and the education process. Desegregation has been supported by some Some researchers (Leaeock 1969, E. Cohen blacks and other Civil Rights advocates as a I 972b, for example) have drawn attention to means of alleviating gross discrimination the importance of thelargercontextfor against black minority group members in the evaluating social outcomes. Community at- United States. One of the original concerns of titudes toward the school would be one such social scientists and others who advocated factor. Another researcher along a similar line, desegregated schools was the reduction of the recently commented thatthe traditional social stigma attached to being black. classroom structure dominated by the teacher Although there have been myriad small-scale andstressingindividualachievement may studies of children's attitudes about and work against the development of close inter- preferences for same- vs. et oss-color associa- personal relationships among students in tion (stigma has been operationalized as racial general, thus limiting opportunity for positive attitudes), the question of whether or not cross- social interaction which might reduce pre- color contact in desegregated schools has pro- judice (Coleman 1976). In several instances, duced the desired social outcome of reducing case studies _have been used to investigate the stigma associated with being black remains social milieu in desegregated schools (see, for equivocal. The findings are that racialat- example, Fuchs 1969 and Kimball and Wagley titudes are affected by desegregation but the 1974; for the the same type of study on pre- direction of the change is unclear. Results of dominantly black schools, see Eddy 1967, studies such as those by Yarrow, Campbell, Leacock 1969, and Rist 1973). These studies and Yarrow (1958), Coles (1967), and Chesler provide valuable information on how particu- and Segal (1970) suggest that prejudiceis lar socialmilieu, especially the behavioral reducedwhileDentler andElkins'study aspects, influence outcomes. (1967) finds thatprejudice increascsina The subsections which follow are organizcd desegregated setting.St. John (1975) com- in terms of three principal indicators of inter- pared studies on social outcomes by grade racial social milieu: cross-color beliefs, cross- level, research design, behavior vs. attitude color acceptance, and cross-color interaction studies, type of desegregation plan, and in- patterns. dividual student characteristics and found only one consistent pattern in the findings: there is a VI. 3.a. Cross-Color Beliefs. The study of general preference for same-color members as cross-colorbeliefshas centered onthe friends and work partners. development of racial awareness, expectation'S Pettigrew ( I 969b) has underscored the im- of social race differences, and belief§ about ap- portance of the amount and type of interracial propriate interaction between blacks and contact which takes places in a desegregated whites. Very early studies established the fact school. He argues that desired desegregated that children recognize differences between outcomes can occur only in school settings blacks and whites, associate more negative where interracial acceptance is espoused. In an traits with blacks than with whites and realize 54 these distinctions as early as the age of three or portant toactualinterracial behavior has four (see, for example, Criswell 1937, Clark never been empirically determined. A numbf:tr and Clark 1947, and Goodman 1964). More of studies suggest that there is very little cor- recent studies suggest that these conclusions respondence (see, for example, Porter 1971). are still valid (see, for exaraple, Porter 1971) Sartain (1966) found no clear connection and provide little new information. between parental and child attitudes, but there Although the nature of the link has recently was a close correlation between children's at- been questioned (see Sartain 1966), parents are titudes and the attitudes children reported for generally believed to have an important in- their parents. This finding suggests the need to fluence on children's beliefs (see, for example, look at perceptions of cross-color attitudes Clark1955 and Proshansky and Newton ratherthanself-designatedattitudesasa 1967). Adult beliefs about desegregation have measure of social outcomes. Evidence for this undergone reversals. Campbell and Hatchett need is provided by McDowell (1967) who (1976), for example, report that In 1964 the found that black willingness to establish cross- majority of whites in the U.S. were opposed to color relationships was directly related to anti- desegregation. By 1970 most whites favored it, cipation of a positive reaction by whites to the but by 1974 only one-third of whites inter- association. viewed favored desegregation. The data on Although a number of studies have shown blacks shows thatthe, majority has always that the extent of prejudicial attitudes varies favored desegregation although the percentage withfamily background andindividual in favor had declined by 1974. characteristics such as sex, social class, and Peer groups have also been thought to have lightness of skin color, (see, for example, Gott- a significant effect on beliefs. (See, for exam-. lieb and TenHouten 1965, Porter 1971, and ple, work by Crockett 1957 and Alexander and Lewis and St. John 1974), most researchers Campbell 1964 for the effect of peer groups on continue to assume that same-color children, decisions by blacks to attend predominantly I%especially whites, hold similar negative at- white schools.) Peer group factors, however, titudes and then proceed to measure these at- have not been carefully studied. Similarly, the titudes without controlling for relevant back- changing influence of parents and peers on ground factors. beliefs during the course of the school career Generally, the findings on cross-color ac- has not been systematically studied (St. John ceptance are mixed. For evidence of less racial 1975). acceptance after desegregation, see Campbell (1958), Armor (1 972a), and Green and VI. 3.b. Cross-Color Acceptame. Research Gerard (1974); for evidence of better inter- on outcomes of cross-coior nceptance usually racialattitudes see Gardner, etal.1970, involves the investigation of changes in the ex- Sachdeva 1973. One trend in the findings is tent of prejudiced, biased, or stereotypic at- that blacks tend to becomc more tolerant of titudes as a result of desegregation. In response whites while whites become less tolerant of to the early findings of racial stereotyping and blacks in the desegregated school (see, for ex- awareness among young children (Clark and ample, Chesler and Segal 1970, and Herman Clark 1947, Goodman 1964), the reduction of 1970). racial prejudice became a highly valued out- Some researcher have tried to identify cir- come of the desegregation of schools. cumstances which engender reduced levels of However, it has becn researched in only a prejudice. Koslih, et al. (1972) found that in- limited manner. terracial attitudes were more favorable when Although some cofitend that attitudes medi- classrooms were composed of approximately atebehavior(see,for example, Carithers equal numbers of black and white students. 1970), the extent to which verbally expressed Although black and white friendship choices racial prejudice, such as the association of were stillless than would be expected by negative character traits to black dolls, is im- chance, there was significantlylessracial r 55 polarization in the classroom and more cross- desegregation outcomes in the sense that pat- color friendships were noted. There is some in- terns cannot be compared between segregated dication that length of time in a desegregated and desegregated schools but only in schools school encourages a positive outcome (M cPar- where black and white children have contact land 1968). This finding lends support to those with each other. who argue that desegregationinthe early The picture of desegregation outcomes is no grades is essential because racial prejudice is less clouded by a look at the findings on in- not yet firmly established and change can be teraction patterns. Generally, interracial more easily effected. This trend is further sub- associations are few (see for example Silverman stantiated by research indicating that blacks and Shaw 1973). Results are variable depend- and whites who live in desegregated residential ing on the racial percentages in the classroom: areas and who have attended desegregated as the percentage of the minority' group in- schools have very low prejudice levels (see, for creases, sociometric tests show more cross-col- example. Crain 1968). or choices but same-color preference or racial Considering the likelihood of its importance polarization remains pronounced (see for ex- to black-white relations in schools, the ques- ample Fox 1966; Koslin, et al. 1972; and St. tion of cross-color acceptance of teachers by John and Lewis 1975). This general trend of students has been only slightly researched. color-restricted friendship choices, par- What evidence there is suggests that black stu- ticularly as minorities become more isolated in dents feel closer to and are more accepting of the classroom, seems important to other black teachers and that the presence of black desegregation outcomes. For example, teachers and other staff members in the school Webster and Kroger (1966) reported that more may reduce black drop-out rates and aliena- cross-color friendships were associated with tion(see, for example, Riccio and Barner higher self-concept, while Coleman, etal. 1973. Darkenwald 1975 and Erickson 1975): (1966) and St. John and Lewis (1975) report a VI. 3.c. Cross-Color Interaction Patterns. relationship between more cross,Tace friend- The data on cross-color interaction in ships and higher academic achieiTeMent. desegregated situations come almost ex- In studies of actual observed behavior, there clusively from sociometric tests of association. seems to be more informal and spontaneous in- These tests ask children to name their friends terracialassociationinelementary schools or schoolmates with whom they prefer to work than in Sigh schools where black-white associa- or play. Although these tests do not measure tions occur only in the context of formal actual behavior, choice of work or play mates classroom or extracurricular activities (Dwyer is considered an indication of a predisposition 1958, St. John 1964). Kimball and Wagley to interact with particular individuals. The use (1974) found that blacks and whites in high of sociometric tests has been questioned on a schools developed parallel systems of ex- number of grounds; some have argued that it is tracurricularactivities while Gottlieb and similar beliefs or perceivedabilityto ac- TenHouten (1965) suggest that the amount and complish a task and not race which influences the type of black participation in schocl ac- friendship choices (see. for example tivities depends on the social race composition Hendricks, et al. 1973). Another problem with of the school: when blacks are ina small the use of sociometric tests has been the failure minority, they generally do not participate in in some cases to correct for the probability of school activities; as percentage black increases, same-group preference as racial percentages in separate systems develop; and where blacks the classroom change (St. John 1975). Com- constitute a majority as a result of white flight, paratively few researchers have studied in- blacks assume roles in allactivities. Others teraction patterns by direct observation of have noted the effects of teacher attitudes and children .inschools. Studies of cross-color classroom procedures on black-white behavior are different from other studies of behavior, suggesting the need for attention to 6 0 56 producing social climates which will en- lower tracks and are ejected from schools - courage positive interaction (see for example suggesting the operation of certain stratifica- Crain 1973, Frenk 1973, King and Mayer tion processes. E. Cohen ( I972a, 1975), one of 1973, Cusick 1974, and Gay 1974). the few researchers concerned with desegreg- Investigating the aspects of the social cli- ated situations who has developed and refined mate produced when blacks and whites in- the concept of stigmatization to any extent, has teract in a laboratory setting, Katz and Ben- provided both laboratory data and a theoreti- jamin (1960) and E. Cohen (1972a) found that cal context which suggest that these social pro- black-white interaction was often charac- cesses deserve attention. (Se:: also Pettigrew terized by white dominance, suggesting that 1975.) social status differences discouraged blacks A number of researchers have drawn atten- from interacting with whites. They theorized tion to the importance of social processes in the thatthissituation could be improved by structuring of learning in schools, although not establishing "equal status" relationships be- particularly in desegregated schools. Willover, tween members of the two groups. A positive et al. (1973), for example, notes the connection change ininteraction style was affected by between teachers' perceptions of the type of training which raised expectations for black student body and the form of control or performance. Although more difficult to im- classroom management they employ. He sug- plement in the classroom, measures such as this gests that the greater the perceived problem point to ways in which teachers can effect posi- posed by the students, the more likely the tive interaction results among their students teacher will be to impose custodial manage- (for information on similar studies emphasiz- ment on some student or on whole classrooms. ing cooperative behaviors, see Roper 1971 In doing so the teacher is also responding to and Silverthorne, et al. 1974). the feelings of the principal, other teachers, and the community :concerning control pro- VI. 4. A Curious Discrepancy cedures. Early sstudies which focused on academic standards as 'a measure of change As initially conceived, one of the purposes resulting from desegregation, found that of school desegregation was the elimination of teachers' ideas about the academic standards the stigmatization of black children.Stig- of their schools were lowered after desegrega- matization was seen as a social process involv- tion (see, for example, Wey and Corey 1959). ing the restriction of black children to low- Studies of expectations have shown that status schools. Most researchers who have teachers do perceive certain groups of students chosen to study the outcomes of desegregation, more negatively than others and treat them however, have tended to conceptualize their differently(see,for example, Rist1973). task as studying the effects of cross-color Leacock (1969) reports that, teachers of mid- schoolmates upon the individual. Group-level dle-income students tend to blame themselves outcomes have received much less attention. when students perform poorly, while teachers As a result,littleis known concerning the of lower-class students blame the students. degree to which the social stigma of being These findings suggest that black students may black is reinforced in desegregated schools. be exposed to management techniques which The manner in which social race is responded differ from those imposed on whites, with to in the social order established in desegreg- resulting differences in educational outcomes. ated schools is also unknown. Sociometric and (For a related study on the effects of different observational studies such as that of Kimball social situations on the handling of discipline and Wag ley (1974) suggest thatin many problems, see Nicholas, Virgo, and Watten- desegregated schools black and white students berg 1965.) tend to form separate activity systems and Leacock suggests that the way in which the social networks. It is. also evident from court teacher structures student involvement will cases on tracking and suspensions, that an inor- determine what is learned. Her suggestion is dinate number of black children wind up in borne out by the work of Talbert (1970) and 57

Rist (1973) who show how teachers can ex- are Mary Boyer, Mary Ann Emmons, David clude childrenasparticipantsinlearning Howe, and Audra Kroah. We would like to through interaction rates and seating arrange- especially thank Joe Harding who provided ments. Leacock herself finds that the techni- valuable editorial assistance. ques used by some teachers implicitly reinforce which the white society has tradi- VII. REFERENCES tionally applied to blacks. The possibility of reestablishment of segreg- Aarons, Alfred C., Barbara Y. Gordon, and ated patterns in the classroom and the social William A. Stewart mechanisms which channel learning would 1969 Linguistic-Cultural Differences and seem to be appropriate questions for American Education. Special researchers interested in investigating the out- Anthropology Issue, The Florida FL comes of desegregation and explaining Reporter7(1). Miami: Florida FL differences in educational opportunities (out- Reporter. (V.5.d) comes). In some ways it seems curious that so Abrams, Roger I. little attention has been devoted to these ar.as. 1975 Not One Judge's Opinion: Morgan v. Clirk (1973) has suggested that attention to Hennigan and the Boston Schools. Har- explanations of educational outcomes for vardEducational Review 45(1):5-16. blacks in terms of depressed conditions rather (III.l.c) than social stigmatization, has developed for Adams, A. John, and Joan Martin Burke political or.social. reasons. A more mundane 1970 Civil Rights: A Current Guide to the reason niight also be suggested. Certain People, Organizations, and Events. New research methodologies have tended to pre- York: R. R. Bowker Company..(III.3.) dominate in the study of desegregation ou:- An encyclopedia-like listing of civil comes and in the study of factors affecting rightsleaders, and organizations and educational outcomes. These methods of events 1955-1970. A 1974 edition, survey and testing suggest that the social and originally prepared as a quick reference cultural context of desegregation is thoroughly for CBS News, is also available. understood and that the crucial variables have Alabama Council on Human Relations been identified or at least suggested by 'a theo- 1972 It's.Not Over in the South: School ry. On the contrary, desegregation research Desegregation in Forty-Three Southern been characterized instead by a lack of 'bast§ Cities Eighteen Years After Brown. either in theory on in grounded information on Washington, D.C.: Southern Education which to develop informed research questions. Foundation. (JV.1) This lopsided perspective has included Alexander, C. N., Jr., and E. Q. Campbell relatively few intensive studies and relatively 1964 Peer Influences on Adolescent Educa- little attention to theoretical frameworks. tional Aspirations and Attainments. American Sociological Review ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 29:568-75. (VI.3.a) Alexander, George J. This review of trendSchool desegrega- 1963 Civil Rights, U.S.A. Public Schools tion and educational inequality literature was Citiesinthe North and West, 1963, prepared for the National Institute of Educa- Buffalo, ERIC: ED001942. (IV.1) tion pursuant to Contract No. 400-76-0008. Altschuler, Alan A. We would like to give credit to others who 1970 Community Control: The Black De- assisted us in the preparation of the review. mand for Particpation in Large Joanne Taylor drafted Sections V.5.c. and American Cities. New York: Pegasus. V.5.d. Linda Catron assisted with the prepara- (V.3) tion of Section V.2.c. and provided clerical Anastasi, Anne assistance. Others who helped with the massive 1964 CultureFair Testing. Educational amount of clerical work involved in the project Horizons (43):26-30. (IV.3.c)

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Armor, David J. Cincinnati: Jefferson Law Book Com- 1972a The Evidence on Busing. The Public pany. pp. 63-80. (V.5) Interest 28:90-126. (V.1.c; V1.1.a; Baratz, Stephen S., and Joan C. Baratz VI.3.b) 1970 Early Childhood Intervention: The 1972b School and Family Effects on Black Social Science Base of Institutional Rac- and White Achievement: A Reexamina- ism. Harvard Educational Review tion of the USOE Data. In On Equality of 40(I);29-50. (IV.3.a; V.5.c) Educational Opportunity. F. MbGteller Battle, Haron, J. and D. P. Moynihan, Eds. New York: 1973 State Involvement in the Urban Educa- Random House. (V I.1.b; VI.2.a) tion Crisis. Journal of Negro Education Arnez, Nancy L. 42(3):315-32I. (V.I.d) 1973 Partners in Urban Education: Teach- Bell, Derrick A., Jr. ing the Inner-City Child. Morristown, 1970 School Litigation Strategies for the N.J.: Silver Burdett Division, General 1970's: New Phases in the Continuing Learning Corporation. (V.5.e) Quest for Quality Schools. Wisconsin Askew, Reubin O'D. Law Review 1970: 257-297. (11.3) 1972 Busing is Not the Issue. Inequality in Bell describes the frustrations engen- Education 11(March):3.5. (V.1.c) dered among blaCks using the courts as a Ausubel, David P. primary means of securing quality educa- 1964 How Reversible are the Cognitive and tion. He suggests alternatives to school Motivational Effects of Cultural desegregation such as demands for black Deprivation? Implications for Teaching controland establishment of private the Culturally Deprived Child. Urban schools for black children now in inner- Education I (Summer):16-38. (IV.3.a) city schools. Bachman, Gerald G. 1975a Running and Busing in Twentieth 1970 Youth in Transition, Volume 2. Ann Century America. /n FromBrownto Arbor: Institutefor SocialResearch, Bradley:School Desegregation University of Michigan. (V I.2.a) 1954-1974. R. Stephen Browning, Ed. Banaka, William H., et al. Cincinnati: Jefferson Law Book Co. pp. 1971 Training Peotile in the Public Schools 214-217. (111.1.a) to Run Interracial Sensitivity Groups: A Graduate Program. Papers presented at 1975b Waiting on the Promise ofBrown. Western Psychological Association Con- Law and Contemporary Problems vention, San Francisco, CA. April, 1971. 39(2):341-373. (11.3; (V.5.3) Written in the form of a response to a black community group desiring Banks. James A. 1972 The Destruction of Black Schools: An equal educational opportunity for American Tragedy. Educational Leader- their children, this article counsels ship 30(3):269-71. that the community investigate Banks, James A., Ed. alternatives. Extensive footnotes- 1973 Teaching Ethnic Studies: Concepts and guide readers to cases wherein Strategies. 43rd Yearbook, National courts have ruled on the various Council for the Social Studies. resista!!ce tactics (e.g., segregated Washington, D.C.: National Council for private schools) and the legality of the Social Studies. (V.5.d) various alternatives such as com- Baratz, Joan C. munity control. 1975 Court Decisions and Educational Bernstein, Basil Change: A Case History of the D. C. 1961 Social Class and Linguistic Develop- Public Schools,1954-1974.InFrom ment: A Theory of Social Learning.In BrowntoBradley:School Desegregation Education, Economy and Society. A. H. 1954-.1974. R. Stephen Browning, Ed. Halsey, J. Floud, and C. A. Anderson, 6 3 59

Eds. New York: The Free Press of Glen- 1972 The South's New Dual School System: coe, Inc. pp. 288-314. (IV.3.a) a Case Study. New South 27(4):59-72. Billings, Charles E. (V.2.b) 1972 Community Control of the School and Bryson, Seymour, and John T. Mouw the Quest for Power, Phi Delta Kappan 1973 Race, Understanding, and Counseling. 53(5):277-278. (11.3) Integrated Education 11(4-5): 64-67. Binderman, Murray B. (V.5.e) 1972 The Failure of Freedom of Choice: Burger, Henry G. Decision-Making ina Southern Black 1968 "Ethno-Pedagogy"; a Manual in Community.SocialForces Cultural Sensitivity. With Techniques for 50(4):487-498. (V.1.a) Improving Cross-Cultural Teaching by Blaustein, AlbertP., and Clarence Clyde Fitting Ethnic Patterns. Albuquerque: Ferguson, Jr. Southwestern Cooperative Ed!;.:ational 1954Desegregation and theLaw: The Laboratory,Inc.(Publication No. 2- Meaning andEffect of the School 0768). (v.5.e) Segregation Cases. New Brunswick, N.J.: Burnett, Jacquetta H. Rutgers University Press. (III.l.b) 1974 Anthropology and Education: An An- Bloom, BenjaminS.,AllisonDavid, and notated Bibliography Guide. Council on Robert Hess Anthropology and Education. New 1965 Compensatory Education for Cultural Haven: Human Relations Area Files. Deprivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart (1.2) and Winston, Inc. (IV.3.a) Burt, Lorin A., and S. Kern Alexander Brace, C. Loring, George Gamble, and Terry 1969 The Legal Status of the Neighborhood Bond, Eds. School. In Integration and Education. 1971 Race and Intelligence. Anthropologi- David W. Beggs and S. Kern Alexander, calStudies, No. 8. Washington, DC: Eds. Chicago: Rand McNally and Com- American Anthropological Association. pany. pp. 107-120. (V.3) (IV.3.b) Busk, Palricia L., R. C. Ford, and .1. L. Schul- Braden, Anne man 1958 The WallBetween, New York: 1973 Effects of Schools' Racial Composition Monthly Review Press. (V.2.a) on the Self-Concept of Black and White Brain, George B., et al. Students. Journal of Educational 1963 School Superintendents Conference on Research 67(2):57-63. (VI.2.b) the Practical Problems of Public School Cahn, Edmond Desegregation. Baltimore, MD: City 1955 Jurisprudence. New York University Public Schools. (V.1) Law Review 30 (January):150-169. Brigham, John C. (111.4) 1974 Views of Black and White Children Caliguri, Joseph P. Concerning the Distribution of Per- 1970 Suburban Interracial Education Pro- sonality Characteristics. Journal of Per- jects. A Resource Booklet. Kansas City, sonality 42(1):145-158. (V1.2.b) MO: Missouri University, Office of Brophy, Jere E., and Thomas L. Good 1970 Teachers' Communication of Differen- Education. (V.5.e) ti alExpectations for Children's Camp, C. William, et al. Classroom Performance: Some 1969 Evaluation of the Portland-Suburban Behavioral Data. Journal of Educational Transfer Program, 1968-69 Multnomah Psychology 61(5):365-374. (IV.3.c) County, Oregon. Eugene, OR: Oregon 1974 Teacher-Student Relationships: Causes University, Bureau of Educational and Consequences. New York: Holt, Research. (V.1) Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. (1V.3.c) Campbell, Angus, and Shirley Hatchett Brown, Cynthia, and Marlene Provizer 1976 Racial Attitude Trends: 1964-1974. 6 4 60

Integrated Education14(1):40-42. 1959 The Desegregation Cases: Criticism of (V I.3.a) the Social Scientist's Role. Villanova Campbell, E. Q. Law Review 5:224-226. (111.4) 1958 Some Social PFvehological Correlates Clark's response to critics of his role in Brown. of Direction of .tttitude Change. Social 1962 Progress and problems from the Social Forces 36:335-40. (V1.3.b) Scientist's Viewpoint. ERIC: Campbell, Roald F. ED014514. (IV.1) 1967 Federal-State Educational Relations. 1965 Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Phi Delta Kappan 49(1):16-20. (III.2.c) Power, New York: Harper and Row. Campbell, Roald F., and Donald H. Layton (111.4) 1968 Thrust and Counterthrust in Education Analysis of ghetto life based in part on Policy Making. Phi Delta Kappan Clark's years of study as chief project 49(6):290-294. (111.2.c) consultant and chairman of the board of Carithers, Martha W. directors ?A the planning stage of Harlem 1970 Sc1lool Desegregation and Racial Youth Opportunities Unlimited. Cleavage, 1954-1970: A Review of the 1972a Eighteen Years After Brown. Integr- Literature. Journal of SocialIssues ated Education 10(6):7-15. (V .1; IV .1) 26(4):25-47. (V I.3.b) 1972b Public School Desegregation in the Carter, Robert L. Seventies. -New South 27(3): 21-28. 1955 Legal Background and Significance of (IV.1) the May 17th Decision. Social Problems 1973 SocialPolicy, Power and Social 2(4):215-219. Science Research. In Perspectives on Ine- Cazden, Courtney B., Vera P. John, and Dell quality. Harvard Educational Review, Hymes, Eds. Ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educa- 1972 Functions of Language in the tional Review. (111.4: VI.4) Classroom. New York: Teachers College, Clark, K. B., and M. P. Clark Columbia University. (IV.3.a) 1947 Racial Identification and Preference in Chachkin, Norman J. Negro Children. In Readings in Social 1972 Metropolitan School Desegregation: Psychology. T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Evolving Law. Integrated Education Hartley, Eds. New York: Henry Holt. 10(2):13-26. VI.2.b; V1.3.a; VI.3.b) Champagne, Anthony M. 1950 Emotional Factors in Racial 'Wen- 1973 The Segregation Academy and the tification and Preferencein Negro Law. Journal of Negro Education Children. Journal of Negro Education 42(1):58-66. (111.1.0 19:341-350. (VI) Chesler, Mark Clark, Todd 1967 "What Happened After You Desegreg- 1970 Integration, The First Year: A Role- ated the White School?" Atlanta Playing Simulation on School Integra- Southern Regional Council, Inc. (V.21a) tion. ERIC: ED050215. (V .5.e) Chesler, Mark, and Phyllis Segal Clarke, Lillian W. 1970 Southern Negroes' Initial Experiences 1973 Race and Suspensions in New Orleans. and Reactions in School Desegregation. Integrated- Education11(3):30-33. In Contemporary Issues in Educational Psychology. H. F. Clarizio, R. C. Craig, and W. A. Mehrens, Eds. Boston: Allyn Cohen, Arthur R. and Bacon, Inc. pp. 709-720. (VI.2.c; 1968 Some Implications of Self-Esteem for VI.3; VI.3.b) Social Influence. In The Self in Social In- Clark, Kenneth 13. teraction. C. Gordon and K. Gergen, 1955 Prejudice and Your Child. Boston: Eds. New York: J. Wiley and Sons. pp. 383-390. (VI.2.b) Beacon Press. (VI.3.a) 6 5 61

Cohen, David K. Coleman, Andrew M. 1968 Policy for the Pdblic Schools: Com- 1972 "Scientific" Racism and the Evidence pensation and Integration. Harvard on Race and Intelligence. Race Educational Review 38(1):114-137. 14(2):137-153. (IV.3.b) (11.2) Coleman, James S. Utilizes existing research to assess the 1968 The Concept of Equality of Educa- possible outcomes for alternative na- tional Opportunity. Harvard Educa- tional policies on integration versus tional Review 38(1):7-22. (II.2) segregated compensatory education. Coleman traces the historical roots of the 1969 The Price of Community .Control. concept of equal educational opportunity. Commentary 48(1):23-32. (11.3; V.3) and its evolution to the present. 1972 Compensatory Education. In Rethink- 1975 in the Schools: New ing Urban Education. Herbert J. Research with Policy Implications. Phi Walberg and Andrew T. Kopan, Eds. San Delta Kappan (Oct): 75-78. (11.2; IV.1; Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. pp. 150-164. V.1.d; V.2.d) (IV.3.a; V.5.c) Summarizes research findings and policy 1974 Segregation, Desegregation, and recommendations he reported in Trends Brown. Transaction: Social Science and in Schools Segregation, 1968-1973; find- Modern Society 12(1):34-4 1. (11.2; ings suggest that efforts to desegregate III.I.b; III.l.d) large urban districts may lead to in- Cohen, David K., and Michael S. Garet creases in interdistrict segregation; policy 1975 Reforming Educational Policy with implications are considered. Applied Sociai Research. Harvard 1976 The Ways of Socialization. The Center Educational Review 45(1):17-43. (I11.4) Magazine 9(3):3-10. (IV.1; VI.3) An interpretation of the relationship be7 Coleman, James S., et,al. tween applied research and social policy 1966 Equality.of Educational Opportunity. using as case examples educational Washington, DC: U.S.Government programs stimulated by the federal Printing Office. (fi.2; III. I .d; 111.4; IV. I ; government. IV.2; IV.3; V.3; VI.1; VI.1.a; VI.2.a; Cohen, David K., T. F. Pettigrew, and R. T. VI.2.b; VI.3.c) Riley Coleman, James S., S. P. Kelly, and J. Moore 1972 Race and the Outcomes of Schooling. n.d. Trends in School Segregation, In On Equality of Educational Oppor- 1968-1973. Washington, DC: The Urban tunity. Frederick Mosteller and Daniel Institute. (IV.1; V.2.c) P. Moynihan, Eds. New York: Random Coles, Robert House. (VI.1.a) 1963 The Desegregation of Southern Cohen, Elizabeth G. Schools: A Psychiatric Study. In Integra- 1972a Interracial Interaction . tion vs. Segregation. Hubert A. Human Relations 25:9-24. (V,5; VI.4) Humphrey, Ed. New York: Thomas Y. 1972b Sociology and the Classroom: Setting Crowell Company. pp. 201-229. (VI.2.b) the Conditions for Teacher Student In- 1967 Children of Crisis: A Study of Courage teraction. Review of Educational and Fear. Boston: Little, Brown, (V.2.a; Research 42:441-452. (V1.3) VI.2.b; VI.2.c; VI.3) 1975 The Effects of Desegregation on Race Conant, James B. Relations. Law and Contemporary 1961 Slums and Suburbs: A Commentary on Problems 39(2):271-299. (V1.4) Schools inMetropolitan Areas. New Cole, Michael, and Silvia Scribner York: New American Library. (III.4) 1974 Culture and Thought: A Psychological Depicts educational problems incity Introduction. New York: John Wiley and schools as contrasted with those in subur- Sons, Inc. (IV.3,a; 1V.3.c) ban schools. Attributes difficulties to the 6 6 62

influx of low-income, poorly educated Daheim, David blacks into schools the resources of which 1965 Intergroup Education. Seattle Public were dwindling. Schools,Seattle, WA: SeattlePublic Congress of Racial Equality Schools. (V .5.d) 1973 A Proposal for Community School Darkenwald, Gordon G. Districts. In The Great School Bus Con- 1975 Some Effects of the 'Obvious Varia- troversy. Nicolaus Mills, Ed. New York: bie': Teacher's Race and Holding Power Teachers College Press. (11.3) with Black Adult Students. Sociology of Coons, J., W. Clune, and S. Sugarman Education 48:420-431. (V.4.1i; V1.3.b) 1970 Private Wealth and Public Education. Davey, A. G. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. (111.1 .c; 1973 Teachers, Race, and Intelligence. Race III.I.d) 15(2):195-211. (IV.3.b) Crain, Robert L. Day, Richard, E., et al. 1968 The Politics of School Desegregation: 1963 Civil Rights, U.S.A. Public Schools Comparative Case Studies of Community Southern States, 1963 North Carolina. Structure and Policy-Making. Chicago: ERIC: ED001930. (V; V.1.a) Aldine Publishing Company. (V.2.a; This discusses the Pupil Assignment Act, VI.3.b) which transferred authority of pupil 1971 School Integration and the Academic assignment to local school boards, and Achievement of Negroes. Sociology of the Pearsall Plan, which provided "safety Education 44:1-26. (VI.1 .b) valves" to assure escape possibilities for Crain, Robert L., Ed. intolerable situations in school segrega- 1973 Southern Schools: An Evaluation of tion. Both of these plans were used in the Effects of the Emergency School North Carolina. Assistance Program and of School De'Ath, Colin, Michael Gibbons, and Ernest Desegregation. Volume I. Chicago: Na- tional Opinion Research Center. (III.2.c; 1969 Black Edr.cation and Black Society in V1.3.c) the Unit^...1States: A Bibliography for Craven, J. Braxton, Jr. Development Educators. Occasional 1975 The Impact of Social Science Evidence Paper. Pittsburgh, PA: International and on the Judge: A Personal Comment. Law Development Education Program, and Contemporary Problems School of Education, University of Pitts- 39(1):150-157. (111.4) burgh. (1.2) Reviews the use of social science data in Demal est, Sylvia M., and John F. Jordan court cases and his opinion of the benefits 1975 Hawkins v ,Coleman: Discriminatory and detriments of using such data. Suspensions and the Effect of Institu- Criswell, J. H., Jr. tional Racism on School Discipline. Ine- 1937 Racial Cleavage in Negro-White quality in Education 20(July):25-41. Groups. Sociometry I :81-89. (VI.3.a) (V.5.b) Crockett, Harry J. 1957 A Study of Some Factors Affecting the Demark, Florence L. Decision of Negro High School Students 1970 The Effects of Integration on to Enroll in Previously All-White High Academic Achievement and Self-Con- Schools, St. Louis, 1955. Social Forces cept. Integrated Education 8:34-42. 35(4):351-356. (V.1.a; V1.3.a) (VI.1.a; VI.2.b) Cusick, Philip A., and Richard J. Ayling Dentler, Robert A. 1974 Biracial Interaction in an Urban Se- 1965 Community Behavior and Northern condary School. School Review 82(3): School Desegregation. Journal of Negro Education 34(3):258-267. (V.2.a) 486-494. (V I.3.c) 6 7 63

Dent ler, R. A., and C. Elkins Eddy, Elizabeth M. 1967 Intergroup Attitudes, Academic Per- 1967 Walk the White Line. Garden City, NJ: formance, and Racial Composition. In Doubleday and Company Inc. (V1.3) The Urban R's. R. A. Dentler, B. 1975 Educational Innovation and Mackler, and M. E. Warshauer, Eds. Desegregation: A Case Study of Symbolic New York: Frederick A. Praeger. (VL3) Realignment. Human Organization Deutsch, Cynthia P. 34(2):163-172. (V.5; V.5.e) 1967 Auditory Discrimination and Learn- Edmonds, Ronald ing: Social Factors. In The Disadvan- 1973 Judicial Assumptions on the Value of taged Child: Selected Papers of Martin Integrated Education for Blacks. In Deutsch and Associates. M. Deutsch, Ed. Race, Racism and American Law. D. New York: Basic Books, Inc. pp. Bell, Jr., Ed. Boston: Little, Brown and 259-277. (1V.3.a) Company. (11.2) Deutsch, Martin P. Edmonds, Ronald, et al. !I 967a Dimensions of the School's Role in 1973 A Black Response to Christopher the Problems.of Integration. In The Dis- Jenck's Inequality and Certain Other advantaged Child. M. Deutsch, Ed. New issues.InPerspectives on Inequality. York: Basic Books, Inc. pp. 281,294. Harvard Educational Review, Ed. (V.5) Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational 1967b The Disadvantaged Child and the Review. (111.4) Learning Process. In The Disadvantaged Egerton, John Child: Selected Papers of Martin Deutsch 1967 When Desegregation Comes, The and Associates. M. Deutsch, Ed. New Negro Principals Go. Southern Educa- York: Basic Books, Inc. pp. 39-57. tion Report 3(5):8-12. (V.4.b) .(1V.3.a) Eidenberg, Eugene, and Roy D. Morey Deutsch, Martin P., and B. Brown 1969 An Act of Congress: The Legislative 1964 Social Influence in N cgro-White In- Process and the Making of Education telligence Differences. Journal of Social Policy. New York: W. W. Norton and Issues 20(2):24-35. (1V.3.a) Company, Inc. (111.2.c) Dewirig, Rolland Details events preceding the passage of 1968 Teacher Organizations and Desegrega- the Elementary and Secondary Educa- tion. Phi Delta Kappan 49(5): 257-260. tion Act of 1965, and its subsequent (V.4.b) modifications in1966 and 1967. The Dillard, J. L. controversy over federal aid to education 1973 Black English: Its History and Usage prior to 1965 is also analyzed in.terms of ,in the United States. New York: Vintage policy development processes. Books. (V.5.d) Elkind, D. Dodson, Dan W. 19 69 PreschoolEducation. Childhood 1965 School Administration, Control and Education 45:321-323. (V.5.c) Public Policy Concerning Integration. EPps, Edgar C. Journal of Negro Education 1975 The Impact of School Desegregation 34(3):249-257. (V.3) on Aspirations, Self-Concepts and Other Durham, Joseph T. Aspects of Personality. Law and Contem- 1973 Sense and Nonsense About Busing. porary Problems 39(2): 300-313. (VI.2; Journal of Negro Education V1.2.b) 42(3):322-335. (V.1.c) Erickson, Frederick Dwyer, Robert .1. 1975 Gatekeeping and the Melting Pot: In- 1958 A Report on Patterns of Interaction in teraction in Counseling Encounters. Har- Desegregated Schools. Journal of Educa- vard Educational Review 45(1):44-70. tional Sociology 31(7):253-256. (V1.3.c) (V1.3.b) 6 8 64

Falk, William W., and A. G. Cosby Developments. Integrated Education 1974 School Desegregation and the Educa- 10(3):11-19. (111.I.c; III.I.e) tional Projections of Rural Black Youth. Fleming, E. and R. Anttonen Rural Sociology 39(1): 28-41. (VI.2.a) 1971 Teacher Expectancy as Related to the Farley, Reynolds Academic and Personal Growth of Prim- 1976 Is Coleman Right? Social Policy ary-Age Children. Monographs of the 6(4):I4-23. (IV .1; V .2.c) Society for Research in Child Develop- Feagin, Joe R. ment 35(5 Serial No. 145). (IV.3.c) 1 971 White Separatists and Black Forbes, Jack D. Separatists: A Comparative Analysis. n.d. Afro-Americans inthe Far West: A Social Problems I9(2):167-180. (11.4) Handbook for Educators. Berkeley, CA: Discussion of historical and contempor- Far West Laboratory for Educational ary models of the preferred goals of in- Research and Development. (V.5.e) terethnic andinterrace adjustment, Fort, J. G., J. C. Watts, and G. S. Lesser focusing on separatist models. Contains 1969 Cultural Background and Learning in references to classical historical treat- Young Children. Phi Delta Kappan ment of black-white relationsinthe 50:386-88. (IV.3.a) United States and the related movements Foster, G. W., Jr. which arose. Feagin analyzes 1968 data 1965 Title VI: Southern Education Faces toascertain degree of support for the Facts. Saturday Review 48(March separatist models among blacks and 20):60-6I, 76-79. (III.2.b) whites. Fox, David J. Fddstein, Sylvan, and Bernard Mackler 1966 Free Choice Open EnrollmentEle- 1969 De Facto School Segregation in the mentary Schools. New York: Center for North: The Case of "In re Skipwith". Urban Education. (VI.3.c) Howard Law JournalI 5(3):382-421. Frenk, James H. (111.I.c) 1973 The Influence of Non-White Pupil Fielder, Marie, and Louise M. Dyckman Classroom Composition on Classroom 1967 Leadership Training Institutein Quality, ERIC:ED 080629. (VI.3.c) Problems of School Desegregation. Fuchs, Estelle Berkeley: University of California, Office 1969 Teacher's Talk: Views From Inside of Education. (V.5.e) City Schools. New York: Doubleday. Finn, Jeremy D. (IV.3.a; IV.3.d; VI,3) 1972 Expectations and the Educational En- Gallimore., Ronald, et al. vironment. Review of Educational 1974 Culture, Behavior, and Education. Research 42(3)387-410. (IV.3.c) Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Fischer, John H. Inc. (IV.3,d) 1964 Can Administrators Justify Neighbor- Gardner, Burleigh B., et al. hood SchoolsIf Those Schools Have 1970 The Effect of Busing Black Ghetto the Effect of Creating or Continuing Children into White Suburban Schools. Segregation? Nation's Schools ERIC: ED048389. (VI.3.b) 73(2):46-47, 86. (V,3) Gay, Geneva 1967 The School Park.InEducational 1974 Differential Dyadic Interactions of Parks, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Black and White Teachers wkh Black Clearinghouse Publication No.9. and White Pupils in Recently Desegreg- Washington, DC: U.S. Government ated Social Studies Classrooms: A Func- Printing Office. (V, I.b) tion of Teacher and PupilEthnicity. Flannerx, J1.1-lartpld Final Report, ERIC: ED091489, 102 School Desegregation Law: Recent (VI.3,c)

