CEU eTD Collection Counter-Discourse inGlobal NewsMedia? In partial fulfillment of therequirements the for degree ofMaster of Arts Department of International Relations and European Studies How AlJazeera English Covers Sectarian Violence in Nigeria Supervisor: Professor Irina Papkov Central European University European Central Word Count: Word Count: 15,728 Budapest, Hungary Tobias Gerhard Submitted to Submitted 2010 By CEU eTD Collection characteristics of a mainstream as well as of a potentially challenging marginallyonly from of that is BBC,itthe arguedthatboth exhibit networks some inmost respects differs inNigeria violence recent sectarian on discourse Jazeera English’s conciliatory approach assumes a assumes English Jazeera Al extent what to examined is it particular, In analysis. discourse critical a by means of of BBC is that the compareditsnews to online coverage news discourse, violence in Nigeria. Assessing the potential of Al Jazeera English challengeto the mainstream sectarian caseof inthe newscoverage online network’s the byanalyzing practices these dynamics in study investigates what world.the from This to AlJazeeraEnglish departs extent andfor coverageconflicts, the existingexplanatory thereby framework of reinforcing power in stereotypical world the for presenting criticized hasbeen repeatedly networks news of global The discourse Abstract ways, relying on the clash of civilizations paradigm as a convenient Southern , a in its reporting of sectarian violence. As it is demonstrated Al that is violence. Asit demonstrated sectarian inits of reporting human , and a Muslim i perspective and in how far it applies a applies it far how in and counter-discourse . CEU eTD Collection This work isThis work dedicatedtothe memory of Heinz Brinkmann. nap for proof-reading. Hans W.for hisLastly,my sacrificing to well-deserved Gerhard I expressafternoon thanks ‘everything said and unsaid’ and Maya Kim for her patience. Moreover, Iwouldlike tothankfor Catalininvaluable Hartwigher regarding support working on my topic. I am very my grateful to supervisor Irina Papkovfor her advice and to keep encouragement Acknowledgments ii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 54 Bibliography ...... 52 Appendix B Appendix A...... 49 ...... 47 Conclusion Chapter 3 Case study: news coverage of sectarian violence in Nigeria...... 23 Chapter 2 Al Jazeera English: the ‘voice of the South’?...... 12 Chapter 1 Theoretical framework of discourse ...... 5 in global news media Introduction...... 1 iii Table of Contents...... ii Acknowledgments...... i Abstract...... Table ofContents Media Analysis of AJE’s and BBC’s online news coverage...... 31 ...... 28 Methodology History of sectarian violence ...... 26 in Nigeria Relevance of the case...... 23 Western style, Western perspective...... 19 Distinct style, distinct perspective...... 13 Counter-discourse and contra-flow ...... 9 in news media Dominant discourse and the representation of the ‘other’...... 5 Synthesis: competing orcomplementing ...... 44 discourses? Critical Discourse Analysis of Al Jazeera English...... 38 Critical Discourse Analysis ...... 32 of BBC World iii CEU eTD Collection no. 6(1997). more generally. global conflict convenienta as thesis Huntington’s applied that networks media global by informed was which public, explanatory model for Islamic terrorism, the subsequent ‘war on terror’ and 5 community inthe academic criticized particularly Islamic Although world. the has onvariousHuntington’s thesis groundsbeen ‘rest’, the and ‘West’ the between confrontation increasing of fearsobservers among fostered has which -, since 9/11 particularly - and war thecold of end since the conflict interethnic and relations international of dynamics the explaining for paradigm dominant a been 2010. http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,670178,00.html non-Western culture andpolitics. of sided picture one- a presenting for asresponsible seen been has industry news global in the corporations misinterpret the non-Western world in various ways. Firstly, the dominance of Western media in of headline the example, seen, for level, it remains a powerful force in the minds manyof observers of world affairs as can be Philip Seib, "News Media and the 'Clashof Civilizations'," 3 1997). dominant a of part as media news mainstream Western of output the considers reality, social global news media, which is informed by the Foucauldian notion of discourse creating the 4 Political Science Minorities and the Clash of Civilizations: A Quantitative Analysis of Huntington's Thesis," 1 German weekly the headlined in Nigeria” Civilizations of A Clash Belt: Middle the in Death and “Life Introduction Sen, 2 Daya Kishan Thussu, "How MediaManipulates TruthAbout Terrorism," Edward Said, "The Clashof Ignorance," (2001), Ervand Abrahamian, "The Us Media, Huntington and September 11," der Spiegel, "Life and Death in the Middle Belt: A Clash of Civilizations in Nigeria," Samuel P. Huntington, Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny 1 An emerging “clash of civilizations”, as evoked by Anemergingcivilizations”, asevoked “clash Samuel of Huntington Critics such as media scholar Thussu have pointed out that Western media tends to tends media Western that out pointed have Thussu scholar media as such Critics 32(2002). der Spiegel der The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order in a report on violencesectarian inareporton in Nigeriain erupting early 4 Hence, even if the thesis was largely rejected on an academic der Spiegel der 3 , it has been more readily accepted by broader the accepted , it beenmore readily has http://www.thenation.com/article/clash-ignorance (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006); JonathanFox, "Ethnic 1 . 5 Paramenters More profoundly, a postcolonial critique of . Third World Third World Quarterly 34 (2004). Economic and Political Weekly (New York: Touchstone, York: (New der Spiegel der British Journalof 24, 3 no. (2003), 2 , has indeed (2010), ; Amartya 32, CEU eTD Collection Policy and Contra-Flow http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2006/11/2008525185555444449.html. 8 and Al-Jazeera's Middle East Reporting," East Middle Al-Jazeera's and N.C: McFarland & Co, 2007), 58, Leon Barkho, "Unpacking the Discoursive and Social Links in BBC, CNN aims AJE’shas study East.This been Middle onevents outsideperspective the to said on little yet in world, Arab andconflicts the its of coverageof in Islam context the extensively established actual tothe global news networks. challenge emphasis on the non-Western world while disagreeing towhat extent the network provides an aspecial with from Middlethe news East provider professional AJE asanindependentand including accusations both anti-Americanof biases,and anti-Arab many scholars commend Althoughestablished newsnetworks. Al hasJazeera been of muchsubject controversy AJE provides analternative on prevailingthe discourses to globalthe presented by South South as a metaphor for the voiceless and underrepresented in the world. the using South’, the of ‘voice the become to envisioned (AJE) English Al Jazeera particular, 9 7 6 region. the covering newsagencies Western of bias Western-centric perceived tothe as acounterbalance by manyobservers welcomed was comingfrom East, Middle the news network independent first the was considered discourses. for alternative thatdiscourse is informed often by clashofcivilizationsthe paradigm and leaveslittle room to theWest reporting by flow information typical current the “[balances] that network news itself a as global establishless than no to aim was self-proclaimed its an reach introduced and English-language webpage (2003)and aTVchannel Its (2006). Al Jazeera English, "Corporate Profile," Naomi Sakr, "Challenger of Lackey? The Politics of News on Al-Jazeera," in Sofiane Zayani, Sahraoui and Mohamed 11." September and Huntington Us Media, "The Abrahamian, 155 (2006), Steve Tatham, "Al Jazeera: Can It Make It Here?," This thesis will scrutinize thesebroadly aims stated by investigating towhat extent Therefore, the launch of the Qatar-based Al Jazeera television channel in 1996, which in 1996, television channel Al Jazeera Qatar-based launchof the the Therefore, and , ed. Daya Kishan Thussu (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007). Hugh Miles, "Al Jazeera," from thesouthern tothenorthernhemisphere from 6 Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research TheCulture of Al Jazeera: Inside and Arab Media Giant 7 Subsequently, Al Jazeera proceeded toincrease Al Jazeeraproceeded Subsequently, 2 9 Sofar, AJEhas studied been quite British Journalism Review from the developingfrom world back Media on the Move: Global Flow ” (emphasis added). 1, no. 1 (2007). 16(2005). (Jefferson, Foreign 8 In CEU eTD Collection discourse. Itwilldiscourse. bemainstream assumed that newsnetworks arepartglobal of a dominant of conception of in Foucault’s context the media news the global which presents be outlined, asof as well counter-discourse. mainstream of characteristics display some networks both BBC. Rather, of the tothat discourse counter- aclear declarenews coveragepossible representing itisAJE’s to not identified, canbe news discourses networks’ two the between variations some While BBC. the of that from marginally only differs framework, civilizations of clash the of use the including will violencesectarian on inmost inNigeria respects, It recent be AJE’sdiscourse that argued in behind.whetherAJE succeeds clashof leavingthe civilizations of paradigm the discourse the a -or narrative alternative coverage. news AJE’s to juxtaposed be will that network news mainstream a of example an as serves Aprilin on violencesectarian thiscase, BBC, July 2009to of 2010. The during the period South by conducting a comparative discourse analysis of AJE’s and the BBC’s news coverage in the events of narrative alternative an providing in suceeds AJE extent what to examined be it will Therefore, for. been media has mainstream criticized that frameworks explanatory inAJE’s from totest departure allows terms character stereotypical Huntingtonian ‘intercivilizational’ conflict’s the secondly, aim; stated this confirm to conducted been yet has noresearch networks, than other more proactively Africa cover to hasemphasized while AJE major firstly, two for reasons: discourse mainstream challenge potential the to network’s Nigeria, thus a conflict in the global South outside the Middle East. violence in newsAJE’s sectarian investigating of coverage tofilling gapby this contribute dominant discourse This study is structured as follows. In the first section, the theoretical framework will The goal of this comparative media analysis is to investigate how far AJE provides an provides AJE far how investigate to is analysis media comparative this of goal The AJE’s coverage of this conflict seems particularly relevant for examining the of mainstream news media. In particular, it is aimed to analyze counter-discourse - of -of news in events which South, the challenges 3 CEU eTD Collection networks in in and context networks the Africainof conflict global covering the South particular. and evaluated to what extent AJE provides an alternative discourse to mainstream global news it be Finally, bewill concluded violence sectarian will conducted. inNigeria about coverage analysis outtheresearchmethodology,laying ofAJE’s and BBC’sonline acritical discourse of in abriefparticular casestudy,sectarian and violence historical account giving Nigeria this of relevance the outlining study: after of this part empirical the covers section lastThe Secondly, AJE will be counter-discourses. presenting networks alternative of possibility discussing the discourse, examined as a potential challenger of the dominant news discourse. 4 CEU eTD Collection 1972). 12 11 10 coldwarperiod. the terms asduring mainstream media explain into events aworldlongerno thatcould bepresentedinbipolar criticism, the despite theory”: civilizations] of [clash Huntington adoption of the a defacto toward the theory’sAt the beginning of 21stthe century, events have arguably “pushed many in the news media simplicityTheoretical framework of discourse in global news media and appeal allowed it to be widely used by Western knowledge and power asbeing knowledge of andmutually thecreation power and since intertwined reinforcing events international of coverage ground’ and‘on the problem may be thedecreasing ability willingness or newsof networks to provide indepth of the part One news events. as understanding for their are crucial that conflicts of dynamics underlying illuminate to fails easily too all it form, in asimplified issues complex structure is accepted as valid and ‘true’ knowledge and what iswhat not. knowledge as valid and and ‘true’ is accepted generates knowledge and‘truth’ by language structuring sosetas to the boundaries for what behaviour each alsoour but by other, perceptions andorganising toward reality shaping our the world aroundlanguage knowledge and andimplications their for way the we see, understand and construct ourselves.The work of FoucaultMichel hason discourse established landmarkin a study the of Discourse,‘other’ the of therepresentation and discourse Dominant Foucault believes, can not only by being presented news mediaby andthus perceived news consumers. create the beof examinedisnews coverageneedto inorder tounderstand waysin the world which the social level,consumer preferences.On a more profound epistemological however, the underpinnings Michel Foucault, Ibid. Seib, "News Media and the 'Clash of Civilizations'," 76. The Archaeology of Knowledge & the Discourse onLanguage 10 However, althoughsuch may helpa framework to 5 11 , be it for financial constraints or constraints financial for it be , 12 Furthermore, Foucault sees Foucault Furthermore, (New York: Pantheon Books, CEU eTD Collection 14 Cambridge University Press, 1999), 96. colonized - between the West and the ‘other’. One of the forerunners of these theorists was theorists these of forerunners of the One ‘other’. West the and the between - colonized colonizers and between relationship describethe theory to of postcolonial context the sciences such as psychiatry and medicine, his framework of discourse has also been applied to strives challenge discourse of that to suchdynamics andknowledge. power news of any type entails latter the whereas ‘knowledge’, respective the and dynamics counter-discourse a presents media news mainstream that be assumed will it simplicity of sake the for in time, point any existat various discourses that time. knowledge Whileacknowledging atthe accepted competing discourses produce networks alternative whereas knowledge, valid claims as truth certain present that present a different outreach and inform authority worldto about dominating events,produce discourses that ‘truth’ in an attempt to challenge the socially discourses are engaged in a power struggle to compete within areengagedcompete challenge struggle discourses to or dominanta power the ones. a society at agiven inpoint time and shaping its social and institutions, political while other oppositeit, another discourse that runs counter to it”, he sees certain discourses dominating in and power, of side,adiscourse one the on is not, “there that heclarifies Although discourses. dynamics. global of power context in discourse, offers the possibility to analyze news coverage - creating knowledge - in the 13 and disclosure”. control of do,whichinwhat people furtherpossibilities turn offers more for intrusive inquiry “more extensive finer-grainedand knowledge enables amore continuous and pervasive Michel Foucault, Joseph Rouse, "Power/Knowledge," in While Foucault himself was preoccupied with the history of knowledge in human In the context of global itnews media,followsmainstream that due networks, to their Crucially, Foucault considers cultures to be constructed out of competing be outvarious, of constructed to cultures considers FoucaultCrucially, dominant discourse 13 The Historyof Sexuality . The former consists of those discourses that reproduce existing power reproduce that discourses those of consists former . The This dynamic relationship between between and reflected being knowledge, This power relationship dynamic which alternative networks aim whichalternativechallenge networks to byproducing a The Cambridge Companion to Foucault (New York: Vintage Books, 1988),101. 