The Regional Kingdoms–1 Many dynasties ruled India during the The Tomars, , Solankis, Early Medieval Period. In the north, the Paramaras, Gahadavalas and the Chandellas , the Ghaznavids, the Ghorids, the were some of the important clans that Palas, and the Gurjara–Pratiharas were ruled during this period. powerful. In the Deccan, there were the Rashtrakutas and a few smaller kingdoms. Tomars of The Tomar rulers founded the The Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Cholas city of Dhillika (Delhi) in the eighth century. were the dominant powers in the south. Later, the Chauhans annexed their territories.

NORTH INDIA Chauhans of The Chauhans, also The Rajputs known as Chahamanas, ruled the region The word ‘Rajput’ comes from the around Delhi and . The most powerful word ‘rajaputra’ which means son of a king. ruler was . Historians have different opinions He defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1191. regarding their origin. Some believe that However, a year later, Ghori defeated and they were descendants of the Central Asian killed Prithviraj. tribes settled in India after the Hun invasion. Find out A long poem on Prithviraj was The Rajputs, however, claimed to be composed by his court poet. You have read descendants of the or warrior about it in Lesson 1. Name the work. class of Vedic times. They claimed that they were ‘-vanshi’, that is, belonging to the Solankis of The Solankis were also sun family or ‘chandra-vanshi’, that is, known as the Chalukyas of Gujarat. Siddharaja belonging to the moon family. Some Rajput was the most powerful ruler. The Dilwara clans also considered themselves to be part Temples at and the Sun Temple at of the fire family (-kula). They believed Modhera (Gujarat) were built by the that they rulers.

Paramaras of Malwa Bhoja Paramara was a powerful ruler. His capital was . The Nilakantheshwara Temple at was built by the Paramaras.

