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White Resistance and Desegregation in South Carolina, 1950-1970

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White Resistance and Desegregation in South Carolina, 1950-1970 MANAGED COMPLIANCE: WHITE RESISTANCE AND DESEGREGATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA, 1950-1970 By JOHN W. WHITE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2006 Copyright 2006 by John W. White For Anne ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation could not have been completed without the assistance of numerous individuals and organizations who have offered me professional and personal support over the last few years. The Addlestone Library at the College of Charleston has been my employer and base of operations during most of the research for this dissertation. During that time David Cohen has provided me a workspace, encouragement, and time for research. Also, Dale Rosengarten, Claire Fund, Bob Neville, and Gene Waddell have given me helpful advice and Michael Phillips and the staff of the library’s interlibrary loan office have been invaluable in assisting me by acquiring microfilm and other resources that were not available at my home institution. I would especially like to thank Marie Ferrara. No one outside of my immediate family has been more supportive, or more patient than Marie. This dissertation could not have been completed without her assistance. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the archivists and librarians at the various institutions cited in this dissertation. Throughout my research I was routinely and pleasantly surprised by the level of helpfulness and professionalism I encountered at Clemson University, the University of South Carolina, and the many other repositories I visited during my investigations. Also, some of the research for this work was partially funded by the Ellison Durant Smith Research Award at the University of South Carolina. This dissertation owes a great debt to my committee chair and graduate advisor, Brian Ward. For the past several years Brian has been a mentor, an editor, and a friend. I iv am deeply grateful to him for making me a better historian. His influence is present on each and every page of this work. I would also like to thank the other members of my dissertation committee: Jack Davis, George Esenwein, Charles Montgomery, and Richard Conley. They have each contributed to my education and to the completion of this work in some way. Also, I would like to acknowledge Kari Frederickson and W. Scott Poole, who both read parts of this work during its early phases and provided constructive criticisms and encouragement. I would also be remiss if I did not acknowledge several individuals to whom I owe personal debts. My parents, Arthur and Charlene White, made certain that I was the first member of my family to earn a bachelor’s degree. It is mostly due to their encouragement that I have been able to continue with my education. Kevin Knott has been my friend and academic sounding board since our days together at Bridgewater College. I owe him a great deal for his endless patience and advice. I would also like to acknowledge Joseph and Nicole Meyers, Jonathan Atkins, Scott White, Steven Edwards, and Heidi Knott for their friendship and Indiana and Keiko for reminding me that, no matter how rapidly a deadline is approaching, there is always time for a walk in the park. Finally, I would like to thank Anne Bennett, to whom this dissertation is dedicated. Anne is my best and closest friend and confidant. I am indebted to her most of all. v TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................1 2 MANAGING THE SEGREGATION CRISIS: THE EARLY WHITE BACKLASH IN SOUTH CAROLINA ............................................................................................12 3 CAMPAIGNING ON RACE: THE ELECTIONS OF 1950........................................62 4 STRADDLING THE FENCE: POLITICS AND AMBIGUITY ON THE EVE OF BROWN.......................................................................................................................99 5 AFTER BROWN: FROM MODERATION TO EXTREMISM.................................141 6 BOMBINGS, BULLETS, AND BEATINGS: THE ZENITH OF MASSIVE RESISTANCE IN SOUTH CAROLINA.................................................................201 7 FISSURES IN THE FACADE OF WHITE UNITY IN SOUTH CAROLINA..........250 8 FROM HARDCORE RESISTANCE TO MANAGED (NON)COMPLIANCE: EARLY DESEGREGATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA .........................................290 9 WHITE FLIGHT, MANAGED COMPLIANCE, AND THE NEW POLITICS OF RACE IN SOUTH CAROLINA ..............................................................................341 10 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................403 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................411 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...........................................................................................434 6 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy MANAGED COMPLIANCE: WHITE RESISTANCE AND DESEGREGATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA, 1950-1970 By John W. White May 2006 Chair: Brian Ward Major Department: History This dissertation aims to reveal the complex history of white resistance to desegregation in South Carolina from 1950 to 1970, a period between the filing of the first federal school desegregation lawsuit, Briggs v. Elliott, and the final failure of overtly racist politics to ensure electoral victory during the gubernatorial election of 1970. Generally, this work contends that historians have underestimated the degree to which physical, legal, and economic pressure were successful in slowing the pace and extent of significant racial change in South Carolina. It also argues that the well-planned bureaucratic roadblocks put in place in the 1950s were instrumental in delaying and minimizing desegregation in the mid-to-late 1960s. From 1950 to 1963, South Carolina engaged in a multifaceted and flexible massive resistance campaign that was dominated by a policy of managed non-compliance with court ordered desegregation. Rather than face federal intervention and civic unrest, whites adapted South Carolina’s system of racial control in the mid-to-late 1960s to one vii that is best described as managed compliance. The dissertation argues that white moderation and acceptance of token desegregation in South Carolina were predicated on maintaining the white economic advantage and preserving a racial balance that heavily favored whites in the state’s public school system. It also demonstrates that the generation that controlled the state in the three decades after World War II did not endorse the concept of racial integration and utilized every available device to protect white privilege and advantages. The dissertation reveals that, as late as 1970, after federal intervention and black political agency rendered the politics and practice of massive resistance impotent, whites retained many of the educational and economic advantages that had allowed white supremacy to flourish in the first place. viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In 1950, South Carolina was home to the first federal school desegregation lawsuit, Briggs v. Elliot, and yet, it holds the dubious distinction of being the last southern state to end the practice of rigid racial segregation in public education, holding out until 1963. In spite of this lengthy delay, South Carolina is generally recognized for rejecting the kind of hardcore, often violent, resistance that typified white defiance in other Deep South states. According to the limited historical literature on the state’s desegregation crisis, it appears that South Carolina underwent a rapid conversion from being a rigid and inflexible paragon of white supremacy to become a moderate state that orchestrated the most orderly and uneventful desegregation in the region. However, it is also clear from the growing number of dissertations on the African American freedom struggle in South Carolina that racism and intense white resistance to meaningful change persisted for some time after the supposedly peaceful accommodation of civil rights demands in 1963. This dissertation focuses primarily on examining the discrepancy between the notion that South Carolina peacefully shed its Jim Crow past and the evidence suggesting that the basic structures of white privilege remained intact for some time after that conversion.1 1 For the best examples of these dissertations, see Stephen Lowe, “The Magnificent Fight: Civil Rights Litigation in South Carolina Federal Courts, 1940-1970” (Ph.D. Dissertation: Michigan State University, 1999). Stephen O’Neill, “From the Shadow of Slavery: The Civil Rights Years in Charleston (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Virginia, 1994). R. Scott Baker, “Ambiguous Legacies: The NAACP Legal Campaign Against Segregation in South Carolina,” (Ph.D. Dissertation: Columbia University, 1993). Millicent Brown, “Civil Rights Activism in Charleston, South Carolina, 1940-1970,” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Florida State University, 1997). Peter F. Lau, “Freedom Road Territory: The Politics of Civil Rights Struggle in South Carolina during the Jim Crow Era,” (Ph.D. Dissertation: Rutgers University, 2002). 1 2 The chronicle of how South Carolina was able to mount
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