6 , ed. Gary Gutting (Cambridge: 14 CEU eTD Collection 17 York: Vintage Books, 1997),46. Prometheus Books, 2007). statements about the world but also to this should one context, discourseexpect the not of makenetworks news only global to truth in holds true framework world.in social If Foucault’s the news constructs discourse coverage application in the way of world,the makingit a fruitful starting pointfor the study of global eventsnews networks. aresees therest West how andthe on postcolonial discourse on debate the to contributed greatly being covered by global news networks and how the 16 providebeingalternative. aviablecontemporary able to not for and logic, orientalist the escaping of incapable being as Orient the of observer outside ‘orientalist’ discourse in explaining colonial and neo-colonial domination, for discrediting any non-West. the and West the between dynamics power existing truth claims about as positioning ornewscertain -canbeunderstood media literature, practiced inscholarship, the world as part of experts and journalists. a largely shaped by mediathe through a process from of received interpretation policy-makers, reminding thatwelive us in hand in imagea “second world” iswhich our ‘other’ of the Saidlater works, include hisframework extended his realm to mediainto the analysis,of legitimize serving Western it. a structuring his style toand of havingauthority of In over one Muslim world, as a uniform whole standing in every aspectin opposition tothe West, thereby the in particular Orient, the described systematically have literature and scholarship Western 15 Edward Said inhis 1979 work See forexample: Ibn Warraq, ———, Edward W. Said, It therefore needs to be examined how the Foucauldian notion of discourse finds Admittedly, Said faced considerable criticism for allegedly roleallegedly the faced for of exaggerating Admittedly, considerable criticism Said Covering Islam: How Mediathe and the Experts Determine How We the See Rest of the World Orientalism 16 Hence, if one is to accept Said’s framework, ‘orientalism’ - whether ‘orientalism’ framework, accept Said’s is if one to Hence, (New York: PantheonBooks, 1978). Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said'sOrientalism Orientalism construct dominant discourse dominant . 15 7 Saidargues colonial throughout that history, the truth and to solely allow statements if statements allow solely to and truth the 17 Nonetheless, his framework has , which indirectly reinforces indirectly which , (New York: (New CEU eTD Collection http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/90sep/rage.htm 22 21 20 19 18 descriptions thansocio-economic rather and ethnic terms of religious fight terrorism. as means to measures necessary security underlying dynamics of conflictandthe legitimizes military interventionism and other forframework explaining‘war 9/11andon subsequent the whichexplain failsterror’, to the civilizations of clash the applied uncritically has media quality mainstream American is views onwhat for alternative leaving noroom mainstream media on he‘terrorism’ of considersthenarrative Foucault’sexplicitly framework, not referringAlthough to as uncritically by“fundamentalists”. conducted as “terrorism” outright arerejected actions opponents’ reflectingits whereas and in“self-defence” “proportionate” the as operations military of description truth claims of the Thussu argues “mediamanipulates that truth about terrorism”, criticizing Israel’s powerful,usual For example, work. and at knowledge of power dynamics certain found scholars have critical prevailingnewsthrough the discourse. they true’. are ‘within the powerful powerful by legitimizing oppressive policies for security reasons. On the other hand, conditions. political socio-economic and as immediate such explanations alternative to neglect this type of forhatreddominant based example - discourse religioustraditions (“Muslimrage” on discourse contributes of the true’ are ‘within the that frameworks explanatory simplistic rely on are said to to strengtheningto lie at the heart of the problem detected by Thussu and Abrahamian. On the one hand, media the position of the Bernard Lewis, "The Roots of Muslim Rage," (1990), Said, 11." September and Huntington Us Media, "The Abrahamian, Thussu, "How Media Manipulates Truth About Terrorism." Foucault, Orientalism Similarly, Said also finds that ‘orientalists’ tend to explain contemporary politics in politics contemporary explain to tend ‘orientalists’ that finds also Said Similarly, terror’, ‘waron socalled andthe ‘terrorism’ coverageof news in the Particularly The Archaeology of Knowledge & the Discourse on Language , 305. 18 Moreover, one is to assume power dynamics to be reinforced to dynamics power is assume Moreover,one to 8 . truth 20 . Similarly, Abrahamian claims that claims Abrahamian Similarly, . , 224. 21 . This tendency appears 22 ) - and - ) 19 CEU eTD Collection internationalization at the dawn of 21 the dawnof atthe internationalization of be trend anincreasing appearsto there networks, and agencies companies, media, toagreat beenincludingextent dominated has by news traditionally Western Mapping Global Media Flow Mapping GlobalMediaFlow and Contra-Flow such works recently prominence inacademicdebatethrough gained as Daya Kishan Thussu’s challenge dynamics. aiming to thus power discourse, hegemonic existing as contestingthe is seen counter-discourse than mainstream, the perspective adifferent merely than presenting and Contra-Flow 24 1988). &Wishart, Lawrence 23 themedia. or economy,systems, the education over means such inclusivepower as labelled ‘subaltern’ byGramsci,is consequently“dominated by through subtle consent” is structure, the hegemonic of interest Anyonewho asthe power its outside all. owninterest apowerrelation hegemony’, in ruling which describes the successfully which class promotes of ‘cultural concept of in Gramsci’s beneeds context the It understood to discourse. in enshrined dominating and the power theknowledge dynamics of resists effectively The term media news in contra-flow and Counter-discourse news media can such provide for counter-discourses. analyzed. In thefollowing section, it will be discussed whatto extent the framework of global be ‘truths’, needsto different thus frameworks, explanatory onalternative relying discourses civlizations paradigm andpower knowledge in reproduced dominatingthe Considering discourses. clash the of as part of the socially accepted ‘truth’, the availability of competing Daya Kishan Thussu, "Mapping Global Media Flow and Contra-Flow," in Antonio Gramsci, “The Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings 1916 - 1935,” in David Foragcs (London: In the field of global news media, the question of counter-discourse has only relatively A crucial question is therefore whether it is possible to challenge the dynamics of dynamics the challenge to is possible it whether therefore is question A crucial counter-discourse , ed. Daya Kishan Thussu (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007). is applicable to any type of discourse that symbolically or symbolically that discourse of any type to is applicable st century. In entertainment, movies from India from movies entertainment, In century. 9 . 24 While the global media environment, media global the While Media on the Move: Global Flow 23 More CEU eTD Collection discursive framework that has established stereotypical and ‘orientalist’ thinking as the as thinking ‘orientalist’ and stereotypical has established that framework discursive media may alternative viewsprovide on events, they failactually to abandon dominantthe ‘others’”. cultural of andstereotypes reinforceare likely attitudes existing not] to or from West [whether the news media global meaning that inform opinions, to their than toaffirm rather broadcasters capacity to change the actual monopoly on truth held by the dominant discourse? perspective on news that is not part of the hegemonic discourse? If so, do they reallya subaltern indeed present networks Dothese discourse. dominating challenge the haveableto the world areactually non-Western from the such news channels whatextent to remains unclear it However, networks. news global of Western discourse dominant the to as analternative satellitemade newschannels,it it appeared, for ‘subaltern’ views be possible to mainstreamed he greatly attributed to the success of Al Jazeera. successof tothe attributed he greatly that adevelopment more diverse, become had landscape media as theinternational more”, no exist within of framework the networks such as CNN and BBC Anglo-Saxon by presented from dominating perspectiveprovidethe that claims adistinct to CCTV-9 Voices," p.11). 2008, 26 Painter, James (Source: channels news TV of satellite market global the in share largest 25 provide global “contra-flow”,including the Iranian in a bid to emerged recently have a number TVnewschannels sector news of satellite the (“Bollywood”) or soap operas from Brazil (“telenovela”) have attained global fame, and in Civilizations or Cross-Cultural Dialogue?," 27 Philip Seib, "Hegemonic No More: Western Media, the Rise of Al-Jazeera, and the Influence ofDiverse Influence the and ofAl-Jazeera, Rise the Media, Western NoMore: "Hegemonic Seib, Philip CNN International and BBC World control with over100 million (CNNI) and 78million (BBCW) by the far Mohammed and Powers El-Nawawy, Shawn, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clash of El-Nawawy and Powers argue that news “viewers worldwide turn to particular to turn worldwide “viewers news that argue Powers and El-Nawawy In 2005, Philip Seib argued that Western In 2005,PhilipWestern news mediabe considered“hegemonic arguedthat can Seib InternationalStudies Review , Venezuela’s 27 This observation appears to suggest that even though non-Western newssuggest non-Western even that though appears Thisobservation to Telesur counter-discourse , and Qatar-based , and 7(2005). 25 , it needs to be investigated to what extent these networks these what extent to investigated be it to needs , Media, War & Conflict 10 . Al Jazeera Al 26 Indeed, the diversity of international of diversity the Indeed, PressTV 2, no. 3 (2009): 263. . Yet, although each one of them , Russia Today , the Chinese, the CEU eTD Collection counter-discourse in global news networks more assess better potential detail the to providenetwork’s to a Reuters Institute for theStudy of Journalism, 2008), 6. 30 Terhi Rantanen (London:Sage, 1998), 20-22. perspective’. firstthe viableand well-funded non-Western channel news from provides that a ‘Southern providingAJE discourses. isin alternative arguably the fulfil bestposition beingto task, this remains disputed, non-Westerndynamics power existing news challenge actually networks to potential their doAlthough havereality. a as theaccepted theoretical possibilitybe must to do channels, so news by international non-Western various of emergence recent in the discourse. beof dominantthe part in beprovideThus, anyattemptglobal news media to doomed counter-discourse appears to to worldwide. news reporting style of unchallenged andalmost as theaccepted taken root has overothers, events information and of categories certain favor that facts which presents 29 28 ownership and control. Western givingup without worldthe across local markets for are adapted media products in Western which content, ofmedia of ‘localization’ the because contra-flows, of emerging in inmedia spite hegemony flows Western global a continuation of global Hedetects culture. in media American hegemony of impactthe on have asignificant hasto the potential actually as itdominating discourse applies the same modes of reality structuring as latter. the In discursive truth. words,theother ‘subaltern’challenge appearsbe unable to to the JamesPainter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACaseStudy of Al-Jazeera English andTelesur," (Oxford: Oliver Boyd-Barrett, "'Global' News Agencies," in Thussu, "Mapping Global Media Flow and Contra-Flow," 28. Nevertheless, the struggle of competing discourses in global news media, exemplified media, news in global discourses competing of struggle the Nevertheless, Similarly, Thussu expresses doubt that the increase of “contra-flows” in global media in global “contra-flows” of increase the that doubt expresses Thussu Similarly, 30 The next section will therefore illuminate AJE’s role in the environment of environment in the role AJE’s illuminate therefore will section next The . 28 Moreover, the Anglo-Saxon tradition of ‘journalism of information’, The Globalization of News 11 , ed. Oliver Boyd-Barrett and 29 CEU eTD Collection 35 34 33 p.11) 32 2008, Painter, J. (Source: recently more increased considerably have to likely audience of over40 million in the Arabic and an estimated one million the English program, the latterfigure 31 beyond world and in Arab the AlJazeera of popularity increasing The and controversy. attention considerable subjectto Al Jazeerahasbeen fewyearsits existence, of therelatively During Al Jazeera English: the ‘voice of the South’? change in the Middle East as the first independent news outlet in the region. in the outlet news independent first the as East Middle the in change West. the against hatred even bias or of ananti-American having sparking Al faced has repeatedly accusations Jazeera intensive beyond reporting on that embeddedjournalists, bytheregular provided ground the with invasions civilianpopulation onthe focus inAfghanistan Iraq with aspecial and public favorednews diplomacy. Al Qaeda’s havingcovered Being theUS-led and outlet of tool as wellawelcome a into threat both many governments for the channel turned channel’s corporate profile: corporate channel’s inis the laidout an mission that ambitious networks, established of worldwide newscoverage East. Middle inthe events on networks news Western from perspective distinct beto provide saida somewhat AlJazeeracan claims debatable, these are news flows and a different focus do not necessarily translate into the challenge of mainstreamAlthough this agenda certainly isfeature, adistinguishing merethe geographical reversal of ‘back to the West’ and cover world events by looking at ‘the other side of the story’. news Nigel toreport channel’s mandate the stated managingParsons AJE’s former director Sakr, "Challenger of Lackey? The Politics of News on Al-Jazeera," 117. AL Jazeera English, "Corporate Profile." Sakr, "Challenger of Lackey? The Politics of News on Al-Jazeera," 116. See forexaplme: Adel Darwish, "BinLaden's Tv Choice," (2001): Al In2007,Jazeera (both Arabic English)and reached over 100million households and weeklyhad a 31 Projecting this perspective in a wider context, Al Jazeera English aims to challenge the aims to Al English Jazeera in awidercontext, perspective this Projecting underreported regions around the world. perceptions…, bridging cultures and providing a uniquegrassroots perspective from The giveschannel voice to untold stories, promotesdebate, and challengesestablished , which was greatly facilitated by the launch of the English language program, has program, by language launch of facilitated English the the , which greatly was 32 On the other hand, it was also praised as a force toward democratic praised asaforcetoward itwas also hand, On other the 34 12 http://www.mideastnews.com/Jazeera.html. 33 While both of 35 CEU eTD Collection create authenticity and to avoid news reporting by outsiders, who might be likely to fall into fall to likely be might who outsiders, by reporting news avoid to and authenticity create channel. the of distinctiveness the to symbolically, least at contributes, in Emirate the its headquarters maintains andalso Emirthe of Qatar events. news global networksanglophone dominant the with competing of goal explicit the with launched was AJE such as BBC perspective distinct style, Distinct or CNN by providing an alternativenetworks. perspectivequestions itsboth byanalyzing distinctive and the similarities features mainstream news with onits world coverageparadigm behind? And, type what of does discourse network’s the news reporting employ in of the globalof the dominantSouth? discourse? Does AJE’s news Thisreporting dynamics outside power AJEreally the bescrutinized.operate Does coveragenews needsto really leavechapter the clash of civilizations will attempt to provide answers to these covering the developing world inan original way. by media,in and particular by mainstream tobeneglected tend that parts of world the location. as insymbolizing the voiceless and underrepresented general, geographical disregarding Helal news describes for programming and manager deputy which thechannel’s ‘South’, the 39 Dialogue?," 269. 