Gahadavalas of Kanauj The Gahadavalas ruled the region around Kanauj. The Gahadavala king Jaichandra was defeated by Muhammad Prithviraj Chauhan Ghori in 1194. were born out of a sacrificial fire. Chandellas of The Chandellas were had defeated the ruler of Ghor and the rulers of the land between the Yamuna and had made him his vassal. After Mahmud’s Narmada rivers. Khajuraho was the capital of death, however, the Ghaznavids became the Chandella rulers. It has many beautiful weak. Taking advantage of this, Muizzudin temples built by the Chandellas. Kirtivarman Muhammad made Ghor independent once was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty. again. He also annexed all Ghaznavid territories. Muizzudin Muhammad is The Ghaznavids popularly known in history as Muhammad From 1000 onwards, many invaders entered Ghori. India across the mountain passes in the northwest. Mahmud, the ruler of Ghazni, led Muhammad Ghori Muhammad was an the first series of invasions. ambitious ruler. He wanted to expand his empire. He decided to invade India not just Mahmud of Ghazni Mahmud was the ruler of for its wealth but also to build an empire. Ghazni, now in Afghanistan. He needed a large In 1175, Muhammad Ghori attacked and army to make Ghazni the most powerful conquered . In 1178, he received a kingdom in the region. He had heard about the temporary setback as he was defeated by the wealth of the kingdoms of northern India. So he ruler of Gujarat. Soon he realized that decided to raid India to collect money to raise a could be a good base for further conquests. large army. So, in 1190 he conquered Punjab. The Rajput In a span of 26 years (1000–1026), Mahmud ruler of the neighbouring kingdom of Delhi invaded India 17 times. His early raids were and Ajmer, Prithviraj Chauhan, prepared to against the Hindushahi rulers of Punjab. He face him. defeated Jaipal and Anandpal and got a large tribute from them. He also attacked the rich The battles of Tarain In 1191, the armies of temple-towns of India. He raided Mathura and Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan Kanauj in 1018, and Somnath in 1026. The clashed at Tarain, about 80 miles from Delhi. Somnath Temple in Gujarat was stripped of Muhammad Ghori was defeated in the First all its wealth. Even Battle of Tarain. the precious stones Prithviraj, however, embedded in the made no attempt to temple walls were chase the Ghorids taken out. Mahmud out of Punjab. This carried away all the proved to be a grave booty to Ghazni, blunder. where he built a beautiful mosque, library and museum. Mahmud died in 1030. Mahmud of Ghazni S o o n a f t e r , The Ghorids Muhammad Ghori began to regroup his forces. The two armies met once again in Like Ghazni, Ghor was a small kingdom in present-day Afghanistan. Mahmud of A popular legend of that period After defeating Prithviraj Chauhan, Muhammad Ghori took him prisoner and blinded him. Chandbardai, a former courtier of Prithviraj Chauhan, earned the goodwill of Ghori. He began to secretly support Prithviraj and encouraged Prithviraj to avenge his defeat. One day, Ghori announced an archery competition. Chandbardai told Ghori that Prithviraj was so skilled an archer that he could take aim and hit a target based only on sound. Ghori refused to believe it. Prithviraj was brought before Ghori. Before Ghori could give the order to shoot, Chandbardai recited a couplet which could be understood only by Prithviraj. He said: Char bans, chaubis gaj, angul ashta praman, Ta upar sultan hai, Chuke mat Chauhan. (Four measures ahead of you and 24 yards away, as measured with eight finger measurement, is seated the sultan. Do not miss him, Chauhan) Ghori ordered Prithviraj to shoot. No sooner had he done so that Prithviraj turned in the direction from where the sound came and shot the arrow. It slit Ghori’s throat. To prevent themselves from falling into the hands of Ghori’s soldiers, Prithviraj and Chandbardai then stabbed each other. 1192. This time, Muhammad Ghori two centuries and weakened all three Muhammad’s army dynasties. was better prepared. Prithviraj appealed to The Palas the neighbouring kings for help. Some The Palas ruled the region covered by the Rajput rulers came to his help. The most present-day states of Bihar, Jharkhand and powerful Rajput ruler—Raja Jaichandra of West Bengal. Gopala was the first ruler. He and Kanauj, however, stayed away. Prithviraj his son, Dharmapala, expanded and was defeated and captured. His territories strengthened the kingdom. Dharmapala also were occupied. encouraged trade with South-east Asia. Discuss Would Indian history been any Devapala was another powerful ruler of the different had Prithviraj expelled the Ghorids dynasty. from Punjab after the ? There was great prosperity during the reign Muhammad Ghori did not stop at this. In of the Pala kings. They were followers of 1194, he defeated Raja Jaichandra in the Buddhism, built stupas and gave money to Battle of Chandwar. Thereafter, he overran monasteries. In the twelfth century, the Palas the entire Ganga-Yamuna doab. He left his were succeeded by rulers of the Sena Dynasty, trusted generals in charge of the lands he who ruled until the Muslims defeated them. had conquered and returned to his homeland. The Gurjara–Pratiharas The Gurjara–Pratiharas ruled over parts of Struggle for Kanauj Rajasthan and Gujarat. The most powerful ruler Kanauj was the most important city in North was Bhoja (836–882). He conquered Kanauj and India. Its location was such that whoever made it his capital. He was succeeded by his held Kanauj could control the resources son, Mahendrapala. He expanded the empire (minerals, agriculture, trade) of the entire further. His successors, however, were weak Ganga valley. Since the eighth century, the and could not defend the kingdom from Palas, Gurjara– Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas invasions. In 1018, Mahmud of Ghazni defeated were engaged in a tripartite struggle to the Pratihara ruler. Soon, the dynasty came to control Kanauj. This struggle lasted for over an end. THE DECCAN powers and privileges. These guilds also had The area between the Narmada and Krishna their own group of armed men to protect goods in transit. rivers is known as the Deccan. The Chalukyas of Kalyani The Chalukyas of Rashtrakutas were very powerful here. Kalyani were also known as the Later The Rashtrakutas Chalukyas or the Western Chalukyas. The greatest ruler was Vikramanka. He and his The Rashtrakutas rose to power in the eighth successors built many temples at Aihole, century under Dantidurga. He and his Badami and Pattadakal. successor, Krishna I, consolidated the Rashtrakuta rule in the region of present-day Kakatiyas of Warangal The Kakatiyas ruled in Maharashtra. Malkhed, near modern Sholapur the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Their in Maharashtra, was the capital city. kingdom lay between the Godavari and The Rashtrakutas fought against the Palas Krishna rivers. Marco Polo tells us that the and the Gurjara–Pratiharas in the north. Kakatiya rulers were followers of Shaivism, Towards the south, they clashed with the though and Vaishnavism also Pallavas, the Pandyas and the Cholas. flourished. The rulers patronized Sanskrit Continuous wars weakened the Rashtrakutas and Telugu. In the early fourteenth century, considerably. They were finally overthrown in the kingdom was conquered by the sultans the tenth century. of Delhi. The Rashtrakuta kings were patrons of art, architecture and literature. The famous Kailasa Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra The Hoysalas Temple at Ellora and the rock-cut caves at ruled the region covered by present-day Elephanta were carved during the reign of the Karnataka. The most powerful king was Rashtrakutas. The rulers also encouraged the Vishnuvardhan. Ultimately, the kingdom growth of regional languages, especially was absorbed into the . Kannada. Other kingdoms There were three powerful kingdoms in the Yadavas of Devagiri Bhillama founded the south—the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the kingdom in the twelfth century. Soon, the Cholas. There was a constant struggle for Yadavas consolidated themselves in the region supremacy amongst them. between the Narmada and Godavari rivers. A flourishing trade made the kingdom rich and The Pallavas prosperous. In the fourteenth century, the You have read about the Pallavas in Class VI. Khalji rulers annexed their territories. They became very powerful in the seventh During the Rashtrakuta rule artisans and craftsmen operated as corporations (guilds). The Sandhauti Inscription refers to a district headed by the guilds of the region. Some guilds were considered superior to others. Such guilds received royal charters that determined their Chola, also called Rajaraja I, was a brilliant commander. He defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras. He built a strong navy to control trade along the coastal areas. The Chola fleet captured parts of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and the Maldive Islands.