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Gibson, Morgan, et al. 1966 Compensatory Education for the Dis- 1963 De Facto School Segregation in Mil- advantaged. New York: College waukee. Milwaukee: National Associa- Entrance Examination Board. (IV.3.a; tion for the Advancement of Colored V.5.c) People. (IV. ) Gottlieb, David, and Warren D. TenHouten Giles, Raymond H., Jr. 1965 'Racial Composition and the Social 1974 Black Studies Programs inPublic System of Three High Schools. Journal of Schools. Praeger Special Studies in U.S. Marriage and the Family 27:204-12. Economic, Social, and Political Issues. (VI.3.b; VI.3.c) New York: Praeger Publishers. (V.5.d) Green, James A., and Harold B. Gerard Examines the operation of various ethnic 1974 School Desegregation and Ethnic At- and black studies programs and their im- titudes. In Intergrating the Organization: pact on racial attitudes. Includes data on A Social Psychological Analysis. H. L. elementary studentsattitudes toward Fromkin.and J. J. Sherwood, Eds. New Africa after an African heritage program York: The Free Press.pp. 291-311. and a description and critique of repre- (V1.3.b) sentativecase studies drawn froma Green, Robert L. survey of Afro-American studies 1973 Community Control and Desegrega- programs throughout the country. An tion. School Review 81(3):347-356. analysis of curriculum guides from 16 (V.5.a) school districts identifies three distinct Green, Robert L., and T. F..Pettigrew orientations to teaching black studies. 1976 Urban Desegregation and White Giles delineates criticisms of each of Flight: A Response to Coleman. Phi these approaches. For example, he is cri- Delta Kappan (Feb):399-402. (IV.1; tical of ethnic studies used asa V.2.c) therapeutic alternative to reduce racial Green, Robert L., Eugenia Smith, and John H. tension in place of needed examination of Schweitzer the motives and dynamics of the 1972 Busing and the Multiracial Classroom. behaviors of certain white groups who Phi Delta Kappan 53(9):543-546.(V.I.c) have practiced racism with utmost effec- Groff, Patrick J, tiveness. 1962 Teacher Organizations and School Gitell. Marilyn, and Alan G. Hevesi, Eds. Desegregation. School and Society 1969 The Politics of Urban Education. New 90(2218):441-442. (V.4.b) York: Praeger Publishers. (V,1,d) Guthrie, James W., George B. Kleindorfer, Glazer, Nathan Henry M. Levin, and Robert T. Stout 1974 StrategiesforIntergration;II, On 1971 Schools and Inequality. Cambridge, "Opening Up" the Suburbs. Public In- MA: The MIT Press. (111.4) terest 37(Fall);89-111. (111.4; V.1.d) Goldberg, Miriam L., A. Harry Passow, and Guthrie, James W., and Paula H. Skene Joseph Justman 1973 The Escalation of Pedagogical Politics. Phi 1966 The Effects of Ability Grouping. New Delta Kappan 54(6):386-389. York: Teachers College Press. (V.5,a) (V.4.a) Goodman, Mary Flail, John A and H. V. Wiant 1964 Racial Awareness in Young Children. 1973 Does School Desegregation Change New York: Collier Books, (V1.2.b; Occupational Goals of Negro Males? VI,3.a; V1.3.b) Journal of Vocational Behavior 3(2); Cloodman, Thomas L, 175-179. (VI,2.a) 1968 The Need for School Lobbyists. Phi Haller, Elizabeth S. Delta Kappan 49(6);340-341 . (V.4.8) 1970 Minority History; What? Why'? How? Gordon, Edmund W and Doxey A. Wilker- Harrisburg: Pennsylvania State Depart- son ment of Public Instruction, Bureau of 7 0 66

General and Academic Education. Grade Students. Curriculum Leadership (V.5.d) 9:30-35. (VI.3.b) Hamilton, Charles Hinson, Maurie, Francesco Cordasco, and 1968 Race and Education: A Search for Francis P. Purcell Legitimacy. Harvard Educational 1969 Education and the Urban Community. Review 38(4):669-684. (11.3) New York: Arrierican Book Company. Argues that the concept of educational (III.2.c) improvement held by black parents has Hope, John, III., Ed. gone beyond the experts' focus on 1975 Twenty Years After Brown: Equality of achievement in verbal and mathematical Educational Opportunity. A Report of skills.Black people want community the U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, control, not integration. They are just as March 1975. Washington, DC: 1Thatmis- interested in Afro-American culture as sion on Civil Rights. (IV,i) verbal and arithmetic skills. Howe, Harold, III. et al. Hanushek, Eric A. 1970 Racism and American Education: A 1972 Education and Race: An Analysis of Dialogue and Agenda for Action. New the Educational Production Process. York: Harper and Row. (II) Lexingtor., MA: D. C. Heath and Com- A conference convened of well-known pany. (VL I .a; .b) scholars and educators to discuss plans Harris, Marvin for altering racism in American educa- 1975 Culture, People, and Nature. Second tion. Participants included Harold Edition. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell HoWe, Kenneth Clark, James Allen, Lisle and Company. (II.2; IV.3.a) Carter, Eric Erickson, Milton Galimison Harvard Educational Review and others. 1969 Equal Educational Opportunity. Humphrey, Hubert H., Ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 1964 Integration vs. Segregation. New York: Press. (IV.2) Thomas Y. Crowell Company. (II.1) Harvey, James C., and Charles H. Holmes Included in this volume is "The Southern 1972 Busing and School Desegregation. Phi Manifesto," a statement presentedto Delta Kappan 53(9):540-542. (V.I.c) Congress in 1956 by a group of 101 sena- ' Hendrick, Clyde, and Donna K. Rumenik tors and representatives from eleven 1973 Race Versus Belief about Race as southern states. Deteiminants of Attraction; Belief Pre- Hyman, Jacob D., and Wade J. Newhouse judices and Two Kinds of Race Pre- 1964 Desegregation of the Schools: the Pre- judice. Journal of Research inPer- sent Legal Situation. Urban Education sonality 7(2):I48-164. (VI.3.c) I( I):46-73. (III.I.c) Hendrick, Irving, G. Irvine, LaVerne, and Norman R. Brierley 1968 The Devilelopment of a Sehool Integra- 1973 Problem SolvinginResolving tion PlaninRiverside, California; A Problems Relating to School Desegrega- History and Perspective. Riverside, CA: tion. College Student Journal 7(3):68-72. University of California. (Report No. (V.5.e) RSS-SMP-M7-14) (V.1) Irwin, Orvis C. Hermann, Albert I., and Reynolds Farley 1948 Infant Speech: The Effect of Family 1973 The Potential for Residential Integra- Occupational Status and of Age on Use of tion in Cities and Suburbs: Implications Sound Types. Journal of Speech and for the Busing Controversy. American Hearing Disorders 13 (Septem- Sociological Review 38(5):595-610. ber):224-226. (IV.3.a) (V.1.c) Jencks, Christopher S., and M. Brown Hernmn, Barry 1975 The Effects of Desegregation on Stu- 1970 interracial Attitudes Among 175 Sixth dent Achievement; Some New Evidence 7 1 67

from the Equality of Educational Oppor- normal and Social Psychology tunity survey. Sociology of Education 61:448-456. (V.5; VI.3.c) 48:126-140. (V1.1.a) Keddie, Nell, Ed. Jencks, Christopher S., et al. 1973 Tinker Tailor ... The Myth of 1972 Inequality: A Reassessment of the Cultural Deprivation. Middlesex, Eng- Effects of Family and Schooling in land: Penguin Books, Ltd. (IV.3.a) America. New York: Basic Book, Inc. Keppel, Francis (11.2; I11.1.d; 111.4; 1V.2; 1V.3; V1.1.b) 1967 Educational Technology and the Jensen, Arthur R. Educational Park. In Educational Parks. 1968 Social Class, Race and Genetics: Im- U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, plications forEducation. American Clearinghouse Publication No. 9 Educational Research Journal 5:1-42. Washington, D C: U. S. Government (1V.3.a) Printing Office. (V.1.b) 1969 How Much Can We Boost IQ and Killian, Lewis M., and Charles M. Crigg Scholastic Achievement? Harvard 1965 Community Resistance to and Accep- Educational Review 39(1).1-123. (111,4; tance of Desegregation. Journal of Negro 1V,3; IV.3.b) Education 34(3):268-277. (V.2.a) 1973 The Differences are Real. Psychology Kimball, Solon T., and Charles Wagley Today 7(7):80-86. (IV.3,b) 1974 Race and Culture in School and Com- Johnson, James A., Jr., Ed. munity. Final Report. ERIC: ED091489. 1973 On the Interface Between Low-In- (V1.3; VI.3,c; VI.4) come, Urban Black Children and Their King, Charles E., and Robert R. Mayer Teachers During the Early School Years: 1972 The Exercise of Community Leader- A Position Paper. Report. San Francisco, ship for School Desegregation. Urban CA: Fal West Laboratory for Educa- Education 7(3):215-234. (V.4.a; VI.3.c) tional Research and Development. Kirby, David J., and Robert L. Crain (IV.3.d) 1974 The Functions of Conflict: School Johnson, John L. Desegregation in 91 Cities. Social 1969 Special Education and the Inner City: Science Quarterly 55(2):478-492. (V.2.a; A Challenge for the Future or Another V.4.a) Means for Cooling the Mark Out? Jour- Kirby, David J., T. Robert Harris, and Robert nal of Spcial Education 3(3):241-25I. L. Crain (V.5.a) 1973 Political Strategies in Northern School Kaplan, Sidney J., and A. Lee Coleman Desegregation. Lexington, MA: Lex- 1963 The Strategy of Change: Contrasting ington Books. (V.2.a) Approaches to Teacher Integ Kirp, David L. Social Science (October):218-221. 1970 Community Control, Public Policy, (V.5.e) and the Limits of the Law. Michigan Law Katz, Irwin Review 68: 1355-1388. (V.3) I 967a The Socialization of Academic 1973 Judicial Policy-Making: Inequitable Motivation in Minority Group Children. Public School Financing and the Serrano In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Case (1971), In Politics in America. A. Vol. 15. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Sindler, Ed. pp, 82-123. (111,1.d) Press, (VI.2.a; V1.2.c) Kirp, David L., and Mark G. Yudof I 967b Some Motivational Determinants of 1974 Educational Policy and the Law: Cases Racial DifferencesinIntellectual andMaterials.Berkeley, CA: Mc- Achievement. International Journal of Cutchan Publishing Co. (III.1.a; III.I.e; Psychology 2 (1):1-12. (1V.3.a) 111.14 111.4) Katz, Irwin, and L. Benjamin A useful book which describes important 1960 Effects of White Authoritarianism in cases affecting education and includes Biracial Work Groups. Journal of Ab- synopses and quotes of published 7 68

analyses of the impact of the law on the evolution of the conceptualizations of educational policy. desegregation. Klopf, Gordon J., and Garda W. Bowman Leacock, Eleanor B. 1966 Teacher Education in a Social Context: 1969 Teaching and LearninginCity A Study of the Preparation of School Per- Schools: A Comparative Study. New sonnel for Working with Disadvantaged York: Basic Books, (IV.3.a; VI.3; VI.4) Children and Youth. New York: Mental Leacock, Eleanor, Martin Deutsch, and Health Materials Center, Inc., for Bank Joshua A. Fishman Street College of Education. (V.5.e) 1959 The Bridgeview Study: A Preliminary Koslin, Sandra, B. Koslin, R. Parament, and Report. Journal of Social Issues H. Waxman 15(4):30-37. (V.2.c) 1972 Classroom Racial Balance and Stu- Leeson, Jim dents' Interracial Attitudes. Sociology of 1966 Private Schools Continue to Increase Education 45:386-4,0. (V I.3.b; VI.3.c) in the South. Southern Education Report Krovetz, Martin L. 2(4):22-25. (V .2.b) 1972 Desegregation or Integration: Which is 1967 Private Schools for Whites Face Some Our Goal? Phi Delta Kappan Hurdles. Southern Education Report 54(4):247-249. (11.2) 3(4):I 3-17. (V.2.b) Krystall, Eric, M. A. Chesler, and A. E. White Lesser, G., G. Fifer, and D. Clark 1967 Voting Behavior and Attitudes 1965 Mental Abilities of Children from Toward School Desegregation: A Study Different Social-Class and -Cultural of Southern Negroes. Tuskeegie, AL: Groups. Monographs of the Society for Department of Social Science Research, Research in Child Development, Serial Tuskeegie Institute. (V I.2.a) No. 102,30(4). Chicago: The University Labov. William of Chicago Press. (IV.3.a) 1970 The Logic of Nonstandard English. In Levin, Betsy, and Philip Moise Language and Poverty: Perspectives on a 1975 School Desegregation Litigation in the Theme. Frederick Williams, Ed. Seventies and the Use of Social Science Chicago: Markham Publishing Company. Evidence: An Annotated Guide. Law and pp. 153-189. (IV.3.a) Contemporary Problems 39(1 ):50-135. Lacey, C. (111.I.a; III.I.b; III.I.c; 111.I.e; 111.4) 1966 Some Sociological Concomitants of Levin, Henry M. Academic Streaming ina Grammar 1974 Effects of Expenditure Increases on School.BritishJournalof Sociology Educational Resource Allocation and (September):245-262. (V.5.a) Effectiveness. In School Finance in Tran- Lamanna, Richard A. sition: The Courts and Educational 1965 The Negro Teacher and Desegrega- Reform. John Pincus, Ed. Cambridge, tion: A Study of Strategic Decision MA: Ballinger Publishing Company. pp. Makers and their Vested Interestsin 177-198. (III.I.d) Different Community Contexts. Levine, Daniel V. Sociological Inquiry 26-40, (V.4.b) 1969 The Segregated Society: What Must Be Law and Contemporary Problems Done. Phi Delta Kappan 50(5):264-269. 1975 The Courts, Social Science, and School (11,2) Desegregation: PartsIand ,II39(2). 1973 Integration in Metropolitan Schools: Durham, N C: Duke University, School Issues and Prospects. Phi Delta Kappan of Law. (VI) 54(10):651-657. (V, I .d ) Brings together articles by a number of Levine, David V., and Kenneth R. Mares individuals who have contributed a great 1970 Problems and Perceptionsin a deal to the literature on school Desegregated Urban High School: A desegregation; the articles review legal, Cask, Description and Its Implications. policy, and research issues prominent in Kansas City, MO; Missouri University, 7 3 69

Center for the Study of Metropolitan McPartland, James Problems in Education. (V .5.e) 1968 The Segregated Student in Desegreg- Lewis, Ralph, and Nancy H. St. John ated Schools: Sources of Influence on 1974 Contribution of Cross-Racial Friend- Negro Secondary Students, Baltimore: ship to Minority Group Achievement in The Johns Hopkins 'University, Center Desegregated Classrooms. Sociometry for the Study of Social Organization. of 37:79-91. (VI.3.b) School. (V I.2.b; V I.3.b) Light, Richard J.. and Paul V. Smith Meranto, Philip 1969 Social Allocation Models of In- 1967 The Politics of Federal Aid to Educa- tclligenee: A MethodologicalInquiry. tion in 1965: A Study. in Political Innova- Harvard Educational Review tion. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 39(3):484 -510. (IV .3.b) (III.2.c) Long, Herman H. Mercer, Jane R. 1955 The Challenge of Desegregation -to 1974 A Policy Statement on Assessment Southern Social Scientists and Educawrs. Procedures and the Rights of Children. Social Problems 2(4):204-207. (111.4) Harvarit Educational Review Lowe, Joseph M. 44(I):125-141. (1V.3.e) 1973ImprovingInterpersonalRelation- Miller, Joyce D. ships Among Sernor 'High School Stu- 1975 Student Suspensions in Boston: Derail- dents in a Recently Desegregated School. ing Desegregation. Inequality in Educa- Office of Education ERIC: ED082081. tion 20(J uly):16-24. (V .5.b)

(V .5.e) . Mills, Nicolaus, Ed. Mahan, Thomas W., and A. M. Mahal 1973 The Great School Bus Controversy. 1971 The Impact of Schools on Learning: New York: Teachers College Press, Col- Inner City Children in Suburban Schools. umbia University. (V .1.0 Journal of School Psychology 9(1)1-11. Minnesota State Board of Education I.2.c) 1971 Guidelines Relating to Equality of Mathews, John Educational Opportunity and Desegrega- 1975 Busing is Stopped at the City Line. In tion, Intra-Cultural Quality Education. From Brown toBradley: School Integrated Education -9(6):5 1 -53. (V.5) Desegregation1954-1974. R. Stephen Contains motivation for desegregation Browning, Ed. Cincinnati: Jefferson Law (denial of equal educational opportunity Book Company. pp. 199-202. (V .1.c) and promoting Of-prejudice and racism) Mayer, Robert, et al, and definitions. 1974 The Impact of School Desegregation in Mizell, Mo Hayes a Southern City. Boston: D. C. Heath and 1968 A Divisive Issue: Freedom of Choice. Company. (V1.1,a) Southern Education Report 3(6):18-21, McAdams, John D. (V.1,a) 1974 Strategies for Integration: I, Can Open Enrollment Work? The Public Interest MosteHer, Frederick, and Daniel P. Moynihan 37(Fall):69-88. (V.1.a) Eds. McDonald, Marjorie 1972 On Equality of Educational Oppor- 1970-Not by the Color of Their Skin: The tunity. New York: Random House. (11.2; Impact of RacialDifferences on the IV.1; IV.2; 1V.3) Child's Development. New York: Inter- Moynihan, Daniel P. national Universities Press, Inc. (V I,2.b) 1969 Sources of Resistance to the Coleman McDowell, Sophia F. Report. In Equal Educational Oppor- 1967 and Other Interracial At- tunity. James S. Coleman, et al., Eds. titudes of Negro Youth. Final Report. Cambrklge, MA: HarvardUniversity ERIC: ED019390. (V1.3.11) Press. pp. 25-38. (111.4; I V.2; 1V.3)

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Mumford, Luther Classroom Situations: Resource Bulletin 1973 White Flight From Desegregation in for Teachers in the Secondary Schools. Mississippi., Integrated Education Curriculum Bulletin, 1967-68 Series, No. 11(3):12-26. (V.2.c) 23. Brooklyn: New York City Board of Myers, Miles Education, Bureau of Curriculum 1966 The roleof the AFT inSchool Development. (V.5.d) Desegregation. Changing Education Nicholas, Lynn N., S. Virgo, and William W. 1(3):39-45. (V.4.b) Wattenberg Myrdal, Gunnar 1965 Effects of Socio-economic Settings and 1944 An American Dilemma; The Negro Organizational_tlimate on Problems Problem and Modern Democracy. New Brought to Elementary School Offices. York: Harper and Brothers. (11.2) Final Report of Cooperative Research Nash, Kermit Project N2394. Detroit: Wayne State 1968 Mental Health in the Desegregated University, College of Education. (VI.4) School. Integrated Education 30:28-36. Noar, Gertrude (VI.2.c) 1966 The Teacher andIntegration. NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund Washington, D C: National Education., 1971 An Even Chance. Washington, D C: Association. (V.5.e) NAACP Legal Defense and Education Ogbu, John Fund. (III.2.c; 111.3) n.d. Manuscript on cross-cultural analysis of Evaluation of federally sponsored Indian minority education. To be published by education programs for compliance with Academic P:ess, New York. (II.4) authorization requirements. Oklahoma State Department of Education NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund 1971 A Curriculum Guide for Human Rela- 1973 It's Not the Distance, "It's the NIig- tions Education in Oklahoma Schools. gers." In The Great School Bus Con- Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Curriculum troversy. Nicolaus Mills, Ed, New York: Improvement Commission. (V.5.e) Teachers College Press. (11.1; V .I.c) O'Reilly, Robert P. National Advisory Council on the Education 1970 Social Class and Ethnic Status: Rela- of Disadvantaged Children tionship to Intellectual and Educational 1967 Title I-ESEA: A Review and a For- Development and Related Factors. In ward Look. Washington, D C: U. S. Racial and Social Class Isolation in the Government Printing Office. (III.2.c) Schools: Implications for Educational Compliance evaluation of programs sup- Policy and Programs. Robert P. ported by grants-in-aid authorized by Ti- O'Reilly, Ed. New York: Praeger tleI of the Elementary and Secondary Publishers. pp. 94-137. (VI.2.c) Education Act. Orfield, Gary National Commission on Professional Rights I969a The Politics of Resegregation. Satur- and Responsibilities of the National day Review (September 20): 58-60, Education Association 77-79. (III.I.b; V.I) 1965 Report on Task Force Survey of I 969b The Recons;ruction of Southern Teacher DisplacementinSeventeen Education: The Schools and the 1964 States. Washington, D C: U.S. Govern- Civil Rights Act. New York: Wiley-In- ment Printing Office, (V.4,b) terscience. (11.1; 111.1.a; III.1,b; III.I.f; National Schol Public Relations Association III.2.a; III.2.h; V.I.a; V.2.a) 1970 Black Studies in Schools. Edit!Ion A detailed, careful account of the actors, U.S.A. Special Report. Washington, u C: groups, and events of importance leading National School Public Relations up to the passage and enforcement of the Association. (V.5.d) 1964 Civil Rights Act. New York City Board of Education 1975 Congress, the President, and Anti-13us- 1968 Teaching About Minoritiesin ingLegislation,1966-1974.InFrom 71

Brown to Bradley: School Desegregation 1969a The Negro and Education: Problems 1954-1974. R. Stephen Browning, Ed. and Proposals. /n Race and the Social Cincinnati: Jefferson Law Book Com- Sciences. Irwin Katz and Patricia Gurin, pany. (II.1; III.I.b; III.2.a; III.2.b; Eds. New York: Basic Books, Inc. I11.2.c; V.I.c)' (VI.2.b) Describes therole of Congressin I969b Race and Equal Educational Oppor- desegregation during the Johnson and tunity.InEqual Educational Oppor- Nixon administrations. Primary focus is tunity. Harvard Educational Review, given to the antibusing legislation pro- Ens. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univer- posals. sity Press. pp. 69-79. (11.2; VI; VI.3) 1976 Response toIs Coleman Right. 1972 Public Policy, and Desegregation Richard Farley. Social Policy Research. Integrated Education 6(4):24-29. (V.2.c) 10(1):18-22. (III.4) Ornstein, Allan C. 1975 The Cold Structural Inducements to 1974RaceandPoliticsin... Integration. Urban Review 8:137-144. School/Community Organizations.' (V.4.b; VI.4) Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Pettigrew, Thomas F., Elizabeth L. Useem, Publishing Company. (V.1; V.I.d) Clarence Normand, and MarchallS. Osser, Harry Smith 1973 Biological and Social Factors in 1973 Busing: A Review of "The Evidence." Language Development. In Advances in Public Interest 30 (Winter):88-118. Communication Research. C. David (V.1.c; V1.1.a) Mortensen and Kenneth K. Sereno, Eds. Pettigrew, Thomas F. and M. Richard Cramer New York: Harper and Row. pp. 1959 The Demography of Desegregation. 376-387. (IV.3.a) Journal of Social Issues 15 (4):61-71. Ozmon, Howard A. (V.2.c) 1965 The Right of the Negro Teachers. Pincus, John, Ed. .American School Board Journal 13-14. 1974 School Finance in Transition: The (V.4.b) Courts and Educational Reform. Palmer, James M. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing 1971 Resegregation and the Private School Company. (III.I.d) Movement. Integrated Education Porter, Judith D.. R. 9(3):5-10. (V.2.b) 1971Black Child, White Child: The Payne, James S., Cecil D. Mercer, Ruth A. Development of Racial Attitudes. Payne, and Roxana G. Davison Cambridge, MA: HarvardUniversity 1973 HeadStart: A Tragicomedy with Press. (VI.3.a; VI.3.b) Epilogue. New York: Behavioral Pringle, M. L. Kellmer, and Margaret Tanner Publictions. (V.5.c) 1958 The Effects of Early Deprivation on Peltason, Jack, Speech Development: A Comparative 1961 Fifty-Eight Lonely Men. New York: Study of Four Year Olds in a Nursery Harcourt, Brace and World. (111.1.a; School andinResidentialNurseries. III.I.b) Language and Speech 1(October-Decem- Peterson, John H., Jr. ber):269-287. (IV.3.a) 1975 Black-White Joking Relationships Proshansky, Harold, and Peggy Newton Among Newly-Integrated Faculty.In- 1968 The Nature and Meaning of Negro tegrated Education 13(1):33-37. (V.5.e) Self-Identify. /n Social Class, Race, and Pettigrew, Thomas F. Psychological Development. Deutsch, 1964 Negro American Intelligence: A New Katz, and Jensen, Eds. New York: Holt, Look at an Old Controversy. Journal of Rinehart and Winston.pp.178-218. Negro Education 33(1):6-25. (IV.3.b) (VI.2.b; VI.3.a)

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Read, Frank T. research and development efforts. Great 1975 Judicial Evolution of the Law of emphasis was given by Le conferees to School Integration Since Brown v. Board greater control over policy formation . of Education. Law and Contemporary research objectives and methodologies, Problems 39 (1):7-50. (111.1.a; III.I.b; and governance of the schools. III.I.c) Rodgers, HarrellR.,Jr.,and Charles S. Redisch, Ann, and Theodore A. Weissbach Bullock 1974 Traits Attributions by White Students 1972 SchoolDesegry.gation: A Policy to Black Fellow Students Versus Blacks Analysis. Journalof Black Studies in General, Journal of Social Psychology 2(4):409-437. (111.3) 92(1): 147-148. (VI.2.b) Rogers, David Riccio, Anthony C., and K. D. Barnes 1967 Obstacles to School Desegregation in 1973 Counselor Preferences of Senior High New York City: A Benchmark Case. In School ,Students. Counselor Education Educating an Urban Population. Marilyn and Supervision 13(1):36-40. (VI.3.b) Gittell, Ed. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Riessman, Frank Publications, Inc. pp. 155-184. (y.2.a) 1962 The Culturally Deprived Child. New Rogers takes a close look artlew York York: Harper and Row. (IV.3.a) City desegregation,definingroles of Rist, Ray C. some of the important participants in- 1973 The Urban School: A Factory for volved, including ethnic groups, parents, Failure. Cambridge, MA: The MIT school board and certain school-related Press. (111.4: V.5.a; VI.3; VI.4) political organizations. 1974a Busing White Children into Black Roper, Susan Stavert Schools: A Study in Controversy. Inte- 1971 The Effectof Race on Assertive grated Education 12(4):13-18. (V.1.e) Behavior and Responses to Assertive I974b Race, Policy, and Schooling. Society BehaviorinSmall Groups. EDIC: 12(1):59-63. (11.4) ED051317. (VI.3.c) 1976 School Integration and Minority Stu- Rose, Arnold dent Tokenism.IntegratedEducation 1964 De Facto School Segregation. New 14(1):18-20. (VI.2) York: National Conference of Christians n.d. Bibliography from manuscript of his and Jews. (IV.1) forthcoming book on desegregation in a Rosen, Bernard C. west coast city. (1.2) 1956 The Achievement Syndrome: A Psy- Rist, Ray C., and Gary Orfield chocult ur al Dimension on Social 1976 School Desegregation and White Stratification. American Sociological Flight, Introduction. Social Policy Review 21(April): 203-211. (IV.3.a) 6(4):6-8. (IV. I; V.2.c) 1959 Race Ethnicity and the Achievement Rivlin, Alice M. Syndrome. American Sociological 1973 Forensic Social Science. In Perspec- Review 24:47-60 (VI.2.a) tives on Inequality. Harvard Educational Rosenberg, Morris, and Roberta G. Simons Review 43(1):25-40. (111.4) Rodgers, Frederick A., et al. 1972 Black and White Self-Esteem: The Ur- 1973 Identification of Problems and Con- ban School Child. Washington, DC: cerns Regarding Educational R41search American Sociological Association. and Development Activities Involving (VI.2.b) Black Citizens. A 'Final Report. ERIC: Rosenfeld, Gerry ED091360. 1971 "Shut Those Thick Lips!" &Study of Report on a Conference of black educa- Slum School Failure. New York: Holt, tors, professionals, and citizens held by Rinehart and Winston. (111.4; VI.3.d) the National Institute of Education for Rosenthal, Robert, and Lenore F. Jacobson the purpose of gaining input for NIE's 1968 Pygmalion in the Classroom. New 7 7 73

York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. (11.2; 11.3) (IV.3.c) Short policy-oriented discussion of alter- Sachdeva, Darshan natives to desegregation such as compen- 1973 A Measurement of Changes in Inter- satory education and community control. racial Student Attitudes in Desegregated Scott, David W. Schools. Journal of Educational 1972 SchoolDistrictIntegration ina Research 66(9):418-422. (VI.3.b) Metropolitan Area. Education and Ur- St. John, Nancy H. ban Society 4(2):135-154. (V.Ld) 1971 Thirty-Six Teachers: Their Charac- Seward, G. teristics and Outcomes for Black and 1956 Psychotherapy and Culture Conflict. White Pupils. American Educational New York: Ronald Press. (V1.2,b) Research Journal 8(4):635-647. (VI.1.a) Shaw, Marvin E. 1975 School Desegregation, Outcomes for 1974 The Self-Image of Black and White Children. New York: John Wiley and Pupils in an Integrated School. Journal of Sons. (VI; VL2.b; VI.2.c; VI.3; VI.3.a; Personality 42(1):12-22. (VI.2.b) V I.3.c) Shaycoft, Marion F. Reviews over 120 published and un- 1967 The High School Years: Growth in publishedarticlesdescribing research Cognitive Skills. Pittsburgh: American studies designed to investigate the conse- Institute for ResearCh and School of quences for children of school desegrega- Education, University of Pittsburgh. tion; she stresses the multifaceted nature (V1.1.a) ofasocial phenomenon suchas Shuey, Audrey desegregation which can, under differing 1966 The Testing of Negro Intelligence. conditions, have both positive and nega- New York: Social Science Press. (IV.3.b) tive results; especially good for its ,ppen- Silberman, Charles E. dices of charts which organize the 1962 The City and the Negro. Fortune research reviewed by problem studied, 65(Mareh):89-92. sample used, and findings. Silverman, Irwin, and Marvin E. Shaw St. John, Nancy H., and Ralph G. Lewis 1973 Effects of Sudden Mass School 1971 The Influence of School Racial Con- Desegregation on Interracial Interaction text on Academic Achievement. Social and Attitudes in one Southern City. Jour- Problems 19:68-78. (VI.I.a) nalof SocialIssues 29(4):133-142. 1975 Race and the Social Structure of the (VI.3.c) Elementary Classroom. Sociology of Silverthorne, Colin, et al. Education 48:346-368. (V L3.c) 1974 The Effectof Competition and Cooperation on Level of Prejudice. Jour- Saint Louis Board of Education nalof Social Psychology 92:293-301. 1969 A Plan to Increase Vocational Educa- (V/.3.0) tion Opportunities Through the Expan- Sizemore, Barbara sion of Curriculum and Available 1972 Is There a Case for Separate Schools? Facilities.FinalReport. ERIC: Phi Delta Kappan 53(5): 281-284. (11.2; ED042881. (V.1.a) 11.3; 11.4) Sartain, J. A. Following Handlin, adopts definitions of 1966 Attitudes of Parents and Children integration and desegregation useful to Towai us Desegregation. Doctoral disser- understanding shift to Black Power tation, . Ann Ar- orientation. Desegregation (racial bor: University Microfilms, 1967. No. balance) like segregation is seen as an im- 67-2836. (VI.3.b) positionin which the superior/sub- Schwartz,Robert, Thomas Pettigrew, and ordinate relationshipismaintained. Marshall 3mith Sizemore incorporates into her essay no- 1968 Desegregation; Assessing the Alterna- tions of radical approaches to education tives.- Nation's Schools 81(3):61-66. such as Freir.e. 78 74

Smith, Marshall S., and J. S. Bissel Stent, Madelon D., W. P. Hazard, and H. N. 1970Report Analysis: The Impact of Head Rivlin Start. Harvard Educational Review 1973 Cultural Pluralism in Education: A 40:51-104. (V.5.c) Mandate for Change. New York: Ap- Smith, Paul M. pleton-Century-Crofts. (V.5) 1971 The Role of the Guidance Counselor The book contains a set of papers given at inthe Desegregation Process. Journal of a national conference on education and Negro Education 40(4):347-351. (V.5.e) teacher education for cultural pluralism Smith, Ralph V., Stanley E. Flory, R. L. held in 1971. The conference was spon- Bashshur, and G. W. Shannon sored by a teacher training program 1967 Community Interaction and Racial funded by the Office of Education at the Integration in the Detroit Area: an insistence of minority members of the Ecological Analysis. Ypsilanti: Eastern program. The book also contains con- Michigan University. (VI.2.a) feren( resolutions for action by OE Sobel, Morton J. based on theculturalpluralismap- 1973 What's Really Blocking School proach. Desegregation? Equal Opportunity Stout, Robert T., and Gerald E. Sroufe Review (July):1-4. (V.4.b) 1968 Politics Without Power, the Dilemma Somerville, Addison, W. of a Local School System. Phi Delta Kap- 1969 The Neighborhood School Concept: Its pan 49(6):342-345. (V; V.4.a) Rationale and Practical Values. In In- tegration and Education. David W. Suchman, Edward A., John P. Dean, and Robert M. Williams Beggs andS. Kern Alexander, Eds. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company. 1958 Desegregation: Some Propositions and pp. 121-142. (V.3) Research Suggestions. New York; Anti- League of B'nal B'rith. (V.1) Southern Regional Council 1969 The FederalRetreatinSchool Sullivan, Neil V. Desegregation.Atlanta:. Southern Re- 1968 Myths and Gaps in School Integration. gional Council. (111.3) Today's Education 57(6):38-42. (11.1) Southern Regional Council, and Robert F. Supreme Court Kennedy Memorial 1955 Text of the Supreme Court Opinions 1973 The Student Pushout: Victim of Con- May 17,1954. Social Problems tinued Resistance to Desegregation. 2(4):221-235. (IV.1.a) Atlanta: Southern Regional Council. Swanson, Bert E. (V.5.11) 1965 School Integration Controversies in Spady, W. 1973 The Impact of School Resources of New York City, a Pilot Study. Brom:- ville, NY: Sarah Lawrence College, In- Students.InReview of Recearchin Education. F. N. Kerlinger. Ed. Ittisca, stitute for Community Studies. (V.1.b) This report explores the problems and IL: F. E. Peacock. pp. 135-177. (V.4.b) decision-making processes associated Sprat len, Thaddeus H. in 1973 Financing Inner City Schools: Policy with introduction of desegregation Aspects of Economics, Political and New York City, where the Princeton Plan Racial DisparitY. Journal of Negro of pairing was used. Education 42(3):283-307. (I11.1.d) Talbert, Carol Stanley, Julian C., Ed, 1970 Interaction and Adaptation in Two 1973 Compensatory Education for Children Negro Kindergartens. Human Organiza- Ages Two to Eight: Recent Studies of tion 29(2);103-114. (VI.4) Educational Intervention. Baltimore: Taylor, William The John Hopkins University Press. 1973 The Legal Battle for Metropolitanism. (V.5.c) School Review 81(3):331-345. (111.1.c) 7 9 75