38 37 36 dynamics.anduncritically existing thatreinforce power rejecting practices reflect its news mustbe Tocome own,contra-flow into inglobal counter-hegemonic, truly networks. Painter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACase Study of EnglishAl-Jazeera and Telesur," 18. El-Nawawy, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clashof Civilizations 23. or Jazeera," Cross-Cultural"Al Miles, Ibid. 37 One aspect of its distinctiveness is the diversity of the channel’s staff. In order to In order staff. channel’s of isitsthe the diversity One of distinctiveness aspect In order toassessIn order its for potential providing a Part of this alternative perspective is AJE’s self-proclaimed aim to be the voice of voice be the to aim self-proclaimed AJE’s is perspective alternative this of Part 38 Most importantly, this goal is to be implemented by reporting more on issues or on or issues on more reporting by implemented be to is goal this importantly, Most 13 39 The fact that Al Jazeera was funded by Al was funded Thefactthat Jazeera counter-discourse , the content of AJE’s 36 CEU eTD Collection the human side of news events. As Waddah Khanfar, Al Jazeera’s director general, explained: focusinginto lookingopinion’ hasphilosophy beentranslated at‘theother particularly of on present a qualitatively distinct picture of the world. In its reporting on conflicts, AJE’s Cultural Dialogue?," 272. 44 Flagship News." 43 42 Entertainment: The Rise of Global Infotainment Thussu, Kishan See Daya weddings. celebrity about stories ‘news’ when broadcasting example for 41 media, thanits bymainstream neglected Western counterparts. largely are that those including countries, in developing events on news more considerably broadcasts found have that AJE andCNNInternational AJE, BBCWorld of coverage news on the studies empirical Indeed, importance. international they particular are of unless side the on covered only are West the in news while America, Latin or Africa Asia, East, Middle occurring inthe of events news stories features frontpage usually website: the focus developing on world,isthe byjustbrief which revealed a network’s the glimpse on Flagship News," 40 depth. ‘infotainment’ represented. arescarcely agencies and channels news whereother around in particularly world, countries the developing network of reporters its beenhas contrary,expanding AJE tothe Quite forreasons. financial offices overseas down closing of trend recent the reversed also AJE ground. the on and bureaux overseas various in their possible as reporters local many as employs AJE logic, ‘orientalist’ of trap the Quoted in El-Nawawy, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clashof Civilizations or Cross- English's Al-Jazeera of Analysis Content AQuantitative Voiceless? the for Voice "A Figenschou, Ibid; Painter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACase Study of EnglishAl-Jazeera and Telesur," 72. ‘Infotainment’ refers to the commonplace practice in modern media to merge news stories with entertainment, Tine Ustad Figenschou, "A Voice for the Voiceless? A Quantitative Content Analysis of Al-Jazeera English's Al-Jazeera of Analysis Content AQuantitative Voiceless? the for "A Voice Figenschou, Ustad Tine 42 More than this quantitative emphasis on the developing world, AJE also claims to Another distinct feature of AJE compared to Western news networks is certainly the is certainly news networks Western to AJE of compared feature distinct Another power,rather than to give powermore domains to control. center. power the Wethan rather shiftparadigm sentiment human a is reporting of away philosophy [AJE’s] from the power. Actually, our relationship with power is always to question Global Media and Communication 41 stories and it has been credited for reporting news with somewhat more somewhat news reporting with for credited been has it and stories (Los Angeles, London: Sage, 2007). 6, no. 1 (2010): 96. 14 40 Moreover, AJE refrains from airing 44 43 News as CEU eTD Collection 46 45 lands”. valid one. CNNan CNNbutperspective it:equally to “Al-Jazeera put a different correspondents provides films the Arab bias misrepresentingand launch the USand Israel.As Josh Rushing, one of AJE’s of thehaving apro- beenperceivedas hasoften population, why channel is which the presumably missile. Al-JazeeraIraq war, Al Jazeerahas devoted much time and effort to presenting the effects on the civilian films what happens events. news sideof human the neglecting when muchand thepowerful on offocusing too networks it accusingother indirectly perspective, newsfrom a counter-hegemonic andaddressing voiceless the representing distinctiveness as AJE’s lays out He world. the and understand wesee theway shapes media, which hint Khanfar bynews at the involved powerdynamics to intheconstruction reality appears of conducting in-depth reporting and presentingfrom issues vantagedifferent points. by difference’ for toprofess Allin‘tolerance Al Jazeerais all,committed perspectives. different from events news cover to policy channel’s the with line in is which public, needs to be investigated in tobeinvestigated needs more detail. reporting of style different a than more offers AJE whether However, governments. Arab and polarized opinions on the channel, which in many ways is a thorn in the flesh of both Western led to andhas unsurprisingly newsnetworks by presented other mainstream discourse critical voices of any sort. considers newsworthy messagesincluding bodies, video images of dead by AlQaeda,- or This editorial policylanguage than maintains Arabicversion,the network the apolicy of publishing anymaterialit can be seen as an attempttone over time and theto English program is arguablygo more careful regarding beyondthe use of emotive the its Although hasdiscuss tamed channel down the controversial and addressingtopics taboos. Zayani, Quoted in Painter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACase Study of Al-Jazeera English andTelesur," 17. 45 Particularly in the coverage of the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict and of and recent of the conflict Israeli-Palestinian ongoing inthe of coverage the Particularly Another point of controversy has been Al Jazeera’s willingness if not insistence to insistence not if willingness Jazeera’s Al been has controversy of point Another However, Al Jazeera is also credited for presenting the Israeli view to an Arab viewto Israeli the presenting for credited is also Al Jazeera However, TheCulture ofAl Jazeera: Insideand Arab Media Giant 15 , 60. 46 CEU eTD Collection 50 22. 49 48 American Communication Journal 47 “militants”. or “terrorists” than rather civilians” “armed or “fighters” members as group’s Jazeera Arabic solely calls it an “Islamic Resistance Movement”Al while organisation”, terrorist or radical militant, Fundamentalist, Islamic “Palestinian program. The ‘Hamas’Palestinian for example isusually described by Western as networks a English inthe both and Arabic the groups describe militant to terms neutral more Jazeera uses outinpointed hisin-depth analyses of Al Jazeera’sdiscourse Middlereporting,Al East of resistance. acts delegitimize that comments evaluative or terms and avoiding popular aspirations in theArab by world Palestinianputting voices more into public language to responsive more is Jazeera Al Overall, differences. qualitative some identify to possible avoid this type of hegemonic discourse that uncritically equates anti-Western groupings with uncriticallygroupings equatesanti-Western avoidthat discourse typehegemonic this of professingpractice impartial to andbalancedAJE, journalism. hand, on other the strives to despite in indirectly andCNN asnegative, sides actions BBC aretaking conflict the By recontextualizing the conflict andapplyinglinguistic meansthat describe Palestinian rational and defensive while as actions thatlegitimized giveIsraeli comments information evaluative to tend background rejecting those of the Palestinians as irrationaloutside theArab world. and aggressive. both aimsspur theinterestto address of feelingsofitsviewershipthe Arab to people and way. It distinct Al of Jazeera’s part beconsidered can choice linguistic This personalization. and immediacy of impression an create to population civilian the for implications addition, AJE usesmore active language and quotationsmore when describing eventswith Ibid.: 23. Barkho, "Unpacking the Discoursive and Social Links in BBC, CNN and Al-Jazeera's Ibid.: Middle 5. East Reporting," LeonBarkho, "The Arabic Aljazeera Vs Britains's BBC and America's CNN: Who Does Journalism Right?," Analyzing Al Jazeera’s news coverage in comparison to that of Western networks, it is it networks, of Western to that in comparison coverage news AlJazeera’s Analyzing Moreover, Barkho discerns that BBC and, to a larger extent, CNN in their use of 50 8, no. 1 (2006). 16 48 and AJE refers to the to andAJErefers 47 As Barkho As 49 In CEU eTD Collection "The Arabic Aljazeera Vs Barkho, Britains's See: Mohammed. BBC ofProphet and America'sreference every after him’ CNN: beupon ‘peace Who phrase Does the orfollows Journalismmentioned Right?," 7. 53 Governments and Redefining Modern Journalism 52 orCross-Cultural Dialogue?," 268. 51 figures,important whichiscommonplaceArabic in program. the or Muslimsites cultural refer to to language contextual historically or such as “martyr” andmetaphors words use emotional the of AJE avoids media. mainstream Western and from nevertheless being sensitive to local sensibilities. “contextual objectivity” todescribe the need toprovide newsin impartialan way while others. whileomitting facts certain audience, amongis stressing thetarget in facts accepted socially a way framing that by audience their toward somewhat totilt tend networks allnews outthat pointed been ithas asvalid is Indeed, accepted knowledge. of by what other sidethe implications or social in and favor interpreted of can one beunderstood statements nosurprise evenbalanced since a Israelis,lesser albeit the to degree. andrepresenting describing terrorism or extremism. Yet, Barkho shows that AJE applies similar linguistic patterns when recognizes that it has to approach AJE’s international audience differently than the Arab the than differently audience international AJE’s approach to has it that recognizes channel hand,the other the on culture”; Middle East inthe conscience collective the respects in “AlJazeera feelsis background: it geographical rooted Middle andof it soil the East the forAl Jazeera Studies, by Centre the channel’s explains historical to policy pointing and this of ‘fundamentalism’. director termslike‘terrorism’unqualified or Mostafathe useof Souag, distances from itself languagethe by networks of Western most refraining from the Al Jazeera Arabic usually describes cities like Mecca or al-Qudus (Jerusalem) as ‘holy’ whenever they are they whenever ‘holy’ as (Jerusalem) or al-Qudus Mecca like cities describes usually Arabic AlJazeera Mohammed and Iskandar El-Nawawy, Adel, El-Nawawy, Iskandar and Mohammed Miles, "Al Jazeera," 22, El-Nawawy, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clashof Civilizations Consequently, AJE’s choice of Consequently,AJE’s language of choice differsboth from its motherArabic channel ‘media as this type of bias’ comes of discourse, nature Accepting inter-subjective the 51 In this context, El-Nawawy and Iskandar use the term Al-Jazeera: The Story of the Network ThatIs Rattling (Boulder: Westview,2003). 17 52 53 On the other hand, AJE hand, other Onthe CEU eTD Collection exhibits similarities with mainstream news media as elaborated below. elaborated as media news mainstream with similarities exhibits also AJE Nevertheless, behind. conflicts for framework explanatory as paradigm civilizations findingsa medialeaves suggest AJEmay contribute to that environment theclash of that issues, viewers’ these relationship AJEanditson watching between opinion particular contextualizing information that looks looks at solving information that contextualizing ratherthan conflicts. escalating (“martyr”) demonizing backgroundand terms, (“terrorist”) or provision and the of provision of multiple viewpoints on controversial issues, the avoidance of victimizing importantly ingroups, manifestedthe recognition’ mostunderrepresented of the ‘mediatized is which medium”, “conciliatory a of a typology developed they context, this In environment. play roleconflict-driven in today’s a conciliatory to news media,AJEwasperceived found out that, contrasting with the type of ‘war journalism’ of ‘war type contrasting with the that, out found they In particular, of world. the understandings alternative considering toward more open Indonesia, Qatar, Kuwait,traditionally existingreinforce than attitudes rather them,theirsurvey inMalaysia,change the UK and the US revealed that AJE viewers became over time Driven Environment?," Driven 57 Order: Studying War and the Media simplified form. See W. Kempf, "Conflict Coverage and Conflict Escalation," in oriented conflict coverage, thus “war journalism”, in order to attract viewers and explain complex situations in a 56 Dialogue?," 264. 55 Reporting," 23. 54 opinions”. clashing and consideringalternative to more open longerhave viewersAJE, been watching theless dogmatic theyarein theirthinking and thus from perspective Westexclusivelywhilethe not anArab presenting view either. one. Mohammed and Powers El-Nawawy, Shawn, "Al-Jazeera English: A Conciliatory Medium in a Conflict- conciliation- than rather escalation-oriented providing for criticized been often has media mass Modern El-Nawawy, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clashof Civilizations or Cross-Cultural Quoted in ———, "Unpacking the Discoursive and Social Links in BBC, CNN and Al-Jazeera's Middle East 54 Therefore, it appears that AJE is trying to strike a balance between providing a between strikedistinct abalance providing AJEis to trying it Therefore, appears that While El-Nawawy and Powers were careful not to provide evidence of a causal Lastly, it is important to elaborate on El-Nawawy’s and Powers’ finding that “the elaborate that finding on El-Nawawy’s to important and Powers’ isLastly,it Global Media and Communication , ed. W. Kempf and H. Luostarinen (Goteborg: Nordicom,2002). 18 6,no. 1(2010): 70. 56 practiced bymost mainstream 55 Journalism and the New World Although news media 57 CEU eTD Collection have followed. have shortfulfilling of the objective newsevents. onglobal alocal of perspective providing falls somewhat which ground, the report on to world the around numberscorrespondents of flies also significant network the arefrom region, the of mostAJE’s reporters where indeed home region than BBC or CNN. Yet, outside the channel’s motherland of the Middle East, 59 58 experiment Television Arabic BBC failed the from journalists Western-trained of number alarge initially recruited Arabic Al Jazeera noting that also worth Trust). managingIbrahim (deputy director joined who Helal, from AJE BBC the World Service managingcurrent directorTony Burman) and onlyone has Arabof them backgroundan leadWesterners atAJE the Fourof are (including positions. current five executives the highly staff,diverse have channel the does manyWestern inemployees, particularly senior emphasizesits hiring policy of local correspondents and prides itself havingof anethnically networks. Western of practices best to similar are that professionalism journalistic and balance impartiality, of claims up giving isnot network the have perspective, Southern from.to adistinctly While claiming itself apart set to itwants CNNthat BBCand such as networks news Western of features many reveals While AJEandmany of its championsupporters the itschannel for itdistinctiveness, also perspective Western style, Western the Saudi royal family, which had funded the station. 