Rajendra Chola (1016–1044)

The Kailasa Temple was built by Krishna I. Rajendra Chola was Rajaraja’s son. and eighth centuries. Their capital was the He succeeded his father to the city of Kanchi. The Pallava rulers built many throne. Rajendra Chola made the beautiful temples of stone. In the ninth empire even century, the Cholas defeated the Pallavas The word ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’ is formed and ended their rule. from four words which, working backwards, means the city (puram) of the Cholas (Chola) to which was brought (konda) the River Ganga The Pandyas (Gangai). It is believed that Rajendra Chola The Pandyas ruled the region around brought back with him enough holy water from presentday Madurai, which was their the Ganga to fill the entire temple tank here. capital. It was an important centre of Gangaikondacholapuram was later abandoned. learning. Marco Polo visited the Pandyan kingdom. He has left a detailed account of the Cheras, the Chalukyas and marched as far his visit. The kingdom declined in the north as modern-day West Bengal, where he fourteenth century. defeated the Palas. After this victory, Rajendra Chola called himself ‘Gangaikondachola’ THE CHOLAS which means one who has conquered places up The Cholas established a powerful empire in to the River Ganga. He also built a new capital South India. That is why they are known as near Tanjore and called it the ‘Imperial Cholas’. They ruled in South ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’. India for nearly four centuries. Tanjore Rajendra Chola’s most daring campaign was (now called Thanjavur) was their capital. in South-east Asia. For centuries, Indian Vijayalaya (846–871) was the first Chola merchants had been trading with various parts ruler. He ruled the region north of River of South-east Asia and southern China. Indian Kaveri. Parantaka I conquered Madurai ships had to pass through the Straits of from the Pandyas. He was, however, Molucca, which was controlled by the kingdom defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Krishna of Sri Vijaya. The merchants of Sri Vijaya did III in the Battle of Takkolam in 949. Rajaraja not allow Indian ships and merchants to sail in Chola and Rajendra Chola made the Cholas this region. Many of these merchants were from the greatest power in South India. the Chola Kingdom. They appealed to Rajendra Chola for help. He sent his fleet and defeated Rajaraja Chola (985–1016) Rajaraja the Sri Vijaya king. So trade with South-east Asia and southern China made the Chola empire declined towards the end of Kingdom very wealthy. the thirteenth century. The successors of Rajendra Chola continued to fight against the neighbouring Cultural achievements kingdoms. This continuous conflict Temples The Cholas were great temple builders. depleted the treasury and weakened Most of their temples were built in the the Chola power considerably. The dravidian style. The more powerful. His army defeated Rajaraja Chola Brihadesvara Temple at Thanjavur is the finest example of Chola temple architecture. The temple is now a World Heritage Site. Read more Read about the importance of temples under the Cholas in Lesson 6.

