Perfect Devices: the Amazing Endurance of Hard Disk Drives Giora J

T TarnoTek Perfect Devices: The Amazing Endurance of Hard Disk Drives Giora J. Tarnopolsky TARNOTEK & INSIC - Information Storage Industry Consortium www.tarnotek.com [email protected] www.insic.org 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Outline

z Perfect Inventions

z Hard Disk Drives & other consumer products

z Hard Disk Drives: Developments 1990 - 2004

z Marketplace

z How the technology advances have affected the product offerings

z Technology

z How market opportunities propelled basic research forward

z Disk Drives at the Boundaries

z INSIC and Data Storage Systems Research

z Closing Remarks: Hard Disk Drive Endurance

PERFECT INVENTIONS

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\3 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Nearly Perfect Inventions z Certain inventions are created “perfect:” their operation relies on a fundamental principle that cannot be improved, or does not merit improvement

z This assures their endurance …

z … and defines their domain of development, the limits of applicability of the invention z Examples of perfect inventions are the bicycle, the umbrella, the book, and the disk drive

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\4 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Bicycle z Gyroscope effect assures stability of the rider z Under torque T, the bike turns but does not fall z Low ratio of vehicle mass to rider mass

z ~ 15 % (as compared to ~2,200% for car) z Efficient r T z Rugged r dL z Mass-produced r dt L z Affordable

Columbia Light Roadster 1892 Draisienne 1817

z dL/dt = T cannot be Santa Cruz improved upon 2002

z Magnetic hysteresis

z 2-D travel with only one linear motion

z High volumetric density

z Random access

z Mass-produced ÎFew-hundred $/box z Non-volatile ÎNo vibration isolation z Affordable Îno T stabilization z Rugged ÎThese properties define drives

ColumbiaSeagate’s Light ST506 Roadster 1979 1892

STSanta ’Cuda Cruz V IBMDraisienne RAMAC 1817 1953 20022002

Hard Disk Drives

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\9 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Hard Disk Drives: Nanotechnology z In a disk drive, the data is recorded in concentric tracks z Track pitch, TP, is the distance between track centers z Bit length is the shortest Bit length recorded bit TP

auxiliary fields: servo, ... user data fields

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\10 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Hard Disk Drives now: 60Gb/in2 z Areal density, AD, is the number of magnetic bits per unit area 2 z At 60 Gb/in , the track density is 100,000 tracks per inch, and the bit density along the track is 600,000 bits per inch (100 ktpi x 600 kbpi) TP z TP = 10 µin = 254 nm B z B = 1.7 µin = 42 nm z The servo tracking mechanism 1-σ error (or misregistration) is 8.5 nm

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\11 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies HDD’s & other consumer products z 5 megapixel digital camera: pixel ~2.7 x 2.7 µm2 , or 680 times less “dense” than bit storage 1 pixel = 680 magnetic bits z The focusing accuracy of the lens-to-CCD distance is ±7.5 µm, or 882 times lower precision than HDD tracking z 5 megapixel camera, $379. 200 GB drive, $100. ~ x1,000 mechanism, 1/4 price.

Technology Advances Rapidly Deployed into Products

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\13 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies The Future of Hard Disk Drive Technology Lab Demos: Possible HDD Areal Density Progression 100000.0

Laboratory Demonstrations ne 10000.0 li te ra AG C

) % 2 1000.0 0 1 Terabit per inch2 goal 5 ine G l CA % 30 100.0 highest in products

Areal Density (Gb/ in Areal Density (Gb/ 70 perpendicular recording now 10.0 heat-assisted mag recording

patterned media ?