61 60 aims to that network news alternative an as integrity AJE’s undermine not do practices such whether questioned be to needs it development, a welcome certainly are values, ethical on based standards especially Al Jazeera English, "About Us," Painter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACase Study of EnglishAl-Jazeera and Telesur," 71. BBC Arabic Televisionwas withdrawn from the market shortly afterits launch in 1994 due to Painter,problems "Counter-Hegemonic News: with ACase Study of EnglishAl-Jazeera and Telesur," 22. 59 Another controversial issue is AJE’s distinctly ‘local perspective’. While AJE While perspective’. ‘local distinctly AJE’s is issue controversial Another Admittedly, the channel does appear to recruit more local reporters to report on their counter the prevailing news flows anddiscourses. flows news prevailing the http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2007/12/200861501043226986.html 58 Although the adoption of professional standards, adoption the professional Although of 19 61 , a practice that AJE seems AJEto seems , apractice that 60 . It is CEU eTD Collection News," 101. 63 62 maintainrealitiesAJEnevertheless pointsoutthat onthe sheappearsto ground, the the reflect may coverage such that Acknowledging North. the covering when economy the and affairs legal to incontrast South global the on reporting when conflict and crises onpolitical focuses news networks, mainstream AJE,similar to that she detects Moreover, ground.” onthe citizens by than ordinary rather correspondents Al-Jazeera and sources “if channel perspective’,has the thisa ‘grassroots hasbeenvoiced by eliteindependent voiceless’: the of ‘voice asthe status self-proclaimed AJE’s of critical is more she opinion’, developing and world she praises air channel’sthe strategy to ‘theopinion and the other onthe focus a quantitative alsosees While she flows. news of directionality beyond coverage innews a ‘contra-flow’ which AJEpresents to extent the investigating particularly detail, similar treatment of those stories.” covering the same stories from parts ‘under-reported of world’,the andindeed, providing a he finds that “at times, AJE does follow a remarkably similar news agenda toBBCW[orld]…, Interestingly, its Westernof counterparts. from coverage the greatly rarely differs presented fewer voices present necessarily not does AJE of that argues he hand, politicians other the On heard. be to Palestinians, or experts and possiblythat the waydue tostories better AJE considerably more toreportingand, groups. devotes developing on time countries onaccess, the developing allows more worldare andunderrepresented marginalized than of rather of establishment aired the those nevertheless voices voices of aremajority the of counterparts, theWestern its than voiceless,South the from voices more particularly those found while outthat have on AJEdoes morebroadcasts of a focus developingthe and world of the Figenschou, "A Voice forthe Voiceless? A Quantitative Content Analysis of Al-Jazeera English's Flagship Painter, "Counter-Hegemonic News: ACase Study of EnglishAl-Jazeera and Telesur," 41. In aanalyzed Figenschou similar project, content the of flagshipin AJE’s newsmore Painter James programs, news CNN’s and BBC’s AJE’s, of analysis acontent In 62 20 63 CEU eTD Collection networks in terms of: (a) ownership and location (Qatar); (b) focus (on the developing world); news Western from indeeddiffer AJEdoes that suggests literature of the Most voiceless. a different angle, particularly taking intoaccount its claim beto the voice of the South and the information that could enhance interreligious understanding. interreligious enhance could that information moreit backgroundpresentfailed comment, to andMuslims to more allowed its competitors than more extensively from countries Muslim events covered While AJE marginally different. AJE,programs of found BBC,andCNN also the that channels three religionthe treated only presentingextreme too views. A qualitative study on imagethe of inIslam presented news the hadalienate tobemore carefullanguage its nottoviewers network English by program,the the of launch the with Particularly time. over language its down tamed considerably has network wider the attract move to audiences, asacommercially-driven or political pressures exclusion, rendering itnowadays amainstreamrather network with an image problem. neutralization and of channela process through the interests, went hegemonic threatened deception. She whilethat concludes Al Arabic Jazeera’s mayoriginal program have a as liberalization media using and regimes corrupt preserving by world Arab in the ‘challenging the West’, there are voices that accuse the channel actuallyto reinforce US views AlJazeera viewof common the in to addition that out points Sakr counter-hegemonic. Transnational Broadcasting Studies, 65 64 mainstreamed narratives”. many effectively subaltern previously of picture news events. different fundamentally a providing than rather challenge to aims it practices news mainstream 66 English, BBC World und CNN International Adel Iskandar, "Is Al Jazeera Alternative? Mainstreaming Alterity and Assimilating Dscourses Sakr, "Challenger of Dissent," of Lackey? The Politics of News on Al-Jazeera," 129. SusanSchenk, Ultimately, it seems that AJE falls somewhat short of its objective to cover news from news cover to its objective of short somewhat falls AJE that itseems Ultimately, In other instances it has been argued, that AJEis that argued, has been it instances In other Similarly, Iskandar claims that “Al Jazeera has started as an alternative medium asan and medium alternative “Al hasstarted Jazeera claims that Iskandar Similarly, Das Islambild Im Internationalen Fernsehen: Ein Vergleich Der Nachrichtensender Al Jazeera http://www.tbsjournal.com/Iskandar.html (Berlin: Frank und Timme, 2009). 21 perceived 66 . rather than intended to be 65 Yet, whether due to 64 CEU eTD Collection analysis. discourse a critical of means by issue this illuminate to aims in Nigeria violence sectarian isconflicts, being fulfilled. The following casestudy AJE’s on BBC’scoverage and the of of coverage news the regarding particularly discourses, alternative of provision the through itThus,remains unclear whether AJE’s challengeaspiration to dynamics existing power 67 in perspectives style of the reporting: messagesmainstream by and subaltern best Western practices accommodating and alternative voiceless. from ‘real’ than the rather establishment voicesfrom Southern (c)theuseof the and reporters; staff management Western on reliance the (b) standards; professional Western of adoption provides in different narrative global a qualitatively consideringSouth, of events the (a)the AJE actually whether is it Yet, unclear Palestinians). to regards with in particular stories, (c) reporting avoiding (addressing ‘taboos’, style ‘infotainment’, human andfocusing on Iskandar, "Is Al Jazeera Alternative? Mainstreaming Alterity and Assimilating Dscourses of Dissent." of Dscourses Assimilating and Alterity Mainstreaming Alternative? Al Jazeera "Is Iskandar, As Iskandar argues, Al Jazeera appears to bestrike Al balance trying to between As Iskandarargues, Jazeera appearsto a counter-hegemonic medium coupled with a global source of “reliable” news. the station must continue to balance and manufacture the imagebrand of a fledging alternative structurally. Despite the station’s expansive reach and growing operations inmultiple sectors, and discursively both medium, news an“alternative” as behemoth, global news a Jazeera, While acknowledging humbleits and ambitious origins; it is no longer suitable to discuss Al 22 67 CEU eTD Collection and conflict-related reasons. There exist quite a number of scholarly studies on AJE’s studies on numberscholarly of a existquite reasons. There andconflict-related media-, for of anumber scholarship-, news networks mainstream of discourse the challenge study AJE’sto potential to suited well isparticularly inNigeria violence of The case sectarian case the of Relevance in analyzed detail. be will coverage onlinenews networks’ two of the discourse study, the for empirical the methodology andthe conflict, the of history brief a case, the of relevance the After outlining 2010. In this regard,threemajor events tookplace during given the time period: World incidents on of violencesectarian thatoccurredin between Nigeria July 2009andApril EnglishandBBC Al Jazeera newscoverage of online analyzesthe study This case critically coverageofsectarianCase study:news violence inNigeria 3. 2. 1. predominantly Christian villagers near the city villagersnearthe city predominantly of Christian Jos. claiminglives several hundred January of forreprisal the another events, be was a violence believedthat to occurred of outbreak On March 2010,another 7 intervened dayslater, leaving several hundredmost people, of them Muslims, dead. Christians erupted in theOn 17 January 2010, allegedly violence religiously motivated between Muslims and central Nigerian city killings. belaterof revealed extra-judicial to were Jos, which lasted until including theirleader Muhammad Yusuf, werekilledthe while inpolice custody in what military Haram members, anumberBoko of states; Nigerian Northern several members across hundreds forcesmembers, andsect in of between werekilled people fighting police their of of some arrest the after Nigeria northern in station apolice attacked Haram During the daysfollowing 26July members2009, when of Muslimthe sectBoko 23 CEU eTD Collection http://english.aljazeera.net/programmes/listeningpost/2010/03/2010326133057466229.html 69 http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2006/11/200852518541361384.html 68 in power”. those of initiatives political the necessarily not Africa, on would“proactive”“concentrate people newsagendathat the bureau a of chief, announced “reactive” coverage of the continent by other news networks, Andrew Simmons,AJE’s Africa would from distinguish network the Criticizingits competitors. the neglectwidespread and which ahighlevel presenceand expertise, Africaof a strong focus through unprecedented on in of Africa coverage detail. thenetwork’s has no yetexamined study conflict, and Israel/Palestine the ‘war on terror’ the of context in the East Middle in the events on been has focus scholarly the as However, perception among viewers have both beeninvestigated quantitatively and qualitatively. as its well as newsoutput AJE’s general more recently, and, East Middle the of coverage 70 Islamic the to comes it when particularly ways, stereotypical in South global the on reporting mainstream have Having that newsnetworks established beenrepeatedly for criticized civilization’. ‘African abstract an of part declares he which South, Christian predominantly the and civilization’) (‘Islamic North Muslim the between line fault civilizational frameworks. explanatory andstereotypical simplified on relying than rather conflicts causes of practice bylooking atthe human side ofnews and events by root especially uncovering Therefore, it needs to be examined whether AJE manages to transform these goals into cover violence stereotypesreligious adequately.to cultural beyond and underlyingcauses of ‘Listening criticizing Post’, mainstream news media, including theBBC forand failing CNN, initsTVprogram violence inNigeria onnews mediacoverageof lengthy sectarian report ———, "Listening Post: Nigeria Violence," (27 March, 2010), 2006), September (19 Line-Up," Africa Release: "Press English, AlJazeera Huntington, Upon itsUpon launch 2006,AJE inlate the hadstated explicit goal of an putting According to Huntington’sAccording to clash of civilizations framework, Nigeria is alongdivided a The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order 24 . , 27. 68 In particular, AJE aireda AJE Inparticular, . 70 69 CEU eTD Collection http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-411846/We-biased-admit-stars-BBC-News.html 72 Abrahamian, "The Us Media, Huntington and September 11." 71 a extent. lesserto albeit stereotypes, cultural BBC many CNN that of on to that andappliesthesame issues provides asimilar discourse have revealed studies comparative Yet, news media. in global discourse Western dominant media. news atAmerican hasdirected primarily been ways stereotypical apply Huntington’s for explaining framework represent conflicts cultural in ‘others’ and to toreadily may of news networks mainstream critique beinneednetworks The of explanation. analysis. media a critical have found evidence through surveys among AJE’s beaudiences, can confirmed bymeans of whether AJE’s role as a ‘conciliatory dominant discourse news of networks.global In itparticular,is worthwhile investigating medium’, for this casestudy provides anideal to analyze potential AJE’s challengeopportunity to the which El-Nawawy and Powers non-West’,versus the dichotomy ‘West includesthe thetypical of outside remains Islambut claim to that conflict ‘intercivilizational’ of an and existence the continent African onthe perspective anew emphasis providing on network’s the AJE’sAfrica coverage, gap on Given research the way by more profoundproviding background information beyond religious preconceptions. of framework clashing civilizations behindcover and to conflictinthe less a stereotypical in conflict Nigeria. ‘intercivilizational’ itisworld, investigating what extentworthwhile in holdsthis to critique true of this case the or even ‘anti-Americanism’ or hand,other has been describedbias’ a‘liberal and asexhibiting ‘multiculturalism’promoting Dialogue?." El-Nawawy, "Al-Jazeera English and Global News Networks: Clashof Civilizations or Cross-Cultural 73 See for example: The Daily Mail, "We Are Biased, Admits the Star of BBC News," (21 October, 2006), Said, Barkho, "Unpacking the Discoursive and Social Links in BBC, CNN and Al-Jazeera's Middle East Reporting." Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We the See Rest of the World Lastly, the choice of the BBC to represent the dominant discourse of global news global of discourse dominant the represent to BBC the of choice the Lastly, To thisend,be to AJEneeds leave examined regardtoits with ability this to 72 , which might prevent it from being the ideal representation of a of representation ideal the being from it prevent might which , 25 73 Furthermore, the BBC is based in London, in based is BBC the Furthermore, 71 . The BBC, on the , CEU eTD Collection its independence in 1960. Rivalries for political power and state in its for political and independence between resources 1960. Rivalries state power the together in harmony, the country has been byinter- plagued andintra-religious since tensions predominantly theSouthandpopulate While Southeast. majority thevast Nigerians liveof Christians country’s the and states Northern in the lives Muslims Nigerian of majority political and social undercurrents. retaliation for previous killings, but as just the latest episode of a civil struggle with economic, hundredsmorelives of -most of thismustthem Christians time - notonlybe as understood claimed which March, in ‘massacres’ subsequent the Similarly, problems. social and political economic, nation tremendous with of divided a religiously widercontext violence inthe factbook/geos/ni.html Muslim, 40% are Christian, and 10% follow otherbeliefs: 75 http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/8482666.stm 74 conflict. sparked the content hateful messages with text in spreadof the 2008,and inearlier clashes homes destroyed of rebuilding overdispute the match,a football a that stated eyewitnesses different be identified: clearly not could unrest majority of themClashes between Muslims and inChristians January 2010 hadlefthundreds of people -the Muslims - deadIn earlyand 2010,thousands a wave of violence inNigeria displaced.violence ofsectarian History erupted inThe and aroundimmediate the city ofreason Jos in central for global mainstream news media can that thebe juxtaposedAJE to for purposethe of Nigeria. study.this of representation suitable a as BBC serves the Therefore, itself. separate to intends network BBCfrom the isconsidered self-perception, partof themainstream discourse the which inAJE’s importantly Most byWesterners. mostly staffed and taxpayers by British funded While other sources state even a smaller difference, according to the CIA factbook, 50% of the population is population of the 50% factbook, CIA to the according difference, smaller a even state sources other While BBC News: Nigeria’s population is roughly divided in half in terms of religious affiliation. religious of terms in half in divided is roughly population Nigeria’s http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/8465108.stm 26 ; https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- 74 It is important, however, to see the see to however, important, is It 75 The CEU eTD Collection 77 (Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1997), 159. since 1999 Sharia has been introduced in twelve of the Northern states. in of Northern the twelve beenhas introduced Sharia since 1999 law in judicial Nigeria’s hassystem been disputedhotly issuea ever since independence and since Independence," in Independence," since 76 society. of Islamization a further andfeared soft too it handlingas of sawthegovernment’s many Christians character, intra-religious crisis’ the matter of In spite of days.