Terjon, Kitty nal Revenue Service; and Veterans Ad- 1971 The Segregation Academy Movement. ministration. In The South and Her Children: School Valentine, Charles A. Desegregation 1970-1971. Sow.hern, 1971Deficit,Difference andBicultural Regional Council, Ed. Atlanta: Southern Models of Afro-American Behavior. Regional Council. (V.2.b) Harvard Educational Review 41(2): Thorndike Robert L. 137-158. (11.4; 1V.3.(1) 1968 Review of Pygmalion inthe 1972 Models and Muddles Concerning Classroom. American Educational Culture and Inequality. Harvard Educa- Research Journal 5(4):708-7I I. (IV.3.c) tional Review 42(I):97-108. (IV.3.d) University of Florida Libraries A reply to some of the critics of Valen- 1960 Segfegation and Desegregation in tine's previous work on the relationship American Education. Third Edition. between culture and poverty and the Gainesville, FL: Education Library, Col- nature of difficulties black people en- lege of Education, University of Florida. counter in "mainstream" institutions. (1.2) Valentine emphasizes the importance of 1962 Segregation and Desegregationin structural inequalities. American Education. FourthEdition. Van Den Haag, Ernest NO. 62, May, 1962. Gainesville, FL: 1960 Social Science Testimony in the Education Library, College of Educa- Desegregation CasesA Reply to tion, University of Florida. (1.2) Professor Kenneth Clark. Villanova Law U. S. Commission on Civil Rights Review 6:69-79. (111.4) 1961 Third Annual Conference on Problems Vander Zanden, James W. of Scho&s iz Transition from the Educa- 1958 Turbulence Accompanying School tor's View2bint. Washington, DC: U. S. Desegregation. Journal of Educational Government Printing Office.'(V.1) Sociology 32(2):68-75. (V.2.a; V.4.a) I 967a Education Parks, Appraisals ofPlans Veroff, Joseph, and Stanton Peele to Improve EducationalQuality and 1969 Initial Effects of Desegregation on the Desegregate the Schools. U. S. Commis- Achievement Motivation of Negro Ele- sion on CiVilRights, Clearing-House mentary School Children. Journal of Publication No. 9. Washington, DC: U.S. Social Issues 25(3):7I-9 I. (VI.2.a) Government Printing Office. (V.1) Vontress, Clemmont E. 1967b RacialIsolationinthe Public 1969 Cultural Differences: Implications for Schools, Volumes 1, and 2. Washington, Counseling. Journal of Negro Education DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 38(3):266-275. (V.5.e) (IV.1; V.I.b; VI.I.a) Walker, Dollie, et al. 1975 The Federal Civil Rights Enforcement 1967 School Desegregation in Baltimore. Effort-1974, Volume3: To Ensure Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Equal Educational Opportunity. (IV.1) Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Office. (I I1.11; III.2.b) Watson, Bernard C. The fifth evaluation of the Federal 1975 School Integration: Its Meaning, Costs Goyernment's effort to end discrimina- and Future, irt From Brown to Bradley, tion undertaken by the Commission School Desegregation 1954-1974. R. covers the period between July 1972and Stephen Browning, Ed. Cincinnati: June 1974. The activities and respon- fferson Law Book Company. pp. sibilities of a number of Federal agencies 15-17. (V 1.1.b) with civilrights enforcement respon- Weber, George, and Arthur Pearl sibilities related to education are 1966 Two Views Concerning Ability Group- reviewedinthis volume, including ing. Southern Education Report 2(5):2-8. HEW's Office for Civil Rights; the Inter- (V.5.a) 8 0 76

Webster, S. W., and M. N. Kroger Class Teachers. New York: McGraw- 1966 A Comparative Study of Selected Per- Hill Book Company. (IV.3.c) ceptions and Feelings of Negro Ado les- Who ley, Joseph S., John W. Scanlon, Hugh G. cents With and Without White Friends in Duffy, James S. Fukumoto, and Leona Integrated Urban High Schools. Journal M. Vogt of Negro Education 35:55-61. (VL3.c) 1970 Federal Evaluation Policy: Analyzing Weinberg, Meyer the Effects of Public Programs. 1968 Desegregation Research: An Ap- Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. praisal. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kap- (111.4) pa. (VI) Williams, John E. Reviews and assesses experimental 1966 Connotations of Racial Concepts and studies, most unpublished, of the many Color Names. Journal of Personality and hypotheses related to school desegrega- Social Psychology: 331-340. (VI.2.b) tion. Williams, John E., Deborah L. Best, Frank B. Weinberg, Meyer, Ed. Wood, and John W. Filler 1967 School Integration: A Comprehensive 1973 Changes in the Connotations of Racial Classified Bibliography of 3,100 Concepts and Color Names: 1963-1970. ReferenCes. Chicago: Integrated Educa- Psychological Reports 33(3):983-996. tion Association. (1.2) (VI.2.b) 1970 The Education of the Minority Child: Williams, Robert L., and F. Venditti A Comprehense Bibliography of 1969 Effect of Academic Integration of 10,000 Selected Entries. Chicago: Inte- Southern Negro Students' Expressed grated Education Association. (1.2) Satisfaction with School. Journal of Weinstein, Eugene A., and Paul N. Geisel Social Psychology 79(2):203-209. 1962 Family Decision Making Over (VI.2.a) Desegregation. Sociometry 25(1):21-29. Willie, Charles V. (V.1.a) 1964 Anti-Social Behavior Among Disad- Westphal, Mary C. vantaged Youth: Some Observations on 1970 Reaction: Minority Sensitivity Train- Prevention for Teachers. Journal of ing. Public Personnel Review Negro Education 33(1):176-181. (V.5.e) 31(2):74-77. (V.5.e) Wey, Herbert, and John Corey Willover, Donald J., Terry L. Eidell, and Wayne K: Hoy 1959 Action Patterns in School Desegrega- tion, a Guidebook. Bloomington, In Phi 1973 Penn State Studies. No. 24. The School Delta Kappa. (V.I; VI.4) and Pupil Control Ideology. University White, R. D. Park: Pennsylvania State University. (V.5; VI.4) 1974 School Finance Reform: Courts and Legislatures. Social Science Quarterly Winschel, J. F. 55:331-346. (11.2) 1970 In the Daric... Reflections onCom- Examines the Rodriguez case in the con- pensatoFy Education, 1960-1970. In Dis- tcxt of the interaction between the advantaged Child, Volume 3: Compen- judicial and legislative elements. satory Education: A National Debate. J. White, Sheldon H., M. C. Day, R. K. Freeman, Hellmuth, Ed. New York: Brun- S. A. Hartman, and K. P. Messenger ner/Mazel. pp. 3-23. (V.5.c) 1973 Federal Programs for Young Children: Wisdom,. John Minor Review and Recommendations. 1975 Random Remarks on the Role of Washington, DC: U.S.Government Social Sciences in the Judicial Decision- Printing Office. (V.5.c) Making Process in School Desegregation White William F. Cases. Law and Contemporary Problems 1969 Psychological Principles Applied tov? 39(1);134-150. (111.41

vQ 1%)4- 77

Wolf, Eleanor P., and Leo. Wolf Sociological Issues 14(8):8-28. (VI.2.b; 1962 Sociological Perspective on the Educa- VI.3) tion of Culturally Deprived Children. Yudof, Mark G. The School Review 70(4):373-387. 1975 Suspension and Expulsion of Black (IV.3.a) Yarrow, Marion R., J. D. Campbell, and L. J. Students from the Public Schools: Yarrow Academic Capital Punishment and the 1958 Acquisition of New Norms: A Study of Constitution. Law and ContemPorary Racial Desegregation. Journal of Problems 39(2):S74-411. (V.5.b)

8 2 79

THE PROCESS OF INTERRACIAL SCHOOLING: AN ASSESSMENT OF CONCEPTUAL FRAME- WORKS AND METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATIONS

Thomas W. Collins ORGANIZATION 'OF THE George W. Nob lit LITERATURE REVIEW Memphis State University Memphis, Tennessee The review of literature is organized into nine "issue" areas that were inductively INTRODUCTION derived. They are: The process of interracial education has I.Law and Politics been and continues to be a subject of much 2.Community Concerns controversy, and underlines the political 3.School Administration nature of the history of public education in this 4.Order and Discipline country. The scientific research, reasoned S. Curriculum and Instruction debate and emotional diatribes render judg- 6.Faculty ments of the process that are highly diverse in 7.Co-Curricular Activities substance not only between the modes of ex- 8.Extraschool Factors pression, but also within them. This creates 9.Consequences for Students some difficulty in any attempt to review and Each of these areaswillbe discussed synthesize the literature. All too often such at- separately with the exception of co-curricular tempts, while cognizant of this, do not attempt activities for which there was little literature to systematically account for these diversities. available. Co-curricular activities will be dis- This literature attempts to incorporate an cussed as part of the concluding remarks. analysis and possible explanation(s) of the It is undeniable that these categories do not diversity through an investigation of aie rela- encompass all of the issues that exist or have tionship of research methodology and concep- been suggested. However, the attempt was to tual framework employed in the analysis of the organize the mass of literature into the most process of interracial education. Thus, it will parsimonious scheme possible without grossly be possible to gain some understanding of how misrepresenting, hopefully, both the themes in methodology and explanation interact. This literatures and the authors' intentions. It would seem to be significant to all those who should be noted that this revieW is not an ex- are to fund research, conduct research and/or haustive one.* The vast amount of literature read research findings. If there seem,s to be precluded any such attempt. Meyer Weinberg more or less systematic patterns emerging from (1970), however, has organized an exhaustive this endeavor, then all three audiences may be bibliography worthy of perusal by those con- able to better organize their thoughts relativecerned with interracial education. toschoolinterracialprocesses as wellas understand some.of the limitations that may impinge upon the exiStent literature and the 'The bibliography includes all references cited in text findings represented, and research thatis plus some additional references that arc important to dis- needed. cussion herein, but wcrc not cited in the text. 8 3 80

Within cach issuc arca wc have attempted to where hc divides the past two decades into four abstract the predominant themes and/or con- historical periods. They are as follows: cerns. It should be emphasized that only what Thc first period covers the timc frame bc- sccmedtobethcmajor themes willbc twcen Brown IIin1955 and thc James reviewed. Minor or underlying themes could Meridith attair in 1963. It is characterized not even be outlined in a review of limited by a serics of pitchcd judicial battles over length. Further, it is evident that thc conccrns token degregation. The second period, with the process of interracial education are covering the years betwecn 1963 and 1967, not easily broken down into discrete themes. istypified by the struggles of the lower Many authors are trying to representit federal courts, without thc Supreme Court holistically, and with some success. guidance, to evolve desegregation standards Nevertheless, thc thcmcs and thc conccrns do and to break down entrenched local resis- seem to bc discrete enough to allow this tance. Thc third period, from 1968 through review. This, of coursc, may violate some of 1972, is the period of judicial revolution in the intentions of zhe authors at the time of their the Deep South; federal courts, stung by writing or their present thinking. It is hopcd Suprcme Court impaticnce, issued decrees that this is rare, and that thc authors will bc mandating massive integration. Thc fourth tolerant with the attcmpt to achieve the goals period, from thc Supreme Court's holding in of this review. Swannv.C'harlotte-Meckleburg Board of To explore the hypothcsis that research Education in 1971 to date, is characterized methodology and conceptual framework are by confusion over the future of intcgration, related, it was first necessary to create dccision attcmpts to move integration activity from rules about what constitutes what typc of the South to the ghettos and barrios of the research methodology. It appears that three East and West, and litigation over a host of methodologies exist: commentary, quantitative seconthgeneration integration problems. research and qualitative research. Yet, distinc- During the secondperiod(1963-67), tions even betwccn these thrce .wcre often pushed by thc Civil Rights movement, Con- difficult. The line between ciAnnientary and gress passed thc first meaningful legislation in some cxprcssions of qualitative researchis thc cause of equal education and reform; the sometimes fuzzy; as is thc line betwecn quan- Civil Rights Act of 1964. In particular, Title titative and qualitative research that usc obser- VI enabled a social revolution to begin by vational techniques that count behaviors. The holding that discriminatory school programs decisions in both situations arc based on how could no longer be supportcd with federal dol- the material was treated by the authors. If thc lars. Thc tull power of this Act was not ap- author seemed to view thc study as qualitative, parent until the following year when the Ele- it was trcatcd as such. mentary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 Thc conceptual frameworks arc as induc- was passed by Congress making larger amounts tively derived from cach issue area of the of federal funding available to Southern school I herature. Some issue areas have more variety districts. Batten (1970) states Title VI shiftcd in conceptual frameworks than others. The the burden of dismantling the dual school conclusion will attcmpt to examine the im- system of thc Sout%, from the redcral judiciary plications of this pattern. . the federalbu.eaucracy. The Office of Education in HEW sent their representatives LAW AND POLITICS out to districts to reviecompliance with the HEW Guidelines and recommendcd federal Thcre are many excellent summary reviews--fund cut-offs where necessary. Thus, local civil of the Federal Court dccisions covering thc rights groups were able to receive an immedi- ycars since Brown v. Board of Education (Joncs ate review of their complaints on discrimina- 1974; Kirp 1968; C. V. Smith 1975). Perhaps tion rather than procccd through thc long and the best analysis is put forth by Read (1975:10) expensive court litigation of earlieryears. 8 4 81

Ultimately the power of Title VI was focused Social scientists have also contributed a on the districts which formerly maintained number of studies on the impact of busing on dual (dc jure) systems (Craven 1970; Orfield the student. Perhaps David Armor's (1972) 1969). work is the most widely cited in the literature. Massive desegregation became a fact of life He attempted to assess the effects of busing on for all Southern districts during the period be- academic achievement, aspirations, self-con- tween 1968-72. The Supreme Court was impa- cept, race-relations and educational oppor- tient when it handed down its decision on tunities in five different cities froln Riverside, Green v. County School Boardin May, 1968 California to White Plains, New York. He con- (roughly one month after Dr. Martin Luther cludes that mandatory busing for purposes of King's assassination and the subsequent wide- improving student achievement and interracial scale rioting in many urban centers).Green harmony is not effective and should not be ended "freedom-of-choice" plans as a method adopted. Although this policy recommenda- of desegregation. This method had only pro- tion warmed the hearts of the anti-integration duced token attendance of blacks in formally forces, it was rejected out of hand by the pro- all-white schools. Emphasis was now placed on integration forces. Thomas Pettigrew etal. percentages of racial-mixing in Southern (1973) produced an extensive criticism of Ar- schools and plans had to be implemented im- mor's work. In their rebuttal, Pettigrew et ab. mediately. Thus, the public school districts of assailed Armor's standards for judgment (i.e., the South capitualted to the courts and integr- busing is successfulifitleads to increased ated their system. achievement in one year) and its methodologi- From 1972 to the present, the major con- cal weaknesses. Also, they assert that the study cern has been placed on student assignments simply ignored busing programs which have forracialmixing.In1971,inSwamiv. been reported as successful. Charlotte-Mecklenburg,the Supreme Court Weinberg (1975) carried out a comprehen- authorized altering of attendance zones. For sive review of the relationship of desegregation the first time, busing became an "accepted tool and academic achievement. He concludes of education polity." Local district plans could there can be gains in achievement of racial no longer be limited to walk-in schools. There minorities if the following characteristics are were other means (e.g. pairing and grouping of present during desegregation: attendance zones) but as Foster (1973) points out, most of them had failed. Busing was the I.a relative absence of interracial hostility new remeti: for the cities; North and South. among students, Perhaps the most controversial option of all 2.teachers and administrators who under- desegregation plans is busing. The literature on stand and accept minorit'i studenes, en- busing is extensive. There are excellent case couraged and reinforced by aggressive studies and analyses of particular aspects of in-service training programs, busing experiences written on Greenville and 3.the majority of studentsina given Greensburo (Bagwell 1972), Memphis (Egtr- classroom are from middle and/or up- ton 1973), Centerline (LaPorte, Becker, Willie per socioeconomic classes, 1965),Louisville (Perly1975),Pontiac 4.desegregation at the classroom as well (Efthim 1971), Inglewood (Bonacich and as at the school level, praticularly in Goodman 1972), Charlottesville, Providence elementary schools, and Sacramento (Holden 1974). Cottle (1975) details the legal ploys used to prevent racial- 5.no rigid ability grouping or tracking, particularly in elementary schools, mixing in Boston. The politics of desegregation at the community level comparing eight North- 6.an absence of racial conflict in the com- ern cities and seven Southern citieS is provided munity over desegregation, and by Crain (1968). The variouspolitical 7.younger children are involved (though maneuvering, the factionalism and policy ad- thislastconclusion should be con- justments arc detailed in most of the studies. sidered very tentative). 8 5 82

'Summary ing city taxation,rates, decline in central city services). But as Rossell adds, "it is not enough There remains a great deal of confusion as to say white flight is not increased by school to how the courts have arrived at the decisions desegregation. We need to know how to stop in desegregation cases. Taylor et al. (1976) flight altogether" (1975a: 689), summarizes the legal principles that govern - The black community and some of its courts. In spite of the insistence of masses of leadership appear to be having second sociologicaland educationalstudiessince thoughts about desegregation. Blacks find their Brown, they conclude most court orders are children burdened with abnormally high based on constitutionalconsiderations and suspension rates relative to that of whites (Bell such matters as the stability of desegregation 1972) rigid tracking systems, and quite often, plans rather than sociological theory. tokenism rather than a reasonable.racial ratio The legal and political literature is essen- or "critical mass" (Pettigrew 1975; Rist 1974, tially commentary and qualitative, and there is 1976).Black spokesmen suchasCharles little variation in conceptual framework by Hamilton (1968) and Shirley Chisholm (1975) mode of expression. Yet some quantitative and see busing and other desegregation plans as a qualitative research is called for that complies reduction in resources and control of what the judges consider crdible evidence and minorities communities.Itisdifficultfor viable remedies. Thus, the legal/political pro- parents to participate (e.g., PTA meetings) in cess of school desegregation may become more their child's education when he or she is bused lucid. out of the neighborhood. Moreover, it is im- possible for black parents to make alliance COMMUNITY CONCERNS with black teachers to promote better schools. Coleman (1976) and Coleman et al. (1975) As Hamilton (quotedinRavitch1976) raises the issue of school segregation by dis- testified against busing before a Congressional tricts resulting from desegregation within dis- Committee, "blacks need more economic and tricts. Compiling data from both. large and political self-sufficiency,more than they need small districts across the U.S., he concludes racially balanced schools.' school-desegregation is a casual factor in white Perhaps the best recent community study to flight. However, other research does not sup- be produced by an anthropologist emphasizing port this position. Everett Cataldo et al. (1975) formal education involvementis Ogbu's in their Florida study found the rejection rate (1974) work in Stockton, California. Itis a (children leaving a newly desegregated school) muhiethnic situation where each group must to be less than four. percent. In another w11- negotiate with the power of the school. He sees researched study in Baltimore, Stinchcombe et community historicalfactorsinfluencing al. (1969) determined that once a school is education in terms of performance of children desegregated the proportion of blacks will rise in school. In a sense it is an adaptation to the each year at a steady rate of seven percent per realities of the economic conditions of the year. The critical change, or what they refer to community (i.e., life chances in an unstable job as the "tipping point," is linked to supply and market). Thus, Ogbu argues, there is a loss of demand of housing rather than racial balance,desire to perform or compete effectively in in the schools. Whites simply have more alter- school work. The school system contribtaes to natives than do blacks which intensifies the this stivation by defining problems In psy- need for black housing. Once a neighbnrhood chological and clinical terms. He concludes, is open to blacks they tend to fill up all availa- by saying the schools have not changed their ble housing. Rossell (1975a; I975b) makes a treatment of subordinate minorities; the basic similar conclusion about linkage of flight to orientations are still determined by the ideas housing needs. Orfield (1975), in addition to and pllicies of the dominant group. housing, lists several more factors influencing There is a trend in the :iterature to question the rate of racial IranSition of the cities (e,g., the continuing benefits of desegregation for urban riots, increasing crime and violence, ris- black children. Ravitch (1976) presents one of 8 6 83 the best commentaries on the changing at- demographic changesinlargecities(e.g., titudes among black schools. In districts such Atlanta; Newark). It has been noted, for eLam- as Atlanta where the blacks now control city ple, that the civil rights lawyers are no longer government and the school administration, in touch with the changing attitudes of blacks there is no interest intdiluting its base of politi- in these new situations. cal power by busing children out to suburban districts. Decentralization of large districts is encouraged by Solomon (1970) to increase the SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION local control by black parents. And Glasser Dilemma (1969) states it is workable. The chaos created inthe experiment inthe Ocean Hill- One of the tzd'ir ,.:onal issues most often Brownsville area of New York was not caused raised in the po, ..sesegregation concerns by local community control but resulted from the responsivenes., ..oucators to make deci- efforts to undermine community control. In- sions necessary to successfully implement deed this experiment demonstrates the poten- change. While school administrators have tial of the black community to organize (Wein-. acted to inifiate programs to rectify the segre- burg 1971). But first, greater equality must be gated aspects of inner-city life, it is argued that achieved in financing to insure the effective- these ameliorative curriculums have only rein- ness of the smaller districts (Singleton 1975). forced inequality (Berlowitz 1974; Rist 1972). The entire argument of community control Lower-class ghetto children have previously is best summarized by Kenneth Clark (quoted been educated in neighborhood schools, iso- in Weinburg 1971) where he states the issue of latedfromthelarger, more predominant control is "a demand for school accountability cultural patterns, yet expectcd to achieve ac- by parents to whom the schools have never ac- cording to the standards set forth by the ma- counted, particularly those parents of lowjority system (Levine1972). Inasmuch as status groups in northern cities." Ultimately segregated black neighborhood schools often the issue may best be resolved by an alliance had equal teaching staffs and materials when between teachers and parents (Hunt 1976). compared to similar white schools (Coleman 1966), the overall quality of resources devoted Summary to education of minority children and white In sum, the literature on community con- children was (and is) greatly infavor of the lat- cerns is extensive, particularly on busing and ter (13erlowitz 1974; Clignet 1974). As a result, whiteflight. The quantitativestudiesare says Stewart (1965), efforts to desegregate restricted to the areas of anticipated events schools to provide equal education have initi- such as scheduled busing programs in which at- ated modified programs to suit disadvantaged titudes of parents and changes in student per- children and often are perceived to do injustice formance can be measured. Many studies are to advantaged children. When whites speculate longitudinal analyzing the community conflict, that the quality of education for their children factionalism, decision making, the position or is declining, they have often opposed busing to role of elites. There are a number of studies of achieve equal education (Cataldo, Giles and conflicts generated by community involvement Gatlin 1975). Administrators are thus caught or protests in the administration of the schools in controversy between white parents, who per- where the data are gathered post hoc through ceive education as declining in quality, and interviews of critical informants. The nature of minority_communities, who view their educa- the issues seems to restrict these studies to tion as innately inferior. qualitative analysis. Some attempts to quantify Response conflict might be interesting but would not seem to be particularly promising. Recent lf, as Rist (1973) maintains, education is a commentary indicatesageneral needfor form of secular religion, then administrators, studies of black communities where real politi- teachers and counselors act as priests. The cal power has been achieved through failure of some administrators, teachers, etc. to 8 7 84 respond to crisis in the school environment in- A very major concern of school administra- dicates that they are well satisfied with the tors is the application of discipline in maintain- "faith" of the educational institution and that ing a proper educational environment. As Rist problems encountered are due to individual at- (1972) points out, the greatest consideration tribute:)und in protesting students and sur--giv-en-is-not-whet her-t-a-ase-vio 1 ence, bilt when rounding communities. In fact, many school to use it. Principals, teachers, counselors and personnel maintain that there are not any custodians are involved in the cycle of the problems (Winecoff and Kelly 1971). Also, school milieu in which a crisis atmosphere principals and teachers in minority schools determines the learning experience which, in often isolate themselves from their students by turn, affects the response of teachers and the opening social distance and classifying ethnic principal, providing the general social themes minorities with stereotypes, and are thus of the school (Rist 1972). Administrators, act- blinded to real issues in the schools which ing under the assumption that disruption is bad affect both students and the community. Ifand what is being disrupted is good, leave problems are recognized, they are often viewed things alone until school problems reach crisis as political by school boards (Ziegler and Boss proportions (Redl 1975). This cautious stance 1974) especially if civil rights activity in the is often cited in the literature (Stewart 1965; locale ishigh. Nevertheless, community in- Fish 1970; Bailey 1971; Shreek, Harper and volvement appears to be the major catalyst in Goroff 1975). Inability or unwillingliess to revising school policy (Fuchs 1966; Ziegler take innovative action to rectify violent school and Boss 1974). When school boards do res- situations may be a function of the position of pond to community demands for change, con- administrators in the institution of education. sensus in the literature seems to suggest that the As Reimer (1970) states, administrators are principal is the most important person in the prisoners of their own institutions, barely ac- school hierarchy regarding successful transi- complishing educational missions before turn- tion of the educational process. In the midst of ing around and bowing to them. Reverence for school controversy, the principal is often the the efficiency of education is not confined to man in the middle (Turbowitz 1971; Levy principals and board members, however. Gui- 1970) and may be defined as saviour or dance personnel routinely advise lower-class scapegoat, depending on the community children to take educational courses which are perspective. Abney (1974) reports that black assumed to be beneficial and interesting, but principals are often demoted to assistant posi- actually are class related (Rist 1973). Coun- tions or back to classroom teaching as selors give their advice to students assuming desegregation is accomplished. When race is that they are acting in humane, egalitarian the issue, Cottle (1970) states that the black ways which the code of educational standards principal is abused and outraged in every event calls for. Actually, counselors channel lower- and is handicapped in administrative decision class students into dead-end courses, thus making by constant criticism. Although black limiting their job futures (Smith 1971). As administrators are singled out for criticisl,;, Boney, Dunn and Bass (1971) point out, especially by whites, many principals are under socialization of the lower-class student affects fire for statements or procedures defined as the counseling relationship, but Smith (1971) racist by the local community. Fuchs in Pickets would reply that the middle-class socialization at the Gates (1966) cites a case study in which a of the counselor would be more of a determi- white principal inflamed the surrounding nant factor in the implications for career direc- parent population by giving a letter of instruc- tion of the youth. Counselors may be instr.t- don to incoming teachers warning them of cer- mental in determining career patterns, but the tain class-linked student characteristics which economic dead end resulting from class-linked would have to be compensated for. In this case, or subsidiary occupational choices would ex- the school board backed the parents and the plain a high degree of dissatisfaction on the principal, dazed by the controversy, amended part of communities with educational out- his remarks. comes. The obvious controversy over benefits 8 8 85 of education thus falls back into the laps ofand poverty and addiction as well as disruptive principals, superintendents and schocl boards. violence are viewed as individual failings, not structural defects (Carnoy 1974). The drift of Change these arguments would indicate that as long as Insofar as the school administration is un- schools act ,3 a sorting device for society, ad- willing to deal with controversy without great ministrative efforts at educational change on a public pressure, response to that pressure and large scale are probably doomed. Problems of action for ,zonstructive change usually can oc- schooling are problems contained inthe cur through an activist principal, especially greater conteXt- of America" society- and when bolstered by staff support (Fish 1970;despite the efforts of active administrators, Orfield1975; Goldsborough 1971; Levine literature suggests that little perrrAnent change 1972; Bailey 1971). Much of the literature in- will be produced from efforts wiihin the cur- dicates that an activist principal is able to elicit rent system (Sexton 1968). greater support through community involve-Summary ment, establishment of open channels of com- munication with the client public, students and The research on the administration of teachers, and by evolving strategies of crisis desegregated schools has mostly concentrated prevention rather than intervention (Baileyupon examining the role of the professional in 1971; Schreck.Hal- Per and Goroff 1975;the context of disruptive school environments. Stewart1 9(5: Goldsborough 1971; Ortleld Some descriptions of administrative process in 1975). Any large scale system-wide attempt at non-crisis settings would seem to help set the change must be acCompanied by adequate stage for an understanding of the relationship sources of information for all administratorsof administrative procedures and crisis. But concerned. The failure of the Clark Plan in Washington was apparently partly due to theneeded research concerns the perceived ignorance of many teachers, administratorspowerlessness of administrators, particularly and members of the community of the changes, principals. As will be discussed in the conclu- technique'd goals of the plan (Cuban 1970): sions for the order and discipline section, alter Thus, the...nool administrators should passnative organizational forms and styles need to down the line enough information to elicit sup- be attempted and evaluated. Schools that port and adequate understanding of changesemploy-unusual governance programs need to implemented. be identified ant: 'described: Thus, an effort Some literaturesuggests,however, that needs to be undertaken to compare the "suc- cdmmitment to change on the part of ad-cess" of desegregation in various settings that ministrators is insufficient without concomi- employ various governance systems. Finally, it tantcultural/structuralchanges withinthe would seem that researchers need to penetrate school system (Fuchs 1969; Hillson 1967; school system offices. The place to start is with descriptive survey:. and ethnographic in- Stewart1965). As Rist (1972) suggests, , _ American education is structured to perpetuate vestigations that attemptto document the social and economic inequalities found within logics employed within centralized administra- society. Berlowitz (1974) agrees that schools tions. Without that, the research efforts at the reinforce inequality through inferior teaching schoollevel may simply be naive and staffs. Educators, imbued with the ethos of misguided. middle-class America, develop controlling at- It should be noted that most-ofthe-litet dtui e titudes and methods of thought; intending to on administrationis commentary, and not impress upon all the myths of educational and systematic research. The few quantitative occupational opportunity (Bergen1968). studiesart; not veryanalytisic and mostly School process then may be viewed as cultural describe process and procedures. The qualita- imperialism, with ghetto children as thetive studies are more analytic, but waiver be- population to be colonized. Learning is, thus, tween seeing the problem as inept adminktra- organized to maintain the established order, tion .-)r an incorrigible institution.

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ORDER AND DISCIPLINE ing in educational opportunity (Haney and Zimbardo1975). School controversy over One of the more frequent recurring themes policy results when a gap exists between the ar in current literature pertaining to desegregated tual accomplishments of curriculum plans and education is that of order and discipline in the the oxpectations of students. Violence thus scholits.Maintaining peaceinthe school, reflects dissatisfaction with educational pro- however, entails more than the matter of cor- Gess which promises the myth of social mobility poral punishment of unruly children. Instead, but allows only an increasing concern for the literature suggests that,school violence in regularity, order and discipline (Levy, 1970). the present context of education, involves two Classroom situations mirror this gap between similar but distinguishable phenomena: 1) stu- expectations and realization, in that instructors dent mass protest over issues dealing with apply teaching methods stressing compensa- school or larger societal problems; and 2) in- tion for the disadvantaged, and students resist dividual acts of personal violence or property such methods due to their alienation about damage which symbolize rejection of school educational outcomes (H ickerson1966). orientations. As Friedenburg (1971) suggests, Further characterizing such schools with alien- the former type of activity indicates to educa- ated student populations is a cycle of violence tors the existence of an ideological bases while and response to violence in which frequent in- the individualistic disruption is indicative of cidents of violence determine administrative mere mischief. and teacher responses, thereby shaping the learning experiences of students,, further Student Protest alienating them and producing more violence Eibarle-(1970) points out many students are (Rist 1972). being denied basic rights and freedoms guaran- teed under the constitution. In protest, stu- Individual Mischief dents see the redistribution of wealth and Turning to forms of individualistic resources as the most critical and necessary misbehavior from issues of mass protest in the in solving their other problems. The school, it appears that v.andalism and disrup- most criticalprotestissues among student tion are again manifestations of unequal out- populations concern , and comes of education for different groups of stu- secondly, the forms of discrimination leveled dents. In the context of classroom intOraction, at all students. These protest concerns as well instructors perceive disruptive children to be, reflect wider community anxiety over the and assume that disruption is, bad and what is qua I ity of education. As Fuchs (1966) suggests, being disrupted is good. Unruly children must when adioinistrators initiate special services, be separated for the good of the class. Quick they forget that assumptions about students, identification and separation of disruptive stu- based upon general neighborhood background, dents are positive attributes for teachers who do notnecessarily concern theindividual desire to hold instructive classes (Red! 1975). needs of the students. School programs in- By singling out the disruptive child into special stituted to ameliorate lower class learning defi- programs and courses, the school is able to ciencies often outrage the local 'community. maintain order and at the same time reinforce And their anger is often incorporated into civil status differentiation of diose who rock fhe rights protest which may include demands for boat. Vandalism is particularly distressful to personnel changes. Furthermore, Levy (1970) school staffs since property destruction is a in Ghetto School clearly indicates the implied direct rejection of educational efforts to social- undertone of violence which characterizes ize students about norms pertaining to patriot-' schOols in controversy. Such an implied threat ism, acceptance of discipline and value of con- isalso describedinSchreck, Harper and sumptive property (Friedenberg 1971). Goroff (1975) and Rist (1972): Order in Schools In schools where educational policy is re- sented, students perceive educators as merely Strategie§ for the control of vandalism as attempting to maintain control rather than aid- suggested by Koch (1975) range from writing . 90 87 off the problem as insoluble to technological munity pressure, and faculty.. discontent when innovation (such as bliggiiig) to removal of cri- facing school crises. To alleviate this dilemma, mogenic causation through societal change. Stewart (1965) suggests that greater skill in Koch claims that consideration of issues about crisis prevention (rather than intervention), scho_.violence must involve balancing the careful perception of community standards of claims of society as a whole versus the needs of education and needs, and restructuring school individual students. He argues that adequate environments should be considered. An ex- control strategies may not be discovered until cellent example of constructive change with all levels of control are examined, be they these measuresis provided ina study by cultural, societal, community, familial or in- Schreck, Harper and Goroff (1975) which dividual. Increasing administration interven- describes community-wide involvement tion in problem-riddled schools reflects con- fostered by an open, highly visible administra- cern that is manifested by greater preoccupa- tion committed to change. In one year, tion with control. violence was decreased and differences be- Control in schools has been described as tween various student populations were aired similar to that found in prisons. Haney and without recourse to disruption. Zimbardo (1975) make analogies between principals as wardens and students as inmates. Summary They view schools as nearly total institutions, As with other issue areas reviewed in this controlling the lives of students by determining paper, there seems to be a paucity of systematic dress, behavior and movement during the research and commentary upon order and dis- school day. As a means of control, methods of cipline in the desegregated school. It would corporal punishment or some form of exclu- seem particularly important to compare the sion are used to align student behavior with in- variety of administrative styles and the recep- stitutional guidelines. The more extreme form tiveness of desegregated school settings to of exclusion is that of school suspension, ,and them. Also, the consequences of order and dis- more so than whites, black students have been cipline procedures need more study. Some stu- singled out for separation from school environ- dents are pushed out of school via a combina- ment (see Bell 1972 and Lillian Clarke 1973; tion of academic failure and disciplinary pro- Yudof 1975). cedures, and it would certainly seem this is As Friedenberg (1971) notes, dealing with more often the case with minority students. problems of school vicIence, disruption and Along with the study of consequences, it would protest on the part of administrators does not seem necessary to systematically investigate occuruntiltheirpositions are threatened. the dimensions of comniitment of students. When community involvement over con- What is it about school that some students do troversial problems brings pressure on school not act out and others do? Some research has principals, superintendents, and boards of looked at this and argued that commitment is a education, some activity to resolve the matter function of reaping the benefits, immediate and will begin. Ziegler and Boss (1974) report long range, of the institution. Yet studies in in- school board members and superintendents are terracial settings are noticeably few. Finally, generallyinsensitivetosocialproblems the literature argues that even the principa--- because of their rational ideology of education. feels powerless. Field studies and experiments In theory if not in practice, this precludes need to be undertaken with the expressed aim racial distinctions. Generally the civil rights of maximizing the power of al.1 school partici- movement has been mostly symbolic and has pants and assessing the academic and dis- clouded the issues in school controversy. On cipline consequences. the level of individual schools, Rist (1972), Current literature concerning order and dis- Levy (1970), Turbowitz (1971) and Fuchs cipline in America's school system emphasizes (1966) suggest that principals are often caught the accessibility of school administrations to in a crossfire between board pressure, corn- student overtures as directly varying with the

9 1 88 school's milieu of controversy. The first form tioned and buttressed by formal education. of literature, qualitative designs, are question- Research by Caliguri and Levine (1968) with ing the very basis of American education and suburban educators found that very few school conclusions reached at the end of those studies districts had written policies encouraging appear to confirm the suspicions raised. Se- teachers to use inter-ethnic material and very condly, those studiesutilizing quantitative liuk support was given to those who tried to data are divided over basic conceptual outlook use more and better instructional materialof but they suggest that administrators are this type. Teachers (Caliguri 1971 & Levine fatalistic concerning their positions vis a vis Noar 196() complained of poor quality of in- student violence and political pressures, and ter-ethnic material in social studies texts and that no matter who was in their position, little expressed ihe need for more illustrations of in- could be done. This sense cf powerlessness tegrated human groupings and settings and the with the present situationisindicative of portrayal of minority groups in a more positive framework similar to those reached in qualita- light. tivedesifins, that structural and or social change may be necessary before the crises in Tracking schoolsispast.Finallythe commentative Historically, the poor image of lower class literature is more focused upon the matter of and minorities are depicted in textbooks has issues in thschools, rather than schools being also been the image used by schools to deter- the issue. They suggest that administrators can mine the educationalexperience of these effect change if significant pressure is brought children (Crimmins 1974). The educational to bear. Essay articles in general are more op- track system (Clark 1964; Rist 1970; Schafer timistic abbut school outcomes although much and Olexa 1971) discriminates against low-in- controversy and pain are seen as concomitants come minority groups by locking-in students to to successful crisis revolution. a particular educational or career line.These children come to school less well prepared for CURRICULUM AND learning than their middle-class veers and INSTRUCTION because they have more to learn in the same period of time, teachers label them as "slow Instructional Materials learners" (Hickerson 1966). In the third or It has been argued that more than school fourth grade, students are given standardized and classroom desegregation, compensatory tests which are used as the formal basis for educational programs and additional resource tracking. Lower-class children are deliberately dollars will be needed if we are to reach our channeled into the lower track programs that goal of equal opportunity and equal outcomes offer curriculum which, in most cases, is poorly of education. Every child must have an equal planned, academically weak, and basically un- chance to participate in the learning process, coordinated (Eddy 1967). 'When children in be fairly depicted in the textbooks and receive the same classroom are-placed in different / a rightful share of school resources, including trac ts special adaptations are made in the time and attention from the teacher. At present regular curriculum so the lower track children there are practices withinthe educational undertake less work and are given more time to system which serve to restrict some children's do it under the assumption that these children learning process. Allen (1971) and Mc Laurin are "disadvantaged." The curriculum offering (1971) found that state-approved courses and for upper track students is more advanced or supplementary textboods, written post 1954, supplementary tothe normal instructional being used in several southern states show an material which emphasizes specific kinds of inadequate and prejudiced picture of Negroes. knowledge and work skills, 7exts written from 1961 on, ignored the lower- Tracking reinforces failure for those who class black family, always depicting the black have done poorly in the past, both through cur- as a loner. In this way the informal social riculum offering and because teachers spend learning of white children about blacks is sanc- more time with the upper track students