1.0 self-organized arrays ? Jan-90 Jan-93 Jan-96 Jan-99 Jan-02 Jan-05 Jan-08 Jan-11 Jan-14 Jan-17 Date

Price of HDD, 95 mm Desktop ≤ 7,200 rpm Moderate

00 decline in ,0 1 unit cost

Seagate’s $/Drive 100 plans 1TB, $200 2006

one platter HGST Maxtor /one head, Seagate WDC 30GB

0 1 Jul-04 Jul-03 Jul-02 Jul-01 Jul-00 Jul-99 Jul-98 Jan-04 Jan-03 Jan-02 Jan-01 Jan-00 Jan-99 Jan-98

Cost per Gigabyte, 95 mm Desktop ≤ 7,200 rpm 100.00 HGST Maxtor

10.00 Seagate WDC

1.00 $/GB

0.10

0.01 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02 Jan-03 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09

Cost per Gigabyte, 95 mm Desktop ≤ 7,200 rpm 100.00 HGST Maxtor 10.00 Seagate WDC

1.00

$/GB - 40%/ year

$15*exp(-0.53*(yyyy-1998)) ? 0.10 Factor: 0.60/year

0.01 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02 Jan-03 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09

HDD Capacity vs. Time, 95 mm Desktop ≤ 7,200 rpm 1000 HGST 400 GB

100

All HDD Early HDD

10 HDD Capacity (GB)

HDD Capacity vs. Time, 95 mm Desktop ≤ 7,200 rpm 1000 y = 6.6 e0.6584(yyyy-Jan HGST ? 400 GB 98) Rate: 93%/year Seagate’s Factor: 1.93/year plans 100 2

All HDD Early HDD

10 HDD Capacity (GB) Toshiba’s 0.85 inch

1 Jan-98 Jan-99 Jan-00 Jan-01 Jan-02 Jan-03 Jan-04 Jan-05 Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09

Capacity vs. Price/GB z Capacity inversely 1000 2000/ 2004 95 mm Desktop proportional to Apple I-Pod drives Freecom USB C_Card $/GB Hitachi µ-drive Compact Flash z AD growth 100 USB Drives Secure Digital invested almost exclusively in y = 96.533x-0.7974 capacity growth R2 = 0.885 10 z Increased AD & miniaturization 1998/ Capacity (GB) ? have not reduced 1999 1 drives cost at desirable capacities

Magnetic Areal Density Progression

z Laboratory magnetic areal density has grown from 1 Gb/in2 in 1990 to ~170 Gb/in2 by December 2003 2 z It is 60 to 70 Gb/in in current products 2 z Feasibility assessments of 1 Tb/in under intense scrutiny, stated INSIC research goal 2 z 10, 50 Tb/in have been suggested for HAMR, Heat Assisted Magnetic Recording HDD future predicated on continuing growth of the areal density. Or does it?

Hitachi PMR Gb/in2 Superior achievement 600 Fujitsu IBM Log- log plot of track 500 SEG / Perp ReadRite density and linear density 300 Hitachi Long. 1k Wood 12/2003 Negative slope lines: 200 Mallary P Gao & Bertram P P 500 constant AD Victora1 100 P Positive slope lines: BAR P constant BAR 2 200 -9 50 4 Low AD demos: 10 , 30 100 much better BER than 8 75 recent demos 20 recent demos Track Density (ktpi) Density Track 50 Since 1 Gb/in2, the BAR 12 16 20 25 40 10 30 has changed from ~ 25 to ~ 4 to 6 1991 10 20 5 Track density has grown 100200300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 faster than linear density Linear Density (kbpi)

0.5 50 z Constant areal 75 100 density curves on 200 a TMR/HMS grid 1 500 750 1,000 z 3-σ TMR = TP/10 2 2,000 z 2π[HMS]/λ = fix

5 z At areal density > 500 Gb/in2 ,fly

TMR (nm) TMR height and σ 10 tracking critical 1- dimensions are 20 one to few nanometers

z Chart shows -3 BER value for the -4 experiment

-5 z Areal density -6 demonstrations -7 are rigorous, comprehensive -8 IBM Fujitsu assessments of -9 Hitachi ReadRite the technology -10 Seagate z The experiment -11 Seagate Perp RR Perp BER has -12