(includingpeople ina thousandsof Christians)Muslims killing and be ‘infidels’ to considered everyoneon they an launched attack Maitatsine government, by learnedit the was targeted When that the group both religiousthe systems. social the and felt oppressed groupsof with the disillusioned attracted society who movement Maitatsine the economy, the modernizing of promises the fulfil to failed government State Kano the As Koran. the than other book any of reading the or bicycles radios, television, of use preached hesaw what ‘pure’ all formsas andmodernization opposed including Islam of the leadhistory.by The group wassparkedwho unrest a religious “Maitatsine”, byso-called of bloody inextremely and riots destructive unprecedented such scaleinyoung Nigeria’s series a Kano experienced of city Northern the December1980, In radicalization. increasing by Northerners. out of fear ofMuslim expansionism by militarythe central which government, was dominated the oil-rich Niger delta attempted to secede not only to keep oil revenues in the region but also itreligiousleast one,Udoidem alsoat had from argues that a religiousdimension:Christians 1970. Although many havecommentators refused tosee civilthe war over “Biafra” asa every term - and are considered unwritten the presidencybetween a agreement of switching and aSoutherner the Northerner to be a leading (Muslim)and now -asmanifested,persist until for North the (Christian) example,in South cause of the civil war between 1967 and Ibid., 164-66. Sylvanus Udoidem, "Religion in the Political Life of Nigeria: A Survey of Religious-Related Crises in Nigeria Indeed, a recurrent theme in post-Independence Nigeria has been the threat of Nigeria threat has beenthe in theme Indeed, arecurrent post-Independence 76 New Strategies for Curbing Ethnic and Religious Conflicts in Nigeria 27 77 In this respect, also the role of Sharia , ed. F.U. Okafor CEU eTD Collection Modern African Studies 80 79 78 advantage. political gain to foil a as religion using - that includes modernism and‘non-believers’, attitude that toward a militant fundamentalism Christian of form a as describes Udoidem which Pentecostalism, of spread constructing the social reality, different perspectives providing on struggling world,to the and work at discourses different always are there Foucault, on based one in Chapter As argued Methodology power. consolidate unrestto spark or using andinviolence the widespreadrivalries forpolitical corruption, resources, competition beare likelyin causes found anincreasing to root of violence, the conflict the recurrent the for mobilizer asan easy identity serves Hence, while religious andresources. power members of localthe Christian feelethnicities threatened bya loss perceived of political in land ofaccess feel marginalizedconversely, terms and anddisadvantaged to resources; fertile lands of Nigeria, have more than only a religious dimension: the Muslim Hausa people by fault butlinealso on not onlysurrounded situated is most of religiousthe country the the government. Moreover, the most recent clashes around the central Nigerian city accountable of and effective of Jos, absence the and poverty widespread from profited whichforce that police should forces inJuly as in several 2009 a social states, northern Nigerian beunderstood iseducation which inthelocal inmajorwas prohibited” fightingdialect), Hausa engaged with violent clashes between them over the past decades. which increase further two between tension religiousgroups the of hasled repeatedly to Ukoha Ukiwo, "Politics, Ethno-Religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Nigeria," Ibid., 181. Ibid., 161. Udoidem the outthat Sharia hasbeenfirst andforemost dispute points apolitical issue Similar to the Maitatsine movement, the Muslim sect Boko Haram (meaning “Western Haram (meaning Boko sect Muslim the movement, Maitatsine the Similar to 41, no. 1 (2003). 80 28 78 On the other side of the spectrum, the 79 hasa alsoprovoked The Journal of Journal The CEU eTD Collection 83 Communication 82 structure structure of an inverted pyramid,first presenting thebe factsbelieved most to important and superstructure newsof willbe discourse applied,which looks atnews in discourse typical the in discoursethe also butwhatis on excludedbackgrounded. or visible most is what at look to only not crucial is it Lastly, circumscribed. are events language peopleor each in standthey labelled,inwhich do to or other, relationship what type of arein questions must be objects groups way which discursive are certain relevant scrutinized: 81 the Moreover, is ‘framed’. event news the how or action certain explained. Here, the analysisfocuses on such issues as who is given voice, whois the agent of and contextualized is event news any how at look to importance paramount of is it etc.), discourses” available ofnews is be As most world “construction of needs investigated. all of a reconstruction the BBC. itself from the and distinguishes mainstream thereby networks of discourse news in the implied typically dynamics power the challenges discourse news AJE’s what extent discern to to is aimed it Ultimately, audience. the and ‘experts’, media, actors, andnon-state of state violence, victimsthe andperpetrators between variousthe relationships as well as conflict of the contextualization investigating the into translates approach case, the this In ofdiscourse. subjects between different relations thepower andanalyzes practices discursive of implications political the examines CDA hegemony, of notion Gramsci’s discourses of AJE and the (CDA) developed by BBCFairclough in view of the discursive analysis of discourse critical framework largely the on Drawing asvalid truth. be accepted creation of reality. By relying on Ibid.: 28. ofNews," Structure the to Application and Development Its Analysis: "Discourse Dijk, van Teun Norman Fairclough, As a guiding framework of of As a framework analysis, adaptedversion van guiding Dijk’s conventional an of A number of tools can be applied in the field of CDA. Firstly, the 33, (1983).no. 2 Media Discourse 83 (from newssources, eye (from ‘experts’ agencies,government witnesses, (London: Arnold, 1995). 81 and van Dijk van and 29 82 , this casestudy investigate the will identities representation and relations Journal of of the of CEU eTD Collection following indicators in the news articles of AJE (and the oppositein those of the BBC): expectis the to one news networks, global of discourse mainstream the to a challenge present Nigeria differently than BBC and thereby constructs “Islamist”). example (for a different reality. analysisIf of each article,AJE but also to quantify certain parametersdoes such as the use of certain terms indeed an inwithout depth newsoutput whole across the practices certain for evidence discursive findforonlinewill be case the study only relevantnot newscoverage Thisallows applied. to networks’ two the of output whole the examine that some analysis content analysis, traditional of means discourse oriented linguistically this to addition In well. as examined be will Boko Haram, published article Muslimsect news on background the the networks which one expected toincludeexpected news extensiveand analysis background aswell. is which one longest the and one last the one, first the in detail: analyzed be will articles three investigation, of period the during violence of events major three the of each For CDA. background information given. from the BBC in standards impartiality,of terms bespecial emphasis will puton analyzing whetherAJE’sdiffers of journalistic observe framing,BBC and AJE both that Expecting layers. other in the integrated the source infar is balance,it beinvestigated how needs a andfunction ofindependence to commenting reactions andAlthough latter the is usually avoided innews articles in to maintainorder journalistic analysis, and reactions,background, (3) comment. (1)paraphrasing, and (4) layers (2) of discourse: the type of relevant information for the audience. The main body,and moreover,condensed most can carry be dividedcomments, into or four reactions include also times at but event news the 85 84 ones. less important on to moving then See Appendix A for the choice of articles and Appendix B for bibliograhical information. bibliograhical B for Appendix and of articles choice the A for Appendix See Ibid.: 37. In practice, it will be investigated whether Al Jazeera interprets in occurrences the interprets Al whether itJazeera will beIn investigated practice, A total of 20 online news articles - tenby AJE and the BBC each - will be subject of a 84 The headline and teaser, which usually paraphrase which usually teaser, and Theheadline 30 85 Furthermore, each of each Furthermore, CEU eTD Collection publications and two photo reports. photo publications two and personal of accounts eyefour witnesses, backgroundarticles, five 26videos, audio news items were60 articles. there articles, seven BBC’swebsite, actual the Outof on 86 the background and two length TVchannel), the on at were broadcasted that background pieces longer four (including news 21videos articles, were 37actual on AJE online, there itemsof 48 the Out in violencesectarian Nigeria. were related to items that ontheir websites During the whole period of investigation, AJE published atotal of items48 and the BBC86 coverage news online BBC’s the and AJE’s of Analysis Media networks. the of newstwo output actual online be inthe can features discerned these towhatextent investigate section The followingwill of first observations are useful to guide the subsequent analysis. Firstly, BBC strikes out for out strikes BBC Firstly, analysis. subsequent the guide to useful are observations first of analysis. textual isoutput leaving examined, all visualaudioand material the scope outside of this 86 See Appendix A fora complete list of news items. 4. 3. 2. 1. Before advancing to the in-depth discourse analysis of number a analysis selectedarticles, the in-depth the of discourse advancingto Before stereotypes in toputorder conflict the a into wider context civilizations paradigm behind andproviding information background beyond cultural AJE takes a takes AJE clashes AJE, having its roots in the Arab world, focuses more on the any andparticularlypower of lookingtype state from atevents perspective a civilian AJE focuses more on more on the focuses AJE conflict the of implications local/regional and voices AJE takes a Southern perspective conciliatory approach human side human 86 For reasons of technical constraints, however, only on the conflict, hence relying more on non-Western on more relying hence conflict, the on to news to reporting, leaving thus the clash of of conflict, hence taking a critical stance toward stance critical a taking hence conflict, of 31 Muslim perspective inthe CEU eTD Collection the name ofTaliban’. name the BBC andAJE used the term only in quotation marks orwhen paraphrasing groupthe as ‘locally also knownby 87 employed the terms (67times), “militant” (26), “radical” “Islamist” (18),or“Taliban” While groups. violentmembersBBC emotionally of describing when charged terms and abuses. human rights power of state role asawatchdog particular AJE’s indicate also might it a coincidence, be simply might scoop this Although media including BBCthe and lead subsequentto political and investigation.debate judicial onby leader which Haram by Muhammad Yusuf was widelyreported forces, police other videoAJE published 10 February Boko theextra-judicial on 2010that revealed a of killing hand, other the On conflict. the of side human the at looking solely story single no has AJE that noteworthy is it difference, qualitative the about said yet is nothing and infrastructure far-reaching more BBC’s from stem simply may emphasis this While AJE. than region the more analysis background considerably and more personal from civiliansaccounts affected in providing twiceissue almost asmuch reporting onthe thanAJE,and present itappears to appears to have a clear focus on the state perspective, which is indicated in the choice of most in of choice the indicated is which perspective, focus state on the have to aclear appears In its reporting on the fightingAnalysis ofBBCWorld Critical Discourse between Boko Haram members and police forces, of articles BBC andAJEeachin news detail. the BBC examine now ten sections will two nextthe canbediscerned, of counter-discourse pattern order toinvestigate whether isthis a difference instyle only or whethermore a profound quoting otherwhen twice sources, only “militant” - occasions rare on only “Islamist”terms same the used AJE fightings, eleven times, “radical”extensively when members describing civilians of other Boko Haram involvedor in the once, and “Taliban” three times. In Members of Boko Haram are locally also called ‘Taliban’ due to their alleged similarity in ideology. Both Lastly, a content analysis of all articles reveals that AJE is much less inclined to use to less inclined AJEismuch that reveals articles all of analysis Lastly, acontent 32 87 (15) CEU eTD Collection action: state-sanctioned violence by passiveusing sentences and legitimizing it asa responsive of agency the obscuring of means be a also may but be accurate may which order, restore forcesto and police responded membersthe had and attempted howsecurity sect attacked how describes paraphrasing Most of the BBC(2). of title the as such reactions of placement strategic through incorporated isindirectly yet absent islargely comment of layer the articles, to sparkconnotations of anti-Western terrorism among audience.the isnot only blamewho to forviolence the recontextualizes butalso which the group, is likely implies description - being an appropriate insurgents” arguably - though “Islamistof term the yet use the presenting any without only reaction, of event BBC(1) paraphrases the The teaser opinion. editorial BBC’s into adoption implicit its suggests headline a news into a comment of naturalization this aquote, as identifiable is in BBC(2) remark the Although in itself. event news as officials Nigerian of thereactions BBC(3) present of BBC(2) and The headlines of News," 31. 