9 2 89

(Nickerson 1966; Moore 1964; Stein1971; their "professionalism" puts them above being Clark 1965; Hodgkinson 1961; Levy 1970). accountable. Slow learners are not fooled (McCullough 1974). They know when they are being dis- Summary eliminated against by being given "slow work" Research that looks at curriculum and in- and often balk at doing the assignment. In sostruction has not focused upon the question: doing, they fulfill the teachers' expectations ofhow do you provide instruction for all stu- them by failing to learn. Thus schools succeeddents. Rather the literature is permeated with in inducing and perpetuating the pathologydiscourse on how to best teach the minority they claim to remedy. student. In public education today that focus ic The children do not understand to what ex-reflected in the development of sep?;, tent their failure is institutionalized and semi-special programs and ability grouping The automatic, nor are they aware of the political literature reviewed here is critical of tracking significance (Levy 1970; Stein 1971). Incomeand special programs, but little effort has been and occupation of the father are almost as good devoted to how best to teach all students. as IQ test scores in predicting whether youth A second issue that is addressed in the sec- will go to college. The educational system istion on consequences of interracial schooling geared to the needs of children from middle- also needs to be reinterated here. Tfiere are few class environments (Hodgkinson 1967). Thestudies that look atthe long-range conse- systemisstructured through tests, rewardquences of tracking and instructional techni- systems and required behavior patterns toques. Further, there is a dire need, particularly allow children of the middle class to do wellwhen they concern the resegregation of and to filter out the poor (Carnoy 1974; Gintisdesegregated schools, to examine the changes 1971; Dreeben 1968). At each grade level, cur- made after desegregation and the logics that riculum is "modified" to teachers' images ofsupport those modifications, even comparative what children can be expected to do (Steindescriptions of classrooms that are desegreg- 1971). Moreover pupils in lower track coursesated and segregated as a result of whatever are further demoralized by the widespreadlogic are needed. These descriptions need to grading policy in high schools. Lower trackfocus not as much as on teacher behavior, but students often cannot receive a grade higherqualitative assessments of the teachers' than "C" or "B" no matter how hard they try,messages that a-e conveyed via his/her teaching nor how completely they master the materialmehodology and upon how much substantive available to them (Nickerson 1966). knowleke is being provided. As soon as the child reaches sixteen years of erally, the literature reviewed here is age, the teacher's taskislightened. The cr If current curriculum and instruction simplest way of not teaching the child is to getprocedures. There was little distinction in the him out of school through the insidious "incen-conceptual frameworks employed in the quan- tive or social promotion" practice (Steintitative studies, qualitative studies and com- 1971). As Hickers,,a (1966) states, "Childrenmentaries. of deprived background who do manage to There is some doubt as to whether the graduate from high school are seldom betterresearch reviewed here is representative, since off for compl;ting this ordeal because schoolsit would seem that there must be considerable have equipped them with few saleable skills"literature supporting tracking and special in- (cf., Ogbu 1974). structional approaches for minority students. One of the major causes of children notIt is possible that much of this literatuare is being taught isthat neither teachers, prin-couched as "special education," etc., which is cipals, superintendents nor Boards of Ex-not reviewed in this paper. If this is true, this aminers who set the criteria for evaluation arewould indicate that there are at least two dis- accountable for the success or failure in teach-crete themes in the literature. One assumes that ing children. Educational personnel feel thatspecial programs hinder; the other, that they 93. 90 help. But more importantly, the latter sees stu- operated with the expressed purpose of realiz- dents as having deficiencies, while the former ing the greatest return for the least amount of assumes education does. investment. Rist (1973) has portrayed the school as a "factory where children go to fail." FACULTY Teachers act like job-oriented workers, leaving shortly after students in the afteinoon, rather Teachers and Desegregation than profession-oriented educators who might use the time to search for new and better ways Teachers play a critical role in determining of teaching (Leacock 1969; Libarle and Selig- the success or failure of desegregated educa- son 19701Workers infactories hmie been tionforthey deal on adaily basis with described feeling alienated from :itanage- problems in integration of race and class. Or- ment much as Clark (1970) describes the dis- field (1975) has written that desegregation is tance maintained by teachers in their dealings often a traumatic experience, especially for with "those children." Itis argued that no white teachers, because they - forced to cope effort is made to establish a humanitarian at- with their personal prejudi' .s well as with mosphere in the classroom or to interact with problems that may arise in teaching children students on an individual basis. Haskins (1.969) with different backgrounds. in his Diary of a Harlem School Teacher says Thus far researchers have paid little atten- that faculty members in some desegregated tion to the effect of desegregation on teachers. schools do not speak to each other even on a Anderson (1958) in writing of early school professional basis. In schools where teachers desegregation in Tennessee sa,..s That teachers do talk to each other the conversations are were at a loss as to what to do for they had usually limited to the passing on of derogatory received not one hour of training in race rela- information about students (Clark 1970). tions from the university. In their reports of Thelen (1954) argues that rather than being results from desegregated workshops Agee and liberators, teachers are more often taskmasters Smith (1974). Stein (1971) and Preston and occupied with giving out tasks set by Robinson (1974) say that teachers indicated a bureaucratiosupervisors:-Teachers feel a lack reduction in anxiety over working in a biracial of power and influence in determining educa- situation due to the workshop experiences. tional matters in their schools so teachers' Many white teachers had classical stereotypes unions have been formed (Alsworth and of blacks shattered and participants evidenced Woock 1970; Fish 1970) in some cities to act as a noticeable change for the better in their bargaining agents in matters of pay, due pro- behavior toward each other. However, there cess and equal rights. When teachers express are no follow-up studies to indicate what im- desires for gestures of appreciation from pact workshops makeinthe classroom lower-class parents the parents are quick to behavior of teachers. point out that teachers receive pay and fringe Teaching Minorit les benefits for their work and should not expect gratitude as well (Ogbu 1974). Middle-class teachers have traditionally The educational system from kindergarten discriminated against studentsinterms of through college has the means to sort out those socioeconomic 'class (Alsworth and Woock who do not conform. Prospective teachers, no 1970; Nickerson 1966; Silberman1970; matter how intelligent or highly motivated, Herndon1968; Clark1964). Children of must fit into institutional frameworks and dis- racial and ethnic minorities are seen as lower- play correct ideologies as determined by key class so the desegregation process did not personnel in schools of education or they will necessitate a revision in methods of classifying not be awarded teaching credentials (Bergen childrenblacks were simply lumped into 1968). Newly trained youltg teachers with th? "lower-class" and teathers went on with "busi- desire to help children are soon socialized by ness as Usual." Callahan (1965) and Kvaraceus older teachersinto traditional methods of (1971) say that schools are indeed a business teaching andthinking.Rist(1973), Levy 9 4, 91

(1970), McCullough (1974), Eddy (1967) and selvesto their responsibility, teaching Herndon (1968) depict the most important children, teaching human beings. Data function of the teacher as the maintaining of shows perspective, degree of literacy of control. Those who do fail to do so are faced teachers in understanding the nature and with loss of esteem in the eyes of principals and characteristics of human differences is no other teachers because maintaining control is higher than that of the general public. seen as being synonymous with educating. As means to establish control, teachers inflict both Teacher Attitudes mental and physical pain on students (Clark The major thrust of the literature having to 1965; McCullough 1974), As a result of this do with teachers is centered around judgments atmosphere of impending violence, schools teachers make about students and some of the ofteii fr,:id to the confusion they are trying to results of those judgments. The teacher prev,:,o.. A bigoted, belligerent teacher can establishes the social role structure of the bri4 -,...nts' resentments-to the boiling point classroom. Students perceive this role, act out resultipg in war in the classroom. the role and in so doing become locked into it. One way in which teachers view their rela- Thus, this teacher-assigned role becomes a tionships with students and parents is that of "self-fulfilling prophecy" (Entwisle and patron-client (Ogbu 1974; Levy 1970; Fuchs Webster 1974) for the child. Teachers make 1969). Their purpose is to-raise the students value judgments of children by October of the out of lower-class life and turn them into mid- first year at school (Hickerson 1966) on the dle-class taxpayers. Teachers decide when and basis of extra-school factors such as race, status on what basis they will meet with parents and of parents, appearance which have nothing to though there are often conflicts (parent- do with the child's ability to learn (Rist 1972). teacher) about teaching and learning Middle-class teachers' prejudgments that stereotypes, the lower-class parents seldom lower-class and minority children will be less vocalize their objections because they need successful academically than the white; mid- what the teachers have to offer and have little dle-class child determines the entire school power to press their point. These parents often future of these children (Alsworth and Woock avoid contact with Teachers because teachers 1970; Clark 1964). The prejudices of teachers "make them fed- lumb." Parents are not con- against the lower-class child (Woodworth and sidered qualified to make judgments about Salzer 1971; Eddy 1967; Clark 1965) have a their own children. Teachers reject ideas or direct effect on how the child learns. Wiles suggestions parents might venture as to why (1970) reports that teachers' attitudes toward their childre::are having school-related pupils differ with racial and economic com- problems or what approach might be used to position and type of school. T1:13 results in un- help the children. equal distribution of educational opportunity Middle-class teachers experience difficulty (Hillson 1967; Moore 1964) and school in identifying with different values of lower= rewards with lower-class children receiving the class and/or culturally different children. smaller share. Rather than trying to effect cultural change. it Summary has been argued that teachers should try to be consciousof.aswellasunderstand and Unfortunately, there seems to be little study respect, cultural differences (Hillson1967; of how desegregation has affected teachers, Adams 1966; Fuchs. 1969; Greene 1974; their attitudes ald classroom behavior. Even Woodworth and Salzer 1971; Anderson 1958; basic research addressing the relationship of Prichard1969; Orstein1971; Wiles 1970; teacher attitudes and actual behavior has not Alsworth and Woock 1970; Levenson 1968). been systematically undertaken. It would seem (Thy(1971.;981. surns__up..thisJ ine. of..tlio_ught significant to understand how teachers have quite well when he says modified their approaches to teaching, educa- The answer to the problem is to get person- tion,the sponsorship of co-curricularac- nel of public schools ... to !Id(!te-s them- tivities, and students in general after schools

9 5 92 were desegregated. Another area of needed school of thought which will be called "school research concerns teacher relationships with contingencies" for the lack of a better term, administration and teacher-to-teachLrrela- argues that they are not as significant as the tions in desegregated schools. Unionization others have proposed, if significant at all. This and its meaning in desegregated school systems distinction, however, should not lead one to would also seem to need more study. Univer-conclude that innate ability proponents and sally, this research needs to be comparative cultural deprivation proponents are essentiaHy and utilize a variety of research methods. similar in outlook. While both consider ex- The existing literature on teachers seems to traschool factors to be signific:int, they do not be mostly commentary which sees the teachers agree on how to explain the significance of ex- as a problem. These works argue that better traschool factors or to what degree proposed teachers, better teacher training and more solutions can overcome the extraschool fac- resources will make teachers more responsive tors. to minority students. The qualitative research Innate ability is less optimistic and argues that while teachers The first school of thought to be discussed, need training and assistance, the majorinnate ability, posits that the failure of problem in the organization of the institu- minority students to succed in school is due to tion. The teachers are more-or-less caught upgenetic deficiencies of minorities. For exam- in the institutional logic. There is little quan- ple, the works of Jensen (1969; 1970) and Ey- titative research, mostly evai-ions of at-senek (1971) propose that there is little that tempts to change teacher attitudes or counting can be done to increase the academic achieve- of teacher-student interactions. The concep- ment of blacks either through desegregation of tual frameworks emplo.-id in the quantitativeschools or through remedial programs, studies seem to represent both teachers as the although the latter, of course, certainly could problem and the institution as the problem be used to help minorities maximize the attain- analyses, without a clear tendency for either. ment of their limited potential. Most of the works that have developed this EXTRASCHOOL FACTORS theme have based their conslusions upbn the changes or lack of enduring changes in I.Q. test There is no little debate over the effect of scores, their measure of innate ability. While it extraschool factors upon interracial schooling. seems impossible at this point in time to em- In fact, this debate would seem to bc the debate pirically demonstrate the existence or non-ex- that needs resolving before a uniform policy istence of innate differences in ability, many and implementation strategy on the interracial have taken the genetic argument to task for its education can be designed. However, it ap- use fI.Q. tests as measures of abilRy pears that few will be giving ground in their (Lundberg 1939; Montague 1970; Rist 1970; stances. The assumptions of eaeh of these Husen 1972; Richardson, Spears and Richar Is schools seem irreconcilable with those of the 1972; Labov 1970; Heber 1969). These works other. The debate seems to have centered have critiqued the genetic studies on the bases, almost exclusively on the effects of extraschool among others, of a misuse of the concept of factors upon academic achievements, and the race, seeming ignorance of linguistics, and discussion here will be limited to that subject. poor sampling techniques. While these criti- Other extraschool factors and other dependent ques are formidable, I.Q. scores have con- variables are included in other sections of this tinued to be used as indicators of genetic review. ability. Jencks et al. (1972) estimates, for ex- The first two schools of thought, what will ample, that genes explain about 45 percent of be called "innate ability" and "cultural the variance in test scores. Yet even in that deprivation," both consider extraschool fac- reasoned study, there is no genetic evidence, tors to be primary in explaining success or rather just social indicators that are assumed to failure in an academic environment. The third be reflective of hereditary differences.

9 6 93

The literature suggesting that innate ability marily due to racial or socialclass back- accounts for the lack of successful negotiation ground. However, it seems that the factors are of the process of schooling by minorities seems interactive (Coleman 1966) with race being the to 'lack credibility. Richardson Spears and more salient factor (Jencks 1972) in explaining Richards (1972),for example, arguc that achievementscores. Howevei, socialclass before there can be "... a realistic debate;seems to explain morevariatiCe, in dropout about individual differences inintellectual rates, which would seem to bean indicator of performance, we need two thingsa descrip- school commitment. Race continues, however, tion of intelligence and an adequate theory ofto be more significant when looking only at its mode of development" (p. 181). This has nonwhite-collar youths (Coleman 1966). not been forthcoming, and thus it seems that Cultural dePrivation has also received much until an adequate understanding Of, and means criticism. Among the most cogent of these.eri- of 'ascertaining cognitive differences are found, ticisms are the use in many of these studies of it would seem best to assume, as Pearl (1972) middle-class criteria for assessing deficiencies advocates, that for both policy and research in the home life of less than middle-class stu- purposes, most students come into the school dents (Baratz and Baratz1970; Ginsberg system relatively homogeneous ininnate 1972); misuse of the concepts of "culture" and ability. "deprivzcion" (Valentine 1968; Keddie 1973); ignorance of the linguistic structuie of nons- Cultural Deprivation tandard dialects (Labov 1970);-and the use of There are others who also see minority stu- traditional instruments and measures such as dents entering school with deficiencies. Yet-I.Q. scores inassessing alleged pre-school they understand them not to be the result ofdifferences between stu-dents (Ryan 1965; genetic heritage, but father the consequences of Cicourel 1974). It appears that this school of being raised in an environment that does not thought suffers,as does the innate ability provide a child with the background necessary school, from a lack of theory about when to aChieve in school. It is argued that deficien- differences between people constitutes defi- cies in minority background such as little at- ciencies and when they are,infact, just tention or encouragement from parents (Fraser differences. Thus, cognitive _yles vary; but the 1959; Dave 1963; Wolf 1964). poor time only base cultural deprivation proponents use orientation, perceptual deficits (Chilman for comparison is a somehow monolithic white, 1967; Gottleib1967),inabilitytoreason middle-class culture. They seemingly have abstractly and use of a logically inferior dialect grossly underrepresented even the (Bernstein1961; Bereiter and Englemannheterogeniety present in the white, middle- 1966); and scarcity of books and encyclopedias classes. in the home along with parcnts' reading defi- School Contingencies ciencies (Fraser 1959; Coleman 1966; Gottleib 1967) are the major causes of educational un- The many critiques of both the innate ability derachievement among minority students. The and cultural deprivation themes seem to have logic of this school of thought finds support.in led to the recent emergence of a new school of interpreting the Coleman Report as indicating thoughtone which has yet to evolve a recog- that the more significant aspect of the scitool- nized name for itself. However, inasmuch as ing process is, in fact, the students themselves. this school of thought emphasizes not ex- Thatis,séhools thathave predominantly traschool factors but the contingencies that the white, middle-class students, it is argued, will institution of formal education creates for the benefit minOrity students because the middle- heterogeneous mass that is processed each year class student win enrich the environment of the in the name of teaching and learning, an ap- minority child and thus help counterict his/her propriate name may be "school contingencies." "deprivation" due tocultural background The origins of the school of thought seems to (Moynihan 1968). There is some contern over have been with the "labeling perspective" that came into vogue in the 1960's. (cf. Rosenthal whether or not cultural dc.-pOvation--is'\ 1, .94 and Jacobsen1968; Cicourel andKitsuse the assumptions themselves arerigorously 1963; Schafer and Olexa 1971; Friedenberg tested. It seems that considerable emphasis for 1965; Henry 1963) and the emergence of black new research and thought needs to be put upon critiques of the educational process (cf. Clark, innovative, but rigorous, attempts at develop- 1964,1965) These work argued that success in ing theories and descriptions of intelligence. school is dramatically affected by the This is long overdue. Further, research needs organization of learning experience. Major to be conducted with the goal of ascertaining emphalis has been placed on the effects of how itis that social class and schooling in- ability&' grouping and tracking (Rosenbaum teract. The more ethnographic works seem to 1975; Rist 1973; Henry 1963) the social class have been helpful in defining the school as an context of the school (Wilson 1968; Coleman actor, but quantitative studies need to be un- 1966), and the quality of teachers and facilities dertaken that conceptualize the interaction in (Coleman 1966). less determinist ic ways. This would allow for Critics, however, argue that this perspective an analysis vl the relevance of school con- is naive and does not take into account the tingencies to student performance. special needs of minority youth (Jensen 1970). A second gap in the literature seems to be a It appears that systematic criticism has been lack of field studies and experiments that begin abated, since few critiques are found in the to specify when differences do seem to be defi- literature, by a series of historical analyses ciencies, if ever, and under what conditions are (Katz 1971; Karier, Vidas and Spring 1973; deficiencies responsible to rernediation. Par- Greer, 1972; Tyack 1974) that demonstrated ticular emphasis should be placed upon that public schooling was not intended to be a cataloging cognitive styles of students and mobility device for the poor, but rather a school personnel with a direct charge to look at nieans of training the masses while maintaining the variety of styles that individual school par- social stratification. ticipants use in everyday life. Thus, it may be discernible when a student is truly lacking in Thus, a charge that might be leveled by pro- . some skills and when a student is portraying a ponents of the cultural deprivation perspective cognitive styles as a response to a setting that students need school skills and attitudes in order to experience social mobility was (Cicourel et. al. 1974). Thirdly, qualitative assessments are needed neutralized. of the effect of local neighborhood economics This emerging perspective is arguing tradi- upon the quality of education.If an tional analyses that have found family back- economically depressed area suddenly ex- ground to be more relevant to school success periences a surge in employment, what is the than school characu.tristics have misconeep- effect upon school processes, student outlook tualized the character of the institution. In- and actions, teacher attitudes and actions, and stead of being a passive agent that simply ac- parental involvement? cepts the raw material in the form of students In surveying the distributiOn of literature and does what it can, this school of thought according to the three major themes, then.; sees the school as an avid actor that makes does seem to be a relationship between the type assumptions and acts upon them. Race and of research conducted and the conceptual fra- social class are important in this school of mework used in explaining the role of ex- thought only because the school assumes they traschool factors. While none of the concep- are and is organized to act upon that assump- tual frameworks utilized only one type of tion. research methodology, it appears that more quantitative approaches lend themselves to the Summary innate ability and cultural deprivation There can be little synthesis of the research perspf..ctives, even though a significant body of concerning the role of extraschool factors in this literature is simply descriptive commen- promoting or denying academic success at this tary. The school contingencies perspective point in time. The persPectives are simply too tended to u:,e more qualitative methodologies, divergent_ in assumptions for this to occur until both historical and observational. 95

CONSEQUENCES FOR STU- Fifth, the method of desegregation, i.e., busing, DENTS "natural," redistricting, etc., does not seem to determine whether or not gains in academic The predicted consequences of interracial achievement are to be forthcoming, although schooling is a part of the debate over the role this last matter has had little systematic study. of extra-school factors in school success. The concern over the effect of the mixing of races in Self-confidence. St. John (1975) reviews the public school for the children is seemingly three commonly studied psycholOgical out- a major issue deserving of a separate discus- comes of interracial education: anxiety, self- sion. The consequences to be discussed here condept, and aspirations. For anxiety a com- concern four issues: academic achievement, mon finding is that black children have a self-confidence, racial prejudice, and career generally higher anxiety level than whites, but consequences. The discussion of the fi st three placement in an interracial education setting will rely heavily upon St. John's (1975) review does not seem to increase the level of anxiety. of quantitative studies, and will be done in two Rosenberg and Simmons (1971) also argue sectionsone reviews her conclusions across that there is essentially no difference by race in all three issues, and the second discusses the the self-esteem of youth. St. John's review qualitative research and commentary frame- argues that there is little evidence that points to works used to explain the three issues. The last a rise in self-esteem among blacks that results issue, career consequences, will review a small from the desegregation of schools. The evi- amount of literature that attempts to document dence also suggests that the self images of girls the consequences of interracial schooling for and lower class youth are more vulnerable in entrance into the world of work. interracial schools, desegregated faculties help raise self-concept, and that controversy over St. John's Review desegregation may raiseblack self-esteem because Of the high morale of the black com- Academic achievement. The Coleman munity that engages in such controversy. All in report (1966) reported one finding that has all, however, inthe short-run school been the basis of much of the reasoning behind desegregation seems to have more of a negative federally mandated desegregation of schools. or mixed than positive effect upon academic Particularly, the report argued that the self-concept and more generalized self-esteem. academic achievement of black students is Sense of control, however, is never negatively higher in desegregated schools. The attempts at related to the white percentage of the schooL replicating this finding arc many. Yet, St. John Further, in the long-run, St. John argues, (1975) in her review of quantitative studies desegregation in education is related to higher that address this issue, ends up arguing that self-esteem. adequate data have not yet been gathered to Similar to the pattern of findings with self- determine if there exists a causal relationship esteem,itappears that quantitative studies between the racial composition of a school and reveal that blacks and whites have similar the acadeniic- achievement of the students. levels of aspirations, and that blacks in segreg- However, she highlights some trends. First, ated schools have higher aspirations than "... desegregation has rar,ely lowered whites. "For both educational and occupa- academic achievement for either black or tional aspirations, the relation with school per- white children" (p. 36). Second, city size or centage white tends to be negative" (St. John region does not seem to affect the influence (or 1975: p. 59). lack of systematic influence) of desegregation on achievement. Third, it appears that kin- Racial prejudice. Maybe more than with the dergarten age children reap more academic other two consequences of interracial school- achievement benefits than do older children. ing discussed, academic achievement and self- Fourth, gains, when observed, are more usual confidence, there are few systematic findings in mathematical than in verbal achievement. concernings the effects of interracial education 9 9 96 upon racial relations. St. John argues, sentially qualitative variable. Further, a num- however, that desegregation does seem more ber of commentatorc, cf. Pearl (1972), Katz beneficial to black children if racial attitudes (1964) ;And Pettigrew (1975) have found this rather than friendship is thcriterion. Further, quantitatively dominated segment of research experiments, more than other quantitative to be missing the definition of the situation in research designs, are more likely o show in- terms of sttch things as pluralistic or assimila-. creasing racisminwhiteattitudes.Again tive logics of in, gration (Rist 1974). Further, younger children benefit more than older it appears that both commentators and qualita- children and hostile school or community en- tive researchers are likely to look at behaviors vironments may account for negative results. and attitudes as occuring in a specific context. Thus, the works of Levy (1970), Rist (1973), Other Research Schrag (1967) and Holt (1967; 1969) all seem to point to the notion that academic achieve- The studies that St. John reviews, however, ment, self-confidence and racial attitudes of fail to answer somc crucial questions. St. John students in a desegregated educational setting notes: are, at least in part, a function of school pro- Researchers have not controlled such varia- cesses. The school's response to the presence of bles as the levels of communit7 con- a minority youth is a major factor in what and troverscy over desegregation, the friendli- how much students learn, the self-confidence ness of white parents alto students, the flex- and academic self-concept they portray, and ibility or prejudice ot' the staff, the content the racial attitudes and friendship choices of of the curriculum, or the method of teaching students. A school that has within the class (p. 39); 'room ability grouping and/or curriculum and, tracks not only limits the information they One issue that has not been resolvedis receive, the confidence that can be portrayed whether "realism" is an important dimen- "realistically," and with whom one will associ- sion of aspiration and self-concept. Are ate. Intriguingly, St. John in her discussion that these attitudes functional only if they are in follows the review of quantitative studies and line wi'h the abilities of individuals and thus allows more qualitative assessments ends with opportunities in the social structure (p. up in this school of thought, which a naive 59); reader could not have predicted from her in- and, troduction and the substance of her literature This review of research on racial attitudes review. and behaviorinschoolsindicatesthat desegregation sometimes reduces prejudice Career Consequences and promotes interracialfriendship and Itistrue that research on desegregated sometimes promotes, instead, stereotyping, education is only about twenty years old. Yet and interracial cleavage and conflict. An even taking this into account, there are few outcome so variable must be affected by cir- studies that have attempted to assess the career cumstances other than the mere fact of consequences of youth coming from a desegregation (p. 85). de,..tgregated school. This would seem to be These concerns have been addressed, but especially needed due to the arguments by not in an extensive series of research projects some whites that the quality of education is such as those St. John has reviewed. Rather :offering after desegregation. Yet, St. John thesearequestionsthatmore qualitative could only find one etudy that traced inter- studies have reflected upon. Not only have racial schooling even into college entrance. they critiqued many of the "objective" quan- Perry (1973) found that black students from a titative measures of the dependent variables, desegregated school program were much more but they have also pointed to the importance of likely to attend college and to attend more understanding that these quantitative measures selective colleges than were a matched sample are designed in each case to approximate an es- that attended segregated ghetto schools. 10,0 97

There is little denial in the literature. that understa..d the definition of the situation ac- blacks do less well in gaining entrance to high- cording,' to the participants, and attempts to er education or into the primary labor market. lead to the development of new indicators for Duncan (1969) has pointed out that a black quantitative studies. At the very least, studies must replicate social class each generationneed to utilize a variety of methods to attempt while a white ,is more likely to "inherit" the triangulation of observedresults.Further, social class of parents. Yet Duncan discounts the career consequences of interracial educa- the effects of quality of education as a signifi- tion need comparative and experimental study. cant factor based on his understimding. of the Qualitative research also needs to be under- Coleman Report (1966) that quality of educa- taken to assess how education translates into tion does not vary by iegregated-desegregated entry to the world of work. That linkage seems schooling as much as has been thought, and his crucial to the whole discussion of interracial argument that the quantitative measures ac- education, but has not been systematically tuallyare correlative with assessments of studie6. quality. Harrison (1972), from a more critical An analysis that began with discussion of ex- perspective, agrees with Duncan, and argues trasehool factors seems reified in this issue are that the variable is not inferior education but of consequences of interracial schooling. It the infatuation Of employers with credentials. seems that quantitative research and qualita- His evidence demonstrates that non-whites fair tive research are associated with'differenf con- worse than whites in terms of returns for ycars ceptual frameworks. Commentators are split, of educaton. but seem to tend to go along with the quantita- No qualitative research .was found on this tive research and argue that the consequences subject, while some commentary'. has argued have to do with the characteristics of the stu- that the mobility of blacks is contingent upondents, while schools are seen as relatively increased education. However, Duncan's and passive processors of the raw material with Harrison's work point to a fallacy in this logic. which it is presented. Merely increasing education will not equalize Qualitative researchers are not as willing to blacks and whites. Efforts still need to be assume such a benign role for education:They directed towards the economy. Yet, it appears emphasize that the school's responses that the role of education"bas not been fully presence of minority students is a criticalfac- resolved. The qualitative studies cited before tor in determining the educational, attitudinal have pointedtodifferent educationalex- and career consequences of those it serves. periences for blacks and whites, but no attempt has been made to continue ethnographies into SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS the world of work from the school. Second, there seems to have been no research that com- Needed Research" pares the career consequences of the students The literature on interracial schooling in desegregated versus segregated schools, and seems to have one particularly salientfactor under the variety of conditions that surround a lack of theory. St. John (1975) commented the segregation and desegregation. Lastly, lit- on this whey looking atthe quantitative out- tte research has attempted to pinpoint how comes of desegregation for children. Yet is is effective restructuring education may be as a not just limited to that portion of the literature. mechanism to promote economic reform. Most of the literature,on interracial schooling is policy or procedure oriented. It is "action" Summary research mithout a good grounding in social It appears that any synthesis of the existing theory. literature on the consequences of interracial This is not to say that the literature does not schooling would have to pleadfor more have some variety in conceptual frameworks, research. The review presented here seems to for it does. However, the research all too often call for more research that uses ethnographic does not emerge from theory or directly inform techniques asSt. John (1975) suggests, to theory. Rather the conceptual frameworks 98 overarch. thc research procedures, questions Kelly's co-curricular activities that for whites and intcrprctations and may only become evi- is unacceptable to integrate. St. John (1975) dent through a close examination of the word- argues that the social threat of desegregation is ing of thc conclusions. The authors, for somc greater for black females than black males, reason, have not felt free to elaborate their since feminine beauty is judged by standards of theoretical frameworks within the context of white society and since black males may gain thcir research. Hopefully, the development of acceptance and self-confidence through new theory will help explain the inconclusive- athletics. However, there certainly is a need to ness of the findings reviewed in this paper and establish the theoretical and strategic signifi- elsewhere. St. John's (1975) attempt at thcory cance of co-curricular activities to the process development seems to have been a rewarding of interracial education. Research needs to be venture. More such attempts arc needed. directed, first, at qualitative understanding of It ako seems that there is a noticeable lack the importance of co-curricular activities to of field studies that incorporate a variety of the students, black and white. Following these research methodologies. qualitative and quan- types of investigations, an effort should be titative.!A would seem that thcse types of made to quantify the desegregation of co-cur- studies enable not only more generalizable ricular activities undcr a variety of school and results, but also results that are more closely community conditions. attuned to schooling processes. These studies More specific gaps in the literature has been should certainly be comparative whenever noted in the summary of each section of this possible. literature review. However, let us highlight_a A third arca of needed research is within the few of them. First, for the legal/political-issue classroom. As St. John (1975) notes: there would scem to be a need for research that ...far more illuminating (than quantitative documents and explains what judges and attor- studies) would be small scale studies involv- neys who have been ir:volvedin school ing anthropological observations of the pro- desegregation cases considfa credible evidence cess of interracial schooling, across settings and the parameters used to asscss the viability diverse in black/white ratios and in middle- of the possible remedies. Second, research on class/lower-class ratios, and also diverse in community concerns and influence is lacking their educational philosophies and techni- that investigates the perspectives of a variety of ques. (pp. 122-123). black communities concerning desegregation The argument is for more holistic assessments and interracial education. Hopefully, 'some of thc educational milieu -that are almost .by clarity of issues will cmerge from knowing thc definition qualitative. After theoretically in-effect of new political and economic power formet. studies of this type, it may be possible upon the perspectives of black communities. to develop meaningful indicators for more Studies arc also needed of the cffect of alterna- quantitative approaches.. tive governance systems, and not just varia- Another gap in the literature is the simple tions in administrative style, upon the process paucity of work on co-curricularactivity. of interracial education. It also appears that Winecoff and Kelly (1971), Petroni, Hirsch research on administration needs to put and Petroni(1970).Libarle and Sdig4on emphasis upon the school system administra- (1970), and St. John (1975) have indicatedlhat tion, particularly since desegregation may lead desegregation of co-curricular activities may to more centralization of decision-making. Ex- be a very touchy problem. Winccoff and, Kel,'y amination is also needed of the consequences (1971) comment that the more informal 'and of "law and order" in the school for students. social, the co-curricularactivity,thc more One such consequence may well a lack of com- difficult it may be for whites to accept. Petroni, mitment to the school by student:1. The essen- Hirsch and Petroni (1970) and Libarle and tial question in need of investigation is: Under Seligson (1970).concur when they notc that one which system(s), procedure(s), and/or condi- of thc complaints by black .audents is a lack of tions of order and discipline will students re- black cheer .'ers, one of Winecoff and main committed to the scholl? 99

Research efforts need directed at the most be the decision rule and not someone else's productive means by which to teach all stu- assessment for this investigation. dents, regardless of background, within the There seems to be essentially-tW-o types of classroom and the school. The specia! conceptual frameworks that were represented emphasis on the minority child may be counter within the literature. While this may appear to productive to this effort. Documentation and be an over-reduction of literature, the lack of analysis is also needed of curricular changes, expressed theory in,tht literature on the pro- and the consequences thereof, made in cess'of interracial education simply does not response to desegregation. seem to comfortably permit finerdistinctions. One area of the effects of desegregation that One of these frameworks is highly critical of has been relatively ignored is the consequences the entire institution of public education as it is for the teachers. How has desegregation currently constituted. The second conceptual affected teachers' attitudes, classroom framework is less critical of the institution as it behavior, teacher to teacher relations, and assumes that problems emerge eitherfrom the teacher-administration relations? inadequacies of the participantsadministra- The most pressing need in the issue areas oftors, teachers, students, parentsor from tech- extraschool factors and consequences of inter- nical difficulties in implementation. racial schoolingfor the development of theo- It appears that there is a relationship be- ries and descriptions of intelligence. This may tween research methodology and conceptual well be a futile effort, since intelligence may be framework. As one might expect commentary is difficult to associate with one of the two con- only a human construct that indicates misun-, derstanding of other human beings. Yet the at- ceptual frameworks. Commentary relies upon -----temptsn_es_d_tobe made. Along with this effort,other literature, and upon the authors' pre- or possibly in-place of it, research iscritically dilections, to synthesize an argument. Either needed in the area- of career consequences ofconceptual framework can be employed schooling, and interracial schooling in particu- It appears that quantitative research is more lar. The most damaging consequence ofusually associated with the conceptual frame- desegregation may be that employers and high- work that assumes that school problems are at- er education may assume without anyevidence tributable to factors outside the control of the that students from desegregated schools are scho )1 (i.e., inadequacies of participants) or to less qualified, and may systematically dis- technical difficulties (e.g., needforihore,race criminate against them. Of course, the quality relations training for. teachers). QUalitative of a school may decline after desegregation, research., conversely, seems overall to be more but if it does it would seem to be in large part critical of the institution as it exists within due to school response to desegregation, and society. may not be due to the influx ofminority stu- One source of evidence for this conclusion is dents. the pattern of research and framework used in the various issue areas. For example, it seems The Relationsh:o of Conceptual Framework that for the legal/political literature and the and Research Methodology community concerns literature qualitative One of the major purposes of this literature research was primarily used and the frame- review wa's to examine if there seems to be an work is critical of this institution. For the association between reseasch methodology and legal/political, it appears that the inconclusive- conceptual framework. three research ap- ness of quantitative studies haveleft judges and proaches were identified: commentary, researchers alike to rely on more qualitative, qualitative research, and quantitative research. historical and legal, assessments. Further, it It should be noted that in the field ofeducation appears that generally only those researchers itoften seems that what authors consuler that are critical of the institution are signifi- qualitative research appears instead to be in- cantly concerned with community conflict, fac- formed commentary. However, it was decided tionalism, decision-making, and the roleot that how the author treated his material would elites in interracial s,.hool processes. Those 100 who are not critical of the institution simply do school is to deterministically socialize youth not seem to ask questions about the com- into more "acceptable" behavior and mold munity, except in terms of the deficiencies of its them forlife. The more qualitative studies inhabitants and/or the technical problems they seem to assume that individuals are acting as create for the school. freely as possible within the constraints placed Similarl,, some support for the relationship upon them by the social institution of educa- between rtsearch methodology and conceptual tion and the specific processes of interracial framework is found in the literature on school education. administration: While difficult to be certain, it It would seem to pe significant to those who may well be that many authors became critical do research, use research findings, or fund of the institution as their research progressed. research to begin to assess the philosophy of Many seemed initially concerned with ad- science that is embraced by the researcher. For ministrators and administrative styles as the this may well explain not only the choice of problem. Yet they ended up finding the school methodology but also the interpretation placed principal feeling powerless. Their resolution of upon the data. this finding seems much more critical of the in- It should be remembered, however, that stitution of education. these findings are tentative, and in need of The hypothesis is supported ,in the reviews further exploration. The intent of this of findings of the other issue areas. Taking ex- literature review was to synthesize a mass, traschool factors as an example, quantitative albeit not an exhaustive mass, of literature into research is 'more likely to assume individual a format that hopefully will be useful to a wide differences in students to be deficiencies, while range of laypersons, educators, and qualitatiye research argues that they are only researchers, while at the same time attempting differences that schools could build upon if the tr. tentatively explore and explain any relation- schools were correctly organized and incor- ship that could be found between conceptual porated a different philosophy. This pattern framework and research methodology in the seems consistent to those in the other issue literature, ..eviewed. Hopefully, this has been areas. attained, and will help stimulate future There seems to be an underlying factor that thought and research concerning the processes may account for this pattern. 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Washingtoit, D.C. Silberman, Charles Rosenthal, Robert, and Lenore Jacobson 1970 Crisis in the Classroom, New York: 1968 Pygmalion 41 the Classroom. New Random House. York: Holt.ft\linehart, and Winston. Silverman, Irvin, and Marvin E. Shaw Rossell, Christine U. 1973 Effects of Sudden Mass School I 975a School 1segregation and White Desegregation on Interracial Interaction Flight. Pual Science Quarterly and Attitudesin One Southern City. 90:675-695. Journal of Social Issues 29:133-142. 109

Singleton, Robert Taylor, William L., John E. Benjes and Eric E. 1975 The Black Child and Equity in School Wright Finance: Analysis and Alternatives. Jour- 1976 School Desegregation and the Courts. nal of Negro Education 44:271-207. Social Policy 6:32-35. Smith, Charles V. Teele, James E., and Clara Mayo 1975 Public School Desegregation and the 1969 SchoolRacialIntegration: Tumult Law. Social Forces 54:317-327. and Shame. Journal of SocialIssues Smith, Paul M., Jr. 25:137-156. 1971 The Role of the Guidance Counselor Thelen, Herbert A. in the Desegregation Process. Journal of 1954 Dynamics of Groups at Work. Negro Education 40:347-351. Chicagp: University of Chicago Press. Solomon, Victor Tobier, Arthur 1970 An Alternative to Segregation: A Pro- 1975 School Integration: An Ongoing posal for Community School Districts. In Theme. Urban Review 8:134-136. SchoolDesegregationRetrosp..ct and Tucker, Sterling Prosinct. Dr. Eugene C. 14e, Ed. Atlan- 1971 Black Strategies for Change in ta: Southern NeWspaper Publishers America. Journal of Negro Education Association Foundation. pp. 133-147. 40:297-311. Stein, Anne Turbowitz, Stanley 1971 Strategies for Failure. Harvard 1971 Confessions of a Ghetto Administra- Educational Review 41:158-204. tor. In Crisis in Urban Schools. Thomas Stewart,'-Charles E. E. Glass, Ed. New York: MSS Informa- 1965 Racial Issues Cornrofaingitrge City tion Corp. pp. 215-223. School Administra Urban Lducation Tyack, David B. 1:202-214. 1974 The One Best System: A History of Stinchcombe, Arthur L. McDill and American Urban Education. Cambridge: Dollie Walker Harvard University Press. 1969 Is There a Ract4 Timiitre Point in Valentine, Charles Changing Schools2 foutnal of Social 1968 Culture and Poverty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Issues 25:127-136. Venn, Grant stones, Micheal E. 1964 Man, Education and Work. 1971 School Administrator ii:),I,titudes and Washington, D.C.: American Council on Racism. Integrated 141 1A,afi444:54-59. Education. Strauss, George H. Watts, Walter Normon 1974 School as Pov Ocsacture. Student 1973 Liberation and Freedom in an Urban Attitudes Toward to igh School Policies, Learning Community: A Rationale for a Student PowerP$40.4-ica, and. Student Comprehensive Education Model for Rights Movement. Friumtion and Urban Afro-Americams.New York: MSS Infor- Society 7:3-27. mation Corp. Sullivan, Allen R. Weinberg, Meyer 1972 The influence a Sucial ocesses on 1970 The EducatiRv of the Minority Child. the Learning AbiWivs of Afro-American Chicago: Integrated Education Associ- School Children: '.5..v./re ifiluvational Im- ates. plications. Journal of 144:grt, Education 1971 Schooling and the New Parenthood. 41:127-136. Journal of Negro Education 40:207-215. Swanson, Bert 1975 The Relationship Between School 1969 Psycho-PoliticalPatteP.,of School Desegregation and Academic Achieve- Desegregation: Motarst_ V=non, New ment: A Review of the Research. Law York. Education anj Urtban Society and Conte.mporary Problems 35:241-270. 1:193-230. 113 110

Wiles, David K. of Environmental Process Variables Re- 1970 The Mos* Composition of Urban lated to General Intelligence. University School Teachers. Urt.an Education of Chicago: Unpublished Doctoral Dis- 5:141-150. sertation. Willerman, Marvin Woodard, Samuel L. 1975 Interruption Behavior in the Elemen _1965 Belief Congruence Theory and School tary School Classroom. Illinois School Integration. Urban Education 2:169-173. Research 11:19-27. Woodworth, William D., and Richard T. Wilson, A. B. Salzer 1968 Social Class and Equal Educational 1971 Black Children's Speech and Opportunity. Harvard Educational Teachers' Evaluations. Urban Education Review 38:77-84. 6:167-172. Winecoff, Larry H., and Eugene W. Kelly, Jr. Yudof, Marg G. 1971 Problems inSchool Desegregation: 1975 Suspension and Expulsion of Black Real or Imaginary? Integrated Education _ Students from the Public School: 9:3-10. Academic Capital Punishment and the Wittmer, Joe Consitution. 'In Law and Contemporary 1971 Effective Counseling of Children of Problems 39:374-411. Several American Subcultures. The Ziegler, Harmon, and Micheal Boss School Counselor 19:49-52. 1974 Racial Problems and Policy in the Wolf, Ronald M. American Public Schools. Sociology of 1964 The Identification and Measurement Education 47:319-336.