Log(On-track Bit Error Rate) worsened with -13 increasing areal -14 density of demos -15 z The 100 ~ 200 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 2 Areal Density (Gb/in2) Gb/in regime is © 2002-2004 TarnoTek still R&D in 2004

The1200 inflection point in Hitachi 500 z Linear and the linear density curve Fujitsu IBM P track density vs. reflects media SNR ReadRite 450 SEG areal density barriers,1000 the onset of SEG Perp RR Perp 400 thermal decay, finite z Track density M δ, and magneticLinear 350 800r P increased by ~ P spacing P P P 300 30, caused most P of the areal 600 250 P density gain. P 200 z Enabled by 400 P Track Density (ktpi) Linear Density (kbpi) Linear Density P 150 the advent of P 100 spin valve and 200 Track GMR heads, 50 advances in 0 0 head fabric- 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 ation Areal Density (Gb/in2) © 2002-2004 TarnoTek techniques, media SNR

1200 90 z As the recording wavelength 1000 75 P decreased, the HMS shrunk 800 60 from ~ 80 nm Hitachi to ~ 10 nm P P P Fujitsu 600 45 z Extraordinary IBM P efforts put in ReadRite reduction of 400 SEG 30 Linear Density (kbpi) Linear Density SEG Perp pole-tip Head-Media Separation (nm) Separation Head-Media recession, 200 15 carbon overcoat 0 0 thickness, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 flying height 2 © 2002-2004 TarnoTek Areal Density (Gb/in ) and lube

Magnetic Areal Density Prospects

non- z Single atomic layer of Mn on magnetic W(110) forms a two-dimensional W tip antiferromagnet. z These are magnetic monolayers of chemically equivalent atoms, where adjacent atoms at nearest-neighbor sites Full image have opposite magnetic moments. size is z The single-atom spin has been 2 2.7 x 2.2 nm resolved by Spin-Polarized Scan- ning Tunneling Spectroscopy magnetic z AD ≥ 265 Tb/in2 for a 12-atom bit

z S. Heinze, M. Bode, A. Kubetzka, O. Pietzsch, X. Nie, S. Blügel, Fe tip R. Wiesendanger, Science 288 (2000) 1805-1808: Real-Space Imaging of Two-Dimensional Anti-ferromagnetism on the Atomic Scale

z R. Wiesendanger & M. Bode, Solid State Communications 119(2001) 341-355: Nano- and atomic-scale magnetism studied by 4.5 ± 0.1 Å spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy

mm nn 2255 ~~

Two-atom-thick islands of Fe on W (110) with magnetization pointing either upward (light color) or downward (dark color.) The islands are a few nanometers across. A domain wall appears in the island left of center. Courtesy Prof. R. Wiesendanger, Hamburg

Ready for Dell PC’s?

2 z The track misregistration at 1 Tb/in remains to be solved

z Complexity and cost of mechanism will increase

z Rotational vibration in enterprise market

z Head-media separation, how?

z Poor BER

z Low SNR

z Extreme Mechanical Tracking Requisites

These Factors Limit the Box Capacity Growth Even as Magnetic Areal Density Grows

z Poor BER Í Increases ECC Overhead

z Low SNR Í Increases Servo Overhead Smaller Mechanical z Extreme Mechanical Í Tracking Requisites Devices

These Factors Limit the Box Capacity Growth Even as Magnetic Areal Density Grows

95 mm 1400 'Acttr' 7 trks 80 GB 3.5 z BAR: 7.2 Î 4 'Acttr' 7 trks 200 GB 'Non-rep torque' 80 GB 1200 'Non-rep torque' 200 GB 3.0 z τ : 10 Î 5 ms 'Diamtr Acttr 80 GB 2 1000 2.5 z 1 Tb/in may not be cost- 800 2.0 effective for 600 1.5 producing a