Sculpture The Cholas also excelled at making images of gods and goddesses. These The Brihadesvara Temple was built by Rajaraja I. Lord as ‘Nataraja’ images were either of stone or bronze, the latter Village assemblies Local self-government was a being more popular. The bronze image of Lord special feature of Chola administration. Shiva as Nataraja—Lord of Dance, is one of the finest specimens of Chola art. A lot of information about the Cholas is available through copper plates. They were a Language and literature The Chola period popular medium to record events, conquests, witnessed the growth of regional languages grants of land to temples, Brahmans and so on. such as Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. Many Inscriptions on temple walls also give us a lot literary works were translated into these of information. languages. Villages enjoyed freedom in looking after Read more Read about the developments in their own affairs. Each village had two literature under the Cholas in Lesson 10. assemblies— the ur and the sabha. The former was the general assembly of the Administration village. The latter was a gathering of all male The kingdom was divided into provinces called adults of the village. These assemblies also mandalams, looked after by governors. Each formed many sub-committees. All affairs of mandalam was further divided into numerous the village such as measurement of land valanadus. Each valanadu consisted of a under cultivation, calculation of tax and its number of villages. The village (called nadu or collection, settlement of disputes, sharing of kurram) was the lowest unit. There were also water, building and repairing water tanks many towns or nagarams such as Tanjore, and irrigation canals and so on were looked Kanchi and Puhar. after by these sub-committees. Discuss Was the local self-government Many new religious sects arose in this period. system under the Cholas similar to the Basava founded the ‘lingayata’ sect in the modern system of village panchayats? twelfth century. Shankaracharya preached the ‘advaita’ philosophy. Ramanuja and Madhava Agrarian expansion in the Tamil region (of bhakti philosophy) were the other religious There were some new developments in teacher-reformers of the time. Due to these agriculture. More area was brought under saints, the doctrine of ‘bhakti’ or complete cultivation. This was due to two devotion to God became very popular in the developments. First, a lot of dry, barren and south. You will read more about the movement forest land was made fit for cultivation. in Lesson 9. Second, irrigation facilities were extended to new areas. The temples took the lead in both. Chola temples had obtained a lot of money, through donations, which was invested in agriculture. Kings also granted land in dry areas so that the grantees made efforts to provide irrigation facilities. The growth of population during this period gave a further impetus to agricultural expansion. Since more people had to be fed, an increase in cropped area (the total area under different crops) as well as better productivity (to produce more from the same piece of land) became the primary concerns. Kings and rich temples built embankments, to prevent flooding, and canals to carry water to the fields. With wells and tanks being constructed, irrigation facilities were also improved. Water stored in the tank was released into the channels for irrigating the fields. Another important development was the growth of crafts and an increase in trade between the far-flung areas throughout the Tamil region and outside. A countrywide network of trade guilds actively participated in trade. Money obtained through trade was largely invested in agriculture.