114 111

RESEARCH ON DESEGREGATION IN SCHOOL AND CLASSROOM SETTINGS An Annotated Bibliography from a Field Methods Perspective

Rodney Rif fel former approach our, focus was on the latter Francis A. S. lanni style. klence, attempt was made to focus on the Margaret Orr observational life and schools in an Attempt to Elizabeth Reuss-lanni get at the patterns and dynamics of socializa- A udrerSav woi r tion in desegregated settings. Andrea Sparks We have found some advice on thow topro- The Horace Mann-Lincoln Institute ceed from Cohen and Baret's discussion of in- forming education policy with applied social Teachers College Columbia University research: 1, Appliedresearch resembles .a discourse New York about social realitya debate about social problems andtheir, solutions.Likein- PREFACE telligent discussion or debate, applied The development of an incisive literature research does not necessarily reduce dis- agreement. Instead it calls attentionto the review on desegregation is not an easy.task. An Educational Research Informatiom- Center existence of conflicting positions, sometimes (ERIC)' review has produced over,516 elaborates them, and sometimes generates it studies-in just the past ten years that focus on new issues altogether. Like discourse, often has a loose and, unstable connection some aspect of the .desegregation/integration with other sorts of sociaL action. (1975:42) issue. To make this-point further, in.1966 the Center for Urban.Education published= Meyer This:notion of discourse is not unlike field Weinberg's. desegregation bibliography of research itself for it requires that one first 3,100 references (Weinberg:1966). In 1970 develop a certain analytic awareness- to the Weinberg published another bibiiography, this social reality under study. In that sense, we time on the education of the minority 'child, have approached the literauve on desegrega- containing over 10,000 references (Wein- tionin much the fashion of7participantrobser- berg:1970). Considering the passage of just six vers, looking for consensus and_conflictamong years, one hesitates to cite still another com- the results of other research. We have sequen- in prehensive list of writings on desegregation. tially sampled the literature not just related areas Our taskinthe compilationofthis classroom observation butin bibliography was to look at the literature on such as field studies in schools and com- munities. From this searcl we developed a interracilprocessesinschools,especially those items that use or impinge upon concep- working hypotheses. We areconvinced that we tual models and analyses which have involved have been able to uncover few gaps in exist- direct classroom observations in their formula- ing bibliographies on desegregation that will tion. So rough of the literature to date deals prove to be significant for anyone interested in with the aseessment of quantitative outcomes this area. and has ingonoredthe qualitative processes A field methods perspective also requires a operatingialthe school. While we discussed the holistic approach for viewing the issue of

115 112 desegregation. This means that to understand This bibliography contains over 10,000 classroom proceSses we not only had to review entries dealing with the education of the research on desegregation, but also, in the minority children. The author defines manner of contextual analysis, what peoplc education as "schooling Within the frame have said about this research. Implicit here is a work of social,legal, economic, and discussion of what the courts were saying for political factors that help shape that ex- they are the context that provided the incentive perience." Documents are organized ac- for desegregation research in the first place. cording to twenty-three topics. Toward this end we set a number of social scientists and educators interested in diverse THE SOCIO-LEGAL HISTORY OF aspects of the area ofdesegregation and policy DESEGREGATION IN rERICA formation to the task of searching out the research, literature regularly and compared our Overview findings. This monograph represents a refor- One indication of the growing social interest mulation of the papers this group produced. in educational issuesis the frequency with Five categoriesare presented: a socio-legal which such issues are being referred to and history ofaiesegregation in America, a review decided by the courts rather than by the of the literature on desegregation-and schools-themselves. This growth of social con- classroom,effects, a conceptual critiquenfthe cern and the persistence of a number,of legal implications oGacculturationand ethnicity for issues as national concerns have produced a the study of desegregation, and finally.an ex- socio-legal background against which research ploration of classroom observation techniques questions and results in the field of desegrega- for the study of desegregated classroom. tion must be examined. Consequently, any While the text argues that these areas-atein- literature review on desegregation should terrelated,,theationograph has been separated begin with this perspective. into five areas in an attempt to aid the reader's It should be noted_that five eras of social understanding of what we're trying to say. revolution dividelitigationevolvements Thus, it seemed only logical that the relevant following the Brown decision after the 1953 annotations should follow each section. concept of "freedom 'of choice" (Bolmeier 1970). These eras were ushered in by four, References Cited separate cases from Kansas, South Carolina, Cohen, David K. and Michael S. Garet Virginia, and Delaware which were consoli- 1975 Reforming Educational Policy with dated for Brown I. Each plantiff black child Applied Social Research. Harvaid sought admission to public schools of its com- Educational Review 45, 1:17-43. munity on a nonsegregated basis. In each state, In a discussion of the policy implications except Delaware, these requests were,refused of applied research the authors proposea on the "separate but equar doctrine ofPlessy discourse between the two. They suggest v. Ferguson (1896). The Court found that equal that premism regarding-the relationship protection of the laws was denied 'by that between these two areas currently in use doctrine and that segregation was damaging to amfaulty and traditional practices may black children. -not besatisfactory. Period I, 1954-1956, was a period of waiting Weinberg, Meyer, Ed. in which the second Brown decision was ren- 1966'School Integration. New York: Center dered in May 1955. It emphasized that the for Urban:Education. Constitution doesl not require integration; it A:bibliography of-over 3,000 references merely forbids discrimination. dealing with the-issue of school integra- Period II, 1956-1960, represented a period tion. according ,tatitopical categories. of resistance wherein people through their 1970 The Educationtof the Minority Child. legislatures sought ts-dt ircurriv)ent the decree in Chicago: Integinted Education Associ- Brown II. These laws were,i iiltinnyfespects, ates. in violation of the XIVth Amendrnent.''''' 116 113

During Period III, roughly 1960-1971, Civil a matter of social and legal process at the state Rights was at its zenith. The early 1960s was a level. A number of states enacted statutes en- time of token compliance with desegregationforcing separation of the races in education, laws. In 1964 the Civil Rights Act was enacted publictransportation,dining, employment, which shifted the desegregation story from the housing, jury duty and voting_Even where such courtrooms of the nation to the U. S. Office ofstatutes did not exist, every pl.t.,se of Americ.th Education. That office places pupils on a non- socia;life was segregated i.ev,.r and racial basis. Guidelines of the Health, Educa- wherever blacks and whites impinged on one tion, and Welfare Department of 1965 and another. 1966 provided schooladministrators with Within this context, the history of educa- necessary directions for accomplishing non- tional desegregathon has proceeded from a racial unitary school. Three plans werekr,s number of important legal opinions and acts. follows: (1) geographical d istr icts, I (2) freedom As early as 185Y.:. the State of Massachusetts of choice,2 and (3) combinations of both ofabolished segregaled schools but it was almost these.3 one hundred yearm later that concerted legal Period IV, 1968-1972, saw judicial revota- action toward desegregationreallybegan. tion in the deep South. Federal courts man- When the Supreme Court outlawed enforced, dated massive integration. segregation in housing in Buchanan v. Warley Period V, 197211976 approximately, is the in 1917, and eradicated restrictive convenants current scene wherein school administrators in housing in Shelley v. Kraemer in 1948, the and courts to a limited extent favor "freedom way was paved for an outright attack on the of choice." Also, from Swann V. Charlotte- legalityof segregation which had been Mecklenburg Board of Education 402 U.S. established in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 which 767-8, 769, 722, confusion over the future ofupheld racially segregated schools in the dual integration existed. Moving integration from system pattern. the South to ghettos and barrios of the East and First,Briggs v.Elliott, 98 F. Supp. 529 West has been attempted. Litigation over sec- (1951) exposed unequal facilities of segregated ond generation problems is occurring. schools. Then, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas (Brown I), 98 F. Supp. 797 The Decision-Making Process (1951) held that "in the field of public educa- Essentiaeljfr,'the legal history of desegrega- tion the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no tion in the United States is the history of post place. Separate educationalfacilities were Civil War attempts to establish and enforce thedeclared inherently unequal. This holding was Emancipation Proclamation of 1889. It en- implemented the following--year in Brown v. compasses thc Constitution as well for it was Board of Education 349U3 : 294. (BroWn II), the XIIIth Amendment which abolished slav- where the court ordered the termination of ery in 1865 and the XIV th Amendment ofdual school systems "with all deliberate 1866 which proclaimed all persons born or speed." More than a decade later, with many of naturalized in the United States to be citizensthe nation's public schools .as segregated as protected against deprivation of life, liberty ever, .an impatient Supreme Court shifted the and property without due process and guaran- standard: "The burden on a school board to- teeing them equal protection of the law. Prior day is to come forward with a plan that pro- to the Civil War, the popular opinion that misesrealisticallyto work, and promises slaves were not entitled to equal protection realistically to work now." 1969, the court before the law was also the legal opinion. In- announced that "the obligation lf every school deed, the first case involving adjudication ofdistrict is to terminate dual school systems at civil rights of freed slavesDred Scott v. San- once" (Frank and Nitsche 19:74/1975). ford, 19 Howard 393 (1857)decided that the Browtt II entails the:Supreme Court's freed slave had no rights. delineation of the extern to which lower After the Emancipation Proclamation, thefederal courts could exercise their equitable development of segregated institutions became powers to order desegregation, when local 117 114 school boards had failed to mei'. ir f.,mstitu- turn mandated .w series of court decisions,,, tional responsibilities. D tr boards The problem is ,!rated by the ract thm new retained primary responsit,,,, )r achieving decrees were iittocdtodeal with such desegregation, but the fedcrai courts, seemingly diverse areas,as busing, school utilize broad powers to insure that local boards staffing, and even bilingual education. complied with minimunl constitutionalre- Moreover, the jurisprudence of busing quirements.Green v. County School Board,391 reveals the uncertainty which characterizes U.S. 430, for example, was the rejection by the many of the desegregationdecrees. How court of a proposed plan allowing parents harmful is the challenged practiced?:It is suffi- "freedom of choice" as to the school their ciently harmful to justify remedial costs? These ehildren would attend. questions are still at the base of the continuing Case It was inSwann v.C'harlotte-Mecklenburg controversy over busing. The Rodriguez 402,U.S. 1 (1971), that the (1973), for example, upheld a desegregation Board of Education in-' Supreme Court sanctioned the use of a broad Wan that included grouping suburban and ner-city schools and transporting students,ac- arsenal of school desegregation remedies, sus- Davis v. East Baton* Rouge .' taining the plan devised by a district court-ap- cOrdingly. Yet, the pointed expert following the court's rejection Parish SchoolBoard, 393 F. Supp. 1.01:3, cites a refusal by the court to'order massive busing for of the local school board's desegregation plans. The_. remedies included altering teacher and the sole purpose of achieving a greater percen- The ra- pupil assignments and overseeing the location- tage of 'racial mixing in each school. of new schools. At times, the Supretne- Court tionale was that the East Baton Rouge Parish permits gerrymandering of school districts and school system had been desegregated.and was a system. Therefore a new plan of attendance zones. There are, however, limits unitary upon the power of federal courts to initiate desegregation was not justified. The cdurts haVe also declared that if over- desegregation programs. crowding was a problem, then inner-city 484 F.2d 215, 244 InMilliken v. Bradley, school children could be transported outside (1973), for example, because of the high per- the city. In Higgins v.Board of Education of City centage of blacks in Detroit schools, a single- of Grand Rapids, Michigan,395 F. Supp. 444 district remedy would make the entire school affd. 508 F.2d. 799, the decision was made that system identifiably black. To avoid this result, despite a 75% cost reimbursement by the State as well as the possible acceleration of a white to the rural schoo; system, no reimbursement exodus to the suburbs, the district court con- was necessary to the GrandRapids school cluded thatit was necessary to go beyond system. Such a practice was said to notbe re- school district boundaries in order to effect a lated to racial difference or segregative intent. significant remedy to the constitutional viola- Assignment or admission to particular tion. This concern has also been extended to schools also became a problem considered by include the financing of education. In still the courts. InU.S.v.Hirds County School The San Antonio Independent another decision, Board.516 F.2d 974, it was decided that a in 1973,it was School District v. Rodriguez school district could be required to modify its declared that discriminatory state aid assignment system. Zone lines epidistant be- programs were illegal. tween the .hillack school ,and other schools, Indeed, if the courts,at all believeddu a per- which were being attended by white students ceived equality through the Brown decisions, residing in the area of the black school, were something less was happening in terms of out- established to implement strict neighborhood comes. Policy difficult in mandating isoften assignmems:at schools attended only by black harder to enact. Societal reaction represented students being attended by white students nothing more than an "institutionalized eva- residing in lihe area of the black scho( l were sion of institutional rules" (Merton and Nisbet establishedAto implement strict neiehborh(x)d 1966:730). This subtle but effective evasion of assignment at schools attended only by black compliance to the spirit of Brown I and II in students. 118 115

Furthermore, merely assigning students was established that black teachers are dispropor- not a bona fide effort to comply with require- tionately assigned to black schools, the respon- ments for desegregation: InTasby v. ,Estes,5 i 7 sible school authority may fairly be required to F.2d 92, a dual education system, it was not demonstrate that such assignments were not satisfactory that the district's objective was racially motivated. InBd. of Ed. of Ohio School limited to only redirecting a racial group's Dist. of City of Cincinnati v. Dept. of Health, Ed. composition of the student population in each and Welfare Region5, 396 F. Supp. 203, it was particular school decreed that students and faculty may be And,in Bd. of Ed. of City School Dist. of City reassigned to achieve racial balance, but no of Cincinnati v. Department of Health, Educa- provision of the Emergency School Aid Act tion,zoid Welfare Region 5,396 F. Supp. 203, was to be construed to require assignment of the Ptovisio of Emergency SchoolAid Act Was students or teachers to overcome racial im- upheld. This actstatedthat no provision balance. thereed shall be construed to require assign- The complex nature of the court's decision- menttof students or teachers to overcome racial making process is further indicated in the fact iMbailance and does not operate as' a ban-or that through the XIVth Amendment, the Con- prohibition on the reassignment of students stitution does not require education geared to and teachers ,to achieve racial balance. the unique developmental and cultural needs But,. closing existing schools and reopening of minorities. Bilingual education, while in new ones necessitates moving professional per- many ways related to desegregation, is not, in sonnel:True desegregation of a school requires .the legal sense, a substitute for desegregation. that.faculties as well as the student body must The Constitution does not require education be desegregated. geared to unique developmental and cultural The XIVth Amendmeni forbids selection needs of minorities (XIVth Amendment). If and assignment of teachers on the basis of race. consolidation of schools is not necessary to InNorthCarolinaTeachers Associationv. relive a constitutional violation or to remove Asheboro City Board of Education,Canc. 1968, obstacles to such relief, the District Court 393 F2d 736, it was decided that denial of due lacked power to order consolidation. process has occurred when black teachers lost In New York City, a proposal that all their jobs "teaching Negro pupils" upon Spanish-surnamed children should receive the elimination of all-black junior and -Senior Spanish test, rather than giving the test only to High programs. Black teachers not reassigned those scoring below a particular percentile on in desegregating were similarly denied due the English version was rejected(Aspira of New (Rolfe v. County Board -f Education of process York, Inc. v. Board of Education of City of New Lincoln City Tennessee,c. a. Tenn. 1968, 391 York394 F. Sup. 1161). F.2d 77). And, inChambers v. Hendersonville City Beard of Education; 'Canc.1966, 364 F.2d Where English language deficiency is the 189, iiwas decreed that due process required cause of lower achievement among Spanish- that objective standards for the employment surnamed and Indian students, this was seen in and retention of teachers applied equally to all yiolation of the XIVtli Amendment and Equal teachers. Yet, inGuy v. Wheeler, D.C. Texas, Protection Clause of Title VI of the 1964 Civil 1973.", 363 F. Supp. 764, it was shown that Rights Act. InSerna v.Portales Municipal achieving the lowest rating in an interracial Schools499 F.2d 114, a denial of equal educa- group tested was reasonable grounds not to tional opportunity existed under color of state rehire ablack teacher. Furthermore, in law. In failing to provide bi-lingual and bi- Johnson v. San Francisco Unified School Dis- culturaleducationfor needs of M exican- trict,a. C. Cal., 1971, 339 F. Supp. 1315, American children,aminority group was school authorities violated the XlVth Amend- deprived of high quality education. ment bwassigning black teachers and teachers It is important to remember, however, that of limited. experience to "black" schools and although language can be an indication of race hardlymny to "white" schools. And, once it is and even though exclusion on a language base

.1 1,9 116 may in reality be racial denial, it isthe exclu- Notes sion on racial grounds which offends the Con- Milliken v. Govenor of Michigan et al. v. stitution----notthe particular skin color or Bradley et al., Certiorari to the United States language of the person excluded. Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit, July 25, 1974. Implications for Research 2 Wheeler v. Durham County Board of Educa- tion, 5 21 Fed. 1136. The courts' mandated change and the study 3Morgan v. Kerrigan, Massachusetts, 401 F. of change has always been a favored topic of Supp. 216. the research enterprise. Busing and desegrega- tion had, among other things, implications for References Cited demographic research. Desegregation of school staff relates to organizational studies. Bolmeier, E. C. 1970 Legal issues in Education. Charlottes- Bilingual education means mdny things includ- ville, Va.: Michie Co. ing classroom processes and culture contact. In Discussion of litigation evolvernents short, there are many units of analysis. If any- following the Brown decision with con- thing, researchers can add to the confusion Levin ad- clusions about the united effort of all over policy formation. As Henry three oranches of the Federal Govern- vises: ment to end racial discrimination in the Social science research,can best be used public schools. to frame the issues and their consequences Frank, Edward P. and Marc Nitsche rather than to qb,tain conclusive evidence on 1974/75 Civil Rights. in Annual Survey of what is right and what is to be done. This ap- American Law, Vol. 37. New York: New proach requires a recognition that while York University School of Law. many aspects of the world cannotbe quan- A discussion of Civil Rights and the im- tified or analyzed in a social science setting, pact of the judicial system. such factors should be considered along Levin, Henry M. with the results of social science research. It 1975 Education,Life Chances and the is not clear that utilization of social science Courts: The Role of Social Science Evi- research in this manner is consistent with an d ence. Law and Contemporary adversary framework. Further: if social Problems, Part II 39; 2:217-239. science findings increasingly are used to Levin argues the need for recognition of create what appear to be technical issues out thebiasesinherentinsocialscience of essentially moral dilemmas, this presents research, especially among those in deci- a potential social danger. The apparentlyin- sion making capacity (i.e. judges). He creasing reliance of the courts on social states that social science research is best science evidence suggests thatintensive used to frame issues rather than be used debate on these issues should be given high as exclusive evidence. priority. (1975:240) Merton, Robert K. As the legal history shows, the institutionof 1961 Social Problems and Sociological change through court mandate is not an easy Theory. In Contemporary Social task. Decisions produced unexpected results.It Problems. Robert Merton and Robert is thus necessary to understand this processof Nisbet, Eds. New York: Harcourt Brace decision making for as new decisions on the & World, Inc., pp. 697-737. desegregation issue emerge, unanticipated con- A dibcussion of theoretical underpinning sequences are created for theentire social of contemporary social problems. order. The research on school desegregation Additional Readings has closely followed these unanticipated conse- quences, but as Levin observes, notwithout in- Bark, Robert H. 1972 Constitutionality ot' President's Busing troducing its own forms of bias. 1 2 0 117

Proposals, Vol. 17.58. New York Bar solely on the basis of race, denied black---;-: Bound Periodicals. children equal protection of laws guaran- Contains Nixon's two bills on court-or- teed by the XIVth Amendment, and was dered busing. These were (1) "Student therefore unconstitu,ional. Transportation Moratorium Act of Coles, Robert )972" which froze the present plan giving 1963 The Desegregation of Southern Congress time for long-range solutions, Schools. New York: Anti-Defamation (2) "Equal Education Opportunities Act League of B'nai Brith. of 1972" which goes beyond the XIVth Thisisa study of 9 black children Amendment. Analysis is confined to the selected by the Atlanta Board of Educa- constitutionality of the proposed legisla- tion for initial desegregation in 1961. tion. Title IV refers to busing and other Weekly follow-up in psychiatric inter- remedies. views was conducted. Parents were seen Blaustein, Albert and-interviews held at home during' the 1958 Some Propositions and Research entire school year. Twelve white children Desegregation. New York: Anti-Defama in four high schools in Atlanta were tion League of B'nai Brith. chosen for similar study. Suggestions by Suchman, Edward Dean, Kluger, Richard John P. Wil linms et al., Cornell concern- 1976 Simple Justice. New York: Alfred ing social stratification, social mobility, Knopf. occupational achievement, education, This book is a documented histoCy of style of life, also characteristically black Brown v. Board of Education, the "life styles." Desegregation is viewed as a epochal Supreme Court decision that out- power problem. Kinds of power are men- la wed segregation, and of black tioned and the operation of this power America's century-long struggle for equality under law. It has minute details system is explained. of the lives and works of important black Blaustein, Albert and Clarence Clyde leaders who helped the NAACP ac- Ferguson complish its task of exposing the system 1962 Desegregation and the Law, 2d ed. rev. and changing the laws. Among these are New York: Vintage Books. Thurgood Marshall, Kenneth Clark (doll Court history of specific cases as applied experiments: black dolls vs. white dolls), to the Constitution. A 11 significant school Robert Carter, Counsel for NAACP, et segregation cases are reported. al. There is an excellent index of prin- Bolmeier, E. C. cipal cases cited as well as subject and 1973 Landmark Supreme Court Decisions name indices. on Public School Issues. Charloaesville, Ziegler, Benjamin Munn Va.: Michie Co. 1958 Desegregation and the Supreme Court. Discussed Brown vs. Board of Education Boston: Heath 84 Co. (Kansas) 347 U.S. 483, 74 S. Ct. 686 This entails the entire scope of the Con- (1954). The issue discussed was whether stitution. It states rules of law and ethical segregation of white and black children considerations motivating decision of the in the public schools of a State solely on judges. the basis of race, pursuant to state laws permitting or requiring such segregation, THE EFFECTS OF DESEGREGA- denies to black children the equal protec- TION IN THE CLASSROOM tion of the laws guaranteed by the XIVth Amendmenteven though the physical As we have just seen, the Brown decision of facilities and other 'tangible' factors of1954 was an attempt to shape social- white and black schools may be equal. behavioral change inthe educationalex- It was held that segregation of white and perience of Americans. Since that historic deci- black childreninthe public schools, sion, researchers have tried, in many ways, to 118

...- measure the extent of change, both, anticipated necessarily has been limited to only those arti- and unanticipated, as a consequence of this cles which directly spoke to the implications decision. Many factors which conkund such a for students in public schools. change process and were not apparent when the In the first few years after Brown, many of decision was made, are only now coming to the studies were basically concerned with one light. or two variables in researching desegregation, Problems have emerged in even the simplest as if the schools were testing out a new model or most straightforward research analysis of"for learning. The objective of these studies desegregated schools. Not all the effects of often was to resolve many of the basic fears or desegregation are measurable, nor are they concerns of the desegregation action, rather necessarily mutually exclusive of other in- than to evaluate the court decision per se. fluencing factors. Thus attempts to interpret These 'concernscentered around questions data often lead to I.Izzy rather than clear con- such as: clusions. 1.. Will there be more discipline problems? The literature review of theeffectsof 2. Will mixing the students by rdee-affect desegregation on the students, both black and the quality of education for whitg stu- white, has brought .to light some interesting problems, asit expkires the research.done. Un- 3. Are the teachers prepared to work in a derlying the complexity of the situation, there desegregated school? (Siggers 1971) seems to be an overall confusion as to what the Many of the research studies involved only purpose of the desegregation decision was and a one-year analysis of a recently desegregated what ends .it was' supposed to achieve for school, In light of the controversy surrounding minority groups. Was it.to end racism? Provide the court decision, the interpretations of the equal opportunity for children? Raise test results of these studies were understandably scores? Oftenitappeared that either the mixed. Implementation certainly could not research was either not asking the right ques- take place without secondary consequences tions or it was addressed to questions which and ,the mixed results reflected this. Conflict were not researchable. As a result, neither the over discrepancy in results and problemsin success of desegregation nor the quality of the implementation have become a primary focus research in this area can be conclusively evalu- for many other studies and articles in an effort ated. to explore why some desegregated students would improve in academic performance and What Type of Research Has Been Done others would not, or in explaining why aspira- Inresearching the consequences of tion levels would fall, in some situations and desegregation on students, the literature seems not in others. to fall into five categories: (a) that dealing with In order to explain or to evaluate the changes in achievement test scores, (b) that difference in these results, other factors beyond dealing with the psychological factors of self- race and achievement test scores were con- esteem, anxiety and control of the environ- sidered and evaluated in relation to,the issues. ment, (c) that having to do with social interac- For example, schools with "hostileat- tion, either in peer group or student-teacher, mospheres" would tend to have discipline (d) and those studies which take a case study problems and little,if any, improvement in approach to examining schools or districts in achievement test scores of the minority stu- their attempts to desegregate. A final category dents involved (Bernard 1958; Cusick and must serve to include those articles that have Ayling 1974). Research of this sort thgn leads tried to analyze the pros and cons of desegrega- to studies of the atmosphere (or "climate") in- tion, either generally or theoretically, as re- side schools and classrooms', in an attempt to lated to students, such as policy questions, determine those variables which promote or issues relat-xl to busing problems, or analysis hinder achievement in desegregating sehools, of the emergence of white flight and its origin. Studies such as these would consider variables As thislattercategoryisquitelarge,. it such as attitudes of teachers (Dwyer 1960) or 119 general school atmosphere (Hickerson 1966). other similar bodies of data, and reevaluated Other studies were concerned with the im- the policy implications of Coleman's Equal prov em ent of desegregated students as Educational' Opportunities Survey. Jencks' measured by test scores (Stallings 1959; conclusion implied that the political and moral Hansen 1960; Crain 1971). As the research premises of our present policy stances must be becomes more complex, it began, then, to link changed in order to alleviate the poverty and up test performance with other variables such inequality of opportunity now present. Here as motiv ation, psychological stress (Katz again, the school played a relatively minor role 1964), aspirations and self-esteem (Epps 1975; in promoting educational opportunity. Busk etal.1973),lrthe proportion of Needless to say, studies such as Coleman minority students in a classroom (Koslim et al. and Jencks have had considerable impact on 1972). the evaluation of the educational aspects of the The most influential of these elialuative desegregation issue. The results implied that reports was that of James Coleman in the desegregated schools were not viable instru- Educational Opportunity Survey of1965, ments for policy action to equalize oppor- which attempted to provide a comprehensive tunities for black and whites. evaluation of the schooling process in our In other studies of desegregation, sociologi- country. His results were as controversial as cal variables such as leadership, group func- they were unexpected in that he declared that tion (Yarrow and Yarrow 1958; Vedlitz families, not schools, were instrumentalin 1975), interracialfriendship (Carter etal. determining student success in schooling (Col- 1975; Sachdeva 1973) and social contact (Pet- em an1967). Thus,itmatteredlittle, tigrew 1969) were correlated with the academically, where a child went to school. As desegregation of schools, in order to measure a, consequence, desegregating schools would the consequences involved in a desegregated seem to be a non-issue as faras,. student situationforblack and white students. achievement was concerned. Sachdeva and Carter found that school in- The release of the Coleman report produced tegration had a positive effect on the feelings of a new explosion of research and articles on black and.white students,-that personal contact desegregation. There was considerable analysis had been instrumental in improving interracial and reanalysis of his study (St. John 1974; attitudes. Carter emphasized the need to con- McPartland1969; Coleman 1967; Guthrie sider peer acceptance in relation to the effects 1970; Jencks 1972; Mosteller and Moynihan of desegregation. Vedlitz's study indicated a 1972), not only of hisresults but of his need to consider the commitment of the stu- methodology, his statistical analyses, and his ,dents toward racial integration in measuring conclusions. the effectiveness of desegregation. The Yarrow Coleman himself continued to research the and Yarrow study of a desegregated camp dimensions of the controversy, particularly the emphasized the role of the leadership style and relation of busing, desegregation and white other personal variables in the adaptation pro- flight. Reactions to his research have reverber- cess which integratien would involve. ated from popular magazines(People1976) to The research literature also includes that a critical analysis of his reports by Pettigrew schools differ substantially in the manner in and Greene, who criticized Coleman's which they have desegregated their school dis- methodology and his inability to distinguish tricts and would integrate their schools. Track- betweenhis own biases and theresearch ing,ability grouping (Orfield,_ 1975) and resul ts. differential treatment (Yudof 1975) continue Christopher Jencks' work is an example of differential education experiences under the one of the reanalyses studies of the Coleman auspices of a desegregated school. Understand- report.InInequality,he summarizes three ably, such factors could have serious effects on years of research at the Center for Educational test scores and the levels of self-confidence or Policy Research, where Jencks and other social aspirations of students. These techniques of scientists reanalyzed the Coleman data, and segregating students withina desegregated 122 120 school are a much subtler means of second curriculum' (Yudof 1975) that serves as a class treatment of minority students, but could means of retarding the implementation of a be as or more psychologically damaging for desegregated school's policy. minority students as a racially separated Yudof, in a more critical analysis of tiv: school building. There are important policy problem of student unrest, maintained that considerations involved here. A number of unequal results in comparing black and white studies of social action programs have com- students by test scores, dropout rates, expul-- mented on the problems of implementation of sion rates and so forth, are not simply a reflec- policy plans Many have touched upon a grow- tion of unfair rules or racism on the part of the ing awarene:s of the problems involvedin administration. For him, the problemlies changing schools (Rivlin 1975; Teachers ('ol- deeper in the socialization process inherent in legeRecord Feb.1976) which includes our schools (1975:389), which includes desegregation programs. specific codes of behavior that are often incon- Concern with the student unrest of the late sistent with that known or permitted of the 1960s led to a number of studies of the rela- black students. This is the hidden curriculum tionshiP between student unrest and desegre- that can serve as an arbitrary mechanism for gated schools (Siggers 1971 ; Southern Educa- segregation. To resolve this problem, Yudof tional Foundations, 1972; Yudof 1975). Two recommended a structural reform of schools. such studies are indicatives of how the analysis For a policy maker, this perspective provides of studen: .inrest has lead to a deeper under- some insight into the crucial soci:il aspects of standing oi the problem involved in a desegre- the desegregation dilemma. gated school. Research Results The Southern, Educational Foundation study of forty three southern cities found that What conclusions about desegregation can many southern schools operated under be drawn from the research so far reviewed? shockingly inadequate desegregationplans, First, there is some evidence to suggest that with many schools manipulating ability group- desegregation benefits the academic achieve- ing in order to resegregate students thin the ment of black students. Though there seems to schools. From their study, the Fouridation con- be some conflicting evidence, the research does c I uded thatthe student unrest was show that the positive academic results out- symptomatic: of the racism and the injustice weigh the negative results. Second, there is found in many school districts of the south. even stronger evidence that white children fail Much of the suident conflict was a result of tosuffer any learning disadvantages from racial hostility With some indication that the beingina desegregated school (Weinberg school administrations were either unwilling 1975). The range of variables contributing to or unable to help resolve the basic problems these results, however, are wide and appear to responsible for such friction. vary according to degree of influence. Strongly Increasingly, it becomes apparent that the correlated variables which must be considered administration can block, undermine, or pro- are (a) the socio-economic status of the child's mote the success of a desegregation plan. In family, (b) the social-emotional character pla analyzing a desegregated school, then, much of child's family background, and (c) his sense of the burden of the success of the program academic achievement (Weinberg1975). should not be solely measured by the achieve- Social (peer) acceptance and 'control of the en- ment test , results of itsstudents. The ad- vironment,' social structural environment, and ministration represents a central role in in- the academic structuring of a school are other fluencing the ramifications of desegregating a emerging variables that influence the research school. Test score results could only be reflec- results. tive of underlying problems, at the most. Iden- As the study of desegregation and its related tification of the importance of the administra- educational and social problems has grown,