Diameter (inch) Diameter higher capacity 400 1.0

Capacity (GB/platter) drive with 200 0.5 today’s low price 0 0.0 and ruggedness

0 200 400 600 800 1000 See: G. Tarnopolsky, 2 Trans. Magn. 40, No. 1, Areal Density (Gb/in ) pp. 301-306 (2004)

can’t z INSIC’s Extreme High write Density Recording program strives for concurrent high unstable SNR, permanency of the goal recorded bit, and ability to record (EHDR)

z INSIC’s Heat Assisted

signal-to- Magnetic Recording noise ratio program uses heat to recordability th achieve recordability e rm (HAMR) a l s z Patterned media ta b i li z Tilted perpendicular media ty low SNR z Self-organized media

Patterned media, Perpendicular 33 nm bits. Bruce Terris, recording HGST

Heat- assisted magnetic recording uses both laser and field to record Self-organized magnetic arrays T. McDaniel, D. Weller, Seagate Seagate

Disk Drives at the Boundaries circa 2004

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\38 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Disk Drives at the Boundaries: Hi End max Seek/ shock Maker Model Power Format Latency average Datarate Capacity Interface Interface operating Sustained Sector size transfer rate Areal density, density, Areal platters/heads Spindle speed operational/idle

Mbyte Mbyte mm GB Gb/in2 rpm ms ms watts G bytes /s /s

Desk- Hitachi ATA100/ 100/ 30/ star 95 400 5/10 61.7 7,2k 4.17 8.5 30/9.6 55 512 Global SATA 7K400 150 61 Ultra- Ultra Hitachi 320/ 47/ 32.9/ star 95 300 5/10 61 SCSI 10k 2.99 4.7 15 512 Global 10K300 & FC 200 89 11.2 Ultra 320/ Fujitsu MAT300 95 300 4/8 75 10k 2.99 4.5 - /9.6 65 512 SCSI 200 Ultra Cheetah 320/ 49/ Seagate 65 73 4/8 34.7 SCSI 15k 2 3.6/3.9 16/12 60 512 15K.3 & FC 200 75 Ultra 320/ 41/ Seagate Savvio 65 73 2/4 60E SCSI 10k 3 4.1/4.5 - /8.0 60 512 & FC 200 63 Safe harbor: Representative examples, not a comprehensive industry compilation

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\39 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Disk Drives at the Boundaries: Specialty max Seek/ shock Maker Model Power Format Latency average Datarate Capacity Interface Interface operating Sector size Areal density, platters/heads Spindle speed operational/idle

Mbyte mm GB Gb/in2 rpm ms ms watts G bytes /s

MK4004 1.4/ Toshiba 48 40 2/4 61.2 ATA 100 100 4,200 7.14 15 250 512 GHA 0.08 Endura Hitachi star 65 20 1/2 37.7 ATA 100 100 4,172 7.2 13 2.4/1.8 100 512 Global J4K20 Hitachi µ-Drive 1.2/ 25.4 4 1/2 56.5 ATA 33 33 3,600 8.3 13 200 512 Global 3K4 0.23

Toshiba "0.85 in" 22 2 1/1 60E ad hoc 3,600 8.3 1000

Safe harbor: Representative examples, not a comprehensive industry compilation

"0.85 in" µ-Drive 3K4 Endurastar J4K20 MK4004 GHA Savvio

Drive Cheetah 15K.3 MAT300 Ultrastar 10K300 Deskstar 7K400

1 10Capacity (GB) 100 1000

µ-Drive "0.85 in" 3K4 Endurastar J4K20 MK4004 GHA Savvio

Drive Cheetah 15K.3 MAT300 Ultrastar 10K300 Deskstar 7K400

0 200 400 600 800 1000 Operating Shock Rating (G, acceleration)

"0.85 in" µ-Drive 3K4 Endurastar J4K20 MK4004 GHA Savvio

Drive Cheetah 15K.3 MAT300 Ultrastar 10K300 Deskstar 7K400

0 3,600 7,200 10,800 14,400 18,000 Rotational speed (rpm)

"0.85 in"