89 information. bibiliographical full Bfor See Appendix analysis. the in last appear will they because (10) numbered but were earlier published were 88 headlinethe in bold):(headlines in stance government’s the adopted directly articles facts. Two analyzed of three the relevant See RogerFowler quoted in vanDijk, "Discourse Analysis: Its Development and Application to the Structure Allarticles categorizedare in chronological order as BBC/AJE(1),(2),(3)… except forBBC/AJE(10), which 89 While elements of paraphrasing, background andWhile of reaction background in elements are all paraphrasing, included three the headquarters, but dozens of them were shot dead by security forces. security by dead shot were of them dozens but headquarters, BBC(2) Crowdsof militants tried to storm government buildings and the city's police uprising, which left hundreds dead. hundreds left which uprising, Nigeria’s President Umaru Yar’Adua has ordered investigationan into last week’s Islamist BBC(3) Mohammed Yusuf. A governmentNigerian ministerhas expressed relief atthe death of an Islamic sect leader, BBC(2) Maiduguri. of city Nigerian Dozensof people have killedingun been policebattles between andIslamistinsurgentsin the BBC(1) 88 Nigeria to probe Islamist attacks Islamist death 'good for Nigeria' Fear and tension after Nigeria attack 33 CEU eTD Collection youths: has brought byviolentsuggesting theconflict state which the was sparked under control, that perspective, emphasis state the on puts also in Jos fightings January the of The coverage medianews have for. been criticized Western that discourse of a dominant characteristics some indicating terrorism, global Islamic with inconnection violence the andrecontextualizes of civilians than rather that perspective state’s the present to tends BBCsomewhat the that suggest articles these In conclusion, Nigeria: for “positive” as leader’s demise sect the welcomed and killings the defended which lastworld, the Watch investigating the governmentpressing toward position thestate killings, is given Rights Human from experts two through Yusuf) leader their including members, Haram ofBoko concernsalleged human killings to presentrights (extra-judicial space isdevoted terrorism: suggestglobalis thelinked violence BBC that Moreover, somehow the to appearsto Islamic further-reaching information social, background on is ethnicreligious and tensions given. “rumours” after of Bokoan Haram attack members had beenapprehended by andnopolice) had been there (BBC(1): indirectly is only addressed attack cause of unrest immediate But the The all articles information provide some Haram’s background on Boko ideology: Lastly, it is noteworthy that no civilian is given direct voice. Although considerable Although voice. direct given is civilian no that noteworthy is it Lastly, country. the across government was being corrupted by Western ideas wanted and to see Islamic lawimposed BBC(3) The sect said it was fighting against Western education and believed Nigeria’s BBC(5) region. the to returning was normality that and further even spreading managed had violence the they stop to saying forces, security the praised Akunyili Minister] [Information BBC(2) Qaeda-linked violence. BBC(2) Sharia law is in place across northern Nigeria, but there is no history of al- Nigeria riot city under control, says army chief 34 CEU eTD Collection messages”, notion the of inevitably appearsclashing hard religions Only toresist. in very the Although the article mentions that“religious leaders have urged people to ignore the unrest: the fuelled have Christians, and Muslims both among circulating been had which messages, text that stated who of outbursts ethnic and religious violence: differentsources providing potential motivations clashes for the andreferencing previous Moreover, considerablespace is givinginformation,devoted includingto background respectively: lives their lost Christians and many Muslims of how leavingthus religious identity aside but-, in two out of articlesthree followed by a description forprosecuted participatingin religiousprevious and ethnic clashes” (BBC(5)). hadbeen “no-one that group arights quoting actions, state’s the of critical are rather the needs and concerns of the people on the ground. Yet, the reported reactions to the violence civilian ispopulation addressedhaving Red Cross officials and group alocal explain rights forcesitis violence.First,order, restored describedthe howsecurity then situation the of the party had started accusationswhich of direct avoiding of consequences clashes and the “fighting between gangs of Muslim and youths” Christian focusing more (BBC(4)), on the Relatively littlefor spaceisused paraphrasing merely violence,the describingincident the as urging Christians not to buy food from Muslims “because wasit poisoned” BBC(6) Rev Joseph Hayab said hundreds of texts circulated around leader on a religious reporting clash, the of background the The lastarticle only covers the city of Jos - some in - “people” is neutral firststated term always the numberof deaths Interestingly, the BBC(4) Reuters news agency quotes residents as saying the violence started after an argument an after over the rebuilding started of homesdestroyed in the violence 2008 clashes. the saying as residents quotes agency news Reuters BBC(4) BBC(4) there were reports…that it may have started after afootball match. are said to be 65 Christians and 200 Muslims. BBC(5) Religious officials said at least 265people had died since AmongSunday. dead the city. central in the youths Christian and Muslim of gangs BBC(4) Troops and riot police are patrolling the Nigerian city of Jos, after fighting between 35 CEU eTD Collection reprisals” for earlier clashes (BBC(7)). Although it is stated is Although inhabited itfor “largely by villages that earlierreprisals” stated clashes (BBC(7)). be “seem to and religious clashes” “suspected are killings the that noted is merely It stressed. human organisations,rights Nigerian two Christian associations andcivilians: theUS,different state, of affected the including governor the sources, various criticized by is population the protect to failure importantly, government’s the Most andreactions. violence and the by shortparaphrasingkeeping of reportinglengthevents atbackgroundon focus on humanthe situation,much andis effort putinto explaining theunderlying causesof have to strongest the in events March 2010appears recent most the articles on The setof AJE’s forreporting amore meaningful analysis. of religious hate messages also have an opposite effect, which will have beto juxtaposed with avoiding active descriptions of fighting,the reporting the lines along of identity religious and of clashing civilizations by stating underlyingsocio-economic for reasons the conflictand notion the dispel to try articles the Although situation. human the with concerned particularly is inmore article: previous comment clearly that made the a be found elsewhere, is likely to rootcause the state that author the sentence does last It is also noteworthy religiousthat identity of both andperpetrators victims isless hour, more than 100 soldiers arrived, swarming the streets. set up our TV cameras and radio equipment, reporting the lack of military presence. Within an BBC(9) “Weare one undefended,”elderly man to cried us. “They can return any time.” We it” about anything did Nobody country… the in problems alerted the government have to training groundswe […] where people are being time trained to cause some quite “For Association:] Christian Nigeria’s from Dogo [Saidu BBC(8) BBC(8) is that events these of narrative a provides BBC the that seems it Ultimately, violence. However,BBC(5) Correspondents say in such clashes are Nigeria often on blamed sectarianism. povertyof the violence is astruggle for political superiority in the city. Christian south and has seenBBC(6)and Jos […] lies betweensectarian Nigeria’smainly Muslim north and predominantly riots in the accessrecent past. But analysts say the real cause to resources such as land often lie at the root of the Nigerian army ‘ignored warning massacres’ of in Jos 36 CEU eTD Collection organisations: uprising inJuly investigated the 2009, group’s alleged tointernational ties Islamist terror Finally, a background article on Boko Haram, cultural stereotypes in its reporting. which was published on relying than rather approach aconciliatory BBCassumes the indicating that and poverty, shortly after the bad disparities, governance sect’s socio-economic struggles, include that political causes conflict of clashes as thethe present to not is careful BBC the that indicates articles three these of analysis Hence, the actions of irrational religious fanatics. It rather in beyondpopulation groups affectedarea the religious identities: searchesdifferent among dynamics political and socio-economic the explains article the Moreover, for the underlying social awiderand a personal perspective: one hand butalso analyzing whatmay have motivated involvedthose in killingsthe from both the on victims the at looking conflict, the in side human the reveal to attempts information, in religious one. to the addition conflictthe to dimension political and socio-economic illuminating contribute also countries neighboring mercenaries from Reports recruited isavoided. on Christians aggression and victimizing Muslim Fulani the community useof activeaccusing Muslims agency (BBC(9)), of of by mainly the “members attacked were community” Berom of members the Christian BBC(10) provideto background meantis entirely lastarticle, which Particularly the government wishes todrive them out ofcertain areas. seize politicalsettlers [mostly Hausa Muslims]. […] Many Christians believe Hausa Muslim settlers seek to controlBBC(9) People here eitherare classified as indigenes [who mostlyare Berom orChristians] and impose Sharia law. […] Many Muslims believe the Plateau State killings. It […] mycows.” is impossible toknow whether have carry putunder been they to to pressure in admit takingpart the only anybody, killing for there went never “I protests: another But almost childlike […] “In the first crisis, they killed most of my brothers.” BBC(9) “Ikilled people”,three admitsone youth in localthe Hausa language. looks He Is al-Qaeda working in Nigeria? in working al-Qaeda Is 37 CEU eTD Collection to BBC’sthe reporting. Thearticles beginby paraphrasing the event, then providing features similar some have to appears unrest 2009 July the on AJE’scoverage sight, On first AlAnalysis Jazeera English of Critical Discourse examined. be now will events same on the AJE articles it, ten from AJE departs what extent assess to andcontext to In intoproperly for. BBC’snewsdiscourse beenorder to put the criticized has discourse news dominant whatthe contradicts medium which of a conciliatory approach human-centered a more and balanced reflect Haram Boko-, others on those particularly - articles insome stereotypes perspective cultural andsome state the a tendency towards in stated While indicators regardingexposing section. mixed methodology thefour the record readers. attentive less among impression different a spark nevertheless may in al-Qaeda brings that headline suggestive the one.Yet, a global rather than in be context seen to a domestic needs in Nigeria history rulers”, of againstIslamic‘corrupt’ uprisings aspartof radical an argument that Islam “long Nigeria’s exploring context, some historical even provides article the The lastsection of engaged ininternational organisations terrorism: BokoisHaram linkedto that arementionedwhodoubt experts jihadists”.Two and global “analystsNigeria andthat aboutanylinkbetween sceptical remain Nigerian Muslims radical in operating of al-Qaeda noevidence” been has far“so that there states but radicals”, Western anti- for ground breeding ideal be the to seem “may country the that comments article The As the discourse analysis of these articles has revealed, the BBC has a somewhat University] says. fighting the Nigeriangovernment worldwide rather than a jihad, [Adam Higazi from Oxford (BBC10) Nigerian Islamic sects are relatively parochial and inward-looking, concentrating on revealed. have analysts defence organisation, linked al-Qaeda an from money received had he that charges facing was week, last dead people 700 leaving Nigeria north across attacks staged members whose sect Islamic of the leader Yusuf, Mohammed 38 CEU eTD Collection uprising in uprising of analyzedarticles: two three the avoiding direct sources, andreactionsofficials, from andindependent civilians state background information comments. Like the BBC, AJE refers to Nigeria’s official reaction to the or other social issues: social other or poverty to unrelated extremism religious of matter is a violence of outbreak the that arguing from OneAfrican is extensively expert Conflict Democracy and the ResearchInstitute quoted Haram’s Boko describing action as a“killing spree”: “militants”. than rather as“fighters” attackers the to referring Haram Boko describes in more neutral asa“Muslimor simply terms “group”, group” mostly AJE occasions, on is used “Islamist” label the also and (AJE(1)) Taliban” Nigerian as the to referred is “sometimes Haram Boko is mentioned that While itHaram. Boko describe to “militant” or “radical” like terms emotional using avoids mostly AJE Moreover, subsequently scrutinizes human violationsrights by conducted governmentforces: AJEand also out, describes Haram pointed clearly byBoko are conducted While atrocities AJE also allows a civilian and, crucially, amember of Boko Haram to present their view: describe to however, isposition, the spaceused state’s Although indeedconsiderable there AJE(3) AJE(2) government official in the city. made explosives, attacked police buildings and anyone resembling a police officer or AJE(2) Residents said fighters armed with machetes,knives, bows and arrows, home- and loadedOn several hand,AJE’sfurther other uses the terms, emotionally narrative were seen kneeling and pleading for their lives before being shot. at dead men pointyoung blank close range to the city’s policeheadquarters. The three men,who hadjust been arrested, shooting soldiers witnessing reported correspondent AFP An AJE(2) our leaders that is why we decided to retaliate”. polluted is which by western education and uphold sharia over all thecountry system […] police hasThe been arresting [Nigerian] the “clean to wanted group his that agency news Reuters AJE(1) One of Boko Haram’s members, who was wounded during the wasclashes, quoted by Nigeria to hold inquiry into unrest into inquiry tohold Nigeria fighters hunts Islamist Nigeria 39 CEU eTD Collection compiled”. leaders said“atleast364 people been have […] the killed Christian beingdeath toll was still while Muslim that stating when articles three onceinthe only “people” term neutral the BBC with identity stressing religious referring the number when to from of deaths, departing presented in one sub-paragraph through indirect speech. Yet, AJE seems more careful than the is only perspective Christians’ quotation, whereasthe a direct including sub-paragraphs three in more attention viewreceives the is Muslim itthat noteworthy ofviolence, outbreak on the in voice: indirectmostly an reported extensively, end of articles,the the humansuffering of peoplethe in is region the addressed quite the toward only mentioned are it on ascriticism well as reactions actions, state’s While the the clashes, paraphrasing the events in a neutral but explicit way: in situation human the on emphasis more put events 2010 January the on articles of set The extremism. short of providing a more profound analysis of underlying conflict causes beyond religious fallsit account, into perspectives different bytaking discourse state-centric from a somewhat whileAJE departs that seems therefore It occasions. other on reject to AJE hasclaimed the conflict, henceOddly, nofurther article provides underlying analysis this of and regarding dynamics causes failing to go beyond the framework of clashing religious identities that Although both Muslim and Christian civilians are given voice to express their views their express to voice given are civilians Christian and Muslim both Although Plateau State. to 18,000 people in the area are thought tohave leftbeen homeless by the clashesin Nigeria’s AJE(5) Locals in Kuru Jantar […] [said] that a massacre had taken place in the village […] Up buildings. other and churches mosques, to fire setting gangs, AJE(4) The violence brokeout onSundaymorning between rival Christian and Muslim recent [incident], most frankly, itseems tome isnothing but religious extremism and violence”. a had you clash mainly in between Christians politics the south [Nigerian] and into head in Muslims