,tion in policy implementation has lead to a dis- there has also been an expansion of research in covery of more subtle factors, such as a 'hidden related areas; studies on the educational needs 121 of disadvantaged children, urban studies, and schooling in academic achievement did not research on compensatory education. Other control for intelligence, social economic studies have raised questions about the moral, status, or for pre-post test comparison. Clearly, economic and political reasonableness of striv- without a standardized procedure in research ing for equal education opportunities. In addi- design and analysis, design, methodology and tion, the viability of education as a means of analysis become variables to be considered providing equal educational opportunities has when comparing studies. The resulting confu- been challenged (Jencks 1972). Thus, related sion can partially account for the difficulties philosophical arguments have been drawn into then involved in making policy decisions con- the desegregation arena in an attempt to under- cerning desegregation policies or related stand the intrinsic capacities of such an action issues. (Hodgson 1975) or of educationcan educa- It is important to realize that an issue such tion lead to long range equal economic oppor- as this should not be researched solely on a tunities for blacks and whites? (Jencks 1972) micro-level, but rather on, a more macro-level or of the nature of justice and equality (Rawls involving other institutions in society. Not only 1975; Levine and Bane 1975). Much of this are many of the contributing variables beyond one would suppose was an attempt to clarify control, in a research sense, but the effects can- the dynamics involvedin providing equal not be definitely attributed to a specific action. educational opportunities for minority or dis- Longitudinal studies are needed to observe the advantaged children, in an attempt to reduce effects over time, of changes in desegregated much of the controversy involved (Guthrie et students as compared to segregated students. al. 1970). As desegregation has proven to be a com- Prob:zms in Research Findings plex research problem, it has made some con- tributions to the field of research and educa- Finding conclusive research results in the tion. The research has identified many of the desegregation literature emerging from problems involv ed in providing education for classroom observation or school-based studies children, including variables such as teacher- is extremely difficult. Often similar research student interaction, influence from peer group studies when compared indicate conflicting attitudes, and :.ultural differences that inter- results (Weinberg 1968). More often than not fere with learning. Moreover, it has clarified results fromthe importance attributedto many of thefactors involved withracial different variables or from the contribution of problems, as the influence of social economic variables are considered over all, rather than status, genetics, family background, and such from methodological differences. An example (Carter et al. 1975). of this type of conflict was outlined by Wein- Meyer Weinberg has done extensive work in berg (1968), in two studies that attempted to organizing and analyzing the literature on interpret the cause of higher aspirations found desegregation, outlining the conclusions ac- in segregated black students as compared with cording to variables identified in research on desegregated black students. In one study, the effects of desegregated schools. His frame- Elias Blake (1968) concluded' that the higher work, though limiting in that it deals primarily aspiration levels of segregated students served with academic achievement and desegregation, as a defense measure by which these students is helpful in identifying those variables having were able to maintain self-esteem, thus provid- specific types of impact. For instance, studies ing positive ego support. Alan Wilson (1968) showing mixed results academically tended to studied the same factor in public schools in attribute these results to ability grouping with- Berkeley and reached a different conclusion. ina school or may not haVe' taken social He held that the presence of higher aspiration economic status into consideration, when levels among lower class blacks was a analyzing the data. demonstrationthata socialminority can Weinberg found, for example, that those generate and maintain higher hopes than when studies showing no positive effect of interracial integrated. Instead of interpreting this as a 125' 122 defense mechaninfru7the individual, he con- tion itself has become rAcreasing1y ambiguous cluded that segnmatorr prevented demoraliza- over the years, both in-theinterpretationof the tion of the segretatoid. Wilson's implications, countt order and in its reMion to die purpose of then, are that deve,greggialion is damagingto the, ed4=tion. Azcording 1-}Leorn.. /he issue; of ego. The conflii=' beiTorn.ts even more; c.:,i417n- Ai=mitgregatiorn has moved frOffi dnat of murals pounded wben umr.;.;., tiothe literature:sMh.'s ,--ttlat of tesf, score evali.,atiovi. Be continues other studies -dicatethat while viating: desegregated y have lower aspira- esegregation seems toihinge an ,.hether or tion levels thanise,- '!,U J black students, they not it will improve tett-cores of students tend 'to shtiA4.-hig levels of academic (minority) rather tha ltisidering what achievementand more likely to gradu- kinds of education pokk,,, Tegarding school ate from high s nd to attend college racial patternsis :_citstent witir our (Crain 1971). democratic ideals. (1331) Another exartrik conflict over the in- Here, Levin points to t*.e. cifect thatcharag- terpretation of the -research findings on ingpolicy on desegre i can have on desegregation can t-..--.,f-seen in the controversy research. What began as ar. Aterapt to discover which resulted from ....1review of busing.studies what was happening in schools after desegrega- by David Armor (1972). Armor felt that none tion ended in a continuing debate over the of the studies he reviewed were ableto meaning and validity of test scores. Though demonstrate conclusively that busing has had these measures do provide insight into school an effect on the academic achievement of black and student performance, they are insufficient students. Moreover, he felt the data failed to for the analysis of such a major change process support the theory that desegregation would as desegregation. Certainly the courts were reduce facial stereotypes, increase tolerance or very concerned with the educationofminotity improve race relations. Thus he concluded that children: other types of integration programs shOuld be Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effec upon considered. Armor's conclusions were met with con- the colored children. The impact is greater siderable disagreement. Thomas Pettigrew, for when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually in- example, argued that: terpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Armor's thesisis predicated on viewing school desegregation as a technical matter, Negro group. A sense of inferiority affects an inconv.enient intervention whose merit the motivation of a child to learn. Segrega- must be judged solely by how well black tion with the sanction of law, therefore, has children manage to adapt to it. Blacks are a tendency to retard the educationaland once again the "object" whose reactions mental development of Negro children and they should determine "what is good for them." to deprive them of some of the benefits Thc conditions faced by black children go would receive in a racially integrated school unmeasured and ignored, and the whole system. (McMillan 1975;160) context of American racc relations is conve- But education was to serve as the vehicle of niently forgotten. (Weinberg 1968:68-70) social integration and not vice versa. Much of Besides disagreeing with Armor's premise the literature we have reviewed approaches the for his conclusions, Pettigrew criticized Armor problem as if the interpretation of the court for the studies he selected for his conclusions, decision were an educational issue and so has evaluated the court decision according to the his lack of distinction between desegregated ... educational results accumulated. A number of schools and integrated Schoi-ils. as well as his .unusually high standards for evaluating suc- researchers have concluded that the educa- tional benefits of desegregation so far have not cess and failure. been those expected or hoped for: A review of thc literature also indicates that As tothe educationaladvantages of one problem is that the concept ofdesegrega- desegregation the benefits, at least those that 126 123

are measureable,biaii, ,41k ,Aiirg instru- desegregation controver'S. Quotes such. as: ments, haveimeen ig. A The truly integrau., schoolis an educa- survey of the.voluallari4V:."-adahfittudies tional and democrath' Weal, but there is no indicates thar some Ft.*islii, iou4tpttstre im- reason to shun other-qiternatives when the proved academickity, th" AlitaLL lost ideal is not availablei,Bell 1975:36) ground, and-still othem rentaitt- 4firftint the clearly confuses the purprose of desegregation, same. (Bell 1975:29) in that there should be no alternative to one's The disappointment is well f:Ajnde4 .;,71ut the rights to education. Here. Bell is suggesting disappointing results of thee&jcatiasiil'aivan- that other educational alternati.les be ex- tages are not the only- meuto.7.--r4.4...0-,:frirega- amined when desegregated schools do not tion. Education was only.zittis:fry vich to achieve the educational goals of society. begin ending unequal tret if tfittority Desegregation can also be seen as a moral groups. 'The court wanted _cipt.izz,griegation good in and of itself, andtnot exclusively as a foremost by ending the .gle1934.,t4utttidifitig of means toother benefits (Crain1974). A such practices. The use ofrkp., longitudinal study proposed by Robert Crain tors to prove a point con=i dile damage emphasized the need to clarify desegregation done by segregated treatmenin4,i:4p-ovate:pre- as.an indirect effect uponithe educational pro- mise from that of attemptinl , itie.M.441.;mnsis- cess rather .than as a direct educational func- tent with the democratic philosp,ifigiverning tion. The thrust of this proposal stressed the our country. need to analyze desegregation in and of itself. The following quote by It. ,t-iiid.iiiidirrunds is Previous research has shown more concern a clear example of the. cora...sikinior the two with the educational success or failure of the social goals felt to be-pren. Stir. thecourt court decision, as previously stated. decision: equality within ourso i. toy, and equal education for all. A Note on the Macro-Micro Levels of The author's experience . itt: desegregation-. Analysis prompts the prediction7thst rikeit interest In both the review of the court decisions and will divide into two broathczeigories: that at of the literature on review in classroom effects, or above the sociological-econoinfictindica- a common problem seems obvious: the confu- tors that determine upward srobility -work- sion over micro and macro 'levels of analysis. ingclass and middle dlass statuswill As Blalock (1967:21) has observed: broadly agree on desegregatinn as an One of the most challenging problems that automatic instrument of :insrzr stiMiturai. im- continually arise in almost all substantive provement in the schooliim: rif their fields within the social sciences is that of just children; those of relativ.eivi-m social how one translates back and forth between economic status will also ,he.corrmS.ted to the macro level, where groups are the units instructional improvementiinttbefsenooling of analysis, and the micro level where the of their children; but will be far less com- focus is on individuals. The problems are mitted to desegregation as;an automatic in- both conceptual and empirical. strument of such improvement. (1973:36) The line between these aspects is sometimes These goals are twO separate issues, though subtle but always important to keep in mind. education (and especially ,by uiliizing One can all too easily fall victim to the polar desegregation) has been seen .as themuans of fates or psychological reductionism and/or the achieving these two:goals sirnulitanteunSly.the ecological fallacy: Yet,itis advanced that fact that education, and thus destwegation, the field methods approach is particularly fallsshort of meetingthese -needs isviible in useful in coping with this problem. Practi- the discontent over therestilts,of desegrezated tioners of this style commonly argue that one schools. of the benefits of their approach is that it con- Though the concern for ..:duotional out- siders the gestalt of any given problem. Indeed, comes of minority childrefilis-well-founded, it it is argued that if one looks at the history of can be separated from the-raciaLsegregation- participant observation research, both in 127 124 anthropology arad in sociology, some .signifi- Bernard, Viola W. cant gaps in current desegregation will `vie iden- 1958 School Desegrev Some Psy- tified chiatric Implication,EPsychiatry 2:149-158. REFERENCES CITED She discusses the psyclolowical problems Armor, David J. involved in the larg: scali '. social read- 1972 The Emidence on Busing. Public In- justment due to desei.retumion affecting terest Summer:90-126. both black and white iitwv-kuts. He discteased the "contact theory" of Busk, Patricia, et al. Gordon Al !port as related to the 1973 Effects of Schools gmeaal Composi- problems of desegregation and various tion on the Self-Conctpbtaf Black ;and integration policy models. In relation to White Students. Journal, Le-Educational these, Armor examines the research and Research 67, 2:57-61. studies done on desegregation. He con- This is an investigatiar 'ues:tiff:-esteern and cludes that none of these studies were self-concept of ability eiltiquark and white able to demonstrate conclusively that in- students attending integrated and segreg- tegration has had an effect on academic ated schools, focusing on the sixth, se- achievement as measured by standar- venth and eighth grade students ef siirt dized tests. The data failed to verify the parochial schools, of similar social status. policy axiom thatintegration should Carter, Donald, Susan DeTine, June Spero, reduce racial stereotypes, increase and Forrest Benson tolerance, or improve race relations. The 1975 Peer Acceptance and School Related long term effects did show, however,.that Variables in an Integrated Junior High bused students were more likely to go on School. Journal of Educational Psy- to college than the control group stu- chology 67:267-73. dents. The authors studied 'interracial peer ac- Armor feltthat overall the data- dis- ceptance as related to nine predictor proved the policy model and thus con- variables: grade point average, 10, atten- cluded that some other approach should dance, self-concept, sex, race, age, years be taken. in school, and classroom racial composi- Bell, Derrick A., Jr. tion. Grade point average and sex 1975 'The Burden of Brown on Blacks: became the most prominant predictors of History-based Observations on a Land acceptance for white students. Race was a Mark Decision. North Carolina Central significant predictor variable for Law Journal Fall 7, L;27-39. academic and social acceptance by black He discussed what has happened since the subjects. The ;authors feel thereis a need Brown decisionin terms of improved to consider peer acceptance itr-relationio educational owortunity for black the effects of integration. children. He.concludes that more than a Coleman, James S. et al. court decisionis necessary to achieve this 1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity. end,.and thatalternatives should possibly U. S. Department of Health, Education be considered. and Welfare, Office off 'Education. Berman, Daniel M. Washington, D. C.: U. S.Gvenmtent 1966 Our Children's Burden. New York: Printing Office. Vintage Books. This is a report in response to=situm 402 The author outlines the developmental of Civil Rights Act of 1964, Which was to stages of the Brown decision, from the make a report to Congress concerning the judicial point of view, as well as describes lack of availability of equaLeducataiumal the people and situations involved. opportunities-for an individualkyrteason 1 2 8 125

race.. color, religion or national orici Crain, Ribert. L. et al. in 'public educational institutions at a: , 1974 Design for a National Longitudinal levels :dr the U. S. The report include:. ..Study lat.:School Desegregatimr:. Ais. 1 detailsf the survey design and pro- and Z. Rand Corporation. ceduT'e.,---,, type of.tests used, and question- This is a report on preliminarifesiiy for nairesiteadters, students., .principais longiurd ina 1researc± ii z±ziool and sup:aintensients. xitswegation. The racial casnries were social, rather riniiin Robert L. and Mortar Inner than atebropotogical, and addressed four lSkiiiiiScisool Desegregation in NewOrleans, majoregmestions:: Uffice of Education, Department of 1. extension of-Tacial and ethnic segrega- HEW Project, .National OpiniornEetiter, tiomin publioschools University of Chicago,111. 2. wherher or not schools offer-quality 'This is x:comparative study of.the failure education (qpality determined by .ufSocial:control. It studied the Teaction various criteria) at an opportunity of a:citywhen forced to desegregate,:and open-equally to all the .problems, both legal and :social, 3. learning as related to .achievement whiCh affected the social structurexethe tests community. 4. identify the relationship between stu- Cusick, Philip and Richard Ayling dent achievement and kinds of schools 1974 Biracial Interaction in an Ifftritnu.'Se- attended. condary .School Social Resiew dp. Coleman, James. S. 486-94. 1967 TostardOpenSChoolls... Public Interest This article dealt with the lark

Kos lin, Sandra, Rem= Kos lin, anthRichart McMillan, lames B. Pargomet 1975 SoCial Scienceandthe District Court: 1972..Classroom Racial Balance..and Stu- The Observations of:a journeyman Trial dents Interracial.Attitudes. SoCiology-of Judge. Law and Contemporaty Education 45:386-407. Problems. Part I, 39,1: 1517-63. Thisiisa:study of.the relationihip betweer The author discusses the legal problems racial balance and the -interracial E.- of school desegregation, in light :of his titudes were found to be more favorable own experiences with thacourts, relating in balanced than unbalanced =lasses them toile tole of socialsaience, and the Thus the results suggest a strong rT4ation role of theccourt with sucita social issue, ship bet#Ween classroom racial :Polarize concluding that social sdience is entitled withinnlesegregated schools ancLithe sm- to a place in legal decisions concerning dents interracial attitudes. They: iden- socialproblems. tified balanced as 25% black .and 73% McPartland, James: white, They felt .a: need .. to explOre the: 1969 The Relative Influence:of-Schad! and causalationship b:etween racial of Classrodm Desegrzgation on the balancief_and artritudes-, :especially for Academic Achievementof Ninth Grade educational implications. Negro nts. Journal of Social_Issues 25,3:93-102_ Levin,. Harry .M M. The auditor lookerlatd.esegregation:atthe 1975 Education:, _Life Chances aimid :the. level retitle schoolandatthe level of the Courts:: the: Role: of Social Science Evi.-- classroom, using the Office of Education dence. Law-and,COntemporarv-Problem: survey information: to compare the in- 39,2. fluence7of schooling: at these two levels 'He outlines the.lack of an :-.acceptable (Ed ucation a 1 Oppo rt un ilies Survey- analysis .of therelationship-betweew 1965). McPartland -showed thatithe :po- schooling and adult attainnacra., as welll tential effects of desegregation can be as the existing hypotheses ali related to offset by inner school``segrzgation," these 2_ fainnes. while classroom desegregation had a He conciudthat the amount:if oabool- positive:advantage ifor blank. students. ing a person. :receives has :catsidiable Mosteller, Frederick and Daniell1P. Moynihan effect on adultsuccess 1972 On Equality of :Educational Oppor- pendent of the:cognitive skills 4.tiained tunity. New7cork: liVindomit House. from theeducational process. A collection of essiEsrf-uw.hinsifrom:tthe The courts :andpolice maktts.....: -have Harvard aorrinar farreanalySis of the focused Priniaii!v on ft+Wig Colemen report and.the.datanpon which approach, .WhirhmtKidnifiralithe isstm of it was based. desegregation fromrs :to .achieve- People Weekly ment :s.co res. 1975 The Sociologist Blamed for Busing Levine, DonalcIfN4Land...Maty.,,Joaane Says It Has BackfireaLDec.-Jan. 1975 The Inecinality Controversy:. Schocil-- This popular consumptinn magazine, in a ing and_Distributive Justice: New Yorlc discussion of what thenzeditors refer to as Basic Book,..-Inc. "The 25 Most Intriguing People of These .aref. -a ccillection :of :articlesin 1975," cites James Coleman and the cur- responsalto the policy controversy con- rent controversy surroumiing busing. Wt . cerning-..equality ineducation, -and refer to this article onlif showlhe especially litifoutdity, by :Christopher tent to which _dike Cotemath Report has Jencks...This Ituslek.atteropmito clear-op been publicized. the confasidanIner#Nnidingtomeperspec- Pettigrew:..Thomas tivesintuestEeducation and:Adis-- 1969 Racially Separaor Together? Jour- tributimeitokice._ of:Social Issue&=,1 131 -128

Pettigrew studied the changes in racial in- 9n.igestni.that this school integration had teractionassocialinteraction norms a posite effect on the .fe...-iings-and at- change in the society. This is an analysis titadesOf Negro and whimstudents. The of where we, as a society, stand in rela- author also finund that. personal:contact tiontosegregation-desegregation and has. been effective in improving inter- !progress toward social integration. He radial attitudes. explores various interaction theories and St. John. Nancy H. the factors leading to reducing prejudice 1971- 5.-choolIntegration, Classroom Cli- assumptions that are underlying. Recalls mate and Achievement. Harvard_Univer- for a mixed intergration-enrichment sky, Cambridge, Mass.,. Dept of HEW, strategy. Washington.D.C., ERIC. Rawls, John The:prpose of the study was-to search 1975 A Theory of J ustice.InThe inequality forfacinrs influencing theachievement of Controversy: Schooling and Distributive black and white elementary pupils in ur- Justice. Donald M. Levineand .'ilary Jo ban:schrools of varyingnacial and social Bane. Eds. New York: Basic:Bodks,Inc. composition. She tested children in 36 This article, a reprint from Itratil0.' hook. sixth grade classrooms for the 'effect of A Theory of Justice,deals with the area of roles, interracial relationstiips, and the equality, opportunity and our democratic influence of teachers on tire classroom philosophies governing these. He ditals racial achievement 'relationships. The with democratic equality, the differenve resufinc showed the:import:0=e ofteacher principle, and distributive justice., which styke as. related to:acadentic.grosAth. St. may offera new peOpective. :torhe .John also found a positive: reeTattionship problem of inequality, astelated to social -between the-Ipercerstage vif 'whites in a justice. schociI nd:the acaitlitmicattionament. Rivlin, Alice M. and P. Michael Timpans 1975 Planned Variation inEducation.. V47 11-egreg.atioir in' Siacram en t o , Washington, D.C.: The Brookings In- .13erkeiey, Pasadena. 8/..:55iraker 'Heights stitute. (0Nrio).ERIC.CailifortraL'University, These articles area:result of a conference: Risverside 'Western Retannal School of experts on theiplanned variation ex- Dmsenittgation Projects; perience, in ApriL1.973. This; condemn= Tlitsttne four case.sniirT5chool.: integration was to answer questions concerninzatte illataraning thatreilizathisatititc failure of plannedvariation:experierres ti ee rts h owmto 4mA:it no:dett im en - (Follow Through :and Headstart) t al ieWlitct on majority aildren and achieve the objectiv.es desired, or taishow 'manotitF sch i 1 d re n. are'bernefite& by im - that one method ofiiimproving eduCatiign proved. achievement s04!ires .andIQ was superior to theothers. scenres..Aill.benefit attitudinal ly;:tb.ut these The articles discuss what happened to,the occur only 'some otthetimeand under programs at the-planning, execningand foramaitifeeincumstattnes,ilette nn g upon evaluating stages in orderam assess *that troiogolltterteb 1 emnisbaandiferii.. could be learned from theitrencenien Southerrr-.IF:ducat i anal F Fon-fwd= Sachdeva, Darshan 1=fts 'Not Over hr theuth: School 1973 A Measurement of Chanaesan Inter- Mesettr_ egad -on 7:iit 41- Sumner n Cit ies1 8 racial Student Attitudes iniDesegregated yearsaifterBrown.SonditennEd uc at i on al Schools. Journal of Educational Psy- -FOundations Atlanta,.';Georgia: Urban chology 66,9:4 I 8-22. Ccrailittion;Wash The author measured thezahangein inter= This -,tirdy focused !:reitr.-.the: school racial attitudes of students of's:students-in' destmargation in 43 dam:iv-the:South, desegregated junior high sclitoolstusing:a makrntg. 'recommendations from their set of attitude items (19). The:ffindings restattS concerning: compliance with the-

..d. A7;7424 129

shcool desegregation plans, and problems peculiar to their cultural resegregation action, student unrest, differences. suspension and expulsion, transportation 1968b Integrated Education. Beverly, Hills and such problems that are occuring in California: The Glencoe Press. these schools. This is a reader, containing a selection of Stallings, Frank H. articles from the magazine publication 1959 A study of the Immediate Effects of Integrated Education,which is devoted to Integration on Scholastic Achievement in school integration. the Louisville Public Schools. Journal of Negro Education 28:439-44. 1 975 The Relationship Between School This study deals with the concern of Desegration and Academic Achieve- effect of desegregation on scholastic stan- ment: A Review of the Research. Law dards in schools. It discusses the possible and Contemporary Problems 39,2. effects on Negro students, especially for He found two areas of concernsin motivation of the students. Stallings desegregation literature: covered the immediate effects of integra- I. Very few studies suggest that tion on achievement. Also he points out desegregation schools would lower that the location of the study was favora- academic achievement of blacks ble to integration. 2. No evidence supports that desegrega- Vedlitz. Arnold tion lowers white achievement. He also identified factors which affect the 1975 FactorsAffecting the Attitudes of Mack High School Students Toward general desegregation effects, but are "Freedom of Choice" School Integration. difficult.to study: Negro Educational Review 26,1. 1. family background -This is a study of student involvement in 2. students academic aptitude a- black school and the students attitude He outlined various types of studies and toward integration. It involves a measure why they reached the results they did: racialintegration, I. those that showed positive effects in of commitment to academic achievement of interracial vaihite mistrust and what these mean for freedom of choice integration. schooling 2. studies showing mixed effects of inter- Weinberg, Meyer 1965 'Research on School Desegregation: racial schooling on academic achieve- Review and Prospect. Chicago: Integr- ment 3. studies showing no positive effect of ated Education Associates. This is a collection of research results of interracial schooling on academic studies showing the effects of desegrega- achievement tion on student performance, 4. studies showing negative effects academically and socially, as well as of 5. studies showing the effect of busing the teachers and the schools as a whole. Wilson, Alan, B 1968a Desegregation Research: An Ap- 1959 Residential Segregation of Social praisal. Phi Delta Kappan. Classes and Aspirations of High School This includes a summary of the research Boys, American Sociological Review findings and studies done on various 24,6:836-45. aspects of desegregation from 1958 to The author found that school distributing 1968, including many unpublished find- tends to separate youth of different social ings. The topics ranged from the effects of strata, which modifies values and aspira- desegregation and academic achievement tions. Differences in the attributes of the to self-esteem, peer group interaction, membership group'are shown to affect and the role of the teacher in desegregat- aspirations while relevant "personal ingaschool. The findingsincluded variables" are controlled. Thus the studies done on other minority groups "ethos" of the school seems also to affect 133 130

academic achievement, occupational situation. The second criticism was con- aspirations and political preferences. cerned with the conclusion that aside Yarrow, Leon, J. and Marian R. Yarrow from the distribution of school quality 1958 Leadership and Interpersonal Change. theeffectsof staff and facilitieson Journal of Social Issues 14,1. achievement are not large foreither This section examined the importance of blacks or whites, especially when corn-: the leadership role and how it related to pared to theeffects of family back- the group and the situation, in terms of ground. the impact on the leader, and the effects Armor reexamined the complete elemen- of variation in leader on the adjustment tary school data, to provide another inde- of the children. The data found the coun- pendent assessment of the data,but selor to be pirvotal in determining the reached similar conclusions to that of success of desegregation. Coleman. Yudof, Mark, G. Armstrong, Clariette and A. James Gregor 1975 Suspension and Expulsion of Black 1964 Integrated Schools and Negro Students from the Public Schools: Character Development. Psychiatry Academic Capital Punishment and The 27:69-72. Constitution, Law and Contemporary This is a discussion of the hypothesis con- problems, Part II, 39,2:374-411. cerning the possible contribution of This is a discussion of why there is a dis- school integration to Negro character proportionate representation of blacks in development and possible contributions relation to the reates of expulsion and to neurotic illnesses. They conclude that suspension, and whether or not this is rac- children may be forced into situations :srn or a reality. The author discusses the where they must evaluate theirrace, reasons for black expulsion rates and negatively, which would lead to per- then examines theconstitutionaland sonality damage. policy framework for dealing with this situation. Most behavior of the blacks has Banfield, Edward C. been asserted against the "hidden Cur- 1970 The Unheavenly City. Boston: Little, riculum" of the school. Unequal results Brown, and Co. (as far as expulsion rates and such) do not Problems of housing, welfare, crime and simply indicate unfair rules and pro- other social problemVin the city are dis- cedures, but can be seen as related to the cussed. An excellent chapter on educa- socialization process. tion is included. Banko, Ronald and Mary Ellen Dipasquale Additional Readings 1970 A Study of the Educational Effective- Armor, David J. ness of Integration: A Comparison of 1972 School and Family Effects on Black Pupil Achievement Before and One Year and White Achievement: A Re-examina- After Integration: A Sul ny of the At- tion of the USOE Data. In On Equality of titudes of Parents, Teachers, Students, Educational Opportunity.Frederick Principals, involvedinthe Program. Mosteller and Daniel P. Moynihan, Eds. Buffalo Public Schools, N.Y. ERIC ED. New York: Random House, rr. 168-229. 058 576. He discusses two criticisms of the original They surveyed the effects of busing, from Coleman report: that the first conclusion segregated to prodominantly white (that blacks have just as.adequate school schools, grades 5-7. Findings included: facilities as whites in most parts of the I. black achievement was higher in in- country) did not adequately measure the tegrated thaninnon-integrated school's characteristics and therefore the schools absence.of black and white differences is 2. whites don't suffer academically due not a 'true representation of the actual to integration 131

3. principals and teachers in receiving 1964 Eriendship Among Students in schools believe that the integration Desegregated Schools. Journal of Negro program demonstrated positive results Education 33:90-2. 4. both black and white parents felt it was This is part of a study which focuses on educationally sound determining the extent to- which inter- 5. both black and white students felt it racial friendships were experienced by a was a good idea sample of a Negro population in 6. integration effects varied according to Baltimore, examining the responses of age level, for old,!r children tended to college and secondary schools. have set attitudes Campbell, John D. and Marian R. Yarrow 7. those students with emotional distur- 1958 Personal and Situational Variables in bances seem to cause problems. Adaptation to Change. The Journal of Bard, Harry Social Issues 14, 1. 1958:Observations on Desegregation in This section examined some of the per- Baltimore: Three Years Later. Teachers sonal and situational variables involved College Record February:268. inthe camp desegregation. They ex- This is a general discussion of desegrega- amined the differences in adjusting ac- tion in Baltimore, including the problems cording to age, sex, and race, as well as faced by teachers, parents, students and examined aggressive behavior and community, adjustments need to be friendship preferences. They foundit made, and such. The article maintained a difficult to conclude relationships be- very optimistic perspective toward tween influence conditions and the desegregation. development of changed attitudes and Bonacich, Edna and Robert F. Goodman behavior. 1972 Deadlock in School Desegregation: A Carrigan, Patricia M. Case Study of Inglewood, California. 1969 School Desegregation via Compulsory New York: Praeger Publishers. Pupil Transfer: Early Effects on Elemen- This is a discussion of the situation of tary School Children. Final Report. Ann desegregation of a California school dis- Arbor Public Schools, Michigan, Office trict, and the factors involvedin the of Education, Department of HEW, failure of the system to desegregate. Par- Washington, D.C. ticularly of interest are the situations This is an extensive study of Ann Arbor's which occurred within the school, and the first year of desegregation, through a segregation problem in the community. reassignment of Negro students Overall, a quantitative case study ap- throughout white schools. The research proach was used to study the desegrega- focused on exploring academic, social, tion problem, including the background behavioral and attitudinal characteristics of the students, social economic status, in those transferred, in a racially mixed and racial factors. group from one school and in a white- - Bradley, Gladyce receiving school. The gains made by 1963 Interiacial Experiences of Youth in transferred students (though some ex- Baltimore in Out-of-School Life. The isted) were smaller than gains made by Journal of Educational Research. 57, the other two groups. This report in- 4:181-184. cluded results of a follow-up survey two This is part of a larger study which sought years later, with students just holding to determine the experiences of a group their own. of Negro-TOuth in interracial activities Catolona, Thelma P. outside of schoollife,particularlyin 1967 The Process of Mutual Redifinition relation to home visitation and manner- Counseling and Teaching Children from ship in community groups. Urban- Slums. In The Urban R's: Race 132

Relations as the Problem. Robert between classroom racial composition Dent ler et al.. Eds. New York: Praeger. and verbal ability. The author examines the faiiirre of com- Coleman, James S. munication between staff and children in 1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity. slum schools, as it affects learning, leads Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government to hostility and frustration_ and asit Printing Office, 0E-3800. results in cultac.:1 differences. This well-known report was .undertaken CU.rk, Kenneth B. to'analyze differences among educational 1955 Prejudice and Your Chi:141_ Boston: facilities available to various groups of Beacon Press. children in the United States. It suggests,' This book is apsychologicall swdy of the among other things, that sources of ine- effects of prejudice and segregation on quality of educational opportunity are both black and viitne children. It con- "explained" more fully by home and tains advice to schocils, parents and com- community factors than by school. munity for workinv on feelings of pre- Coles, Robert judice in children. 1963 The Desegregation of Southern Cohen, David K. Schools: A Psychiatric Study. New York: 1968 Policy for-the P;ablic Schools: Com- Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. pensation and lo:Begration. Harvard This is an exploration of feelings, sodial Educational Review 38, 1:114-137. reactions and psychological reactions of This is a discussion offithe policy question both white and black children to in urban educadiancifwhetherto improve desegregated schools, to black and white Negro achievement through the quality relations, and to the race issue as a whole. of the schoo l! oa- dinortd:desegregation of Covello, Leonard with Guido D'Agostino schools. The:audior diczosses the educa- 1958 The Heart is the Teacher. New York: tional outcomes of .d.segregation McGraw-Hill. academically_ h-J±hra*iorally and The author describeshis community valuatively. while segregated programs school and provides many insights into tended to compound the:racial issue. education as a community enterprise. 1969 Policy for the Public Schools: Com- This book is a must for anyone interested pensation :and Integration. Equal'Educa- in school-community relations. tional Opportuniity. Cambridge, Crain, Robert L. Massachusetts: Harvard Educational 1966 School Desegregation in the North: Review, Harvard University Press. Eight Comparative Case Studies of Com- Cohen examined the implications of munity Structure and Policy Making. research for-national policy.as related to Chicago: National Opinion Research the Coleman -.Report and: to racial in- Center, University of Chicago. equality in:educational opportunities. This is an analysis of the ,vay in which fif- Cohen, Da6d K._ Thomas F. Pettigrew, and teen American city school systems made Robert T. Riley decisions concerning school integration, 1972 Race 'and the Outcomes:of Schooling. and how these cities compared, overall, In Equality of 'EducationarOpportunity. in the way they dealt with the Brown Frederiek Mostelfer and DanielP. decision. Moynihan, Eds. New York: Random Crockett, Harry J. House, pp. 343-368. 1957 A Study of Some Factors Affecting the This article looks into the question of the Decision of Negro High School Students relationship between racial contexts and to Enroll in Previously All White High achievement, as it investigates the impact Schools. Social Forces 35, 4:251-6. of racial composition and school inter- This is a study of the effects of voluntary racial climates :upon student achieve- desegregation in relation to hypotheses ment. They found a modest relationship about student (Negro) motivation 136 133

towards integration in relation to social ment, but inversely related to self-con- economic status, IQ, sex, grade level in cept. St. Louis in 1955. No significance was Dentler, Robert and Constance Elkins found between the two groups according 1967 Intergroup Attitudes, Academic Per- to SES, IQ, reading ability, mean grades, formance and Race Composition. The or sex. Seniors were less likely to transfer Urban R's: Race Relations asthe than those ol the lower three grades. Problem in Urban Education. New York: Crooks., Roland C. Praeger. 1970 The" Effects of an Interracial The article offers suggestidns for planful Preschool Program Upon Racial desegregation, by describing the state of Preferences, Knowledge of Racial intergroup attitudes among young urban Differences, and Racial Identification. school children. Journal of Social Issues 26, 4:137-144. Dentler, Robert A., Bernard Mackler, and The author ccapared white and black Mary Ellen Warshauer, Eds. preschoolers according to racial 1967 The Urban R's: Race Relations as the preferences, knowledge of racial Problem in Urban Education. New York: differences, and racial identification. Praeger. This was an attempt to measure an This is a collection of articles focusing on enriched preschool program. Both races race relations as the urgent problem of rejected Negro dolls, which may be a public schools. The studies that are in- results of earlier socialization. eluded were conducted bctween 1964 Day, Noel A. and 1966. 1969 The Case for All-Black Schools. Drachler, Norman t Equal Educational Opportunity. 1974 EducationalEffects of Integration. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Paper presented at the Conference on Educational ReView; Harvard University School Desegregation: Brown Plus Twen- Press. ty and Into the Future. ERIC. Day discusses the shifts in responsibility This is a review, of the press and the of equality of opportunity from the child, media since the Brown decision, with as he is disadvantaged, to the school and conclusions drawn about the situation of the community. integration vs. segregation. Due to the Denmark, Florence, et al. decentralization of schools, it is difficult 1967 Communication Patterns in Integrated to make a concerted effort for educa- Classrooms and Pre-Integration Subject tional planning. The author assessed the Variables as They Affect the Academic need for a national or well-developed Achievement and Self-Concept of Pre- plan for meeting the challenge of Brown. viously Segregated Children. ERIC. This research project was conducted to Dyer, Henry S. determine the effects of desegregation 1969 School Factors and Equal Educa- after one year on lower class children in tional Opportunity. Equal Educational New York State suburbs, They found that Opportunity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: pre-integration variables such..as self- Harvard Educational Review, Harvard concept and cognitive style related to University Press, verbal ability scores, though it varied by The article surveys and studies the effects grade and sex. They found that teacher of schooling on achievement and cogni- ratings were inversely related to students' tive development. Dyer reached different self-concepts and unrelated .to measures conclusions than Coleman, on the issue of of cognitive style and verbal ability. education. Black friendship choices showed that in- Evans, Charles L. terracial classroom interaction was re- 1973 Desegregation StudyII:Academic latedpositively to academic achieve- Effects on Bused Black and Receiving 134

White Students, 1972-3. Fort Worth In- matically since 1967 largely as a result of dependent School District, Texas: federal court ordeis. He relates the factor Department of Research and Evaluation, of residential segregation to the difficulty ERIC. of school integration, which makes it This is a continued evaluation of court- more difficult to accomplish integration; ordered desegregation plan implemented and the fact that the inereased proportion in 1971-2. In ascertaining the effects for of black students in large school districts achievement in grades three, four, and makes busing more and more necessary. five, for black and white students, they Felice, Lawrence G. found that bused blacks showed signifi- 1974 Busing, Desegregation and Student cant gains over non-bused. The white stu- Self-Concept. National Center for dents made normal academic progress. Educational Research and Development. Fancher, Betsy Washington, D.C.: Regional Research 1970 Voices From the South: Black Stu- dents Talk About Their Experiences in The article shows the results of findings Desegregated Schools. Special Report. from the first two years of a three-year Southern Regional Council, Atlanta, study evaluating the effects of court or- Georgia, U.S. Office of Education, Dept. dered desegregation in Waco, Texas. The of HEW, ERIC. purpose of the study was to determine: These are interviews of students from I.minority student achievement four widely diverse southern com- 2. degree of interracial cooperation and munities about their experiences in acceptance in school desegregated schools. The objective of 3. the effect of busing on these. the survey was toanswer questions con- Interracial climate is identified by in- cernning integration, such as whether the tergroup hositlity and interracial friend- students were just a bitter vocal minority ship. or were they a new wave of millitancy as a The author wanted to compare studentS' result of disillusionment with integration. perceiiiiins of the"interracial climate as The responses ranged from bitter related to differences in student achieve- negativism to cautious optimism. ment. He studied 7th and 8th grade stu- Fancher concluded from these interviews dents of a stratified random scale. that there was no mass movement toward The author felt that negative attitude separation, but that students were losing toward integration and intergroup faith in the system. Thus the educational hostility would lead to decreased self- structure is being threatened by archaic concept and achievement. The data show approaches to learning, and not by racial improved attitudes toward integration problems. and increased numbers of white friends Fantini, Mario D. and Gerald Weinstein and higher self-concepts, but lower 1968 Making Urban Schools Work. New academic achievenemt test scores. York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Researchers felt that it may be too soon This is one of the best of the rash of books to conclude, from the desegregation at- describing the problems of urban educa- tempts as of yet. tion. This one proposes some reasonable Foshay, A Wells solutions. 1970 The Professional as Educator. New Farley, Reynolds York: Teachers College Press, 1975 Residential Segregation and Its Im- This collection includes papers by Fan- plications for School Integration. Law tini, lanni, Foshay and Talcott Parsons, and Contemporary Problems 39, 2. which propose several models for relat- The author discusses the decreasein ing schools of education to the school and school segregation, which dropped dra- to community. 138 135