µ-Drive 3K4 Endurastar J4K20 MK4004 GHA

Savvio Drive Cheetah 15K.3 MAT300

Ultrastar 10K300 Deskstar 7K400

0 1020304050607080 Areal Density (Gb/in2)

Savvio Savvio Cheetah 15K.3 Cheetah 15K.3 Ultrastar 10K300 Drive Ultra- star 10K300

Desk- Deskstar 7K400 star 7K400

0 102030405060708090100 Sustained transfer rate range (MB/s)

zz “Since“Since thethe evolutionevolution ofof SCSISCSI inin thethe mid-1980s,mid-1980s, thethe functionalfunctional definitiondefinition ofof aa diskdisk (or(or aa tape)tape) hashas beenbeen essentiallyessentially constantconstant …… thethe basicbasic modelmodel ofof aa singlesingle vectorvector ofof numberednumbered blocksblocks hashas remainedremained thethe same.”same.” zz “Researchers“Researchers todaytoday areare questioningquestioning whetherwhether thethe tried-and-truetried-and-true diskdisk (or(or tape)tape) functionalfunctional modelmodel isis thethe mostmost effectiveeffective wayway toto provideprovide networknetwork storagestorage services.”services.” (text(text inin italicsitalics addedadded byby GT)GT)

z The value of z 80 GB/$640, data 120 GB/$870, management is 160 GB/$920 relevant for all z Ethernet markets, not just z File sharing the enterprise market z SnapAppliance’s Snap Server 1100

What z MIRRA Server about capacity? z 80 GB/$400 or 120 GB/$500 z Ethernet/USB, file sharing z Prices as z Secure of 12/6/2003 z Auto backup

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\47 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Market Evolution Limited but very high capacity per spindle ≥300 GB drives being offered in the consumer markets (300 GB Maxtor MaxLine II 5,400 rpm, Ultra ATA 133, $ 250, 400 GB HGST 7K400),

and the enterprise markets (300 GB Fujitsu 10,000 rpm, Ultra 320 SCSI & 2 Gb/s FC, 300 GB HGST 10,025 rpm , Ultra 320 SCSI or 2 Gb/s FC) Proliferation of specialty systems “Tiny” drives, iPod drives, rugged drives, personal NAS, ...

INSIC & Data Storage Devices and Systems Research

Information Storage Industry Consortium

Information Storage FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY DATA STORAGE INSTITUTE (DSI) LOS ALAMOS NATIONAL LAB Industry Consortium CENTRAL LANCASHIRE COLORADO STATE JOHNS HOPKINS NORTHEASTERN IBM UC SAN DIEGO ECD* z MANCHESTER collaborative research consortium UC BERKELEY IDC* OHIO STATE SONY COLORADO PLYMOUTH MAXELL for the worldwide information MISSOURI IMATION NEBRASKA APRILIS* VIRGINIA ALABAMA QUANTUM storage industry HARVARD SAMSUNG ALBERTA ARIZONA CERTANCE ILLINOIS MAGNECOMP* z established 1991 MIT STORAGETEK ISIC DOWA MINING* NIST O Conduct Joint Research on High Risk Pre-competitive MEMS OPTICAL IDEMA IDAHO AGERE SYSTEMS Storage Technologies MITRE WESTERN DIGITAL PURDUE TORAY INDUSTRIES O Develop Technology Roadmaps STANFORD MINNESOTA HEWLETT PACKARD O Maximize Value of University Research VANDERBILT VEECO INSTRUMENTS SANTA CLARA ADVANCED RESEARCH O Obtain Government Funding GEORGIA TECH SEAGATE TECHNOLOGY ARIZONA STATE O Speak for the Industry NORTHWESTERN EUXINE TECHNOLOGIES CARNEGIE MELLON HUTCHINSON TECHNOLOGY ARGONNE NAT’L LAB HITACHI GLOBAL STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY LAWRENCE BERKELEY NAT’L LAB LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NAT’L LAB * Limited Member NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\50 TARNOTEK Storage2004Storage - Mass Storage Systems DevicesDevices & Technologies andand SystemsSystems ResearchResearch networked, DigitalDigital SemanticSemantic permanencypermanency distributed continuitycontinuity PerformancePerformance && PerformancePerformance && reliabilityreliability DigitalDigital OSD, object- reliabilityreliability permanencypermanency oriented storage hardware-ish device software-ish