its rear the north, […] religion had but you when “Previously AJE(2) the 40 CEU eTD Collection providing the context that the attack appeared to be a reprisal for previous clashes, AJE is AJE for clashes, previous appeared tobea reprisal attack the that context providing the While theconflict. of component religious the obscure seem to not AJE does Interestingly, followingthe openers: state’s isposition much granted space toexplain its position and actions, whichisin apparent violence, the of outbreak another prevent to failure the for is criticized also government the Although reactions. tothe whenit morecomes much focused on is perspective government noteworthy itisIn AJE sufferingin clashesof detail.the coversMarch the human But 2010, great that while some points, itonly failed to do so at others. onewhile substantiveproviding background information and avoiding stereotypical binaries at resident is given voice to paraphrase the dispute”: areligious simply event,is more than “violence the that aresearcher as well as leaders religious andMuslim Christian the citingprovides both conflictanalysis of the another anin-depth article(AJE(5)) However, binaries: religious of interms largely clash the reports it contrary the On conflict. the of causes root nobackground on violence, provides of reasons immediate views onthe different held responsible for future violent acts. Nigeria’s police chief has said that police officials in Nigeria’s central Plateau state will AJE(9) be AJE(8) but human from by AJEmostly perspective, a violence wascovered the In conclusion, impoverish Nigeria” [said Eric Guttschuss from Human Rights Watch.] policies oflocal and state governments,[…and] corruption has that continued to discriminatory [...,] rivalries economic and political with do to more “It’s AJE(5) rivalries.inter-faith to than differences ethnic address to leaders political of failure tothe more AJE(5) Christian and Muslim leadersin Plateau State said thatprevious bouts ofunrest owed ofJos. city the around and in killed were of people hundreds which in clashes Christians and Muslims in central Nigeria are accusing each other of starting the recentAJE(6) Moreover, it is striking that the whole last article on the issue, while presenting Nigeria vows totackle violence attacks made Nigeria over Arrest Nigerians tradeblame over violence 41 CEU eTD Collection Moreover, the sect’s members are given opportunity to directly sect’smembers the Moreover, their aregiven opportunity perspective: express to local its history describingand in presence: is sect analyzed context, a regional once when itis revealed that group’sthe base is dubbed ‘Afghanistan’ bylocals. Rather,the by the BBC. Most importantly, article the differently than somewhat sect frames the Haram pieceBoko on The background no connection is articles. the drawn of parts most in perspective human the over prominence tomaintain conflict global Islamist terrorismperspectives. In spite of the focus on the human situation,however, the state’s reactions to the Southern and except Northern between as well as conflict the of dimensions socio-economic in itsHence, AJE coverage aimbackground of appearsto for and abalance between religious StudiesSecurity comments: for Centre African from South the expert Nigeria another (AJE(7)), differences” ethnic and religious of fears “manipulate leaders political that explaining as quoted is analyst affairs of clashesthe it when comes toproviding information. background A London-based African victims: and perpetrators of identity religious the mentioning in BBC the than explicit more much told the Reuters news agency that “we do not believe in Western education. It corrupts our corrupts ideasand It beliefs. Thatiswhy we are standing up todefendeducation. our religion”. Western in believe not do “we that agency news Reuters the told AJE(10)Adulmuni Ibrahim memberMohammed,a senior group ofthe on arrested Monday, allegedly by Mohammed Yusuf, areligious teacher. the in local dialect.Hausa group The was founded in 2002 in forbidden” Maiduguri, the is capital of Borno state, education “Western means which Haram, Boko or Arabic, in teachings” of Muhammad’s “followers or Jamma, wal al-Sunnah including names, different AJE(10) The group behind thelatestviolence innorthern Nigeria isknownby several feel cut off from their land” happening is aclash betweenwho those feel they settlersare and who those nomadsare who still communities within feel people some and excluded society Nigerian in divisions deep are from “There AJE(9) access to power, resources and if you look specifically at Jos, what is On the other hand, AJE does not fail illuminateto more profound dynamics and causes Community. Hausa-Fulani herders while the victims were mainly Christians from the Borom AJE(8) Our correspondent quoted police as saying that the attackers were Muslim 42 CEU eTD Collection synthesized in order to draw a more conclusive comparison. nowbe both will news coverage networks’ findings the on potential counter-discourse, shockingly bluntitis more explicitin its linguistic choices paraphrasingwhen violence in an andactive partly way. As AJE times at other indicating -, seemsapproach - use of aconciliatory and stereotypical terms emotional to exhibit inits is more considerate AJEat times Lastly, although asthecauseof conflict. extremism both characteristics cultural is stereotypes articles other provided, offerno explanation other than religious of a dominant perspective. Whereasbackground some complexthe conflict profoundof analysis beyond and a state’s the scrutinizing, also sometimes paraphrasing, and to most spaceisdevoted experts, African and is byparticularly analyzed While extensively coveredquite humansituation the region. the AJE is andinterests, forsocial more with conflict’s background the concerned implications Thus, whileHaram the BBCisexamining in view its Boko Westernof threaten potential to conflict’s function emergence: the on commenting Subsequently, the article mentions other experts and indirectly transforms their analysisinto a proliferation of Boko Haram much sooner: as havingfor the managementcriticizing government not is prevented the specialist” quoted a“conflict Salisu Mohammed, region. in formation the sect’s tothe have contributed may that problems political and socio-economic underlying examines article the Moreover, All innews atAJE’sbe looked ina all, reporting also way. needsto differentiated manipulate them retain to power. frustrated, unemployed youths andorchestrated religiousby leaders andpoliticians who political manoeuvring -not religion. They attacksbelieve were committed mainly by AJE(10) Analysts the also said at that heart of thisweek’sviolence isdire poverty and reprimanded.” structural condition in Nigeria that people can take intolaw the theirwithout hands getting the community,especially in within lastthe year” […] and “They are taking ofadvantage abroken-down silently group, ofthis existence the of known have people “Many AJE(10) 43 CEU eTD Collection shed light on the specific differences in light specific differences discourse: the shed on indicatorsqualified of four analysis will alongthelinesof counter-discourse the be ableto A morebe discourse. partof dominantapplythe to assumed practices someto discursive BBC alsotend AJE andthe of news coverage the both however, of counter-discourse; signs a approachindicating of features applyand human-centered a conciliatory certain networks standards including (invertedimpartiality pyramid). and balance, structure Moreover,both journalistic similar follow BBC the and AJE both that clear made analysis discourse The discourses? orcomplementing Synthesis: competing 2. 1. matches ill with the goal of countering the discourse of the powerful. view more BBC, than government’s the critical the accommodating of and which be less civilians, to protect AJEappeared better to government the allegedfailure of Haram members scrutinized Boko both andthe networks of theextra-judicial killings byAJEpronounced (nine by BBCquotations) than In particular,the (eight). while more was perspective state the Besides, none byAJE. to as opposed events the BBC published a total of seven articles solely giving personal accounts of the covered, during whole time period the moreover, BBCcited six - the articles, sample four civilians inthe gave to While AJEvoice BBC. the aim compared to stated when translate into a more differentiated or insightful orinsightful perspective. into amore differentiated translate necessarily not albeitdoes this Western sources), three and African than BBC(no the institutes research or ‘experts’ Western (two) than rather quotations) African on (three more on regional implications of the conflict (AJE(10)). Furthermore, AJE relied more of a potential terrorist threat to the West by the BCC (BBC(10)), whereas AJEfocused context the in framed were Haram Boko involving clashes the Particularly events. the Regarding the Regarding In contrast to the BBC,AJE tends assumeto more of a human perspective human 44 , AJE does not seem to fully come up toits Southern perspective on CEU eTD Collection 4. 3. clash of framework. civilizations approach,depart from AJEoverallappearsslightly less inclined to muchcriticizedthe aconciliatory of signs exhibit networks both although Hence, (AJE(2)). extremism terms (AJE(6)) and failed to provide a more profound analysisbinary in beyond clashes religious the presented occasions other on but labels, charged emotionally audience. to dispel militantfundamentalismconnotations of Islamic Western among its Conversely,instance ofviolence mostlywhen Christian villagers were killed by Muslims, possibly major last the on reporting when dimension religious the on emphasis least putting AJE was by approach aconciliatory indicated BBC the at violence. Interestingly, of sole trigger times being the fanaticism impression avoid‘backgrounded’religious of the to most part the less inclinedthan religion - are likely to be the root cause. Similarly, religious identities were for to -rather struggles political socio-economic and that commented several occasions on useand religion beyond stereotypical conflict the of dynamics underlying for searched networks Both most interesting indicator, can be discerned in thereporting ofboth AJE and the BBC. and context. solely than ina religious violence wider framing sectarian the style, reporting neutral and abalanced retain networks both part, most the for Hence, identity. religious was furtheronly qualifiedsometimes bybreaking thenumbers up along linesof which labelled as all “people”first by networks, both Yet, dead one. were fatalities view, Christian three BBC the tono organisationsquoted directly Muslim as opposed explaining the Muslim view on the conflict in somewhat more detail than the Christian a toward slightly tilt may AJE While identity. religious The existence of a of The existence Only minor differencescan be in viewdetected of reporting with implicitan conciliatory approach 45 to the conflict, which seems to be the Muslim perspective by CEU eTD Collection appropriate. seemsmore statements these whichof evaluate to attempt will section The concluding by substantive analysisproviding information and background beyond religious stereotypes. minimallyonly from AJE andtheBBCdepartfrom BBC;orboth discourse the dominantthe varies reporting news its as discourse dominant by the absorbed been has AJE either, findings: discernablemore somewhat seems in AJE’s coverage, certainly present though approach, conciliatory the in BBC’s newsitfocusappears importantly, less to situation human BBC.perspective, the the on than Most reporting.mainstream news networks such as the BBC. Although AJE assumes a slightly more Southern Two conclusions to a categorizeiscounter-discourse as providing itnotpossible AJEclearly Therefore, to are possible to draw from these 46 CEU eTD Collection beyondhard is news therefore necessary qualifyto thefindings of casethis study. analyzesoutput AJE’s that research Further to covering conflicts. approach AJE’s distinct ‘Listening by on violence earlier, mentioned revealed program inNigeria the Post’ which indicated as perspective, adistinct in beare likelymoreassuming explicit to that comments and features analyses, news reports, background of amounts considerable offer AJE of website the and channel TV the Both BBC. the of that with hastily be equated not should discourse AJE’s Nevertheless, standards. Western from drawn extent a great to but universal be journalisticlargely to practicesthatare networks,considered AJEhas adopted global news leading the with compete to and criteria quality fulfil to bid in a importantly, more BBC; come assurprise:firstly, many of AJE’s staff had been trained orpreviously employed by the AJE and CNN, for example, may have led to more oppositional results. between study and acomparative discourse be dominantthe partof theBBCappearto nor AJE neither sense, this In struggles. political and economic social, further-reaching for cover both networks emphasized that the religious dimensionsince rejected, extent a great wasto conflict this for framework anexplanatory as paradigm of the conflict is likely to be only the clash of the civilizations for. In particular, hascriticized been discourse news mainstream that from practices discursive the in a departs a largeway to news that degree present both networks that however, note, to is important It approach. conciliatory a with events present news more inclined to somewhat andseems perspective onthehuman more emphasis While AJE may cover news from a slightly BBC. by exemplified the newsdiscourse mainstream tothe counter-discourse a clear present more Southern perspective, the BBCto not appears violence sectarian of coverage news inAJE’s that revealed has study The case fact puts Conclusion The detected similarities between AJE’s and the BBC’s news coverage do not entirely not coveragedo news AJE’sandthe BBC’s between similarities The detected 47 CEU eTD Collection world. tremendous success in terms of news highquality providing on and from developingthe of this approach. it from Ultimately,will beWestern media. judging viability the adopted thenews consumer Considering andstandards in sametimefulfilling professional atthe news on events South perspective the the few years andnot least overall the emphasis ofon developingthe world andits underrepresented groups. its existence, frameworks, from thelabels, avoidance ofstereotypical departure explanatory simplifying however, including dominant the discourse the remains somewhat outside network signs the that AJE hasnumber of area there structure, power global the entirely resists - that terms Foucauldian been a study revealed that AJE does not present a clear counter-discourse - thus a different ‘truth’ in case While the by be relationsmay media. representation their reinforced suggest power in of butas Said works structures, the andpower news between discourse causal relationship dynamicspower mustdiscourse through be assessed. Clearly,itis impossibledetect a to Hence, AJE seems to be engaged in a balancing act between providing adistinct between providing act bein abalancing engaged AJE seems to Hence, therole Moreover, of reality news media and thereby shaping global constructing 48 CEU eTD Collection Al JazeeraEnglish analysis) of discourse articles: part (marked total sectariannews output on in violence July Nigeria: 2009 -April 2010 Appendix A date 09.03.2010 09.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 07.03.2010 01.03.2010 10.02.2010 10.02.2010 09.02.2010 09.02.2010 26.01.2010 25.01.2010 24.01.2010 23.01.2010 23.01.2010 22.01.2010 21.01.2010 20.01.2010 18.01.2010 03.08.2009 02.08.2009 01.08.2009 01.08.