Frank, James H. lines. Black ai)xiety did increase, which 1973 The Influence of Non-White Pupil would affect motivation. Overall, they Classroom Composition on Classroom concluded that minority children showed Quality. New York: Columbia Univer- no overall benefit in achievement as a sity, ,Institute of Administrative result of desegregation. Research. Gross, Ronald and Beatrice Frank attempted to answer the question 1969 Radical School Reform. New York: of whether the classroom ratio of non- Simon and Schuster. white to white influences the quality of This book brings together the already the behavior of the participants in integr- familiar opinions of the radical shcool ated classroom. He based it on four key reformers. However the uninitiated may concepts of classroom behavior: in- want to refer to complete books of these dividualization, interpersonal regard, reformers which include Kohl, Good- group activity end creativity. If one in- man, Dozol, Friedenberg, Neill, Holt, cludes the concept of racial balance in the Herndon and others. criterion of the quality of classroom Haggstrom, Warren behavior, then the findings suggest 1968 Segregation, Desegregation and Negro 41-60% black to white pupil composit on Personality. Integrated Education. is the best. Beverly Hills, California: The Glencoe Gerald, Harold, B. and Norman Miller Press. 1975 School Desegregation. New York: This is an analysis of the psychological Pleuum Press. effects of segregation and desegretation. This is a study of California's Riverside Hawley, Willis D. and Ray D. Rist School District busing program. As it 1975 On the Future Implications of School began ten years ago, it offers an excellent Desegregation: Some Considerations. situation to study the effects of desegrega- Law and Contemporary Problems tion, before and after, for the long range 38,2:412-26. implications. In the study, they were able This is a discussion.of desegregation and to measure variables such as family back- he desired results in education for black ground, personality, achievement, speech students. The articleattempts totie problems, attitudes and adjustment for together some of the complex problems the children involved. Teacher attitudes involved in the desegregation process. It and the social climate of the school over outlines the four general goals to which a six year period was also measured. This desegregation aspired, and the conse- study was done in an attempt to examine quences since the Brown decision: the relationship between IQ, motivation, I. the positive influence on psychological emotional adjustment, achievement and consequences the desegregated school. The results 2. the effects of desegregation on showed no clear relationship between IQ academic achievement and academic achievement for black and 3. the effects of desegn.,-Ition of race white students, regardless of the setting, relations segregated or desegregated Though all 4. the focus on equal ack to school parents emphasized the importance of resources and opportuns for post- school, their attitudes differed on other school success. values, which might have influenced Heath, Robert W. and Roy Larnders achievement motivation. The bias of the 1969 Interviews. with Seven Black High teacher was found to affect the achieve- School Students. Research and Develop- ment of minority students. There were ment Memorandum #59, Stanford ethnic differences in personality prior to University:U.S.Office of Education desegregation and post desegregation (Dept. of HEW), Bureau of Research. results revealed few changes along ther_39 This is a transcription of interviews with 136

seven black high school students in the Johnson, David Spring and Summer of 1969, as part of a 1967 The Effects of a Freedom School on larger community organizational Its Students. In The Urban R's: Race program. The students were encouraged Relations as the Problem in Urban to discuss their feelings and attitudes of Education. Robert A. Dentler, Ed. New their problems, of classes, or teachers or York: Praeger. interrelational problems. Theseinter- Johnson analyzes the negative self-ap- views offer insight into the students reac- praisals and racialattitudes within tion to schools of either black majority, schools. He sees the Freedom School as white majority or desegregated schools. an attempt to change these factors within Henry, Jules a program. 1963 Culture Against Man New York: Vin- Johnson, Guy B. tage Books. 1956 Racial Integration in Southern Higher From the perspective of'le Education, Social Forces 34,4:309-12. anthropologist, Jules.Henry looksat This article is based on a survey from school and community and suggests how 1954, covering areas of the legal back- the two operate to transmit values of the ground, the enrollment into integrated technologically driven culture of the schools, the sbcial and academic adjUst- United States today. ment of Negroes, and the sOcidl adjust- lanni, Francis A. J. ment of white students. The author at- 1967 Culture, System and Behavior. tempted to identify the factors in the Chicago: Science Research Associate situation that contributed to an orderly This book deals with the uses and misuses transition from segregation to integra- of behavioral science theory and methods tion: the Supreme Court decision, the in looking at social change for schools. changing social norms of the South, the Jencks, Christopher, and Marsha Brown role of administrators, and the variations 1973 The Effects of Desegregation on Stu- in the worlds of white and black people. dent Achievement: Some New Evidence From the Equality of Educational Op- Johnson, Norman, J., Neil Gilbert and Robert portunity Survey. ERIC. Wyer This paper attempts to remedy two 1967 Quality Education and integration: limitations of the Coleman report (1965). An Exploratory Study. Phylon The results reveal student performance 28,3:221-29, both black and white, in relation to the The author proposed that predominantly percentage of whites in a school, The middle class tsNegro) high schools can results showed increased gains in relation provide quality education measured by to national norms in schools that are the subsequent performance of their stu- 25% black, at the elementary level. The dents in college. His study of first term percentages had almost no influence on freshman at the University of I1L showed the high school level. that Negroes from predominantly black Jessup, Dorothy middle class schools did well. Thus he 1967 School Integration and Minority theorized that middle class background Group Achievement. In The Urban R's: and a lack of interracial conflict facili- Race Relations as-the Problem in Urban tated educational experience, Education. Robert A. Dentler, Ed, New Katz, Irwin York: Praeger. 1969 Academic Motivation and Equal The article focuses on achievement and Educational Opportunity. Equal Educa self-concept as related to differences in tional Opportunity. Cambridge, the administration and instructional con- Massachusetts: Harvard Educational ditions peculiar to the big-city elemen- Review, Harvard University Press. tary schools, The,author discusses the theories of 137

racial differences in the early socializa- Lewis, Ralph and Nancy St. John tion of academic motivation, analyzing 1974 Contribution of Cross-Racial Friend- how motivation is developed and rein- ship to Minority Group Achievement in forced. Desegregation Classroom. Sociometry 1973 Alterr,a.tives to a Personality-Deficit 37,1:79-91. Interpretation of Negro Under-Achieve- This was a longitudinal test of whether or ment. In Psychology and Race. Peter not growth in achievement for desegreg- Watson, Ed. Aldine Publishing Co. ated black pupils is facilitated by accep- Katz discussed various theories which at- tence into the majority group peer struc- tempt toexplain the differencein ture. Tested black sixth graders in Boston achievement performances of Negro and test scores partially supported the hy- white children. He related these to varia- pothesis but calls for other sample studies bles such as family background, class to validate. background, self-confidence, school anx- Lombardi, Donald N. iety, motivation and what can be con- 1963 Factors affecting Changes in Attitudes trolled by the school environment. Toward Negroes Among High School Klopf, Gordon and Israel A. Laster Students. Journal of Negro Education 1963 Integrating the Urban School. New 32:129-36. York: Columbia University: Teachers- The purpose of thc study was to examine College. the factors affecting changes in attitudes This book contains a collection of articles toward Negroes among white students in from individuals and agencies concerned a school integration situation, using a with integration in New York City public test-retest experimental design, at two schools. The goal of the book was to for- Maryland schools. There seemed to be no mulate a concept of integration for New significant change in either group after York City schools and to make recom- desegregation, with the only change mendations for policy and processes for found to be related to the educational schools and agencies. level of the mother. Attitude change 'and Knight, James H., Kinnard P. White, and decline in scholastic average also showed Luther R. Taff a direct relationship. 1972 The Effect of School Desegregation, Lunemann, Alan Sex of Student and Socio Economic Sta- 1973 Desegregation and, Achievement: A us on the Interpersonal Values of Negro Cross-Sectional and Semilongitudinal Students. Journal of Negro Education 41, Look at Berkeley, California. Journal of 1:4-1,1. Negro Education 42:429-46. The authors researched the effects of This report looked at theeffects of school desegregation on the personality desegmgation on raw score achievement development of Negro students,in a levels of all pupils in Berkeley schools, southern area, selecting blacks from grades K-3, for a year prior to desegrega- segregated and desegregated high tion and for the first two years following. schools. They attempted to measure the The author attempted to evaluate the values of: support, conformity, recogni- longitudinal effects of a community that tion, independence, benevolence, and desegregated voluntarily. leadership. Interpersonal values did not Mack, Raymond vary according to the variable of 1968 Our Children's Burden: New York: desegregated/segregated, and the effects Vintage Books. of attending a desegregated school were This is a study of desegregation in nine not influenced by either the socio- American communities looking at the economic status of the sex of the student. effects of it on the communities, on the

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students, and how they comply with the Moore, Alma P. law. 1970 Education Minus White Prejudice, Mastroianni, Mike and Joe Khaterna Plus Black Power Equals Grey Matter. 1972 Attitudes of Black & White High American Personnel and Guidance Assis- School Senior Toward Integration. tants. Sociology & Social Research This is a discussion by the schoof coun- selors at New Orleans of the resultant 56,2:221-227 This was a questionaire on interracial at- problems their schools faced when the school implemented a desegregation ac- titudes,atintegrated and allwhite schools, to show preference on integra- tion. tion in relation to various social situa- Muir, Donald E. tions. The blacks showed greater aware- 1963-9 The First -Years of Desegugation: ness,of race problems while whites were Patterns of Acceptance of Black Students not sufficiently aware of the prejudice on a Deep South Campus. Social Forces they had for the blacks. 49,3:371-8. This is a study of attitude changes con- Mayer, Robert and Charles King cerning the acceptance of black students 1 971 A Pilot Study of t he Social and Educa- on Deep South Campus, using three sur- tional Impact of School Desegregation. veys conducted during the firstthree Research Review 18,2:6-12. years of desegregation. The aut.hor re- This was an effort to identify the opera- lated the attitude change to the increasing tional difference between a desegregated liberality of incoming freshman, =ass .and an integrated system, looking at the culture, and the media. planning process, implementation, Pancoast, Elinor educational professes, educational out- 1956 The Report of a Study on besegrega- comes, interactions. and such. The study tion in the Baltimore CitySchools. Mary- was donethrough observation, interviews land Commission on art....racial and questionaires as part of a Problems and Relations. longitudinal sbnitort study of a graduating This report discussed the special class. problems and which the public schools in The whites tested out the same, whereas Baltimore encountered in desegregating the blacks showed improvement after its schools, such as school problems, the desegregation. court decision, community opposition, Miller, Harry L. and Roger R. Woock and the constructive gains. 1970 Social Foundations of Urban Educa- Passow, A. Harry tion.Hinsdale,Illinois: The Dryden 1963 Education in Depressed Areas. New Press, Inc. York: Teachers College Press. The authors assess issues in urban educa- This book presents a collection of articles tion, focusing on problems and proposed on problems of urban education. solutions. Research findings from Pettigrew, Thomas F. sociology, social psychology and educa- 1968 Race and Equal Educational Oppor- tion are used intelligently. . tunity. Harvard Educational Review Mills, Nicolaus 38,1:66-77. 1973 The Great School Bus Controversy. The author reviewed several studies done New York: Columbia University, prior to Coleman's report, but which sup- Teachers College Press. ported the findings of the significance of This book includes historical, political social class on student achievement. He and social overviews of the busing con- also discusses the weaknesses of these troversy, ranging from hard data, to case reports: not longitudinal, not corrected histories, including views of both sides of for initial achievement level, and the at- the controversy, especially concerning mospheric difference between desegreg- the implications of school busing. ated and integrated schools. 142 139

1969a Race and Equal Educational Oppor- Possible ways of promoting desegrega- tunity. Equal Educational Opportunity. tion while improving education are listed Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard by the Commission as magnet. schools Educational Review, Harvard University and education complexes and parks. Press. Reagen, M. F. The author points out a need for integra- 1974 Five Educational Effects of Busing tion, rather than just desegregation, in Students. American School Board Jour- order for a difference to be made as far as nal 161:44-5. equality of opportunity. The article assess the effects of busing on Pettigrew, Thomas F, and Robert L. Green the caliber of education the children 1976 School Desegregation in Large Cities: receive.It analyzes the findings of A Critique of the Coleman "White research done on busing at the present Flight" Thesis. Harvard Educational and concludes that the root of the matter Review 46,1:1-53. is a need for a fundamental assessment of In this article, James Coleman's research the presence of higher quality of school and public statements concerning the services at the end of the bus-ride. relationship between ,schuol desegrega- Richan, Willard tion and white flight ..21weclosely ex- 1967 RacialIsolation -111the Cleveland ...mmined_ In addition they examaine..their Public Schools: Cleveland Ohio: Case own study and others whose. findings Western Resenve University. awergerwith Coleman's. They orier..a,criti- This is a case: study of desegregation malt analysis of his methodolnEN-and the problems of the Cleveland public failure fof Coleman to be able:Ito dis- schools. It contains the historical back- tinguish between his scientific findings ground, the extent and typerof existing mil his personal beliefs. They question segregation and racial isolation; the corn- many of the underlying assuMptions of munity reaction, and a discussion of the his conclusions. costs as a result of attempts to integrate. Pettigrew, Thomas, F.,Marshall Smith, Rodgers, Harrell, R.Jr., and CharlesS. Elizabeth L. Useem, and Clarence Na- Bullock mend 1974 School Desegregation: Successes and 1973 Busing: A Review of the Evidence. Failures. Journal of Negro Education The Public Interest 30:88-111. 43:139-54. This is a reanalysis of David Armor's The article discusses the merits of integr- findings in the summer issue of The Public ated school systems in terms of achieving Interest, focusing on other conclusions certain goals academic, social race rela- that can be drawn. This article discussed tions and life opportunities. The article the findings of Armor as well as his un- evaluated the veracity of some attacks on derlying assumptions. Their criticisms school desegregation and surweyed the ranged from that of his methodology, to recent school integration studies. his biases, and his standards of analyzing Sachdeva, Darshan the success of desegregation. 1972 Friendship Among Students in Racial Isolation in the Public Schwas Desegregated Schools. California Jour- 1967 Summary of a Report by the U.S. nal of Educational Research 23,1. Commission on CivilRights. CCR The author studied the development of Clearinghouse Publication Number 7. friendships among students in desegreg- Washington: U.S. Government Printing ated schools, through a set of attitudinal Office. items. The findings suggest that personal The report cites research that suggests contact has been effective in the develop- that compensatory education is less effec- ment of interracial friendships in tive in raising academic achievement of desegregated schools, in Berkeley, Black students thanisdesegregation. California. The results showed that newly 143 140

integrated schools develop more inter- ated and UnsegregatedSchools. Un- racial friendships, showing that personal published dissertation, Teachers College, contact is effective in reducing racial at- Columbia University, New York. titudes. Her study dealt with three areas concern- St. John, Nancy H. ing attitudes and desegregation:-the effect 1970 Desegregation and Minority Group of classroom contact and ethnic attitude, Performance. Review of Educational theinfluence of the variable of in- Research 40:111-33. telligence and the desegregation process, She reviewed pre-Colernan, Coleman and and the interracial.attitude as a function post-Coleman empirical evidence on the of sex. relationship between racial composition I 967a The Influence of Intelligence and an of %boo Is and. academic achievement of Interracial Classroom on Social At- Black childrern She points out:time:weak- titudes. 1 n The Urban R's: Race Rela- nesses inthestudies, showing the tions as the Problem in Urban Education. difficulties of-researching these:areas and Robert A.Dentler, Ed. New York: irrthtypes of studies performed. Praeger. 197 rThe.Elementary Classroom za a Frog The author examines the relationship be- Ponth.Self-Concept, Sense of Cativo! and tween intergroup relations racial at- Social Context. Social Forces 49r.581-95. titudes and individual intelligence. The :This is a reanalysis of the Coleman find- contributions of intergroup contact, ing.that self-concept falls, but:sense of though not uniforw..has made a contribu- controlriseswiththe percentage of tion to the social maturation of the child. whites .in a school. She tested 36 black I967b Reading, Writing and Race Rela- and -white sixth graders and found that achievement contributes the most to self- tions. Trans-Action 4,7:27-31. . These-are the -results of four studies of concept ;and Self C'Ontrol. Academic fifth grade students testing whether in- norms tended to fall as social class level social economic tegration of white and black students lead fell.She foundthat to greater mutual acceptance and what status and achievement are more related attitudes were influenced by differences to these factors (self-control and self- in intelligence. The author found that concept) than is race. greater exposure lead to greater. realism. 1975 School Desegregation: Outcomes for Children. New York: Wiley. Singer, Harry This book is a critical overview of the 1970 Effect of Integration on Achievement findings from over 120 studies on the of Anglos, Blacks and Mexican effects of school racial composition for Americans. Annual Convention of the both black and white students. The American Educational Research author offers a discussion of several ex- Association, Minn,i.Minnesota. perimental design models usefulin A stilayrof a comparison of pre and post measuring the effects of school integration, cross-sectional data, from desegergation on children. Both psy- the Riverside Unified School District, chological theory,and the findings in the California. It was testing the effects of in- research lead SC:John to conclude that tegration on shifts in peer group values, the outcome of the process would be effects on achievement scores.It pro- favorable for the studentsif the vided an opportunity to test Coleman's desegregation process were of high data results. quality and had the right mix of per- Singer's results proved that more than sonality factors. physical integration is necessary to im- Singer, Dorr..thy prove test scores and possibly psy- 1966 Interracial Attitudes of Negro and chological and social integrationis White Fifth Grade Children in Segreg- needed to improve test scores. 144 141

Smiley, Marjorie B. and Harry Miller Harvard Educational Review, Harvard 1968 Policy IssuesinUrban Education. Educational Press. New York: The Free Tress. The author examines the failure of This is a collection of readings dealing Berkeley schools to pull ghetto children with various socialanti economic up academically through compensatory problems in relation to sprcific policy education. issues, primarily as related to education. Taylor, Joseph These readings reflect the value conflicts 1968 Final Report from the Summer In- inherent in these problems. stitute on Psychological Sociological Smith, Charles U. Problems of School Desegregation. 1965 Desegregation on the Negro Student. Bethune-Cookman College, Dept. of Speech givenatFloridaz_and South Health, Education and Welfare. ERIC. GeorgiaInstituteforSuperintendents This is a final report from a six week sum- and Board Members on the Civil Rights mer institute for school personnel Act of 1964, Coral Gables, Florida. devoted to improving the understanding This speech emphasized the:need to be of problems accompanying des'egrega- sensitive to the subculture- of the child tion, changes in race-relations, patterns, when entering school. He points out the and ways to solve psychological and need to be sensitive to feelings of rejec- sociological desegregation problems of tion, social threat, and suchas they might special interest in the development of effectthe scholastic performance for aspirations for the Negro youth. The Negro children. He suggests:active ways report includes policy recommendations inwhich administrative and policy made made by the participants. makers can reduce prejudice and increase Thompson, Daniel C. interracial activity. 1963 Our Wasted Potential. In Integrating Smith, Marshall S. the Urban School. Gordon Klopf and 1972 Equality of Educational Opportunity: IsraelA.Laster, Eds. New York: The Basic Findings Reconsidered. In Teachers College, Columbia University. Equality of Educational Opportunity. This article discusses the factors that con- Frederick Mosteller and DanielP. tributed to the wasted potential of Negro Moynihan, Eds. New York. Random youth.Particularly importantisthat House, pp. 230-342. Thompson..pointed out how the schools This study reexamines the five controver- had attempted to deal with this situation, sial conclusions of the third chapter of through desegregation. the Coleman Report, including criticisms U.S. Commission on Civil Rights of validity and methodology. Thus he 1967 Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, tested the criticisms concerning: vol.I & II.Washington, D.C.:, U.S. methodology, the relationship of student Government Printing Office. achievement and home background, the This is a summary of facts and reports relationship of student achievement and concerning issues centered around racial student body composition, facilities and isolation and schools, policies and prac- curricula characteristics, and the tices, academic performance and teacher's characteristics. Finally, he sum- desegregation, racial composition of marizes the findings with attention to the classes, compensatory programs, and whey implications. His reexamination means by which schools are desegregated. affirms the original conclusions of the Volume II contains a survey given to report. segregated and desegregated black and Sullivan, Neil V. white adults who were gradur les of Oak- 1969 Compensation and Integration: The land High School, which attempted to Berkeley Experience. Equal Educational analyze the consequences of varied Opportunity. Cambridge, Massachusetts: educational experiences. The questions 145 142

included anahysis of educational aspira- school. The study mum conducted in . tions, occupational aspirations, racial at- schools at all levels ofinzsegregation, in a titudes and such. The report was not 'hard core' area of AstArKegation in the limited..to the affects on blacks, but in- south eastern U.S. 1-1...-lindings did not cluded information on theet'fects on support the fear that desgregation would whites and their resulting racial attitudes influence the general satisfaction of white as a consequence. students with desegregution. Watson, Peter, Ed. Willie, Charles V. and JeronieJBaker 1973 Psychology and Race. Chicago: 1973 Race Mixing in the.:Bublic Schools. Aldine Publishing Co. New York: Praeger Pithlishers. This represents a social psychological The purpose of the still* was to discover view of race and race relations. It is a col- the patterns of sontall adjustment of lection of articles, written by sociologists children transferred tre other schools. and psychologists, on various aspects Most of the research. was,in academic ad- such as interracial interaction and race in justment, for little sm:ial research had relation to various issues in social psy- been done. The repart:included findings chology. in relation to social adjustment and social Webster, Staten W. and Marie N. Kroger economic status. The report also in- 1966 A Comparative Study of Selected Per- cluded case study comments from ceptions and Feelings of Negro Adoles- various schools that had been integrated. cents with and without Friends in Integr- Wilson, Alan B. ated Urban High Schools. Journal of 1969 Social Class and Equal Educational Negro Education 35,1:55-61. Opportunity. Equal Educational Oppor- The authors studied three types of per- tuniq. Cambrige,, Mass.: Harvard ceptions of the ways in Which black Educational Review, Harvard University adolescents attending urban high schools Press_ do or do not have white friends.They saw Thezaut hor examineeLtheffect of st ud en t this as a function of: personal :indepen- body characteristicsz on academic dence, social competence, intellectual achimement, and relamdit -to the Cole- esteem, and total self-concept; h4her maniReport. vocational aspirations and-perceptions,of Yarrow, Marian R., John 13. Campbell, and potential for later occupationaLattain- Leon_J. Yarrow ment; and a decrease in ethnic concern or 1958a Acquisition of New Norms: A Study anxiety. of Racial Desegregation. Journal of Weingerg, Meyer Social Issues 14,1. 1965 Research on School Desegregation: This is-anl analysis of :the :interpersonal Review and Prospect.. Chicago, lln- relationship in an imposedkdesegregation tegrated Education Associates. situation' at a summer camp. The situa- This is a collection of research results of tion was analyzed according to behavior, studies showing the effects of desegrega- social perceptions of the child, group tion on student performance, properties,. and 'psycho-dynamic prd- academically and socially, as well as on cesses. The authors felt two weeks was the teachers and the schools as a whole. not long enough for the change, but they Williams, Robert and Fred Venditti felt the situation did provide insight into 1969 Effects of Academic Desegregation on the reorganization of beliefs and feelings, Southern White Students' Expressed thremphasizing the role of the situation Satisfaction with School. Journal of in defining how a person is to function. Negro Education 38,4:338-41. 1958b Interpersonal Change: Process and This study was to answer the question Theory. Journal of Social Issues 14,1. concerning the cffect of desegregation on This k a general discussion of variables the white students' satisfaction with involved in changing a social situation 146 143

and social relationship, and particularly cept of acculturation was largely used by this camp situation. It concludes with a American anthropologists to 'describe the discussion of theories of interpersonal results of borrowing when two groups come change. into sustained culture contact. While there was Young, Robert E. some sociologicaluse of the term,I most 1974 Interethnic Behavior in Desegregated sociologists.used the concept "assimilation" as Secondary Schools. Unpublished disser- defined by Park to mean what most tation, Teachers College, Columbia anthropologists called "acculturation."2 Bri- University, New York. tish anthropologists, who made many studies of The author explored the problems of in- this type in Africa and Oceania, use the term terethnic student attitudes and behavior. "cu I t ur e contact" in much the same way as ac- This includes an overview of the culturation or assimilation was used in this literature on desegregation and a case country. The history of the term has, then, been study of a small urban school system in- largely American, although one study reports a volved in political, inter-racial problems. German use of the word.3 Young explores the relationship between Acculturation studies became popular self-esteem and racial attitudes, and be- among American anthropologists after the first tween student social and academic status World War, although some field studies and their interethnic behavior as based among Indian tribes preceded this period.4 on the iocial contact theory. During the post-war period the "Americaniza- tion" movement lent a new interest to the pro- ACCULTURATION, ETHNICITY, cesses by which immigrants acquire new AND DESEGREGATION cultural responses.5 The development of this field continued into the late 1920s and early The topic of desegregation has also been 1930s with increasing emphasis on the study of seen as a subset of the literature on culture con- immigrant 'groups as well as- the effects "of tact. In this view, desegregation is a process in European-American civilization on the which sub-culture groups in American society American Indian. In 1935 the Social Science are educated and enculturated in the same, Research Council set up a sub-committee for -rather than separate, educational settings. The the study of acculturation composed of Ralph research materials.from the 1920s, 1930s, and Linton, Robert Redfield and MelvilleJ. I 940s, dealing with "acculturation," "assimila- Herskovits. Its purpose was to define the con- tion," and the "Americanization" process thus cept of acculturation and to prepare a state- are important ,background information to the ment ,concerning how acculturation should be understanding of the process of desegregation. studied. In 1936 it published a "Memorandum There has, however, always been some debate for the Study of Acculturation" which defined as to the similarity between the "Americaniza- the concept as quoted previously. To their tion" process experienced by the European im- 'definition they added that: migrant and the desegregation process today; socio-cultural, political, economic, and even ..acculturation is to be distinguished from communications contexts are quite different culture change,of which it is but one aspect, today. The research literature which and assimilation, which is at times a phase of developed in studying the processes of culture acculturation. It is also to be differentiated contact does, however, provide a valuable from diffusion, which, while occurring in all background for understanding desegregation instances of acculturation,is not only a as a socio-cultural process. phenomenon which frequently takes place Acculturation studies were very common without the occurrence of the types of con- during the period of European immigration tact between peoples specified in the defini- and focused on how minority groups adapted tion given above, but also constitutes only the cultures they brought with them to the one aspect of the process of acculturation. American culture they founci here. The con- (Herskovits 1938:10) 147 144

he committee went on to discuss the ap- Melville Herskovits' volume on accultura- proach to be used in studies of this type and to tion (1938) traced the development of the con- analyze the contact situations in which ac- cept from a loosely used and ambiguous term culturation might be found. It also discussed to the concise definition of the Social Science the possible psychological reactions of in- Research Council sub-committee; he also dividuals undergoing the process. In terms of reviewed much of the field work previously the acceptance of traits by the groups involved done by anthropologists. In his review of field they listed three possible results of accultura- work there is no mention of investigations in- tion: volving immigrants to this country due to the A.Acceptance: where the process of ac- author's neglect or sociological work; also cultui ation eventuates in the taking over of most of the work in this area had been theoreti- the greater portion of another culture and cal rather than empirical research up to the the loss of the older cultural heritage; with time of his publication. acquiescence on the part of the accepting Ralph Linton's Acculturation inSeven group, and, as a result, assimilation by them American Indian Tribes was the next work to not only to the behavior patterns but to the appear (1940).Inthis work separate inner values of the culture with which they authorities present the effects of the contact have come into contact. history of seven tribes. In terminal chapters Linton reviews the factual date and offers cer- B. Adaptation: where both original and tain interpretive generalizations. He discusses foreign traits are combined sn as to produce a smocithly functioning cultural whole what he terms "directed culture change," in which one group in the contact situation inter- which is actually an historic mosaic; with feres actively with the culture of the other. As either the reworking of the patterns of the an example he cites the case of the Spaniards in two cultures into a harmonious meaningful Mexico compelling theIndians toattend whole to the individuals concerned, or the Christian rites and give up their pagan rites, retention of a series of more or less conflict- noting that this situation can occur only where ing attitudes and points of view which are there is a contact situation involving domi- reconciled in everyday life as specific occa- nance and submission. This point is an iriwor- sions arise. tant one for the study of desegregation when C. Reaction:: where because of oppres- definite action and purposive policy by the sion, or because of the unforeseen results of dominant social,. group td- influence change is the acceptance of foreign traits, contra-ac- dhaf'acteristic. Another point made by Linton culturative movements arise; these main- concerns the predominant direction of the flow taining their psychological force (a) as com- of cultural traits in the case of immigrant "Old pensations for an imposed or assumed in- Stock" contact in America: feriority, or (b) through the prestige which a Then the socially superior group also has return to older preacculturative conditions the culture which is best adapted to the local may bring to those participating in such a conditions, the onesidedness of the borrow- movement. (Htrskovits 1938: 135-136) ing reaches a maximum. This condition is It is interesting to note that these results are wellillustrated by European immigrant very similar to those found in a field investiga- groups in America. Most of these groups tion study among the Italians of New Haven, have, in the process of their absorption, Connecticut, conducted by a psychologist in- taken over the pre-disting American terested in discerning the reactions of second culture almost as a whole, giving only a few generation males to the acculturative process minor elements of cultureinreturn. (Child: 1942). In addition, some studies of (1940:512) desegregation, to be discussed in a later sec.. In 1941 an entire issue of the American tion, have found similar patterns among black Anthropologist was devoted to the subject of ac- childrenassignedtopreviouslyallwhite culturation, the result of a symposium com- schools. prisingatheoreticalorientation by M. J. 148 145

Herskovits followed by reports of field work the culture of a Pacific island folk that result by Narious investigators. Herskovits, reex- from 'the visit of the mission boat once or amining the 1938 definition of acculturation, twice a year; and the work of a single mis- adds several new points. In discussing the sionary.' (1941:6) value of documentary history dating to early Herskovits then goes on to point out Lin- times Herskovits states: ton's comment that this visit by the 'mission . .. thecultural baseline from which a par- boat is neither first-hand nor continuous. Lin- ticular change took its beginninga phras- ton's contention (1940:464) that these situa- ing somewhat to be preferred to that of tions can not be considered to fall within the `zero-poinecannot be ignored. This must framework of acculturation studies since the be constituted as completely as possible if criteria of "continuous" and "first-hand," are the hybrid culture actually observed by the not met is countered by the citation of a study student is to be correctly interpreted, and by Greenberg (1941:51-61) conducted among the theoretical derivaties of research ade- the Hausa which depicts a situation in which quately exploited. It goes without saying there is no physical contact and the agency of that where documents are available they acculturation was'Moslem literature transmit- must be utilized to the fullest degree; but ted throughout the general population by a where they are not to be had reconstruc- small literate minority. Herskovits concrudes: tion by other methods, such as the question- Thus while continuous contact may be ing of elderly folk who have had pre-contact held as a valid term, the element of diffusion experience, is essential. Only by such a pro- at first hand through contact between entire cedure can the tendencies to change in- peoples must be revised. (1941:7) herentinthe precontact patterns of a This case cited by Herskovits is a special one societyits 'cultural drift'be recovered, and while it is entirely possible for elements of analyzed, and, ina manner historically a culture to be transferred throughmedia other valid, balanced. against the resistances and . than personal contact, the sritecion_of_"first acceptance:, that have actually resulted from hand contact" is a valid one since destroying it the acculturative experience. (Herskovits would lead to confusion between the concepts 1941:4) of acculturation and diffusion. Similarly, To 'this should be added the necessity of an desegregation should be viewed as a social pro- examination of these members of an immigrant cess which also requires continuous, first hand group, for example, who remained in the contact. homeland, thus enabling the investigator to ob- The interest in acculturation studies con- serve those changes which would have taken tinued and, indeed, increased for a short time place had the observed group not emigrated. after the second World War. This 'was Most acculturation studies of European im- especially true of immigrant-group studies in migrants to the United States ignored the the United States and the psychological aspects reality of social change in Europeculture of acculturation. In this latter 'field of ac- change being attribnied to acCulturative forces culturation theory, contributions have been if found to have taken place, regardless of the made by psychologically oriented facts. of worldwide or nation-wide changes anthropologists as weli as professional psy- (Ianni 1958). chologists. A. Irving Hallowell, for example, A further modification of the earlier defini- inhis discussion of the sociop.sychological tion concerns: aspects of acculturation, pointed ont that ... thecriterion of 'continuous first-hand studies of culture contact often give the im- contact' between 'groups of individuals hav- pression that "cultures meet" while actually ing different cultures.' Difficulties in the such a situation does not exist. What is meant, way of delimiting this situation with any aceoiding to Hallowell, is that peoples meet degree of accuracy have been pointed out, and through the social interaction which we as, for example, where the question hasbeen refer to as acculturation, modifications in the raised whether these terms cover changes in way of life of one of the contacting peoples may eI.4 9 146 take place. He goes on to point out that in- represents a "form of social life that is capable dividuals within the contacting groups are at of renewal and transformation" (Glazer and the center of this interaction:process ahd where Moynihan 1975:4). Despite the emphasis on perceptible differences have come about itis tulture in the definition of ethnicity, there is the individual who has learned the new ways of often a sense thatit somehow differs from thinking or acting (1-1,allowell 1945:174-176). earlier notions of sub-culture: "In the early 1950se, the study of accultura- Something new has appeared.... The tion begantodecline exceptfor some phenomenon is too new. We feel that to see specialized interest in the study jf second- only what is familiar in the ethnicity of our generation off-spring of immigrants or the time is to miss the emergence of a new social chairacteristicsof ethnic communitiesin category as significant for the understanding American cities (Whyte, W. F. 1955; Gans of the present-day world as that of social 1962). class itself. For in the welter of contempor- By the late 1950s and 1960s the influence of ary forms of group expression and group the Civil Rights movement in education led to conflict there is both something new and some reawakening of interest in culture con- something common: there has been a pro- tact, particularlyinsuch areas as "multi- nounced and sudden increase in tendencies . cultural," "bi-culttirar and "bi-lingual" by people in many countries and in many education programs. In addition, concern with circumstances to insist on the significance of cultural bias in psychometric testing focused their group distinctive and identity and the concern on cultural influences on culture con- new rights that derive from this group tact. Now, however, the emphasis has shifted character. (Glazer and Moynihan 1975:2-3) from culture to powereconomic, political, This groupness will be an increasingly im- and socialand ethnicity took on a new mean- portant factorinunderstanding modern ing. In the AmericanizatiOn period, European society and influences all social processes in- immigrants accepted .the requirement of ac- volving ethnic relations. It relates most clearly cepting American culture as the basis for social to school desegregation in the literature on mobility. .The new "minorities"blacks, ethnic stratification. Hispanics, and American Indiansheld that While many forms of stratification exist they should be able to maintain their cultural here and elsewhere, Noel (1968) argues that an identity as ethnic groups and still demand a essential form in American society is that of share of economic, political and educational ethnic stratification: "a system of stratification power. wherein some relatively fixed group member- In the 1960s and 1970s the term ethnicity ship (e.g., race, religion, or nationality)is emerged as a generic concept which has served utilized as a major criterion for assigning to organize a growing area of research interest. social positions with their attendant differen- First mentioned as such by Riseman in 1953 tial rewards" (1968:157). (Glazer and Moynihan 1975:1) it has become a topic of much discussion. Tumin has defined An important element of ethnic stratifica- ethnicity as "a social group which, within a tion as it was in acculturation studies is ethno- larger cultural and social syStem,,claims or is centrism. A number of studies have explored accorded special statusiin terms of a complex the functions and dysfunctions of ethnocentr- of traits (ethnic traits) which it exhibits or is ism. Catton and Hung define ethnocentrism as believed to exhibit" (Tumin 1964). Glazer and "the tendency Of group members to judge other Moynihan (1975:4) 'note that this has been cultures bj/ the standards of judginent prevail- broadened in general usage to include ing in their own culture" (1960:203). They go subgroups, minor ities;and "to all the groups of on to indicate that departure from these norms a society characterized by a distinct sense of is viewed as deviant behavior. difference owing to culture and descent." In- While ethnocentrism, as a basis for ethnic deed, they go on to note that these ideas are not stratification has obvious benefits for main- remnants from an earlier age but that ethnicity taining the established order of the dominant 150 . 147 ethnic group, it is at the same time dysfunc- With the previously mentioned concept of tional to the minority group. Elsewhere, Cat- ethnic stratification in mind, Despres goes on ton, following Sumner, argues, that ethno- to argue: centrism, while valuable for the in-group, ma- If ethnicity is viewed as one form of social jority or minority, "entails measurable costs in stratification, it needs to be emphasized that intergroup relations" (Catton and Hung social class is quite another. Ethnic 1962:1C1). With a sothewhat different orienta- stratifications derive their structural futures tion, Rosen has presented evidence to show from categorical status ascriptions. By way, that "the disparity between the vertical of contrast, class stratifications are more mobility rates of some racial and ethnic groups evidently based upon status identities which can, in part, be explained as a function of their are achieved. In theory these two formsof dissimilar psychological and cultural orienta- stratification exist in contradiction. In fact, tions towards achievement" (Rosen 1959:47). they may co-exist in complex ways accord- The concept of ethnicity has been ing to the historical, techno-environmental. historically the province of sociologists, but as economic and political parameters of par- Depres observes, anthropologists are in- ticular societies in which they are found. creasingly moving intothisarea (Depres (Despres 1975:193) 1975:188). Barth has argued that the persis- It will later be argued that what he is saying tence of ethnic groups has been ignored by has important implications for classroom ob- social anthropologists and explores the im- servation in desegregated settings. In this same plications for the boundaries between groups. vein, we feel it is necessary to quote one more He goes on to note that by "concentrating on passage from Despres: what is socially effective, ethnic groups are seen It also emerges from these papers that not asa form of socialorganization" (Barth all categorical identities are ethnic; and re- 1969:13). In this light a boundary "defines the lated to this is the fact that ethnic identities group, not the cultural stuff that it encloses" are rarely inclusive of the full rangeof (Barth 1969:15). social identities structured into poly-ethnic More recently the Ninth International Con- societies. Thus, from a social organizational gress of Anthropological and Ethnological point of view, ethnic identities may vary ac- Sciences issued a volume entitled Ethnicity and cording to the variety of social situations in Resource CompetitioninPluralSocieties which they may be appropriately expressed. (Despres 1975). Noting that Barthis con- It follows from this that individuals need cerned with ethnicity in terms of the "subjec- not play ethnic roles all of the time in order tive process of status identification" (Despres that poly-ethnic systems persist; that the 1975:190), authors of this volume present what ethnic identities ascribed to population ag- they call an objective vielkpoint and what it has gregates do not make of those aggregates to offer. The objective viewpoint is based on a corporately or politically organized groups; concern for culture. They note, though: and that corporately organized ethnic All of these papers are inclined to take issue groups need not be the only pOlitically im- with the subjectivist conception of ethnicity portant groups to which individuals might which is thought to derive from the work of belong ina poly-ethnic society. And it Barth.... An exclusively objectivist, or follows from all of this that the behavioral cultural, conception of ethnicity is equally significance of ethnicity, for individuals as unserviceable. This makes theoretical ly well as for the groups they form, cannot be problematic not only the relationship be- ascertained apart from a rather comprehen- tween cultural distributions and categorical sive analysis of the overall social system. ethnic ascriptions but also the role and over- (Despres 1975:193) all significance of the subje"Ciiiie element in The above discussion has direct implica-1. . respect to such ascriptions. (Despres tions for both micro-level and macro-level 1975:191) research. If one is interested ininterethnic 151 148