Application-Application- Non-volatile,Non-volatile, lowlow awareaware storagestorage latencylatency memorymemory inin devicedevice limited Multi-dimensional locale space and projections

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\51 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies DS2 Workshop, UCSD, April 27-29 z DS2 = Data Storage Devices and Systems z Purpose:

z Establish a technology roadmap in the comprehensive space of systems and devices

z Answer the question whether there are pre- competitive research topics in data storage systems, where industrial cooperation and joint sponsorship of academic research is not preempted by market competition. This favors research into difficult, high-risk, or long-term issues

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\52 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies DS2 Brainstorming Thrusts z Application-aware storage z Active storage devices Technical Committee z Privacy and security Paul Frank INSIC Craig Harmer Veritas z Autonomic storage Paul Massiglia VERITAS Paul Siegel CMRR/UCSD z Long-term storage Giora Tarnopolsky INSIC James Hughes StorageTek z Pervasive storage Michael Mesnier Intel/CMU Thomas Ruwart DTC U Minn. Erik Riedel Seagate Research Gordon Hughes CMRR/UCSD Remzi Arpaci-Dusseau U Wis.

Fred van den Bosch / Veritas

z There is no assured scheme for perpetual content preservation

z Semantic continuity: make computer languages evolve like natural languages, assure comprehension

z Storage management independent of the medium and of the content itself

z Systems hold “eternal” data in devices bearing a ~ three-year warranty§,*

z Digital assets have undergone migrations to devices of higher performance & volumetric density.

No more. Safe harbor: §) H/W MTBF ≥ 30 yr. *) Tape cartridges guaranteed “for life”

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\55 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Large, non-volatile storage stratum z Multi-GB, ≤ µs-latency, non-volatile memory z Flash, M-RAM, or MEMS z Non-volatile stratum would be “virtual disk” such as disk is “virtual tape” to tape system z Various application archetypes could have assigned non-volatile storage streams - until objects of associated types are transferred to specific areas on the media

z Intelligent space allocation,

self-defragmentation 500 GBMag 12 GBNV TT

z OSDs take the storage-device-specific component of the file system into the storage device itself

z Ability of device to manage its own capacity

z Ability of device to export file-like objects to their clients

z Where in the storage hierarchy is the OSD concept to be applied? A 400 GB device used to be a RAID. Now it is a single drive.

Concluding Remarks: Endurance of Good Ideas

z Antikythera Mechanism

z An astronomical mechanical artifact recovered from a vessel that sunk circa 80 BCE by the Antikythera Island, Greece

z The mechanism contains a differential gear, an invention that was lost then, to be re-invented about 1,500 years later!

Giora J. Tarnopolsky HDD - Perfect Devices © 2002-2004\14 April 2004\59 TARNOTEK 2004 - Mass Storage Systems & Technologies Disk Drives - Perfect Invention z 2-D travel with only one linear motion z High volumetric density z Random access Few-hundred $/box z Mass-produced No vibration isolation no T stabilization z Non-volatile These properties define drives z Affordable z Rugged Broad spectrum of new and enhanced applications

z The “Four R’s” of HDD’s:

z Reliability Terabytes last for ever (mag & mech)

z Ruggedness Field devices, not lab curios

z Remote All data remote: Mobile & networked

z Readability Find the file in the haystack

z Make data-handling function match the raw capacity: enhanced OSD, self-managing, ...

z Vast opportunities for useful devices at ~200 Gb/in2, high SNR, low ECC overhead

z Proliferation of applications