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 30.07.2009 30.07.2009 30.07.2009 29.07.2009 29.07.2009 29.07.2009 28.07.2009 28.07.2009 27.07.2009 27.07.2009 26.07.2009 11.03.2010 10.03.2010 10.03.2010 10.03.2010 Nigerians displaced after clashes after displaced Nigerians Jos of city Nigerian near Clashes city Nigerian in spread Clashes deadly clashesrock Nigerian city custody in widows Haram Boko Video: unrest into inquiry hold to Nigeria killings Nigeria into probe for call hostages "free" police Nigerian "killed" Leader Haram Boko Nigeria`s Islamist leader killed in Nigeria violence Nigeria flee thousands Nigeria`s sectarian crisis dead Nigeria among Islamist Senior rages fighting Nigeria Deadly fighters Islamist hunts Nigeria in Nigeria rages fighting Video: clashes after alert onhigh Nigeria control" "under violence Nigeria Nigeria in erupt Clashes Video: spread clashes Nigeria Deadly dozens kill clashes Nigeria title Behind Nigeria`s ethnic violence ethnic Nigeria`s Behind victims massacre bury Nigerians edge on Nigerians leaves massacre Nigeria rural in concerns security Arrests made over Nigeria attacks attacks after down cracks Nigeria Nigeria central in clashes deadly attack Nigeria in killed hundreds killers Jos hunt forces Nigeria alert" on"high Nigeria central clashes Nigeria in killed hundreds killing Nigeria in arrested Police Nigeria forces kill "civilians" video on caught killings Nigeria Haram Boko Profile: "executions" shows video Nigeria violence over blame trade Nigerians clashes Nigeria over held hundreds killings Nigeria into sought probe uncovered clashes ofNigeria horror massacre religious claim Nigerians paragraphs 49 3 4 1 4 3 4 0 3 4 0 3 2 1 3 2 1 4 3 1 2 3 1 3 3 0 5 3 4 2 2 3 4 1 3 3 2 1 0 4 4 3 3 video video video video video/audio/photo video video video video video video video video video video video video video video video video video news news background news news news news news news news news news personal news/background/ background news news news news news news news news news news news news news background news news news news news news news news news news background news news news news AJE(2) AJE(1) analysis discourse AJE(8) AJE(7) AJE(10) AJE(6) AJE(5) AJE(4) AJE(3) CEU eTD Collection BBC date 25.04.2010 31.03.2010 27.03.2010 17.03.2010 17.03.2010 15.03.2010 19.01.2010 19.01.2010 18.01.2010 29.12.2009 29.12.2009 21.12.2009 28.08.2009 25.08.2009 16.08.2009 04.08.2009 04.08.2009 03.08.2009 02.08.2009 01.08.2009 01.08.2009 01.08.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 31.07.2009 30.07.2009 30.07.2009 30.07.2009 29.07.2009 29.07.2009 29.07.2009 28.07.2009 27.07.2009 27.07.2009 27.07.2009 27.07.2009 27.07.2009 brutal reality of Nigeria killing ofNigeria reality brutal aftermath clashes Nigeria pictures: In Nigeria" for "good death Islamist`s killing militant over row Nigeria offighting scene visit officials Nigerian mosque sect storm forces Nigeria sect Nigeria for blow" "crushing control under city riot Nigeria Nigeria clashes "under control" Nigeria army fights Islamist sect clashes Nigeria in freed hostages Nigeria North in boosted security clashes Nigeria in killed dozens curfew after Nigeria gun battle preacher anti-education Nigeria`s attacks Nigeria eyewitness: attack Nigeria after and tension fear title violence Nigeria in killed Several row amputation quiets court Nigeria Violence Nigeria Post: Listening clashes ethnic Nigeria in death Nigeria in Tensions Timeline: violence tackle to vows Nigeria many killed in riotsin Nigeria clashes after curfew hour 24 imposes Nigeria clashes religious after Jos in patrol troops Nigeria Bauchi in sect with clash indeadly police Nigeria children" "mostly victims violence sect Nigerian Nasarawa in central clash farmers and herders Nigeria Nigeria in captured members sect Nigeria state vetsMuslim clerics sect Muslim raid police Nigeria Nigeria? in working al-Qaeda Is Nigeria to probe Islamist attack alive leader shows photo Nigeria emerges unrest ofNigeria scale death militant`s Nigerian over row members sect last seeks Nigeria Nigeria in restored" "normalcy dead leader sect detained custody in dies head sect Nigeria enigma Taliban Nigeria`s paragraphs 50 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 4 3 0 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 4 4 0 4 3 1 3 1 video video video video video video video video/audio/photo video video video video video video video video photo video video video video news news background news background news news news news news news news news background personal news personal news/background/ news news news news news news news news news background news news news news news news news news news news news news news news news news BBC(1) analysis discourse AJE(9) BBC(4) BBC(10) BBC(3) BBC(2) CEU eTD Collection 26.04.2010 21.04.2010 14.04.2010 13.04.2010 17.03.2010 12.03.2010 12.03.2010 11.03.2010 11.03.2010 11.03.2010 11.03.2010 11.03.2010 11.03.2010 10.03.2010 10.03.2010 09.03.2010 09.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 08.03.2010 07.03.2010 01.03.2010 17.02.2010 01.02.2010 27.01.2010 26.01.2010 25.01.2010 23.01.2010 23.01.2010 23.01.2010 22.01.2010 21.01.2010 21.01.2010 21.01.2010 21.01.2010 20.01.2010 20.01.2010 20.01.2010 In pictures: mourning inNigeria mourning In pictures: Hilary Clinton seeks trial for Josmassacre deaths Jos after alert on forces puts president Nigeria unrest in Nigeria dead" "60 clashes Nigeria follow scenes "terrible" Q&A in Jos: violence Nigeria clashes in Nigeria dead" "hundreds stories eyewitness violence: Nigeria dead hundres leaves violence ethnic Nigeria deaths" 100 least "at to lead attacks Nigeria Central killing sect Haram Boko over held police Nigeria row cemetery end troops Nigerian in Jos" violence religious probe "must ICC riots" Jos "fuelled messages text Nigeria razed" for homes "our riots: Nigeria clashes Nigeria after arrested hundreds wells village in found bodies riot Nigeria violence Nigerian amid fears safety wells village in found bodies riot religious Nigeria Jos riot-hit of control takes army Nigeria riots Jos in funerals mass Nigeria: aftermath riot Nigeria In pictures: control" "under Jos city riot Nigeria Jos in fighting religious after relaxed curfew Nigeria chief army says control, under city riot Nigeria violence describes resident city riot Nigeria in Jos 200" "kill riots religious Nigeria down" house friends Nigerian my burnt I "Why Jos of City near continue killings reprisal Nigeria case clash sect in guilty found police Nigeria Extremism" Islamic stop "to law debates state Borno attack machete in village Nigeria violence of cycle Nigeria to end no justice Jos demand women Nigerian killings Jos over 49 charges Nigeria revenged be must massacre Jos of town inNigerian violence describe survivors massacre Jos recall survivors Nigerian killings atJos protest women Nigeria warnings massacre Jos ignored it denies military Nigerian Jos in massacres" of warning "ignored army Nigerian Jos in fear of furtherattacks 51 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 3 3 2 5 1 2 2 1 4 1 4 1 1 3 2 1 3 1 0 3 2 1 1 3 1 4 video video audio video video video audio audio audio video video photo video audio video video news news news news news background personal news news news news news news news news news news personal news news news news news news background news news personal personal personal news news news news news news news news news background news personal BBC(7) BBC(6) BBC(5) BBC(9) BBC(8) CEU eTD Collection http://news.BBC.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8465108.stm BBC(4).Nigeria patrol in troops religiousJos after clashes (18.01.2010): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8183898.stm NigeriaBBC(3). probe to Islamist (04.08.2009): attack http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8177681.stm Islamist`sBBC(2). death "good for Nigeria" (31.07.2009): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8171482.stm FearBBC(1). and tension Nigeriaafter (27.07.2009): attack http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/200972913529620235.html AJE(10). Profile:Haram Boko (09.02.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/201031493832639496.html NigeriaAJE(9). to vows violencetackle (15.03.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/20103814174576164.html (09.03.2010): Arrests made Nigeria over AJE(8). attacks http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/03/20103713521482760.html AJE(7). Hundreds killed in clashesNigeria (07.03.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/201012610250404786.html AJE(6). Nigerians blame trade over violence (26.01.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/201012333947758520.html AJE(5). Horror of Nigeria clashes uncovered(23.01.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/2010118362386809.html AJE(4). Deadly rock Nigerianclashes city (18.01.2010): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/08/200981144254630202.html AJE(3). Nigeria tohold inquiry into unrest(02.08.2009): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/20097294511346828.html AJE(2). Nigeria huntsIslamist fighters (29.07.2009): http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/2009726131716385625.html AJE(1). Nigeria clasheskill (26.07.2009): dozens accessed in April 2010. The following list provides links to the articles used in the discourse analysis. They were all Appendix B 52 CEU eTD Collection http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8564884.stm NoendBBC(9).Nigeria to cycleof violence (12.03.2010): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8558246.stm BBC(8).Nigerian army warning "ignored massacres" of in Jos (10.03.2010): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8554304.stm BBC(7).Central attacksleadNigeria to"atleast100 deaths" (07.03.2010): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8482666.stm NigeriaBBC(6).messages text "fuelled Josriots" (27.01.2010): http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8469863.stm BBC(5).Nigeriacity riot under control, says chiefarmy (20.01.2010): 53 CEU eTD Collection El-Nawawy, Mohammed and Powers, Shawn. "Al-Jazeera English and Global News El-Nawawy, Mohammed andIskandar,Adel. Darwish, Adel. "BinLaden's TVChoice." 2001.Retrieved on12May from:2010 the Daily Mail. "We Are Biased, Admits the Star of BBC News." (21 Oct 2006), CIA TheFactbook. World Nigeria. Factbook: Retrieved on 29 May from:2010 Boyd-Barrett, Oliver. "'Global' News Agencies." In ———. “Nigeriamessages text riots’” ‘fuelledJos (27Jan 2010), BBC “NigeriaNews. patrol in troops religiousJos after clashes” (18Jan 2010), ———. "Unpacking the Discoursive and Social Links in BBC, CNN and Al-Jazeera's Middle Does Who BBCandAmerica's CNN: VsBritains's Arabic "The Aljazeera Leon. Barkho, ———. "PressRelease: AfricaLine-Up." (19September 2006), ———. "Listening Nigeria Post: Violence." (27March 2010), Profile."———. "Corporate Retrieved on15April from:2010 Al Jazeera English.Us." Retrieved "About on15 April from:2010 Abrahamian, Ervand. "The US Media, Huntington and September 11." Bibliography Oliver Boyd-Barrett andTerhi London:Rantanen. Sage,1998. 2, no.3 (2009): 263-84. ClashNetworks: of Civilizations orCross-Cultural Dialogue?" GovernmentsRattling andRedefining Modern Journalism http://www.mideastnews.com/Jazeera.html. News.html. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-411846/We-biased-admit-stars-BBC- https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/8482666.stm http://news.BBC.co.uk/2/hi/8465108.stm East Reporting." East Right?" Journalism http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2006/11/200852518541361384.html. .html. http://english.aljazeera.net/programmes/listeningpost/2010/03/2010326133057466229 http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2006/11/2008525185555444449.html. http://english.aljazeera.net/aboutus/2007/12/200861501043226986.html. 24, no.3 (2003): 529-44. Journal ofAraband Muslim Media Research American Communication Journal 54 Al-Jazeera: TheStory of theNetwork ThatIs The GlobalizationofNews 8,no.1 (2006). . Boulder: Westview,2003. 1,no.1 (2007): 11-29. Media, War& Conflict Third World Quarterly , edited by CEU eTD Collection ———. Said, Edward. "The Clash of Ignorance." (2001), http://www.thenation.com/article/clash- ———. Rouse, Joseph. "Power/Knowledge." In and English Study Al-Jazeera of News:ACase James. "Counter-Hegemonic Painter, Miles, Hugh. "Al Jazeera." Lewis,"The Bernard. Roots of Muslim Rage." (1990), Kempf,W. "Conflict Coverage and Conflict Escalation." In Iskandar, Adel. "Is Al Jazeera Alternative? Mainstreaming Alterity and Assimilating Anontion. Gramsci, Fox, Jonathan. "Ethnic Minorities and the Clash of Civilizations: A Quantitative Analysis of Huntington, SamuelHuntington, P. ———. Foucault, Michel. Foucault, Figenschou, Tine Ustad. "A Voice for the Voiceless? A Quantitative Content Analysis of Al- Fairclough, Norman. Fairclough, ———. "Al-Jazeera English:A Conciliatory inMedium a Conflict-Driven Environment?" the World ignorance. Gary Gary Gutting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Telesur." Institutefor Oxford: Reuters Journalism, Study the of 2008. http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/90sep/rage.htm. Nordicom,Goteborg: 2002. Order:War Studying and theMedia http://www.tbsjournal.com/Iskandar.html. Dscourses of Dissent." TransnationalStudies, 2005, Broadcasting Touchstone,York: 1997. Thesis." Huntington's Forgacs. London, Lawrence & Wishart, 1988. Pantheon 1972. Books, 85-107. Jazeera English's Flagship News." Jazeera English's Global Mediaand Communication Covering Islam:How the MediaandExperts Determine How We See theRestof Orientalism The History ofSexuality . NewYork:Vintage Books, 1997. The Archaeology of Knowledge & the DiscourseonLanguage The Gramsci Reader:Selected Writings 1916–1935 . NewYork: PantheonBooks, 1978. Media Discourse The Clash ofCivilizations and theRemaking Worldof Order Foreign Policy British Journal ofPolitical Science . New York: Vintage Books,1988. . London: Arnold, 1995. The Cambridge CompaniontoFoucault Global Mediaand Communication 6, no.1 (2010): 61-84. 155(2006):20-24. , edited by W. Kempf and H.Luostarinen, 227-55. 55 Journalism and theNew World 32(2002):415-34. , edited by D. 6,no. 1 (2010): , edited by . New York: . New CEU eTD Collection Zayani, Mohamed and Sahraoui, Sofiane. Sahraoui, and Mohamed Zayani, Warraq, Ibn. Warraq, van Teun.Dijk, "Discourse Development Analysis: Its and Application Structure the to of Ukiwo, Ukoha. "Politics, Ethno-Religious Conflicts and Democratic Consolidation in Udoidem, Sylvanus. "Religion in the Political Life of Nigeria: A Survey of Religious-Related ———. ———. "Mapping Global Media Flow and Contra-Flow." In Thussu, Daya Kishan. "How Media Manipulates Truth About Terrorism." Tatham, Steve. "Al Jazeera: Can MakeItHere?" It Can "AlJazeera: Steve. Tatham, der Spiegel. "Life and Death in the Middle Belt:A Clash of Civilizations in Nigeria." Sen, Amartya. ———. "News Media and the 'Clash of Civilizations'." Seib, Philip. "Hegemonic No More: Western Media, the Rise of Al-Jazeera, and the Influence Schenk, Susan. In of Al-Jazeera." Newson Politics of Lackey? The Naomi.Sakr, "Challenger Giant Prometheus 2007. Books, News." Nigeria." Publishers, 1997. Religious Conflicts inNigeria In Independence." in since Crises Nigeria Sage, 2007. Flow and Contra-Flow Political Weekly 52. http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,670178,00.html. Spiegel 2006. of Voices." of Diverse Frank und Timme, 2009. Nachrichtensender AlJazeeraWorld BBC English, UndCNNInternational Routledge, 2007. Move: GlobalFlow and Contra-Flow News as Entertainment: TheRiseof Global Infotainment . Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co, 2007. Defending theWest: ACritique of Edward Said'sOrientalism (1Jan 2010), Identity and Violence: TheIllusion and of Destiny Identity Journal of CommunicationJournal of Das Islambild Im VergleichInternationalen Das IslambildIm Fernsehen: Ein Der The Journal of Modern African The JournalofModernAfrican Studies 32,no.6(1997):264-67. International Studies Review , edited by , edited Daya KishanThussu. Abingdon:Routledge, 2007. , edited by Okafor. Enugu: Fourth DimensionF.U. The CultureofAlJazeera: andArab Media Inside 33, no.2 (1983): 20-43. , edited by , edited Daya Kishan Thussu. Abingdon: 56 New Strategies for CurbingNew EthnicStrategies for and British Journalism Review Paramenters 41, no.1 (2003): 115-38. 7(2005):601-15. . New York: W. W. Norton, Media onthe Move: Global . Los Angeles, London: 34 (2004): 71-86. 34(2004): Economic and . NewYork: 16 (2005): 47- 16(2005): Media onthe . Berlin: der