situations such as desegregated schools, then "A Sketch of the Peyote Cult of the Winnebago: A Study one should be considerate of what Barth as in Borrowing," Journal of Religious Psychology, v. XII, well as the objectivists cited earlier have writ- 1914, pp. 1-22. ten. A dual level of analysis is called for. For 5 B. S. Bogardus, Essentials of Americanization, 1919; R. Park and H. A. Miller, Old World Traits Transplanted, example, Holloman observes in her study of 1921; W. I. Thomas and F. Znaniecki, The Polish Peasant the Cuna: in Europe and American, I 918-1921, At the macro-level the stability of the in- terethnic boundary is reflective of the way in References Cited which the Cuna and non-Cuna have arrived at de facto patterns of access (or lack of Barth, Frederi k, Ed. them) to politidal and economic resources. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The At the micro-level, the Cuna side of that Social Organization of Culture boundar:' is sustained by internal structures, Differences. London: George Allen & which simultaneously guarantee rewards Union. adequate to sustained member support of Using a social anthropologicalperspec- the ethnic system and provide for control of tive, the author applies thisto the change-related deviant behavior. (Ho Bo- problems of ethnic groups and theirper- man 1975:38) sistence. Particular attention should be We submit thatit' "black" is substituted for paid to the notion of boundaries. "Cuna" and "non-black" for "non-Cuna," then Catton, William R. and Sung Chick Hong ramifications of these game boundaries can be 1960-1961 The Functions and Dysfunctions observed in the desegregated classroom. We of Ethnocentrism: A Theory. Social suggest that the discovery of this process will Problems 8, 3:201-211. shed new light on the problem of classroom In a theoretical exploration of the theory desegregation. of ethnocentrism, the author assesses the functions and dysfunctions of thiscon- Notes cept. A formalized theory is presented. I See, for example, C. Dawson and W. Gettys, In- Implications for in-groups andout- troduction to Sociology, 1948, p. 304; E. E. Eubank, Con- groups are discussed. cepts of Sociology. 1932, pp. 371-372; L. Wilson and W. Kolb, Sociological Analysis, 1949, p. 686. Child, Irving 2 Park's definition of assimilation is: "the name given 1942 Italianor American? New Haven: to the process by which people of diverse racial orgins Yale University Press. and different cultural heritages, occupying a common ter- An early study of the Italian-Americans ritory achieve a solidarity sufficient at least to achieve a national unity." R. K. Park, "Assimilation, Social," En- with implications for acculturation ex- ovlopedki of the Social Sciences, 1930, v, II, 281-283. See plored. also R. E. Park and E. W. Burgess, An Introduction to the Despres, Leo A. Science of Sociology, 1921. p. 735: "a process of inter- 1 975 Toward a Theory of Ethnic penetration and fusion in which persons and groups ac- Phenomena. In Ethnicity and Resource quire the memories, sentiments, and attitudes of other persons or groups, and, by sharing their experience and Competition in Plural Socities. Leo history, are incorporated with them in a common cultural Despres, Ed. Paris: Mouton Publishers, life." For a critique of the use of the concept "assimila- pp.87-208. tion" see N. Whetten and A. Green, "Field Research am' A discussion of the subjectivist and objec- the Concept of Assimilation," Rural .Sociology, 1942, v. tivist orientations in the study of ethnic VII. No. 3, pp. 252-260. More recently see M. Gordon, Assimilation in American Life, 1964. group theory. 3 Herskovits cites the use of the words Akicultura- Gans, H. tionagehkten(areas of acculturation) and Akkultura- 1962 The Urban Villagers. New York: The tionaverhaltnis (acculturational relationships) by Free Press. Ehrenreichin1905ina study of South American _ Mythology: Mr. Herskovits, Acculturation, 1938, pp. 4-5. This book is a participant-observation 4 see, for example, P. Radin, "The Influence of the study of native-born Americans of Italian Whites on Winnebago Cui:ure," Proceedings of the State parentage inBoston's West End. The Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1913, pp. 137-145, or his author states that he wanted to study the 149

assumption that slum life is a form of de- The author relates the notion of resource viance. competkion to boundary maintenance Glazer, N. and Daniel P. Moynihan, Eds. among the San Blas Cuna of Panama. 1975 Ethnicity: Theory andExperience. lanni, F'rancis A. J. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1958 Time and Place as Variables in Ac- This volume is a collection of essays deal- culturation Research. American ing with the topic of ethnicity in various Anthropologist XIV. cultures. Of particular interest should be An exploration of social change asit t.,efirstsectionentitled"Towarda affects European immigrants. General Theory" which contains essays Linton, Ralph, Ed. by Isaacs, Parsons, Gordon, Horowitz, 1940 Acculturation in Seven American In- and Bell. The introduction to this volume dian Tribes. contains an essay by the editors tracing This book presents information concern- the history of ethnicity and an assessment ing acculturationin American Indian of current trends. Tribes. At the time of publication it con- Greenberg, `J. H. tained new and unpublished work. It also 1941 Some Aspects of Negro-Moharnmen- contains an early outline in the accultura- dan Culture Contact Among the Hausa. tion process. American Anthropologist LVIII, Noel, Donald L. 1:51-61. 1968 A Theory of the Origin of Ethnic The author presents evidence which Stratification. Social Problems 16, challenges the notion that "first hand" 2:157-172. contact is necessary for acculturation to Noel uses the concepts of ethnocentrism, take place. competition, and differential power for Hallowell, A. I. constructing a theory of ethnic stratifica- 1945 Sociopsychological Aspects of Ac- tion. The theory is tested by applying culturation. In The Science of Man in these ideas to the emergence of in World Crisis.R. Linton, Ed.,pp. America in the seventeenth century. I 74-200. Rosen, Barnard In a discussion of acculturation and its 1959 Race, Ethnicity, and Achievement. sociopsychologicalaspects, the author American Sociological Review 24, I. notes that "man's life is a continual adap- Rosen explores the functions of achieve- tation and readaptation through cultural ment motivation, achievement values, instrumentalities." It is the nature of this and educational-occupational aspirations constant change that is the topic of this on social mobility for ethnic and racial essay. groups in the United States. Herskovits, Melville Sexton, Patricia C. 1938 Acculturation: The Study of Culture 1967 The American School. A Sociological Contact. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith. Analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren- This book represents a major classical tice-Hall, Inc. statement on acculturation in The author studies the American school anthropolocy. Included in the end is the inits social context. She explores the Herskovits, Redfield, Linton, outline for economic and political structures that the study of acculturation. have shaped American education and Holloman, Regina E. also educational influence on American 1975 Ethnic Boundary Maintenance, culture and society. Readaptation, and Societal Evolution in Strom, Robert D. the San Bias Islands of Panama. In 1965 Teaching in the Slum School. Colum- Ethnicity and Resource Competition in bus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc. Plural Societies. Leo Despres, Ed. Paris: The purpose of this book is to prepare Mouton Publishers, pp. 27-40. teachers for the deplorable conditions 150

they will encounter in ghetto schools the Midwest. The teachers were rebellious students coming from broken employed in six inner city schools having homes, in communities beset by crime, a majority Of students who were low-in- poor housing and street life, and with come black. The survey found job child management, not education, taking satisfaction highest for young black place in urban classrooms. teachers, with job dissatisfaction increas- Tumin, Melvin ing with the respondent's age for both 1964 Ethnicity. In Dictionary of the Social black and white teachers. Reasons for job Sciences. Julius Gould and William L. dissatisfaction were divided, with black Kolb, Eds, New York: The Free Press of teachers naming inadequatefacilities, Glencoe-Macm Ulan. over-crowding and lack of supplies, and A deNition of the term ethnicity. white teachers tending to cite student Whyte, W. F. behavior-discipline problems and lack of 1955Street Corner Society. Chicago: Univ. parental interest in the schools. White of Chicago Press. teachers characterized their students as This is a study of an Italian slum which talkative, lazy, fun loving, high strung focuses on their forms of social organiza- and. rebellious (Gottlieb's categories). tion with reference to systems of power Black teachers, on the other hand, called and subordination among the residents. the students fun loving, happy, coopera- Wolcott,.Harry F. tive, energetic and ambitious. There's not 1975 Ethnographic Approaches to much in this article but it's nice to know Research in Education. Athens, Georgia: 10 years ago there were so many fun-lov- University of Georgia Anthropotogy ing blacks. Curriculum Project. Hickerson, Nathaniel An extensive bibliography on the ap- 1966 Education for Alienation. Englewood plication of the ethnographic method to Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. educational research. The author contends the values taught formally and.. informally, in American Additional Readings schools destroy tnost children's motiva- tion to learn. Hedescribes the damaging Crow, Lester D., Walter Murray and Hugh effects of imposing middle class values on Smythe ghetto school children. 1966 Educating the Culturally Deprived Leacock, Eleanor Burke Child. New York: David McKay -Com- 1969 Teaching and Learning in City party, Inc. Schools. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Crow et al. lead off with a discussion of This book reports on the author's com- the lives of the disadvantaged, marked by parative anthropological study of four unemployment, poor housing, living on urban elementary schools. The study welfare, poor education and attitudes of focuses on the classroom experiences of hopelessness. This book demonstrates city children.- Both obvious and-inten- vividly what is wrong with the concept of tional forms of socialization, such as the the culturally deprived child. daily routine pledging of the flag and un- Gottlieb, David conscious forms of socialization, such as 1964 Teaching and Students: The Views of lowered job expectations for poor black Negro and White Teachers. Sociology of children are discussed. The author ex- Education37:345-353. plores some implications of this educa- How do teachers in de facto segregated tion in social values for the children's in- ghetto schools feel about their jobs and tellectual' development. The emphasis is the black students they teach? Gottlieb not on-the individual child's progress as surveyed 89 elementary school teachers, measured by psychological 'and achieve- 53white and36black, teaching in a ment testing, but on teacher-child and medium sized industrial community in child-child interactions in the group. 151

THE LABELING PERSPECTIVE these activities may affect the future occupa- AND DESEGREGATION tional careers of the student population. Cicotael and Kitsuse also found that ability The labeling perspective is a useful device grouping is significantly related to the distribu- for identifying cultural processes that do not tion of educational opportunities among the adapt themselves to the accepted behavior student population and that the school serves codes of the dominant group. The extent to as a clearing house for other community agen- which such behavior is discernable presup- cies that come into contact with the adolescent. poses deviance from those acceptable patterns The school, therefore, occupies a strategic of behavior. The nature of this "deviance" can position in the organization and conaol of the then be explored in terms of the cultural milieu adolescent's status position. The authors CO4 from which the individual comes. While the elude that the day-to-day activities of school labeling perspective, sometimes referred to as personnel effectively control the access of stu- labeling theory, originated in the study of dents to the limited number of curriculums deviance ald criminal behavior, a small but available, particularly those most instrumental growing body of literature does exist that ap- forupwardmobility,i.e.,thecollege pre- plies this theoretical perspective to schools. paratorycurriculum. Their, case study findings It should be noted at this point that for the support the view that ``the student's progress in study of segregation in schooli we are con- the sequence of transitions is contingent upon cerned with two different processes of labeling: the interpretations, judgements, and action of those labels, usually deviant in nature, that school personnel vis-a-vis the student's biogra- originate in the organizational structure of the phy, social class and "social type," as well as schools and those that are applied by society at his demonstrated ability and performance" large such as ethnic stereotypes. The implica- (1962:136-7). tions of all 'this for the functioning of the Reflecting upon their approach the schools as they underEa desegregation is an ob- researchers share the following thoughts on the vious if unattended area of research interest, differentiation process in the school: particularly as it relates to classrooms. The consequences of social typing for InThe Educational Decision-Makers, differential interpretation and treatment of Cicourel and Kitsuse studied a high school in the behavior of individuals so typed are an upper income community and investigated commonplace and quite obvious. What is the processesbywhich the persons came to be not so obvious, and the central concern of defined, classified and recorded in the cate- this paper, are the interpretive rules utilized gories of the high school's records. Attention by the organizational personnel who decide was directed to the definitions applied and what forms of behavior and what kinds of procedures followed bythepersonnel whereby evidence warrant actions which define in- students were differentiated, labeled, and pro- dividuais as deviant within the system.... cessedas "college material," "academic In any investigation of how 'deviant' and problems," "troublemakers," etc. The use of 'non-deviant' populations are differentiated such definitions and their effects upon the in- within a system, the rules of interprethtion terpretation of student behavior by the employed for evaluating the behavior ele- organizational personnel became the primary ments observed and classified in the day-to- source of data for understanding how students day activities of the personnel must came to be classified and distributed a:nong systematically be taken into account. (as the various categories of the high school's cited in Hargreaves 1975:19) records. A significant point made in the study More recently, in a British approach to the is that the high school as a socially organized labeling perspective as applied to classrooms, system of activities differentiates talented frbm Hargreaves and his associates found the average and low-ability students and college- following variables important to typing stu- going from non-college going students and dents: "appearance, contbrmity to discipline 155. 152 role aspeqs, conformity to academic role of a multi-racial urban inner city high school, aspects, likeability, and peer group relations" they have found that students are sorted into (1075:147:148). perspective groupings largely by racialor These authors proceed to use their results to ethnic identification. Chinese students, for ex- develop a theory of typing: --. ample, are perceived as bright, studious and The theory proposes that pupils are typed or academically oriented, while black students formulated by teachers in three stages. The are perceived generically as poor students first stage, that of 'spcculation,' begins when lacking motivation and ability. In comparison the teacher first comes to know about and/or studies in a rural and a suburban high school, to meet the pupil for the first time. The third both ethnically homogenous, they found that stage, that of 'stabilization,' marks the point sorting exists there also but around different, at which the teacher has a relatively clear non-ethnic dimensions (Calhoun, 1973). and stable conception of the identity of the To begin to determine the applicability of pupils. He 'knows' the pupil; he understands the labeling perspective to ethnic groups in him; he finds little difficulty in making sense educational settings, some evidence can be of his acts and is not puzzled or surprised by gleaned from Jape Mercer's (1973) study on what he does or says. The second stage, that the prevalence of mental retardation in the ele- of 'elaboration,' stands between the other mentary schools of Riverdale, California. It two. stages.... These stages should not be was found that many minority parents from regarded as highly discrete or distinct stages lower socio-economic levels are not likely to that can easily be distinguished. Although perceive their children as mentally retarded the stages do occur in a sequence, they do during the pre-school years and do not refer not refer to distinctive periods of time. A them to a clinician while Anglo parents are stage is characterized by certain problems nidre likely to make a referral. After being in and prOcesses. The stages fuse into each school, children acquire other statuses. "Men- other, both in the sense that they can overlap tal retardate" may be acquired as well as other in time ,and in the sense that processes from differentiation within the classroom such as different stages can and do occur at the same "talented," "average," or "slow." Students who point in time. (1975:145) perform in an exemplary manner are assigned This is one of the most formalized statements to valued groups and those who fail receive relating tilabeling approach to classroom punishment through assignment to devaluated processes: Yet, if one were to test these stages groups. in a school, being desegregated, attention must More Mexican-American and black be calledrd the fact that these stages may be children were recommended for placement greatly influenced by cultural factors in the and ultimately placed in classes for the men- social milieu from which the teacher and the tallyretarded. The ethnicdisparitiesare student come. Indeed, from his own research of revealing. Anglocentrism in labeling the men- stigma in i,chools Fisher (1972) argues that the tally retarded was found in the public schools emphasis for labeling theorists to study the and is clearly linked with the statistical pefini- "developmental course represents an over- tion of "normal" and the I.Q. ti.st. According emphasis oh external coercion and an under- to Mercer, "Anglocentrism is a form of ethno- emphasisdr choice and opoortunity" (1972: centrismin American society. Historically, Considerin& that the whole issue of school Anglocentrism has relegated Non-Anglos to desegregation came about through the courts marginal social statuses" (Mercer. 1973:121). mandating equal opportunity, we suggest that Later using socio-culturally oriented techni- the study of labels may have ramifications on a ques, she found disproportionately large num- more macro of societal level. bers of children who were reclassified as quasi- More recently, lanni and his associates at retarded and normal rather than mentally the Horace Mann-Lincoln Institute have used retarded were Mexican-American and black. the term !:',orting" in much the way labeling is The usefulness of labeling for the study of used here. In studying the social organization ethnic background and classroom processes 153 emerges clearly in Rosenfeld's study of the style combine through the medium of sub- failure of an elementary school in Harlem in ject matter--in a specific cultural context "Shut Those Thick Lips!" In a chapter whose to effect educational transmission. title itself has labeling implications"White (1971:39) Lies About Black Children"Rosenfeld This notion of culture asa group makes the following observation on teacher ex- phenomenon is an important one for it tells us pectations' and student reactions: something about the link Despres was looking Still another myth about the children was for between macro and micro levels of that "they were unwilling to change" and analysis.Italso reminds us that school "were of little worth as they were." This at- desegregation involves all these levels. On the titude is partly in keeping with the dominant other hand, due process, as was noted earlier in American value that one must strive to bet- the review of court decisions, was more than ter himself constantly; one cannot stand mere structural outcomes. As Singleton argues, still, so to speak. Status is to be achieved by education can be defined as cultural transmis- continual efforts to improve. Pedagogically sion (1974:26). If this definition is to be ac- this implied that the child could not be cepted, then what goes on in the classroom of worked with as he' was; he was not suffi- the desegregated school can be seen as cultural ciently ready for learning. Thus, if the conflict. Once again we quote Rosenfeld: teacher failed,itwas because the child The education of children has been seen for offered insufficient material with which to too long as an intuitive process. Thus, when work. However, the greater the push to alter intuition fails, there is the tendency to label who children were, the greater was their children as non-conforming, disruptive, and resistance to change. (1971:56) outside the mold we have artifically created Note that according to Rosenfeld, failure and for them. Yet one wonders if outspoken theculturalmilieuof the schoolinthe children do not keep alive for us the hope desegregated setting are closely related: that we must alter our views and thereby This fact is extremely important to realize:. assign new meaning and purpose to the the failure of children at Harlem School is transmission of culture in our schools. Their also the failure of the teachers, just as in- restlessness preserves for us the chance to dividual success may be related to teachers' overcome our centripetal attitudes about efforts, Culture is a group phenomenon and their capabilities for learning. As long as the even individual expressions of it are the pot boils someone has to look after it. The result of group influences. If the child slips examination of Harlem School has revealed back in his educational achievement, itis that the requirements for being a student likely that a cultural shove was provided in were much more stringent than were the re- that direction. Learning not to learn is just quirements for being a teacher. And the as effective as learning to learn. penalties for failure in the student role were It was my own view that too much attention much more harsh and longer lasting than was likely paid to the "emotional" condition the penalties forfailingtoteach. The of children who did not achieve rather than teacher-learner relationship was not to the social and cultural factors influencing reciprOcal; rather, it placed an altogether the learning situation. I had realized early incommensurable burden on the child. It in my experience that childrenhave placed him at a disadvantage in the strivings different learning styles. Until now "little toward reasonable life chances. Problems careful analysis is given how the child's unsurmounted in the classroom made for learning might improve simply by con- compounded problems inlateryears, centrating on the way he works and learns, diminishing the skills with which his educa- rather than on his affective reasons for not tion purportedly prepared him. (1971:94) learning" (Riesman, 1964:51). And equal Before leaving our discussion of the labeling attention has to be paid to the differences in perspective, it should be noted that Becker teaching styles. Learning style and teaching (1973) has argued that the term labeling be 157 154 dropped. Instead, one should think in terms of REFERENCES CITED "interactionist 'theory" which he says looks at the people involved in any episode of alleged Becker, Howard deviance. When we assume an interactionist 1973 The Outsiders. New York: Free Press. perspective, we feel that the activities require Asserts that interactionist theorists insist overt or tacit cooperation of many people and that we look at all the people involved in groups to occur as they do. Deviance then, can any episode of alleged deviance, because be seen as collective actiun and is reflected in we do find that activities require overt or people's action from the standpoint of their tacit cooperation of many people and being concerned with the way their fellows will groups to occur as they do. evaluate what they do and how this evaluation Calhoun, Craig Jackson will affect their prestige and rank. He further 1974 General Status: Specific Role. In suggests that interactionist theory can focus on Council on Anthropology and Education some relatively unstudied participants in- Quarterly 5:2 volved in the episode who are powerful enough Discussion of the implication of a given to make their charges of devianc: stick: police, status and its associated roles within a courts, parents, school officials and physicians. formal organization. Examples of high What is significant here is that Becker asserts school organizational behavior are dis- that when one party to a relatiotaip is dis- cussed. proportionately powerful, they are able to en- Cicourel, Aaron and John Kitsuse force their will over others' objectives while 1963 The Educational Decision Makers. maintaining the appearance of justice and ra- New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc. tionality. The less powerful occupy a subordi- The authors studied an upper income nate status that is comparable to the interac- community and investigated the process tionsinparent-child, teacher-student, and by which persons came to be defined, welfare worker-client relationships.Becker classified and recorded in the categories stresses that superordinate groups are moral of the administrative organization (high entrepreneurs who exert control over the less school's) statistics. fortunate by manipulation of definitions and Fisher, Sethard labels which work smoothly and cost less. This 1972 Stigma and Deviant Careers in insight has far-reaching implications for ScIriol. Social-Problems 001.20:1. education and the study of desegregation with- In a study of 7th, 8th, and 9thsgrade stu- in the framework of the school and the com- dents, the researcher tests the claims of munity. It is clear, as Becker points out, that the labeling approach to deviance. Find- the study of people with power is necessary to ings were not entirely consistent with the detect forms of labeling and means by which claims. labeling achieves the status of being "normal" Goffman, Erving and "legitimate." 1959 The Presentation of Self in Everyday While research on school desegregation has Life. New York: Doubleday. not been a major concern of the labeling The author develops the theory of the perspective, there are several related concepts dramaturgical perspective toward view- that have implications for school desegregation ing interaction among persons and roles. processes in the classroom: the notion of role- The section on presentation maps has im, sets (Merton 1957; McPherson 1972), plicationsfor classroomstudies of reference groups (Shibutanni 195$), self-con- desegregation. cept (Rist 19,70; Rosenthal and Jackson 1968; Goffman, Ervi g Snyder 1966), and the presentation of the self 1963 Stigma. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice- (Goffman 1959; Goffman 1963). Hall, Inc. 158 155

As the subtitle suggests, Goffman ex- influences the achievement level of the plores the management of spoiled iden- children. tity. Various types of stigmas are dis- Rosenfeld, Gerry cussed. Possible applications exist for the 1971 Shut Those Thick Lips!: A Study of study of ethnic groups. Slum School Failure. New York: Holt, Hargreaves, David H., Stephen Hester and Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Frank Mellor An anthropological study of interracial 1975 Deviance in Classrooms. London: processes in a Harlem public elementary Rout ledge & Kegan Paul. school. The author explores the implica- In an application of the labeling perspec- tions of why the achievement of minority tive to the study of classroorn processes, youngsters is slow. the authors develop a theory of typing. Rosenthal, Robert and Lenore Jacobson This is the most extensive application of 1968 Pygmalion inthe Classroom. New this theoretical perspective to_schools to Vork::144314 RiRehart, r!'nd Winston, Inc. ' date. 'USiiirthe co`nceptof self-fulfilling Mercer, Jane R. prophecy, Rosenthal's data demonstrates 1973 Labeling the Mentally Retarded. how the teacher's expectations of the stu- Berkeley, California: University of dent becomes in fact a significant definer California Press. of the student's performance level. A field survey and an agenCy survey for Shibutani, Tamotsu the Riverside, California research project 1955 Reference Groups as Perspectives. are the basis of a two-pronged design for Ainerican Journal of Sociology. studying the epidemiology of retardation 60:562-569. from a clinical, as well as social system The author exploresthe concept of perspective. reference group as it is used in research Merton, Robert K. and the literature. He concludes that 1957 Social Theory and Social Structure. reference group can best be defined if its Glencoe: The Free Press. definition is restricted to the group which This is the second -dition of Merton's provides the frame of reference for the classic work o.. structural-functional actor. theory in sociology. Developed in this Singleton, John volume are the concepts of status set and 1974 Implications of Education as Cultural role set. Transmission. In Education and Cultural McPherson, Gertrude H. Process: Toward an Anthropology of 1972 Small Town Teacher. Cambridge: Education. George Spindler, Ed. New Harvard University Press. York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. McPherson applies her observations as a pp. 26-38. elementary school teacher to Merton's The author explores the implications of concept of role-set. The various roles a defining education as cultural transmis- teacher performs her daily tasks are sion. He also suggests some anthropologi- described. cal strategies for educational research. Rist, Ray C. Snyder, Eldon 1970 Student Social Class and Teacher Ex- Self-Concept Theory: An Approach to pectations: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Understanding the Behavior of Disad- in Ghetto Education. Harvard Educa- vantaged Pupils. In Interpreting Educa- tional Review 1.40:411-451. tion: A Sociological Perspective. Edward An observational study of negative self- Drabick, Ed. New York: Appleton Cen- fulfilling prophecy information in ghetto tury-Crofts. children over a three, year period (kin- The author summarizes self-concept dergarten to second grade). Itis con- theory and applies it to the implications cluded that the teacher's behavior greatly for studying the education of lower class

1 5 156

child. The problems of low self-esteem volving the domains of sorting, territoriality are explored. and autonomy for studying the school. A simi- lar approach has earlier been applied to the IMPLICATIONS FOR analysis of the classroom (Jensen 1955). One CLASSROOM OBSERVATION must again callattentiontothe work of Jackson (1968) and of Smith who carried the As with so much of the research on school insights of his qualitative work into the more desegregation, the methods which have been quantitative domain (Smith and Kleine 1969). used for classroom observation are structural In a similar vein Walberg (1969) has applied systems which take a specialized approach to the field originated concepts of physical and selected variables or categories of behavior. psychological distance in the classroom to a Today, a multitude of specific instruments statistical mode of inquiry. Jules Henry's work exist for classroom observation (Simon and on classroom climate (1957, 1959) was Boyer 1968; Westbury and Be !lack1971; another early and pioneerinc approach to field Grant and Hennings 1971; Caztwright and analysis of school and classroom settings. Cartwright 1974; Good and Brophy 1970; Furthermore, anyone interested in exploring Willower 1975; Hoy 1969; Rexford etal. the research on social control in schools should 1972; Helsel and Wil lower 1974). All these consult Willover's summary inThe En- approaches share a common shortcoming in cyclopaedia of Echication(1971). As mentioned their operational use: they necessarily impose a earlier, this approach has not been confined to pre-designed structure on social reality. At the the United States. Hargreaves (1975) and his other end of the continuum, a number of field aisociates in England have applied the observation techniques, often lumped together theoretical orientation of the labelling as "participant observation," usually use perspective toa study of de-viance in systematic observation without closure. This classrooms, also the work of Walker and' Adel- approach is also beginning to be represented in man (1975). the research literature (Walker and Adelman Indeed, thisisonly a sampling of the 1975; Jackson 1968; Smith and Geoffery 1968'; literature that exists in this area. What is im- Burnett 1973). In_ the former approach the portant about this approach, we again argue, contextual aspects are specified before obser- that its holistic framework allows for the ob- vation begins. In the latter approach there is an servatiOn, documentation, and analysis of what attempt to keep field methodsflexible enough really hdppens iu classrooms. Such an ap- to allow categories to emerge. We have argued proach becoMes even more relevant when such that this principle of emergence is of major im- metro or cultuial level factors such as ethnicity portance for a valid and reliable assessment of or culture conta6t are to be considered. the impact of school desegregation on classroom processes. Such a field stance allows There is now a Iiipited but growing body of for observation of desegregation from both literature that deals With the field methods ap- macro and micro levels of analysis. As this proach to ethnicity/raCe, and education. Its in- review Indicates, any research system must terpretation, however, Is still-- problematic. take these-factors into consideration and at- Erickson, for example, investigated the coun- tempt to diScriminate their effects. seling style of junior college advisors in an ap- It is also obvious that, for classroom obser- plicationof the theoreticar_prientation of ,:,---o;/,' one niust be aware of those organiza- Barth, Goffman, and theorists from the label- tional characteristics-,-, peculiar to the school set- ing perspective. The following pas'sage clearly ting. Starting4ith Waller (1932) a substantial i'lustrates the confusion applied t4.s.earch or body of research'exists that has utilized a field &segregation can generate for policy makers: methods perspective. Two extensive bibliogra- While our research does not imply that phies on this method exist (Wolcott 1975; Bur- ethnically segregated educational settings nett-- 1974). More recently, lanni (1975) has are superior to desegregated ones, it does developed a social organization framework in- show that ethnicity cannot be ignored. We 157

have found that ethnicity, race and com- flicting parent-expectations with dominant munication style can affect the quality of culture expectations. What emerged for us counseling students receive. Because these was not a distinctly italo-American pattern factors are an integral part of face-to-face of behavior but rather what have'come to be interaction, the,. probably affect other in- called "contracultural patterns of values teractions in ..ie school ao.d therefore are and behaviors based oh conflict." important educational variables. It seems (1964:220) that our schools would profit greatly if they All of this has implications for the student's discovered and used the distinctive educa- role and self-concept.Itisnot merely a tional possibilities of both inter-group and problem of ethnic stratification but economic intra-group contact among adults and stratification as well. In her study of schools in young people in schools. (Erickson, poverty areas Dawson notes: 1975:68) The majority of ghetto youth, as a result of Evidence thatdesegregation as a form of their environment and culturalpatterns, culture conflict can be harmful can be found in grow up in a sea of conflicts as.to what to some sources. In his study on school failure, think about themselves. Most professionals for example, McDermott notes: and confused parents do not give them much Because behavioral competence is help in inoving their self-concepts. In differently defined by different social many cases they only compound. confu- groups, many children and teachers fail in sion by not even listening to hoWyouths feel their attempts to establish rational, trusting about themselves and those around them. and rewarding relationships across ethnic, (Dawson 1968) racial or class boundaries in the classroom. The field work perspective to desegregation As aresultof this miscommunication, research seems to indicate that the kinds of schoollearningisshunned by many things the courts were trying to erridicate on minority children, and schoolfailure the macro-societal level seem to persist in the becomes a peer group goal. The high rate of more micro .:tspects of everyday,life in the reading among minority schools. children can be explained in terms of such It appears that the public school system not miscommunication. The difficulty is usually only mirrors the configurations of the larger neither "dumb kids" nor "racist teachers," society, but also significantly contributes to but cultural conflict. (McDermott 1974:82) maintaining them. Thus the system Of public But, again the reader must be aware that for education in reality perpetuates wh'at it is as long as acculturation has been taking place ideologically committed t6 eradicateclass the problem of culture conflict has existed in barriers which result in inequality in the the schools and is not a function of desegrega- social and economic life of the citizenry. tion. In his study of minority group status and (Rist 1970:449) adolescent culture Lanni goes back a genera- "Understanding desegregation as a s6cial pro- tion and briefly describes what it was like to"be cess, then, requires that we look at.the process in an-Italo-American teenage culture: where it occurs- as a necessary -.first step in What was happening to us, and what I sug- gest happens to most minority teen-age understanding its social policy implicitions. groups, is that we were discovering (and in Concluding Comments -" some cases inventing) behavior norms from the surrounding dominant culture and these Documenting the social world within which norms conflicted with what our parents ex- desegregation is taking place is not an easy pected of us. We had not developed a new task.-Attempting to create a change in it is even Italo-American teen-age culturean all-in- more difficult. Our review of legal decision clusive.system of behavior which provided making has shown how the courts.have consis- guides for everyday lifewe had simply tently tried to mandate change. The classroom found some ways by which to adjust con- observation research shows us that the success 1 6 1 158 of what they have attempted can be debated fo.. Dawson, Helaine a variety of reasonssubstantive, 1968 On the Outskirts of Hope. New York: methodologic4i, and theoretical. Despite the McGraw-Hill. huge body of documentation on this subject we This book is a discussion of the education feel that we have uncovered a number of sig- of ghetto youth. It is based on classroom nificant gaps andthatthefieldmethods observation and discussion with two perspective has an important contribution to hundred students done over a three-year make to the dialogue between applied research period. Why "traditional" classroom and policy. methods will not work in such settings are A final word of caution. Definitive discussed. Pay particular attention to the literature searches are idealized constructs. chapter on communicating inthe The actualprocess of development has a classroom. "snowball" or multiplier effect: the more one's Erickson, Frederick curiosity is aroused, the broader and more 1975 Gatekeeping and the Melting Pot: In- diverse become the scope of the inquiry. In that teraction in Counseling Encounters. Har- light we urge those who use our bibliography as vard Educational Review 45,1:44-70. a starting point for developing their own hy- Through an analysis of film, video tapes, potheses about what school desegregation and participants' reactions, the author really means. Some advice can be taken from observes how junior college counselors Redfield who echos the point with which we can act as gatekeepers to minority group began: members. The author does note that the None of us can truly say that his way of work effects of race, ethnicity, and cultural is necessarily the best way or that it either style can be canceled out by other factors. should or will prevail over all others. All Good, Thomas and Jane Brophy advance in knowledge js a dialectic, a con- 1970 Teacher-Child Dyadic Interactions: A versation. (Redfield 1960:148) New Method of Classroom Observation. Jour.nal of School Psychology 8,2:131-137. Burnett, Jacquetta A method for studying the dyadic in- 1973 Event Description and Analysis in the teraction between teacher and student is Microethnography of Urban Classrooms. presented along with a coding system. In Cultural Relevance and Educational Grant, Barbara and Dorothy Hennings Issues. Francis A. J. Ianni and Edward 1971 The Teacher Moves: An Analysis of Storey, Eds. Boston: Little, Brown, pp. Non-Verbal Activity. New York: 287-303. Teachers College Press. By the use of the mixed method of net- work and event analysis the author A discussion of the effects of a teacher's non-verbalactivityinthe classroom. analyzes the ethnography of the urban Statistical evidence is presented that ex- classroom. plores the factors related to non-verbal 1974 Anthropology and Education: An An- notated Bibliographic Guide. New clues and strategies. Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press. Hargreaves, David, Stephen Hester, and Frank The most comprehensive guide to date on M el lor research in anthropology and education. 1975 Deviance in Classrooms. London: Cartwright, Carol and G. Phillip Cartwright Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1974 Developing Observation Skills. New Through the use of the labeling perspec- York: McGraw-Hill. tive and field observation the nature of The authors present an observation deviant behavior in classrooms is ex- scheme for classroom behavior. Methods plored. The implications for theory, of observing and record keeping are pre- research, and practical application are sented. Rating scales are also presented. discussed. 159

Helsel, A. Ray and Donald Willower 1975 Studying Schools as Social Systems: A 1974 Toward Definition and Measurement Manual for Field Research in Education. of Pupil Control Behavior. Journal of New York: Horace Mann-Lincoln In- Educational Administration 12, stitute, Teachers College, Columbia 1:114-123. University. In another discussion of the Pupil Con- A comparative study on the organiza- trol Ideology, Ray and Willower present tional structure of three high schools a discussion of a companion measure in through the use of field methods. The pupil control behavior. concepts of sorting, territoriality, and Henry, Jules autonomy are developed in light of the 1957 Docility or Giving Teacher What She field findings. Wants. Journal of SocialIssues Jackson, Phillip 11,2:33-41. 1968 Life in Classrooms. New York: Holt, Study of elementary school children. The Rinehart and Winston, Inc. signal response mechanism between stu- This book is a description of elementary dents and teachers is explored. It is con- school classroomlife. Jackson relates cluded that students relate to teachers in empirical work to his own observations terms of seeking acceptance. noting, "classroom life, in my judgement, 1959 Spontaneity, Initiative*, and Creativity is too complex an affair to be viewed or in Suburban Classrooms. American Jour- talked about from any single perspec- nal of Orthopsychiatry 29:266-279. tive." The reader should note in particu- Through the use of direct observation the lar chapter five on the need for new author studies classroom climate. Itis perspectives. concluded that spontaneity and initiative Jensen, Gale E. can be threateningin terms of the 1955 The Social Structure of the Classroom teacher's loss of control. Implications of Group. Journal of Educational Psy- a brdader cultural context are referred chology 46:362-374. to. Written a psychologist, this article Hoy, Wayne K. argues lor the need to be aware of the 1969 Pupil Control Ideology and Organiza- sociai structure of the classroom. The tional Socialization. The School Review, following dimensions are identified and pp. 257-265. discussed: problem-solving, authority- Hoy applies the Pupil Control Ideology leadership, power, friendship, personal to organization socialization. In this case prestige, sex, and priviledge. he uses the beginning teacher. Implica- McDermott, R. P. tions for roles are discussed. Possible ap 1974 Achieving School Failure: An plications to other statuses within Anthropological Approach to Illiteracy schools. and Social Stratification. In Education lanni, Francis A. J. and Cultural Process. George Spindler, 1964 Minority Group Status and Adoles- Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and cent Culture. In The American Adoles- Winston, pp. 82-118. cent. David Gottlieb and Charles E. Application of culture-contact conflict to Ramsey, Eds. New York: Dorsey Press, an analysis of the social system of the pp. 219-247. classroom. Author calls attention to lanni discusses .the problems of adoles- differing communication styles among cence of the halo-American teenager. differing social groups. How this leads to Reference is also made to Jewish and school failure is discussed. black teenagers. Particular attention Rcd-ield. Robert should be paid to the section on minority 1960 The Little Community. Chicago: group status and adolescent behavior. Univ. of Chicago Press. 163 160

A review of the research on small com- in the Classroom. The School Review, munities with an enviaasis on theoretical pp. 64-71. underpinnings. Through the use of quantitative measures Rexford, G. et al. the authors found that where a student 1972 Teacher Pupil Control Ideology and sits can be related to biographical items. 'Classroom Verbal Behavior. Journal of Friendship patterns were also felt' to be Experimental Education 40,4:78-82. an important variable. Authors apply PC1 to teacher's classroom Walker, Rob and Clem Adelman behavior. Differences between custodial 1975 A Guide to Classroom Observation. oriented teachers and humanistically London: Methwan and Co., Lid. oriented teachers are discussed. A handbook for observation methods. Rist, Ray C. The authors present various forms of 1970 Student Social Class and Teacher Ex- unstructured (including photographs) pectations: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and some structured methods. This book in Ghetto Education. Harvard Educa- is suitable for the untrained observer. tional Review, pp. 411-51. Waller, Willard Rist's study is based on the observation of 1932 The Sociology of Teaching. New ghetto children during their kin- York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. dergarten, first, and second grade years. One of thefirststudies of the field He finds that teachers' behavior toward methods approach to observation in different groups influences the achieve- schools, this work has become a classic. ment level of the children. The implica- While historically important, its conclu- tions of this show how schools reinforce sions are still relevant to today's school society's class structure. settings. Simon, Anita and E. Gil Boyer Westbury, Ian and Arno Bellack, Eds. 1968 Mirrors for Behavior: An Anthology 1971 Research into Classroom Processes. of Classroom Observation Instruments. New York: Teachers College Press. Classroom Intel 4ction Newsletter'3,2. A discussion of articles by various This special edition of the newsletter con- authors is presented that reviews the cur- tains a collection of twedty-six systems rent status of research in classroom pro- for classroom observation. cesses. Fundamental questions are ex- Smith, Louis and William Geoffrey plored, recent developments assessed, 1968 The Complexities of an Urban and implications for the future are Classroom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & reviewed. . Winston. Willower, Donald A study on the development of urban 1971 Social Control in Schools. In The En- classroom microethnography. cyclopaedia of Education. L. C. Smith, Louis and Paul Kleine Deighton, Ed. New York: Macmillan, 1969 Teacher Awareness: Social Cognition pp. 245-253. in the Classroom. The School Review, A survey of research to date dealing with pp. 245-256. research on social control in schools. The authors apply the concept of 1975 Some Comments of Inquiries on "teacher awareness" through the use of Schools and Pupil Control. Teacher Col- statistical procedures. It was found that lege Record 77,2:219-230. teacher awareness isrelated to pupil The author discusses the current esteem. literature on pupil control with reference Walberg, Herbert to the Pupil Control Ideology and its 1969 Physical and Psychological Distance meaning for the organizational structure.