New philosophies and bhakti To Sum Up The Tomars of Delhi, Chauhans of Rajasthan, Solankis of Gujarat, Paramaras of Malwa, Gahadavalas of Kanauj and Chandellas of Bundelkhand were some of the powerful Rajput kingdoms of this period. Mahmud and Muhammad were rulers of Ghazni and Ghor respectively. Muhammad Ghori clashed twice with Prithviraj Chauhan. The Rashtrakutas ruled in the Deccan. The Pallavas, Pandyas and the Cholas were powerful in South India. The Cholas ruled from Tanjore. Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola were powerful rulers. They had a strong navy. The Cholas built many temples. The Chola Kingdom was divided into provinces, districts and villages. Each village had two assemblies—ur and sabha. There was a tremendous increase in agriculture in the Tamil region. New religious sects emerged during this period. Time to Learn A. Tick ( ) the correct answers. 1. was the capital of the Chandellas.

a. Malkhed b. Tanjore c. Kanchi d. Khajuraho

2. The tripartite struggle to capture lasted for over two centuries. a. Devagiri b. Dhillika c. Kanauj d. Ajmer

3. The Pala Dynasty was succeeded by the Dynasty in the twelfth century. a. Sena b. Vanga c. Gauda d. Anga 4. founded the Yadava Dynasty in Devagiri. a. Bhoja b. Dantidurga c. Bhillama d. Bhim 5. This traveller visited the kingdoms of Kakatiyas and Pandyas. a. Abdur Razzaq b. Al-Beruni c. Nicolo Conti d. Marco Polo

B. Give one word for the following. 1. Kirtivarman was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty. 2. Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori clashed twice at this place. 3. This Pala king along with his son expanded and strengthened the kingdom. 4. Kanchi was the capital of this dynasty. 5. This was the general assembly of the village under the Cholas.

C. Give short answers for the following questions. 1. How did the Rajputs explain their origin? 2. How did Muhammad Ghori benefit from Mahmud of Ghazni’s death? 3. Which ruling dynasties engaged in a tripartite struggle to control Kanauj? Give reasons. 4. How do you know that the Rashtrakutas were patrons of art, architecture and literature? 5. What do you know about Chola sculpture?

D. Give long answers for the following questions. 1. How was the clash between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad Ghori in 1192 different from the clash in 1191? 2. Describe the military achievements of Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola. 3. What do you know about Chola administration? 4. Write a short note on the regional kingdoms of the Deccan. H 5. ‘Muhammad Ghori’s invasion changed the course of Indian History.’ Do you agree with the O statement? Give reasons to support your argument. T S 6. A Chola period inscription, carved out of stone, declares that ‘destroyers of the tank will go to the deepest of hell and one who maintains it well will be rewarded with great riches and luxuries in his next birth.’ What possible conclusion can you draw from the above statement?

Time to Do Enrichment Activities*

E. A Class Project During the Chola period, pot-ticket-system or the Kuduvoloi system was followed to elect members of different committees. According to this system the names of people from each ward were written on palm leaves and put in a mud pot. A child was asked to pick a leaf from the pot. The person whose name was on the leaf was elected to the committee. When you elect your class monitor, try the pot-ticket system. Write every student’s name on a piece of paper and drop it in a mud pot. Let your teacher pick out one. She/He can be monitor for a month.

F. On an outline map of India, mark and label the regions ruled by the different dynasties in North, centraland South India during the Early Medieval Period.

G. Surfing Activity To take a virtual tour of Brihadesvara Temple, visit rsgr.in/sh0071

ElSEwhErE In ThE wOrld In Europe, the years from 1096 to 1281 are the period of the Crusades. These are a series of military expeditions undertaken by the Christian rulers to free the Holy